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FACULTY

RESEARCH

EDITION

of

The Savannah State
College Bulletin

Volume 18, No. 2 . . December, 1964

Published by
SAVAIVNAH STATE COLLEGE

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

SAVANNAH, GEORGL4.

Editorial Policies Which Govern The
Savannah State College Research Bulletin

1. The Bulletin should contain pure research, as well as creative
writing, e.g., essays, poetry, drama, fiction, etc.

2. Manuscripts that have already been published or accepted for
publication in other journals will not be included in the Bulletin.

3. While it is recommended that the Chicago Manual of Style be
followed, contributors are given freedom to employ other ac-
cepted documentation rules.

4. Although the Bulletin is primarily a medium for the faculty of
Savannah State College, scholarly papers from other faculties
are invited.

FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION

of

The Savannah State College Bulletin

Published by
The Savannah State College

Volume 18, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia December. 1964

Howard Jordan, Jr., President

Editorial Committee

Blanton E. Black J. Randolph Fisher

Mildred W. Glover Joan L. Gordon

Elonnie J. Josey Charles Pratt

Nazir A. War si Forrest O. Wiggins
John L. Wilson, Chairman

Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and neither
the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College assumes responsi-
bility for the views expressed by contributors.

Contributors

Hayward S. Anderson, Professor of Business Administration
Kermit Bird, Agricultural Economist, Marketing Division,

U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C.

Blanton E. Black, Assistant Professor of Social Sciences

Sylvia E. Bowen, Assistant Professor of Mathematics

Charles I. Brown, Assistant Professor of Education,

Bennett College, Greensboro, North Carolina

Arthur L. Brentson, Assistant Professor of English

Johnny Campbell, Jr., Instructor in Business Administration

James A. Eaton, Professor of Education and Director,

Testing and Guidance

Luella Hawkins, Associate Professor and Reference Librarian

Doris L. Harris Jackson, Cashier, Business Office

Prince A. Jackson, Assistant Professor of Mathematics

and Physics

Elonnie J. Josey, Associate Professor and Librarian

Calvin L. Kiah, Professor of Education

Robert H. Land, Chief, Reference and Bibliography Division

Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.

Isaiah Mclver, Assistant Professor of Social Sciences

Theodore Samore, College and University Specialist,

Library Services Branch of U. S. Office of

Education, Washington, D. C.

Nazir A. Warsi, Associate Professor of Mathematics

and Physics

Althea M. Williams, Assistant Professor and Circulation

Librarian

1 59158

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 60-53452

Preface

The Faculty Research Bulletin has grown to a place of special
significance and importance for the faculty and staff of the College,
for it serves as an instrument to focus attention on the professional
growth and maturity of the faculty and staff and the great promise
and future of Savannah State College.

This Annual Research Bulletin is developed under the sponsor-
ship of the Committee on Faculty Research. Concerted effort is
made by the Committee to stimulate and encourage studies relating
to the Institution and the fields of special interest of the faculty
and staff. It is in this way that a truly great institution is developed.

To say that most research should be conducted in graduate schools,
laboratories, and in research bureaus is to ignore the fact that really
good teaching and research must go hand in hand. From this point
of view, competent faculty and staff have an important dual obhga-
tion: one relating to the practice of teaching, supervision or admin-
istration, and the other relating to problem-solving in their respective
areas of responsibility.

This issue contains a number of studies made by the faculty mem-
bers of Savannah State College. It is stimulating and exciting to
see the variety of interests and fields represented. The Administra-
tion wUl continue to encourage and support the research efforts of
aU faculty and staff members involving problems of teaching, learn-
ing, and administration. In this way, the College will increasingly
become effective in narrowing the gap between theory and practice.
When such a break-through is accomplished, a significant step
towards the true profession of teaching will have been taken.

Howard Jordan, Jr.
President

Table of Contents

Page

The Mathematical Processes and Some Examples of

Elementary Mathematical Analysis in High School Physics

Prince Jackson, Jr 6

The Library of Congress, The Library Services Branch and
College Libraries: A CoUoquim

The Library of Congress and College Libraries

Robert H. Land 23

The Library Services Branch and College Libraries

Theodore Samore 27

A College Librarian Views the Library of Congress
and the Library Services Branch

E. J. Josey 30

Just A Thought: Music A Must; The Story of the Wind;
Where Goest Thou O Little Tears

Doris L. Jackson 34

Competition in the Face of Integration

Hayward S. Anderson 37

On General Conies

Sylvia E. Bowen and Nazir A. Warsi 45

The Critical Temper of George Bernard Shaw

Arthur L. Brentson 5 1

Academic Achievement and the Selection of Friends

Charles L Brown 55

Freeze-Dried Foods and Tomorrow's Consumer

Kermit Bird 64

On Geometry of Shock Waves in Lagrangian Coordinate
System

Nazir A. Warsi _^8

Religion on the Campus: A Need and An Inadequate
Response

James A. Eaton . 72

Christian Realism: An Introduction Reinhold Niebuhr's
Theory of International Politics

Johnny Campbell, Jr 78

4

Table of Contents (Continued)

Page

The Supreme Court's Justification for Deciding to
Racially Integrate Public Education

Isaiah Mclver 88

Santo Domingo A Rejected Annexation in Retrospect

BlantonE. Black 102

A New Clarification of An Old Problem: Book
Selection for College Libraries

E.J. Josey 1 07

A Study of the Use of the National Teacher

Examinations Within Institutions and School Systems
Located Primarily in the Southern Regions

Calvin L. Kiah 114

Senior Majors and Their Ratings on the NTE
and TEEP

James A. Eaton 119

Library Use At Savannah State: A Symposium

Introduction

E. J. Josey 121

A Study of Student Book Circulation at
Savannah State College

Althea Williams 1 2 1

Reference Services

LueUa Hawkins 131

Implications for the Instructional Program

E . J. Josey 136

On Geometry of Gas-Flows in Lagrangian
Coordinate System

Nazir A. Warsi 1 40

The Mathematical Processes and Some Examples of

Elementary Mathematical Analysis in

High School Physics

by

Prince Jackson, Jr.

Introduction

In the high school today far fewer students are enrolled in physics
courses than any other major secondary science. As of 1955, only
303,000 students were enrolled in physics as compared to 483,000
in chemistry and 1,294,000 in biology^ Recent unofficial estimates
make the above figures, 400,000 for physics, 800,000 for chemistry,
and 1,600,000 for biology. Although this is a substantial increase
in numerical enrollment, the percent of the total high-school popula-
tion taking physics tends to remain static at about five percent.

The low enrollment in physics has been discussed among educators
and it is generally believed that the preponderance of the mathemati-
cal processes needed in the course greatly contributes to its unpopu-
larity among the high-school population. Many teachers of physics
confirm this, and a great number of them say that much of their
class time is taken up teaching the kind of "mathematical thinking"
necessary for the learning of a high-school physics course. This is
not to say that the mathematics teacher is not doing a good job. The
good mathematics teacher always has taught his students the appli-
cations of mathematics in other fields. Actually, the real problem
is that the student coming to physics meets the mathematics in a
totally new context, and it is difficult, sometimes impossible, for him
to make the transition in "thinking." However, many physics teachers
tend to believe that the transition of "thinking" is easier for the
student if he has an extensive mathematical background.

The purpose of this paper is to determine the mathematics neces-
sary for the learning of high school physics and to make some pro-
posals as to how the trigonometry and elementary calculus being
taught in some of our high-schools can be used in present high school
physics courses.

To determine the mathematics necessary for the learning of a
high school physics course, four high school physics textbooks and
a teacher resource book for the solutions of problems were examined
and the mathematical processes used by the authors were listed and
tabulated. The books used were limited to those with copyright
dates not earlier than 1958. This selection of dates was based on

^Paul F. Brandwein, Fletcher G. Watson, and Paul E. Blackwood; A Book of
Methods, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. New York, 1958, page 469.

the belief that books published within the last five years would be
fairly representative of what actually is being taught.

The books examined were:

1. Physical Science Study Committee, Physics, D. C. Heath and
Company, Boston, 1960.

2. Charles E. Dull, H. Clark Metcalfe, and John E. Williams,
Modern Physics, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1960.

3. D. Lee Baker, Raymond B. Brownlee, and Robert W. Fuller,
(revised by Paul J. Boylan), Elements of Physics, Allyn and
Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1958.

4. Richard F. Brinckerhoff, Judson B. Cross, and Arthur Lazarus,
Exploring Physics: New Edition, Harcourt, Brace and Com-
pany, New York, 1959.

5. Physical Science Study Committee, Teachers Resource Book
and Guide, D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, 1961.

The results of this examination are listed in the frequency table
below. The writer's conclusion based on the data may be found
immediately following the frequency table.

The proposals pertaining to the utilization of some of the ad-
vanced mathematics being taught in new programs such as the new
mathematics program of Boston College and SMSG are made in
the form of examples. These examples are typical of that type usually
discussed in high school physics, but almost never to the satisfaction
of the teacher or the student because of the magnitude of mathe-
matics necessary for complete explanations. The writer believes that
the mathematics used in the discussion of these examples can be
used in any high school physics course where students are enrolled
in any of the new advanced mathematics programs. These examples
will serve also to show the student the use of mathematics, not only
as a necessary tool in the solution of physical problems, but also as
a powerful tool in analysis.

Other comments on the examples may be found immediately
following the examples.

Part I

Table 1. Frequency Table
Use of Mathematical Processes

TEXTBOOK

Mathematical Process

1

2

3

4

5

Fundamental Operations^

Ext.*

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Fractions

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Decimals

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Squares

23

4

5

4

37

Square Roots

11

3

3

2

16

Cubes

7

3

2

2

15

Cube Roots

14

22

8

4

57

Inequalities

7

5

3

1

18

Formulas-

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Linear Equations

493

559

108

315

1,126

Quadratic Equations^

33

12

6

10

52

Simutaneous Equations

3

2

1

29

Vector Equations^

103

15

4

81

Trigonometric Equations^

41

37

24

116

Law of Sines

4

Law of Cosines

4

Graphs*^

115

46

2

11

86

Scientific Notation

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ext.

Ratio and Proportion

24

12

8

4

29

Percentage

7

5

3

15

33

Errors

9

3

2

53

Logarithms''^

1

5

Inverse Square

11

4

5

3

18

Orders of Magnitude

85

3

52

Similar Triangles

7

2

28

Binomial Theorem

4

Slope

12

19

Calculus (limit concept)

5

Probability

5

18

Angular Measure (degrees)

33

27

7

14

39

Geometric Congruence Theorems

4

9

Binary Arithmetic

2

* Extensive.

^Includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

^Includes area, volume, etc.

^Mostly the type vi'ith the linear term missing.

^Graphical solution type.

^Simple equations involving sines, cosines, tangants, and the use of tables.

''Cartesian type including interpolation and extrapolation.

^Involves use of tables.

8

Conclusions

An examination of the table reveals that hnear equations, vector,
trigonometric equations, graphs, and quadratic equations are the most
frequent encountered mathematical processes in high-school physics
textbooks. It should be noted that the last three topics are not taught
in the mathematics program until the student has completed at least
one year of algebra. Some of the other less frequently encountered
mathematical processes also require a mathematical background be-
yond a first course in algebra. The table also reveals that such topics
as percentage, similar triangles, ratio and proportion and simulta-
neous equations, although using sparingly, form a part of a high school
physics course. The uses of the items listed as extensive in the tables
indicate that a thorough grounding in the early mathematical training
of the student is necessary for success in physics. Column 1 reveals
that the Physical Science Study Committee's text utihzes a wider
range of mathematics than the other texts.

On the basis of the data listed in the table, the writer feels that he
can justify the conclusion that if a student is to be successful in a
good high school physics course, the student's mathematical prepara-
tion must be beyond a first course in algebra.

Part II

Many of our high schools have revised their mathematics curricu-
lum completely. The several new programs of mathematics, such as
the program of Boston College and SMSG, are being adopted
throughout the country and, within a few years, the majority of our
high schools will be using these programs. Included in some of these
programs are courses in trigonometry and calculus. In order that
these courses may become more meaningful to the students taking
them, the physics teacher has an obHgation to design his course so
that these students can make full use of the trigonometry and calculus
they are taking or have taken.

In this section of the paper, three examples will be given to show
the type of problem in which the concepts of trigonometry and
elementary calculus can be used in a high school physics course. The
fourth example will be given to show the danger of "blind" use of
mathematics without considering the physical facts.

The writer wishes to emphasize that he is not advocating problems
of this type for all high school physics students, but he does feel
that the better students should be given the opportunity to utiUze
some of the trigonometry and elementary calculus that they now
are taking in some of the advanced mathematics classes. Although
some of these students may not be able to master all of the tech-
niques used in the examples, they will be challenged and, as a result,
will be able to see better the close relation between mathematics and
physics.

EXAMPLE I

In the study of forces and equilibrium, the case of a uniform
ladder resting against a frictionless wall with its base on a rough
floor, presents an interesting case.

The forces acting on the ladder are the
weight W, of the ladder, the reactions
R, upward, and U R toward the wall
(U is the coefficient of friction), and
at the top of the ladder H, perpendicu-
lar to the wall. Since the ladder is in a
state of equilibrium, we can readily
write the following conditions.

Figure 1. Forces and
Equilibrium (No. 1 )

(1)

(2)

(3)

Total horizontal force =: : H = U R

Total vertical force = : W = R

d

Total torque of system = : "W ( y ) cos e = Hd sin G
where d is the length of the ladder and e is the angle that
the ladder makes with the floor.

W

Rewriting (3), we have W cos D = 2 H sin 6 or (4) tan O = .

2H
At this point, it is interesting to note that H is inversely proportional
to e, (0<G<90). That is, as the foot of the ladder is moved
farther from the wall, O decreases and H increases. From condition
( 1 ) , it is easy to see that at some angle O' H will exceed U R = U W
(UR is constant), and the ladder will slip. Thus, it is obvious that
there is a minimum angle to be observed if slippage is to be pre-
vented. Since equilibrium is achieved at H = U R = U W, we
can substitute this value of H in (4) and we get the interesting

1
result, (5) tan o =

2U
which tells us the angle of equilibrium of the ladder does not depend
on either the length or weight, but is a function of the coefficient
of friction. It may be interesting at this point to ask the "brighter"
student to consider how high he might climb before the ladder
begins to sUp if his weight is W :

10

W W'

In this case, the following conditions
hold.

(6) Total horizontal force = :
H = UR

(7) Total vertical force = 0:
W + Wi = R

(8) Total torque of the system = O:
W (y) cos G 4- W'X cos
e = Hd sin G

Figure 2. Forces and
Equilibrium (No. 2)

where X is the distance to which the student may climb before the
ladder starts to slip.

From the above argument, it is easy to see that if the ladder is in
a state of equilibrium, the student may climb until H exceeds UR.
Rewriting condition (8), we have

(9) V2 Wd 7- W'X tan Q. Since W and W are known, we may
Hd
write W =: KW, where K is also known. Thus (9) becomes

(10)

^2 Wd ^ KWX
Hd

tan Q or

(11) K WX = Hd tan G - Vi Wd. Solving for X,

_ Hd tan G - V2 Wd _ ^ I H tan Q - 1/2 W

KW

["-

KW

J

now from (6) and (7), we know H = UR = U (W / W'). Since
W' = KW, we now have H = U (W / KW) =:= UW (1 -/ K)
Thus (12) becomes

(13)
X =

) r

7^ K) tan e 1/2 W

;]= d[uii

-/- K) tan G

ill

KW J L K

Therefore, the student may climb a distance X, given by,

(14) X =4- [U (1 / K) tan G - Vi].
K

At this point, the student may have some doubts about the validity
of his final result. Since he knows the result when all the weight

11

is at the center of gravity which is located at , he may substitute

X = ^ to check (14).

_d = d_[U (1 y K) tan O - 1/2]
2 K

K^= U (1 y^ K) tan O - V2

2

K

y 1/2 =

= U (1

V^

K)

tan

e

2

K

7^ 1 =

2

1/2 =
tan e

U (1

U tan

== 1

2U

y

e

K)

tan

G

This last expression is exactly what we are supposed to find since
the boy's location at the center of gravity is tantamount to that of
the empty ladder.

If the case of X > -^'^^ investigated, (14) can be written in
form

(15) rd =[Ui (1 / K) tan 6 - 1/2] where r> 1

2 K

_rk_= Ui (1 -/ K) tan 9 - V2

2

(16) rk y 1 =^ Ui (1 /- K) tane

2

now for equihbrium, we write from (5)

(17) U = 1 = 1/2 cot e

2 tan e

Solving (16) for Ui, we have

(18) Ui = rk y- 1 = 1/2 (rk -/^ 1) cot e

2(1 -/ K) tan e K /I

Comparing V2 cot G and V2 (rd ^ 1) cot G, we have that Ui > U

K / 1

12

rk ^ 1
because > 1. Thus, we know that if the ladder will slip

K-/ 1
if the student goes beyond d when O and U are the minimum for

T
equilibrium.

The most interesting part of this analysis is that it utilizes only
simple algebra and trigonometry.

13

EXAMPLE II

In perfectly elastic collisions, both momentum and kinetic energy
are conserved. Consider the case of two billiard balls, A and B, of
equal masses, where .A strikes B while B is at rest. What is the
angle of separation?

-.Ui,

m

A._

> -

V

--->--> A

A

, ' 'e Uix-

B (b

U.

^ >-

U2X

B

X

Figure 3. Perfectly Elastic Collision

Conservation of Momentum

(1) X-axis MV = MUix 7^ MUss

(2) Y-axis O == MUij. /- MUoy

(3) From (1) V == Ui, ^^ Usx

(4) From (2) V,,. = - Usy

Conservation of Kinetic energy

(5) V2 MV- = 1/2 MU- / 1/2 MU; / 1/2 MU2 ^ 1/2 MU^

(6) V- = U2 ^ Ui / U^ / U2

^ ^ Ix 2x ' ly ' 2y

From (3), we may write

(7) V2 = UL 7^ 2Ui, U2X / uL

Equating (6) and (7), we have

14

= U2^ / 2Ua. U2X / UL

Thus, we write

(8) U-; / ^'iy = 2Uix U2.
Substituting from (4), we write (8) in the form

2U- = 2Ui. or

ly

(9) V^. = Ux, Usx

Since one of the angles is negative, we take O ( <^) as our
angle of separation. Thus, we may write

1 ^ cot cot ( <^)

(10) Cot [o - (- c^)] ='ZErrr^)-:r^^nr-

Now we have

cot e =-^ and cot (-c/>) =-^:=-%-by (4).

Uly U2y Uly

UlX _ _U2^

Hence, cot [0 -(</>)] =

Usx -Ui:

Uly Uly

-Ufv / Ui. Uo,
(11) Cot[e - (- c^)] = ;

Uox Uly / Ul, Uly

By (9) , Uj. Uox = U'y Therefore

-Ufy / Uty

Cot [e - (- c^) ] = =

Uox Uly / Ul, Uly

Therefore, e ( <^) = 90.

This tells us that the angle of separation is independent of the
angle of approach if the angle of approach 92^ 0"". In that case, the
collision between the balls is direct, the velocity components along
the y-axis are both 0, and (8) becomes 2Uix U2X = 0. Thus
Uix = 0. This simply means that ball A stops after colliding with
ball B and transfers all of its momentum and kinetic energy to ball
B.

Although the solution may seem to be somewhat sophisticated
for the high school level, the reader is reminded that the mathematical
concepts involved are only algebraic and trigonometric.

15

EXAMPLE III

This example involves the use of elementary calculus. The prob-
lem to be solved, is the monkey and hunter experiment.

A hunter aims and shoots an arrow at a monkey in a tree. At
the instant the arrow leaves the bow, the monkey drops from the
branch upon which he has been sitting. Show that the two meet in
mid-air regardless of the speed of the arrow.

.41^.

-^J

e

Figure 4. Gravity Acting on 2 Independent Objects

Y

V,

>

.^

e

(Xi, h)

V,

(Xi,0)-

Figure 5. Collision of Objects
after Time t in Air.

In aiming at the monkey, the arrow makes an angle of G with
the ground and leaves the bow at a velocity of Vq. This velocity
has an X component, Vx, and a Y component, Vy. On the basis of
this information, we may write

(1)

dv.

dt

= G. Integrating, we get Vy = Gt -^ C.

16

(2) V, = - Gt -/-Q

To evaluate the constant we set t = and find

C = Vj- = Vo sin e. Thus we may write (2) in the form

dy

(3) Vy = Gt y- Vo sin e. Now V,- = , thus

dt

dy

(4) = Gt -/ Vo sin 9. Integrating, we have

dt

-Gt-

(5) Y = 7^ Vot sin 9 / Ci. To evaluate the constant,

we set t = O and get Ci = Y = O. When t = O. Thus we have

-Gt-

(6) Y = h Vot sin 9

2

Along the X axis we have

dvx

(7) = O. Integrating, we get

dt

dx

(8) Vx = C = Vo cos 9. Now Vx = , and we write

dt

dx

(9) = Vo cos 9. Integrating, we get

dt

(10) X Vot cos 9 / Co. To evaluate Co, we get t = and get
X = Co = when 1 = 0. Thus we write

(11) X = Vot cos 9

Solving for t in (11) and substituting in (6) we get

-G / X- \ v., sin 9

Y = [ \ 7^ X which we write as

- \ Vo- cos- 9/ Vo cos 9

(12) Y = X tan 9 - ( ) X^

\ 2 Vo- cos- 9 /

Thus, (12) is the path of the trajectory of the arrow and in general,
of all prqjectiles. This trajectory intersects the straight path followed

17

by the monkey at the point, (Xi, h). Thus we write (12) in the
form

(13) h = X, tan 9

\2Vf, cos- G
X;. By ( 1 1 ) Xi := V,.ti cos e
(for time ti) and (13) can be written

(14) h = V t, cos O (tan o) - ( jVo- tr cos- e.

\2V^ cos- G/

Hence

(15) h = Vo ti sin O - Vi Gt,-

Looking at figure 2, we have, yi = Xi tan O. After faUing for ti
seconds, the monkey is K units above the ground. Thus, he has
fallen Yi K units. We may now write

Yi-K = Vi Gt;

(16) K = Y, - 1/2 Gt^

But Yi = X, tan G and Xi = Vti cos G. Thus Y, = Voti cos G
(tan G) = Vti sin G. We now write (16) in the form

(17) K = Voti sin G - 1/2 Gt7
Therefore by (15) we have

K = h.

Thus the arrow hits the monkey.

In addition to the solution, we may also examine (12) to see
what can be found out about the trajectory of the arrow.

If we set Y = O, (12) becomes

^ ^

O = X tan G I X-. Solving for X, we have

\2V,r cos- 0/

2Vo cos- G tan G 2Vj sin G cos 9

X =

G G

V.f sin 2 G

X =

G

1!

Thus the range of any projectile is given by

(18) Vo sin 2
R =

By studying (18) carefully, the student can find out that for every
R', (0<R'<R), there are two values of O.

The maximum height of the projectile is reached at the middle of
the range. Thus Y = maximum when

Vo sin 2 e V^ sin cos

' ~ 2G ~ G

It can be noted also that by differentiating (12) with respect to X,
we get

To find the maximum, we set

dy
dx

G

tan

V?* cos-

X.

dy

= O and solve for X.

Thus

dx

V*tan cos^ V^ sin cos which is what we

X =

G G

obtained algebraically. Substituting this value of X in (12) we get
V^sin cos (tan 0) G ^V? sin^ cos-

Y=: -

G 2V^ cos- G2

\^ sin - V.^ sin-

Y:

G 2G

V,*" sin -

Yr=

2G

Thus the height of any projectile is given by (19)
H =

(19) V^sin^

2G

19

To find the maximum range, we look at (18) and see that R is
greatest when sin 2g is a maximum. That is, when sin 29 = 1.
Thus 2o =90 and e = 45. We also note that by differentiating
(18) with respect to 9, we get

dR 2Vo- cos 2 9. Setting dR we find that cos 2 = 0.

= 0,

d9 G d9

Thus 2 9 =90, and 9 = 45 which is found to be a maximum.
The student can verify easily that the maximum height at maximum
range, R, is 14 R.

Although this kind of problem requires a large number of manipu-
lations, the high school student in an advanced mathematics program
such as SMSG can handle it. It is an excellent example of analysis
and affords the advanced student an opportunity to see why mathe-
matical analysis is so important in science. Of course, this type of
problem would be assigned only to the very advanced student.

EXAMPLE IV

The Gas Laws and Mathematics

As a precaution against the blind use of mathematics, the follow-
ing simple example points out how correct mathematical manipula-
tions lead to the wrong conclusion.

If P is held constant, V = Ki T, where V is the volume of gas
and T is its absolute temperature.

If V is held constant, P = K2 T, where P is the pressure of the
gas and T is its absolute temperature. Therefore, in writing a general
gas law involving P, V, and T, we find the product of P and V.

Therefore :

(1) PV = Ky T-. But we know that the universal gas law is

(2) PV = K T

Thus, while the mathematics in (1) is correct, the physics is wrong
because both P and V can not be held constant at the same time.
Care must be exercised in the application of mathematics and in
physics for correct mathematical manipulations often lead to absurd
resuhs when physical laws are not taken into consideration.

20

Comments

The reader probably has noticed that the problems were more of
the "proof" type than the usual "specific numerical answer" type
problems usually found in high-school physics courses. The "proof"
type of problem is recommended for the consideration of better
students in high-school physics. Its pedagogical value lies in the fact
that it will illustrate to the student the role and method of mathe-
matical analysis in physics. Mathematical analysis is neglected too
often on the assumption that it is too difficult at the high school level.
Perhaps this contention was justified because of the poor mathe-
matical preparation of the average high-school physics student.

However, at present, many of these students now come to high
school physics after taking courses in advanced algebra, trigonometry
and a concurrent course in elementary calculus. It is this student
that should be exposed heavily to the "proof" type problem as pre-
viously described. The physics teacher should design this type of
problem on a less advanced mathematical level for the less mathe-
matically prepared student.

The one question that is raised in mathematics classes probably
more often than any other one question is the query, "What good is
this, when will I ever use it?". The poor mathematical showing of
many college freshmen in the sciences and engineering can be attribu-
ted to the fact that they never were able to utilize fully their mathe-
matics in their high-school science courses. While it is true that
the majority of our high-school physics books do not have "proof"
type problems in them, this fact does not reheve us of the obligations
to provide these experiences for our students. We have the obliga-
tion to teach up to the student's ability rather than limit our teaching
to the textbook.

The writer is fully convinced after talking with several outstanding
high school physics teachers attending the 1962-63 Academic Year
Institute at Harvard University, that the "proof" type problem is
needed in high school physics. These teachers, who represent the
North-Eastem, Mid-Western and Far-Western sections of our coun-
try, believe that if the better student is to succeed in a scientific ca-
reer, he must have had experience with this kind of problem. It is
imperative, therefore, that teachers of physics recognize their duty
of providing such experiences. Only in this fashion can students
attain their maximum growth and development.

21

Bibliography

D. Lee Baker, Raymond B. Brownlee, and Robert W. Fuller, (revised by Paul
J. Boylan), Elements of Physics, AUyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1958.

Paul F. Brandwein, Fletcher G. Watson, and Paul E. Blackwood; A Book of
Methods, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. New York, 1958.

Richard F. Brinckerhoff, Judson B. Cross, and Arthur Lazarus, Exploring
Physics: New Edition, Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York, 1959.

Charles E. Dull, H. Clark Metcalfe, and John E. Williams, Modern Physics,
Henry Holt and Company, New York, in 1960.

C. E. Mendenhall, A. S. Eves, D. A. Keys and R. M. Sutton, College Physics,
D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, 1956.

Physical Science Study Committee, Physics, D. C. Heath and Company,
Boston, 1960.

Physical Science Study Committee, Teachers Resource Book and Guide, D. C.
Heath and Company, Boston, 1961.

Harvey E. White, Modern College Physics, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Princeton, 1962.

22

The Library of Congress, The Library Services

Branch and College Libraries

A Colloquim*

by
Robert H. Land, Theodore Samore and E. J. Josey

The Library of Congress and
College Libraries

Robert H. Land

The 1962 Annual Report of the Librarian of Congress lists the
16 national library functions performed by LC which in summary
are: LC maintains comprehensive collections for the use of the
Government, the scholarly world, and the public, making it a national
center for research. Its collections are enriched through official, in-
tergovernmental exchange of pubhcations: copyright or legal deposit
of materials; and gifts of personal papers, rare books, and other
valuable materials and trust funds and bequests, which enable it
not only to add to the collections but to present cultural programs
in such fields as hterature, art, and music. LC develops a compre-
hensive classification system, which is widely used by other research
institutions, and cataloging codes, which are nationally accepted
standards, and it serves as a center for cooperative cataloging of
books and other forms of material by the Nation's libraries. It pro-
vides a national catalog card distribution service and maintains na-
tional union catalogs on cards. These serve as guides to the Nation's
research resources in various forms and fields; and LC furnishes
information about the location of needed materials to those who
cannot personally consult these tools. LC pubhshes in book form a
national bibliography, or a major contribution thereto, such as the
Library's National Union Catalog. It gives reference service on its
premises and provides extensive information from and about its
collections by mail. It participates in a nationwide interUbrary loan
system, which enables it to share collection responsibilities with other
libraries and to make research materials generally available, thereby
strengthening smaller libraries throughout the country by supplement-
ing their research resources. It has an active bibliographic program
and makes the results of it widely available through pubHcation. It
administers the national books-for-the-blind program. It presents
exhibits selected from the national collections for the education and
enjoyment or the general pubHc, and circulates them at home and
abroad. It experiments and conducts research in the area of library
technology. Lastly LC engages in national and international cooper-
ative bibliographic projects and works with other national libraries

"Presented at the College Section Meeting of the Association of College &
Research Libraries at the 83rd Annual Conference of the American Library
Association, June 30, 1964.

23

and international organizations to achieve standardization of rules
in order to increase the accessibility of the materials of knowledge.

These functions do no more than indicate the many LC activities
and services having relevance for U. S. college hbraries.

To inquiries, "How are things at the Library of Congress?", I
usually reply that, "Some things are fine." I do this to give an opti-
mistic tone, to avoid bragging, and to be candid. It is, however,
necessary this morning to give more than a customary emphasis to
"Some" because LC's General Reference and Bibliography Division,
in which I serve, and its Stack and Reader Division, are bearing the
brunt, with the public, of an operation which is temporarily affecting
many local college students, and, we hope, will have a lasting effect
upon them and their successors. Since May the 4th, LC's stately
Main Reading Room has been, and until some time this fall will
remain, closed because of extensive renovations that will improve
future reader service and comfort. Sometime before the closing, we
invited readers, including those from local colleges and universities,
to use any other available library facihty before coming to LC as a
last resort. The lasting effect we hope this will have on local college
students is that it will be a means of weaning them from their depend-
ence upon LC for their required course reading, resources for term
papers, and opportunity for "boy to meet girl." Indeed, some of us
at LC wish it to serve college communities in the Pacific and Rocky
Mountain areas as fully as we do those near the Federal city. We
see, in our wishful thinking, an analogy between college students and
our Public Reference and Bibliography and Reference Correspond-
ence Sections on the one hand, and between children and our chil-
dren's Book Section on the other. The latter, a recent creation in LC,
does not have a reading room for children nor does it offer any service
to them; rather it serves those who write, illustrate, and publish chil-
dren's books, who serve children in pubhc and school libraries, and
who teach and entertain children.

Thus, we would have LC serve college students only in exceptional
circumstances and we would improve our services to those who do
serve them directly. It might be diplomatic to say that, as the national
library, LC does not wish to preempt the field of service of college
hbraries.

Presently we serve coUege students, who in ever-increasing num-
bers, especially during the winter and spring hoUday seasons, seek
at LC material for their term papers and other assignments and ab-
sorb our public reading room facilities and services. We receive com-
plaints of being dispossessed, poorly served, and generally frustrated
by the Library from our mature clientele professors on sabbaticals,
graduate students, and other research scholars. We do decline cor-
respondence requests from college students for the compilation of
bibliographies or for information connected with their assignments,
debates, contests, theses, and other academic exercises.

LC wishes to serve aU who are engaged in serious research and
come to use LC materials, particularly if these materials are unique.

24

LC also welcomes inquiries by correspondents, if they cannot be
satisfactorily answered through use of local, state, or regional hbra-
ries. Frequently we have to reply that, in the amount of time we are
able to assign a staff member to an individual inquiry, we have been
unable to make a satisfactory or positive response. Inquiries from
librarians are given special consideration.

LC receives many requests for bibliographies of various kinds. In
response we advise correspondents of the availability of pertinent
published bibliographies and tell them of the number of entries filed
under appropriate and specific subject headings in our catalog. We
advise them how cards for these entries or photocopies of them may
be purchased from LC's Card Division or Photoduplication Service.
We mention, too, the availability for interlibrary loan service of per-
tinent unpublished bibliographies.

We say that LC does not compile extensive bibliographies in re-
sponse to individual requests. The general bibliographies we compile
are planned to fill either a need of the Federal Government or serve
on a large scale the interests of libraries or special groups. Such bibho-
graphies are designed: (1) to facilitate use of LC collections, particu-
larly in subject fields in which recurrent reference requests are re-
ceived, and, (2) to provide reference tools of wide usefulness out-
side LC by means of which inquiries can be answered readily or
served in other Ubraries through recourse to the bibliographies. LC's
General Reference and Bibliography Division has for a decade con-
centrated its bibhographic efforts on compilation of A Guide to the
Study of the United States of America: Representative Books Reflect-
ing the Development of American Life and Thought, which was pub-
lished in 1960, and on a Supplement which is planned for completion
in 1966. The 1960 bibliography, with 6500 main entries and half
again as many more references found in annotations and headnotes,
is probably to be found in most college library reference collections.
Among other recent bibhographies on subjects of national import
are: The Presidents of the United States, 1789-1962 and Biographi-
cal Sources for the United States. We have in press, a bibliography
on the late President Kennedy and Children's Literature: a Guide to
Reference Sources. Other LC divisions have their bibhographic and
pubhcation programs. LC accepts funds transferred from other Feder-
al agencies for support of some of these. Each year LC prepares in
time for ALA distribution, a price list of LC publications entitled
Library of Congress Publications in Print. It indicates for each entry
how and where copies may be obtained. The 1964 list is presently
available at our exhibit booth here.

LC publications are first announced in our weekly Information
Bulletin that is mailed free to hbraries requesting it. This bulletin
serves hbraries throughout the Nation by reporting on events and
activities at LC that are of general interest; by giving early notice of
the publications by others of reference and bibliographic aids; and
also by carrying items of news in the library world. Thus, as an ap-
pendix to next week's issue of the Information Bulletin, the first
widely circulated report of this and other meetings of this ALA con-

25

ference will be published. The Information Bulletin, together with the
Annual Report of the Librarian and the Quarterly Journal of the
Library of Congress, is a regular channel of communication inform-
ing all libraries of LC's acquisitions, activities, and services. These
three publications are important links between LC and college libra-
ries providing evidence on many relationships that I have been un-
able even to mention.

26

The Library Services Branch and
College Libraries

Theodore Samore

Let me first give you a very brief sketch of the place of the Library
Services Branch in the structure of the Office of Education. The Of-
fice of Education is divided into four "offices" and three bureaus.
One of the bureaus, namely, the Bureau of Educational Research
and Development has five divisions. One of those five divisions is
the Division of Library Services of which Mr. Lorenz is the director.
And under the Division of Library Services are two branches: one,
Adult Education and two, the Library Services Branch. We are now
at home.

The Library Services Branch itself is composed of two units. One
unit administers the Library Services Act, now the Library Services
and Construction Act. Funds are expended by the State library ex-
tension agencies in accordance with a State plan for library develop-
ment, prepared by the State and approved by the U. S. Commissioner
of Education.

Here is the time to point out that the administration of the Higher
Education Facilities Act of 1963 is temporarily administered by a U.
S. Office of Education task force. This Act provides among other
things. Federal funds for the construction of classrooms, laboratories
and libraries.

The staff which is in charge of the Library Services and Construc-
tion Act is made up of three extension library specialists and support-
ing secretarial help. Each of the three specialists is in charge of a cer-
tain number of the fifty States who receive grants from the Federal
Government.

The other units of the Library Services Branch is the statistical
and research staff. This part is called the Basic Program Unit and it
is composed of three public library speciaUsts, two school library
speciaUsts, one special library specialist, one library education special-
ist and one college and university library specialist.

Both the lack of time and the relevance to our topic prevents me
from going into detail concerning the workings of the Extension
Library Unit and other members of the Basic Program Unit, that is,
the public library speciaUsts, library education specialists, etc. The
aim of this introduction has been to clarify the structure of the
Library Services Branch. I hope that it has been successful.

Now it is true that the entire Federal government, as well as fifty
State governments, 2,000 County governments, and 25,000 local and
City governments; not to mention thousands of associations, profes-
sional organizations, etc. operate to serve either as citizens or li-
brarians, or students or what depending on your point of view.

However, I can speak with modest confidence on only one seg-

27

ment of that conglomorate, viz, the Library Services Branch. Other
members of the panel have spoken (or wDl speak) of other aspects
of the problem.

To put the matter in barest terms, the Library Services Branch
exists primarily to help and serve in a variety of ways: and, con-
versely, you can help us help you better if you tell us how well or
how badly the job is being done.

Although there is only one Library Services Branch there are almost
2,200 academic libraries in the country, and they all practice freedom
of speech in no uncertain terms. I shall indicate the four main
services that the branch offers and then I shall mention the four
correlative services you can offer us.

First, we offer consultant and advisory assistance on a variety of
library matters ranging from building programs to staffing, cataloging
and budget planning. The clientele includes representatives of Fed-
eral, State, and foreign governments, college officials, students and
instructors of librarianship, foreign librarians and other educators,
executives of research organizations, and professional associations,
and others who request assistance or advice on problems arising in
college and research libraries. Every effort is made to identify
authoritative sources of information meeting the request of the in-
quirer and, wherever possible, to refer him directly to these sources
and agencies.

Second, we try to identify major problems and trends in American
librarianship. Some examples are: (1) legislation affecting libra-
ries; (2) the administration and organization of libraries; (3) the
resources, services and expenditures of libraries; (4) the education,
certification and economic status of library personnel; (5) social
and political issues which directly affect libraries; (6) social and
political areas such as, the poverty in which libraries themselves
play a direct role; and (7) areas in librarianship which deserve de-
tailed investigation.

Third, we work with library associations, library schools, profes-
sional agencies and organizations, individual librarians, etc. to im-
prove and extend both library services and resources.

Fourth, we study and disseminate information regarding the physi-
cal plant and equipment of all types of libraries. State certification
standards for librarians, and bibliographies in special fields. One of
the most recent examples is Cohen's Library Science Dissertations.

Fifth and last, we collect, publish and distribute basic statistical
data standards on school, college, public and special libraries. This
data, I might add, is prime material for testimony before congressional
committees and other investigating bodies.

At this point I shall refer to service number four. Every year for
the past four years our department has mailed a questionnaire to all
of you. Before that date, ACRL did it for a period of fifteen years.
The questions themselves have not really varied much in all these

28

years; but I suspect that what the questions mean has varied more
than I care to think.

At any rate, we have built up much data that is simply stupefying.
What does it all signify? I am not at all sure what it means but I
believe that there are several ways in which this data is useful to you.
Actually, the information is designed for the use not only of librarians,
students of librarianship and library associations, but also of execu-
tives and governing boards of colleges and universities, commercial
and industrial concerns, educations and other professional associ-
ations, and Government agencies.

In summary, then, this information furnishes (1) some factual
bases for comparing library resources and services with ALA
standards.

(2) the information helps in budget planning and self studies.

( 3 ) it provides guidelines to accrediting associations and academic
library consultants.

(4) it yields on authentic measure of library progress and develop-
ment.

The five services we or I would like to see you render us are:
one, please return the questionnaires as soon as possible; two, please
return the questionnaire; three, four and five are the same.

29

A College Librarian Views the Library of Congress
And the Library Service Branch

E. J. Josey

Fellow librarians, this is an unusual coUoquim and a provocative
discussion, and I deem myself very fortunate to be able to participate
in it.

Mr. Land's outline of the 16 national library functions of the Li-
brary of Congress is a stirring appeal to a librarian's conscience
that all of these benevolent activities of the Library of Congress
benefit not college libraries alone, but all hbraries to a great degree.
Mr. Land does not claim that his explanations of the accelerated
growth of the work of the Library of Congress are applicable to
college libraries alone, but he does consider it important to give us
a panoramic view of the work of our great National Library in
general.

Of the sixteen functions outlined by Mr. Land, it is my view that
all are important to the work of the college library, but for those of
us from the hinterlands, the services that are more important to us
are the following: The Library of Congress is a national bibho-
graphical center through interlibrary loan. Its National Union Cata-
log, its printed catalog card service, its development and pubhcation
of its classification system and subject heading lists and its pubhcation
of such numerous bibliographical projects and especially its publica-
tion of a GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA are tremendously important to the work of the
college librarian and the college library. It is my belief that if a
survey were to be taken suggesting the curtailment or the abandon-
ment of these services by the Library of Congress, College librarians
aU over America would rise up in holy indignation.

An erudite critic of the Library of Congress, Paul Dunkin, in his
penetrating analysis and commentary on the Bryant-Mumford de-
bate Mr. Land, pardon my indiscretion for raising this issue here
Mr. Dunkin writes, "None of these services is performed pri-
marily for the libraries of the nation. Instead, they grow out of the
needs real or imagined of the Library of Congress and their
form and content is determined by those needs of the libraries which
buy them. Yet the Library of Congress is like no other library in
the country; what is good for the Library of Congress is not always
good for the libraries of the country. For instance, L. C. Catalog
Cards neglected Dewey classification numbers for many years al-
though the Dewey System has long been predominant in this country
even among the large research libraries . . . ."^

Returning to my earlier assertion that college Hbrarians would rise
up in holy indignation if these services were withdrawn, nevertheless,
college librarians and some of our colleagues from the public libraries,

^Paul Dunkin, "Pyramid or Volcano," Library Journal, January 1, 1963, p. 52.

30

while they welcome these services, they have a few misgivings. In
short, many of these valuable services are done without the slightest
regard for the small college hbrary of less than 50,000 volumes.
More than half of the college libraries in this country, unfortunately,
are small institutions and their cataloging needs are not the same
as the Library of Congress. Some who would take a dim view of
my foregoing remarks would probably say that this is no problem
at all.

Any junior cataloger can adapt L.C. Cards. I would not debate
the point. Cataloging was merely used as an illustrative point. What
I am trying to suggest is that all of the services performed by the
Library of Congress are important, but they could be of more value
to our nation's college libraries if there were long-range plans formu-
lated with respect to college libraries. In short, it may be a good
idea if the Library of Congress would attempt to ascertain if they
are meeting our needs. Maybe it is not L.C.'s responsibihty. As
college hbrarians, it may very well be that we complain among our-
selves and that we have not informed the Library of Congress. In
short, ladies and gentlemen, I am calling for coordination of the
work of the Library of Congress and college libraries.

Turning to the problem of direct service to college students, I am
sympathetic to Mr. Land's desire to wean college students from de-
pendence upon L.C. for their required course reading, term papers,
etc., for thirteen years ago, I completed my undergraduate education
in a university in the District of Columbia, and I remember with
nostalgia, the intellectual pleasures derived from using the Main
Reading Room of the Library of Congress and the difficulty of find-
ing a seat at times because of the hundreds of fellow seekers after
knowledge crowding-out this great research center. I am not quarrel-
ing with Mr. Land's desire to wean the college students from the
Library of Congress so that the mature scholar or researcher may
enjoy this bibliographical haven, but after our serious consideration
of the student problem in Chicago last summer, it was my impression
that all Ubraries were moving toward a pattern of shared responsi-
bility for library service to college students in urban areas. Probably,
the answer is in this question: To what extent are college admin-
istrations willing to improve their college library collections so that
they will support the book and research needs of their students on
their campuses thus relieving the larger public libraries all over the
land from the pressure of students?

Commenting on Mr. Land's analogy between college students and
the Public Reference and Bibliography and Reference Correspon-
dence Sections on the one hand, and between children and the Chil-
dren's Book Section on the other hand, college librarians would
welcome the improvement of services to college libraries that serve
students directly. But I add that Mr. Land does not have to worry
about preemptying the field of services of college libraries, since
fifty-two per cent of the libraries in our four year institutions are
substandard in the size of their book collections. Consequently, the
Reference Correspondence Section is an asset to college libraries.

31

Mr. Land, in spite of my comments, we are grateful to L.C. for
its services.

Most of my allotted time has been spent on the Library of Con-
gress. Turning to Mr. Samore's remarks regarding "The Library
Services Branch and College Libraries," it is my conviction that
the hbrary education speciahst and the college and university library
specialist open up sweeping vistas of opportunities for college libraries
for two reasons. First of all, we are happy to have a library education
expert at the national level, in view of the fact that "forty-nine per
cent of Ubraries in the four year institutions are sub-standard with
respect to staffing, despite the modest requirement of our standards
that a four year college employ three professional librarians . . .""
We are certain that the distinguished lady who holds the position
will probably give attention to the education of more college libra-
rians. Of course this is inextricably bound up with recruitment and
all of us are debtors to our profession.

No college library development can be lasting that is not based
on a mobilization of national resources. With the college and uni-
versity hbrary speciahst on the staff of the Library Services Branch,
we know that this professional worker has mobilized all pertinent
data relative to college libraries, especially all data which may be
considered national resources. I voice the sentiments of all college
hbrarians when I say that "the consultant and advisory assistance
on a variety of hbrary matters, ranging from building programs to
staffing, cataloging and budget planning," are of paramount im-
portance to college hbraries. The truth of the matter is that many
college librarians are not cognizant of the fact that these consultant
and advisory services are available. The problem may very well be
that somewhere along the line they may have gone amiss in their
hbrary education or professional reading. Nevertheless, it is my behef
that in order to be of greater service to college libraries, availabihty
of the services should be made known. It is a source of great satis-
faction, for the most part, to know that a large chentele of persons
have received these services. It is my firm conviction that external
advisory and consultative aid are indispensable initially to guide and
supplement the efforts of college hbrarians, in their zeal to improve
hbrary services on their campuses. In our country, college libraries
are for the most part scattered around in smaU towns, and therefore,
college hbrarians unlike public school librarians, cannot get together
frequently to lean on each other for advice and comfort.

We are certain that in the months ahead, Mr. Samore's office wiU
be a bee hive of activity, when colleges begin to submit their plans
for buildings under the Higher Educational Facilities Act of 1963.
Although Mr. Samore wiU not be directly involved, because a special
task force will handle this responsibility, I am certain that he will
have a great influence.

Without the pubhcation of College Library Statistics by the Li-

^Frederich H. Wagman, "College Libraries An Appraisal," Scholarly Books
In America, December 1963, p. 6.

32

brary Service Branch, college libraries, in general, and small college
libraries, in particular, would not possess a weapon to bring their
administrations in line in regards to better financial support of their
libraries. The publication of these invaluable statistics constitutes
a yeoman service for college hbraries.

In presenting the assignment, Mr. Oboler requested that I should
concentrate my thoughts on Mr. Land's paper. His second admoni-
tion was to compare the two services, i.e., Library of Congress with
the Library Services Branch. Instead, I have discussed the two as
separate entities. I did not evade Mr. Oboler's suggestion because
I felt that the problems of L.C. and the Library Services Branch
were complex, vast, urgent and above all non-comparable. I felt
that they could best be seen in juxtaposition of each other.

In conclusion, I would like to state with all the emphasis at my
command that the Library of Congress is one of the great national
libraries of the world. The Library Service Branch is doing an in-
valuable service for the world of libraries. But there is one compari-
son that I would like to make of the two papers of Mr. Land and
Mr. Samore. More particularly, I wish to draw attention to the fact
that Mr. Samore stated that "The Library Services Branch exists
primarily to help and serve you in a variety of ways; and, conversely,
you can help us help you better if you tell us how well or how badly
the job is being done." Now, I wonder if the Library of Congress
would welcome suggestions from their college librarian colleagues.

33

Just A Thought

by
Doris L. Jackson

Many people including poets themselves have tried to define
a "Poem." Here are some attempts at stating what poetry is or
telling what poetry means to them personally:

1. Poe calls poetry "the rhythmic creation of the beautiful."

2. Voltaire maintains that poetry is "the music of the soul, and
above all, of great and feeling souls."

3. Shelley declares that a poem is "the very image of life expressed
in its eternal truth."

4. Matthew Arnold offers these definitions:

. . . Prose is words in their Best Order; Poetry, the Best
Words in the Best Order.

Below, are attempts to put into words some of the meanings of
what our great poets have tried to define as poetry. It is my way
of creating a thought, a feeling, An expression or telling a story:

MUSIC A MUST

Music is an art for all.

To love and feel and hear;

The sounds and notes are countless,

Like the stars from year to year.

Music can be joyous.
And make the heart feel gay;
It can change the sad expression
To laughter and to play.

It can lift the lowest spirit.
And touch the greatest pride;
It can tell the greatest story,
Throughout the world so wide.

There's music in every walk of life.
And music to suit each taste;
There's music to calm the wars within
No matter what the case.

Within this great big world of ours.
If there was music none;
I wonder just how sad it would be.
In this world without a song.

And so we've learned from time to time,
That music is a must;
It was in the past and present too,
And a need for the future we trust.

34

MY STORY OF THE WIND

by
Doris L. Jackson

My story of the wind
Is a great and amazing one;
It travels through this earth,
As it moves around the sun.

It's a great and powerful force,
That can down the tallest tree;
It can lift the waves so very high.
And destroy the ship at sea.

It can lift a house right off the ground,
And make the walls to tremble;
It can even lift the roofs from homes.
And turn them into shamble.

It can form the greatest hurricane.
That plagues our many shores;
It can change into tornadoes,
That shake the very soul.

It can blow the cold, cold winter air,
And cause the winter storm;
It can change the lake to crystal ice,
And make the snow flake form.

With aU this might and strength and power.
The wind can do more things;
It can lift the mighty plane on high.
And aid the birds on wing.

It can gently move the clouds above.
That bring the rain so cool;
And give to earth the summer breeze
That caress the brook and dancing pool.

It can scatter seeds about the earth,
From which things sprout and grow;
It can take the children's kite so high,
And cause each face to glow.

And so my story of the wind
Could still go on and on;
Revealing power and wonders,
Of the wmd that loves to roam.

No one has ever seen its face.

Or knows from whence it comes;

But knows it's passing through this earth.

But knows not where it's gone.

35

WHERE GOEST THOU O LITTLE TEARS

by
Doris L. Jackson

Where goest thou O little tears,
With journeys O so many?
You touch the eyes of great and small.
And none are missed, not any.

I see you in so many ways,
Your presence seems to show;
Emotions or expressions wide,
The kind I always know.

I saw you in the midst of smiles,
And knew that this must be;
The tears of joy and happiness,
This must be true you see.

Then there were days I saw you there.
Among the sad hurt peers;
Yes, this I know indeed it was
A host of heartbreak tears.

You can be gay, you can be sad,
Of this I've often seen;
O little tears I've learned so much,
About your moods and means.

So httle tears of hope and joy.
And even tears of sorrow;
And tears of hurt and pain you see,
Will vanish comes tomorrow.

36

Competition in the Face of Integration

by
Hayward S. Anderson

Out of a series of questions submitted to me, I shall give con-
sideration to the following in this paper:

1. What kind of Negro businesses have been able to make com-
petitive inroads into mainstream markets?

2. Is integration into the mainstream the only chance for survival
of Negro businesses with the prospect of total desegregation
in public accommodations?

Prior to moving into a discussion of this subject, it would be well
to indicate what is meant when certain terms are used. Competition,
as used in this paper, refers to the act of challenging or meeting a
challenge for markets. Integration means the elimination of color
as a criterion for extending employment opportunities and of doing
business generally. Market refers to "the aggregate demand of the
potential buyers of a commodity or service."^

The term mainstream markets may have many meanings to many
people. I infer from many Negro businessmen that one is in a
mainstream market if he sells to ultimate consumers or industrial
consumers without regard to the race or color of the purchasers.
Some problems of definition are apparent. For instance, if the users
of a generic type of product are Negroes, would the seller be in the
mainstream if he sold only to them? Further, there is a problem
of the size of the market and the proportion of the market which is
held by a specific seller. For instance, if the market were a billion
dollar one, would the seller be in a mainstream market if he had
sales of only $10,000 or some other figure? Or on the other hand,
if the market itself were small, infinitesimally so, but consisted
primarily of non-Negro consumers, would the seller be in a main-
stream market if he held 100% of the market?

Without belaboring the point, our definition is that one is in a main-
stream market if he is engaged in business for profit; if he is making
a significant contribution in profits or knowledge to some phase of
American business or has a significant share of a momentous market;
and, if he has been in business long enough to show reasonable
stability as evidenced by a favorable comparative growth rate, or
failing to show a favorable growth rate, if he has maintained signifi-
cant dollar sales, gross revenue and/or profits over a period of time.

Some limitations in my approach include the following: (1)
without claiming to be an authority on the subject at hand, the point
of view of this paper will be that of a Negro who is viewing the
Negro businessman and some of his actual and potential markets;

^Ralph S. Alexander, et al, Marketing Definitions A Glossary of Marketing
Terms, American Marketing Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1960, p. 15.

37

(2) I have deliberately attempted to keep heavy documentation to
a minimum in order to express a point of view; and, (3) in order
to hold this subject to manageable proportions, this discussion will
be hmited to domestic markets although there is ample evidence to
suggest that Negroes, at this juncture in history, need to view world
markets also. While there is evidence of opportunities in other
special markets, particularly for those qualified to produce and mar-
ket goods and services to industrial consumers and to the government,
most of our attention will be directed to the ultimate consumer
market, or, more accurately, ultimate consumer markets of a general
nature.

All ultimate consumer markets consist of people with purchasing
power and with wants and needs and various attitudes toward pur-
chasing. The people who comprise these markets also have varying
characteristics such as different income levels, different educational
levels, different ethnic considerations, different geographic mani-
festations, and many others. In the sale of specific goods and services
some of these characteristics and many others have significance to
the sale. In other cases only a few of these or other characteristics
may be of significance. In fact, in some instances it is difficult to
determine what characteristics of buyers are significant to a sale.
Though difficult to determine, assessment of consumer characteris-
tics which are likely to influence sales are important. It would, in
my opinion, be a mistake to think in terms of a Negro market, or a
non-Negro or a white market, without looking at other characteristics
of these markets. The Negro market and the white market, if you
want to use the terms, themselves can be classified into smaller market
segments or smaller markets.

It is difficult, in one paper, to generalize about business, its prob-
lems, its strengths, its weaknesses, its growth potential, and its chances
for survival, primarily because aggregate business is composed of
individual industries, which in turn are composed of individual firms
of various types and sizes and which possess diverse characteristics.
And while specific activity or specific inactivity may have a favor-
able or an unfavorable effect on business in general, frequently spe-
cific activity or specific inactivity will accelerate the growth of one
mdustry or firm and will retard the growth of another. Thus, the
outlook for business, taking the industries and firms individually, is
not likely to be consistent at any one point in time except under
highly unusual circumstances. Negro business, though narrower in
scope and breadth and though it has some peculiarities of its own,
has sufficient diversity to make generalizations difficult.

What Kind of Negro Businesses Have Been Able to Make Com-
petitive Inroads Into Mainstream Markets? A statistical analysis
would be, perhaps, the best approach to an answer to this question.
Yet these statistics are not available, primarily because the federal
government, the greatest collector of statistics, does not generally
report business data on this basis. Many of us would frown on the
approach, if it did. It is conceivable that the collection and dissemi-
nation of such data might be done more appropriately by private

38

agencies although they could hardly do so effective a job as the
government. Lacking national statistics some insight is, nevertheless,
possible.

Except as workers, as opposed to owner-manager positions gen-
erally speaking, Negroes, unless indicated otherwise, are not in the
following businesses. Negroes are not in the genetic industries of
forestry. They are not in the extractive industries of mining, lumber-
ing, hunting, and fishing. In the construction industries, they are
generally not in highway or waterway construction. While some have
made an impact in the area of building construction on a local scale,
on a national scale, their impact is limited. In manufacturing, there
is at least one manufacturer of cosmetics on a national scale. There
are a limited number of manufacturers of such items as ice cream,
sausages, shirts, and potato chips, among others, on a regional or
on a local scale. Negroes have made a strong impact, nationally, in
the newspaper field. They have a hmited number of publishers of
periodicals, and to a much more Hmited extent they are publishing
books. As a listing of one hundred richest Negroes in a recent issue
of Ebony- will attest, Negroes have achieved individual successes,
among others, in the areas of insurance, real estate, and banking.
Without trying to identify all of the types of businesses, the bulk of
Negro businessmen are in the business of selling goods and services
at retail. I think that it is appropriate to say that more recently
Negroes have entered aggressively into the business of selling in-
formation about the Negro market.

If we may use a study of businesses owned and operated by
Negroes in Tennessee as a focal point in determining specific char-
acteristics of the market to which the majority of Negro businessmen
sell, and I think we can, we will find some interesting facts. This
study was made by Dr. Schuster of Tennessee State. "^ Dr. Schuster
made a study of over 600 firms in Chattanooga, Knoxville, Memphis,
and Nashville, Tennessee. Retail firms and service establishments
comprised the major proportion of the businesses studied. The retail
firms included: eating and drinking establishments; grocery and
food stores; drug stores; dry goods, variety, furniture and hardware
stores; and liquor stores. Service establishments included, among
others: service stations; laundries and cleaners; barber shops and
beauty shops; and hotels and motels. He indicated that: "It is esti-
mated that Negro businesses, other than personal service enterprises
which are protected by segregation, account for less than five per
cent of the goods and services bought by Negroes in these cities and
almost none of those bought by white persons."^

In terms of market potential, with the exception of personal service
markets, Negroes, on an aggregate basis, have made little inroad

-Ebony, Johnson Publishing Company, Chicago, Illinois, May, 1962, p. 135.

^Louis H. Schuster et al, Business Enterprises of Negroes in Tennessee, Small
Business Administration, Washington, D. C, July, 1961, p. 25.

*Ibid., p. 27.

39

into the Negro market and almost none into the non-Negro market.
While the study does not prove that Negroes, individually, are not
in mainstream markets according to the writer's definition, it is
apparent that they have made their greatest inroad into personal
service markets in which they sell primarily to Negroes.

Is Integration into the Mainstream the Only Chance for Sur-
vival of Negro Businesses with the Prospect of Total Desegregation
in Public Accommodations? Since Negro businessmen on an aggre-
gate basis sell primarily to Negroes, it is well to observe whether
Negroes have consumption patterns different from other consumers,
to observe some factors which bear on their aggregate ability to
consume, to observe some factors which are hkely to affect the
competitive status of Negro businessmen, and to observe which
businesses wih be directly affected by the Civil Rights Bill of 1964.
Such analysis should aid in answering the question put.

Since purchasing patterns and habits, population, and income are
factors generally accepted as affecting the marketing of goods and
services, I will give you pertinent aspects of these factors first. Since
the extent to which an individual is unemployed affects his income,
some insight into this aspect of the Negro consumers' status is also
desirable.

The Negro Consumer. Differences in consumption patterns. The
following statement is attributed to Mr. Johnson of the Johnson
Publishing Company: "They make me live and buy as a
Negro. "^ The question arises does the Negro consumer approach
buying in a manner different from white consumers? While there
are certain differences in points of view on this subject, Marcus
Alexis analyzed budget data from several sources to determine
whether there was any basis for the contention that Negro and white
consumers with comparable means allocated their incomes differently
to specific budget items. These are his findings:

1. Total consumption expenditures of Negroes are less than for
comparable income whites, or Negroes save more out of a
given income than do whites with the same income.

2. Negro consumers spend more for clothing and non-automobile
transportation and less for food, housing, medical care and
automobile transportation than do comparable income whites.

3. There is no consistent racial difference in expenditures for
either recreation and leisure or home furnishings and equip-
ment at comparable income levels."*'

While some of the data research covered the 1930s and 1940s, the
study does show that there is some basis for claims that the con-

^Biisiness Week, McGraw-Hill Publications, New York, New York, May 26,
1962, p. 76.

^Marcus Alexis, "Some Negro-White Differences in Consumption", The
American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 21, No. 1, Lancaster,
Pa., January, 1962, pp. 27, 28.

40

sumption patterns of Negroes in some areas are different from whites.
There may be others.

Population. The overall growth trend of the population in the
United States, both white and non-white, is generally favorable to
the marketing of goods and services. Increased longevity may make
the sales of certain goods and services to the elderly attractive. The
movement away from rural areas to urban areas will have impli-
cations to some sellers in specific areas for changes in the nature of
wants, and changes in the availability of customers may take place.
Business Week' indicates that 50.5% of the non-white population
live in central cities in 1960 as opposed to 39.2% who lived in
central cities in 1950. Cities like Washington, with a Negro concen-
tration of 53.9%, and Atlanta, with a Negro concentration of
38.3%, indicate the depth of concentration of the Negro in some
urban areas. The significant migration of Negroes from the South
to other areas of the country may have significance to some sellers,
because of a possible intensification of competitive effort to capture
remaining potential customers.

Income. A significant difference exists between the median fam-
ily income of whites and non-whites. For instance, in 1948, the
median family income of whites was $3,310 while that of the non-
whites was $1,768 or 53.4% of the whites. The difference amounted
to $1,542. In 1961 the median family income of whites was $5,981
while that of non-whites was $3,191, or also 53.4%. The gap in
dollar differential, however, had widened and amounted to $2,790.^
Since consumers do not spend percentages, this differential is im-
portant. Because non-white customers' median family income is
smaller than that of white customers, they can not buy as many
goods and services as whites, the amount of money of which they have
discretionary spending is much more limited, and they are much
more restricted in the type of goods which they may purchase.

Unemployment. An unemployment rate of 5.7%^, which was
the rate in June, 1963, does not set a favorable tone for the con-
sumption of goods and services. The rate of non-white unemploy-
ment is also higher than the rate of unemployment for whites. This
creates an additional problem for the Negro businessman. For in-
stance, in December 1962, the seasonally adjusted unemployment
rate of the civilian labor force was 5.5%.^ As of the same date
the unemployed whites numbered 4.6% of the white labor force
while the non-white unemployment was 11% of the non-white
labor force or double that of the labor force. Because high un-

'^ Business Week, May 26, 1962, pp. 79, 80.

^Matthew A. Kessler, "Economic Status of Non-White Workers, 1955-62",
Special Labor Force Report, No. 33, From the Monthly Labor Review, Pre-
print No. 2419, July, 1963, p. 7.

^Federal Reserve Bulletin, Vol. 49, No. 7, Board of Governors of the Federal
Reserve System, Washington, D. C, July, 1963, p. 1002.
^Jane L. Meredith, "Labor Force and Employment, 1960-62", Special Labor
Report, No. 31, From the Monthly Labor Review, Preprint No. 2417, May,
1963, pp. A-7, A-8, A-9.

41

employment tends to engender a cautious attitude toward spending
even on the part of those who have money, high unemployment has
a doubly depressing effect on sales. Those who sell primarily to
Negro markets find it more difficult to find customers who are willing
and able to buy their goods and services than those who do not limit
their selling efforts to this market segment.

Some Pertinent Business Factors. Two significant competitive
factors that pertain to the Negro businessman, in my opinion, should
be viewed. They are the new awareness on the part of sellers, gen-
erally, of the presence of the Negro market and the location of Negro
businesses as they relate to businesses in general. The latter is of
significance because it is felt that the Negro businessman has, typi-
cally, not done the most effective job.

Awareness of the Negro Market. Domestic sellers have become
aware of the Negro market as attested to by several appointments
of Negroes to high-level marketing posts. In a perusal of Ebony
over a period of time it was observed that these companies included
soft drink manufacturers, liquor manufacturers, tobacco manufac-
turers, beer companies, and others. If the marketing efforts of these
appointees are successful, greater penetration into the Negroes'
pocketbooks is likely with a resultant decrease in the Negroes' funds
which are available for other purchases. Further, the Negro seller
of products will likely find a decrease in available Negro sales talent.
The likely outcome is that he will have to pay more to secure com-
petent sales personnel. This increase in sales costs must be com-
pensated for by an increase in sales, gross margin, or both; or it
must be accompanied by a decrease in other costs if the Negro seller
is to avoid a squeeze on his profits.

Location. While not all businesses benefit equally from it, loca-
tion is important and an excellent location can spell the difference
between success and failure. Whether because of high rent, refusal
of owners and agents to rent to Negroes, or some other factors,
Negro businesses, even those who could benefit from the draw of
mainstream traffic, typically, have not located in the primary shop-
ping areas. Although downtown shopping areas are experiencing
problems of their own, a lack of location of specific Negro businesses
in this area tended, in my opinion, to detract from the image of
Negro business as first rate.

Shopping centers, because of the heavy draw of consumer traffic,
make possible the mass merchandising and mass sales of goods and
services. Manufacturers of goods, normally sold through the types
of stores located there, should think seriously of getting their wares
on the shelves in these stores. Although Fortune'^^ indicates that
shopping centers are beginning to reach the saturation point in
certain areas, exploring the feasibility of placing businesses in these
locations is felt to be justified. Imagery, talent, and capital, however,
are likely to prove critical. Negro retailers, typically not located in
these shopping centers, are placed at a competitive disadvantage

^'^Fortune, September, 1963, p. 118.

42

since these centers have been syphoning off more and more com-
munity sales.

The Civil Rights Bill.^- While the public accommodations- section
of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964 pertains to such establishments as
hotels, motels or other pubhc places providing lodging to transient
guests, motion picture houses, theatres, sports arenas, exhibition halls
or other public entertainment places whose sources of entertainment
moved in interstate commerce and to retail shops, gas stations, res-
taurants or other estabUshments where goods are held out to the
public for sale, use or rent, 1 believe that the bill will have greatest
implications to Negro businessmen in the motel, hotel, and restaurant
businesses in the South. Some analysis of significant factors which
relate to motels and restaurants is attempted.

Restaurants and Motels. It is evident that stiff er competition in
the restaurant business is on the way. A recent issue of the Wall
Street Joiimal^^ indicates that Woolworth, Holiday Inns of America,
Greyhound Corporation, Quaker Oats Company, Sears, Roebuck
and Company, Pure Oil Company and Stouffer Food Corporation
are moving deeper into the business of feeding the public. Competi-
tion generally in this area is likely to become keener. While some
Negro establishments will not be hurt because of their excellent
service, their excellent facilities, their location, and a loyal following,
some excellent Negro estabhshments are bound to feel the pinch.
Location, improved services, and facihties are hkely to be the only
respite for marginal operators. Sub-marginal operators are going out
of business anyway.

In the motel business it is also apparent that numerous chains
such as Howard Johnson, Quality Courts, Holiday Inn, Home's and
others are spreading further along the highways. Since these organ-
izations, usually, in addition to having excellent facilities, are giving
excellent service, and are being well located, also have established
names in the trade, how much of the Negro market they will garner
since the section on pubUc accommodations passed Congress is a
significant question to some of you who have these organizations
as likely competitors. First, I know that no Negro businessman
would be against the bill even if he lost his shirt the first night
because of it. Secondly, I believe that the income of Negro con-
sumers and the degree of satisfaction they have experienced at these
establishments will be factors of significance. It is my opinion that
as the Negro consumer approaches the middle income bracket or
higher, he is more likely to switch his place of eating and abode, if
the service has not been to his liking, than is a person in a lower
income bracket. Yet the so-called New Negro, regardless of income,
is venturesome, and the newness of the opportunity to be served in
different surroundings may attract him. If stiff competition comes.

^-"Around the Capital", Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report. Vol. XXI,
No. 25, Congressional Quarterly, Inc., Washington, D. C, Week ending
June 21, 1963, p. 998.

^^Wall Street Journal, August 23, 1963, p. 1.

43

the Negro businessman will have to fall back on the tools of the
trade which he should have been using all the time superior prod-
ucts and superior services. To further meet this competition it might
be well for Negro businessmen to attempt to secure franchises from
some of the national chains that operate on this basis.

I believe that Fayetteville, North Carohna is a good city to watch
currently for indications of what might follow the opening of motels
to Negroes in the South in terms of competitive patterns. Here we
have an older motel establishment that has catered to Negroes for
some years, a newly opened motel that caters to Negroes; and the
writer has been informed that at least two chains, including Howard
Johnson, have opened their doors to Negroes.

In answer to the initial question, integration into the mainstream
is not the only chance for survival of Negro business with the prospect
of total desegregation in public accommodations. The need for small
businesses that cater to a specific market, such as a segment of the
Negro market, is likely to be continuous. This small businessman's
rate of growth is hkely to hinge on such factors as the number of
persons in the population, their purchasing power and the extent to
which he caters to their wants. Because his market is small, his rate
of growth is likely to be slow. On the other hand, provided his is
not a type of business where anti-Negro sentiment is strong, the
Negro businessman who attempts to broaden his market base by
catering to both Negro and white patrons has a greater chance for
rapid growth primarily because his potential population universe is
larger. Yet, he, too, will have to cater to specific market segments.
He will have to analyze the characteristics of his potential market,
determine who the potential consumers are, what their significant
characteristics are, what they want and give it to them. He will
have to evaluate the nature of his competition and devise means of
meeting it. And, he will have to promote his business aggressively.
In addition, if he is in the restaurant or motel business, more capital,
more talent, and a franchised name may be factors of significance.

44

On General Conies

by
Sylvia E. Bowen and Nazir A. Warsi

SUMMARY: In this article, we have used the powerful method of
tensor analysis to discuss conies in general and their properties.

1. INTRODUCTION

The general equation of the second degree in two variables repre-
sents a curve in two dimensions. The equation under certain condi-
tions may represent a pair of straight lines, a parabola, an ellipse,
a circle and a hyperbola. We shall start with the second degree
equation and reduce it to the standard forms of equations of different
conies. All the quantities are referred to the rectangular cartesian
coordinate system. The Latin indices take values 1, 2 and a re-
peated index denotes summation unless otherwise mentioned. Also
X' denotes the coordinates of a point with reference to a standard
point (origin). Hence, without any loss of generality, the general
equation of the second degree can be written as:

where g,-^ is a covariant symmetric tensor or order two and fi
a covariant vector. Quantities q ; ; , f; and h do not contain X's.

Now, using the canonical transformations, we shall reduce (1.1) to
the standard form.

2. CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT CONICS

Let us consider the pair of straight lines given by

(2.1) 9.-^ X' x-i =o

Let us also consider two points PC^',/) "" and QC^^/) which do
not lie on the straight lines. If there is a point -rC^J/^ lying on
the straight line PQ such that it divides it into two parts the ratio
of which is X , then obviously

(2.2) x^/ ^ J^.V-^ X^A/

If X'a'lies on the straight lines represented by (2. 1 ), then, we have

(2.3) X^^.. ><:/^l/*^ >g- x]/ 4/^3iJi ^\/ A/=-0

which is a quadratic equation in >s . Hence, its two roots X , , and
/N- -satisfy the equations:

(2.4) >,-h>^ - ^i^ . , '

and

* Quantities under solidus denote different entities.

45

If the range is harmonic, then

(2.6) X , i- ^^ ^ O

which in consequence of (2.4) gives

(2.7) g._^ xj/xi/ -O

Clearly the locus of x j, / is given by

(2.8) g;^ X' K-j / = O

It is interesting to note that P and Q are independent of each other.
Hence, these could be unit points in a new coordinate system. If we
transform the two axes and denote new quantities by bars ( ).
we get

(2.9 ) 7T, /=S,^xi/^=SJL.

where

(2.10) c) ; - 'Xp^^'^*' ' T^

^^ -

n

Also, the transformed form of (2.7) is

(2.11) J~- xy ^1 / = o

which, inconsequence of (2.9), gives

(2.12) 9,A = O

The above type of transformation is known as Canonical Trans-
formation.

REMARK (2.1): Since the points P^x', /"^ andQ.CJi/) are
arbitrary, we can have an infinite number of such transformations.
With the help of transformations of these types, ( 1.1 ) can be written
in the form

213) 1/^0 -^3^^ (pt-*) *.if; K- ^In =0

Let us make a supposition that (1.1)" does not represent a pair of
straight lines, that is:

P. 3^ f

(2.14) ^ =

9u

1^

^ o

*The case of straight lines will be discussed in Section 3.

46

Hence, equation (2.13) will represent a circle, parabola, ellipse and
hyperbola under different conditions.

If -. -^

(2.15) 3" = 3aa. _^^ ^"p^

then (2.13) obviously represents a circle with center q q

/- X . J" J"

and radius V (f i)* J- [f a;- h (j m)"^

9..

Now let a =. O and q ^ o Hence, (2.13) can be put in the
form: / _\ ^ z-TIn.

which represents a parabola with latus rectum ~' o? r i

and vertex I i i.

If 3. = O^ 3ii ^ ^ ' ^^ ^^" similarly show that the equation
represents a parabola. It can be easily proved that conditions for
a parabola are equivalent to q = I q . . I = o

Let Q n/ O, 5 i^O Hence, (2.13) can be put in the form:

which obviously represents an ellipse or a hyperbola according as:

a) denominators of both the terms on L.H.S. are positive

b) one is positive and the other negative

Also, both the denominators give the square of the principal axes of
conies.

REMARKS (2.2): It can easily be shown that the above condi-
tions for an ellipse or a hyperbola are equivalent to:

Q > O and g< o

3. CENTRAL CONICS

We have seen in Section 2 that we can at once decide whether
a given equation of the second degree represents the central conies

47

(2.17).

(ellipse and hyperbola). In this section we shall discuss the details
of these conies.

In case the given equation represents a central conic, let us assume
that coordinates of the center are ?^ ^ / With the help of the law
of vector-addition we get

(3.1) r.' ^ Ij' +- xi/
t-

where Y' are coordinates with reference to a parallel system of axes
but origin at the center.

In virtue of (1.1) and (3.1), we get:

Putting the coefficient of the linear term equal to zero, we get a set
of equations:

(3.3). g,.^ >fl/-*- ~^' =0

which can be solved for X c. / . Let the cofactor of Q ,'^ in g be
G"*' . Multiplying (3.3) byG*' and summing with respect to i ,
we get:

(3.4)a G' Q;^- 7^1/ =. - f;. G'
(3.4)b g O; X c/ =-f; G'

or

or

(3.4)c 5^ c/ - f,G '

which determines the center uniquely under the condition Q^ O *
Obviously for g = O the center does not exist. This case will be
discussed in the next section. In case the determinant a does not
vanish, (3.4) c gives: .i ^

(3.5) ^C/ - g

Now, from (3.2), (3.3) and (3.5) we have:

*This rule is known as Cramer's rule.

48

which represents a pair of straight hnes when

(3.7)gK-fi-f| &^^=0
It can be easily shown that (3.7) is equivalent to

(3.8) A =

= O

Ti *32i ft

9.1 fjL k

In case (3.7) is not true, (3.6) represents a central conic. Let us
omit here the easy case of a circle. We shall use (3.6) to determine
the ellipse and hyperbola. In both these cases we follow the same
procedure.

With the help of canonical transformations discussed in section 2,
we can put (3.6) in the form:

(3.9) g(4')5-9u(R')'+ t (9^'-fi< <^'0 =

The Squares of Axes of these conies are given by
and

(3.11) B^=g^, (f; I, G^'- 3K)

A^, B- both being positive, the smaller determines the minor, and
the greater, the major axis of an ellipse. One being positive and the
other negative, the former determines the transverse and the latter,
the conjugate axis of a hyperbola.

4. THE PARABOLA

We have already seen in the preceding section that if G = O,
center does not exist. This will be the case of a parabola. We
shall mention here one of the very important properties of the para-
bola. The fact that the ratio of the square of the distance of a point
on the curve from its axis to the distance of the same point from
the tangent at the vertex gives the latus rectum, will be used subse-
quently for determination of the above-mentioned straight lines.

Let us put (1.1) in the aforesaid form. That is:

(4.1) AiX^^r . X fPLliAAjl2six2Li.^

^ "b y ChtK ^ J

where

49

(4.3) c^O' = ((^ ^0)

and

(4.4)(^/ = (Pl + 2>%0'

Straight lines

(4.5) ^;X' f >l = O
and

(4.6) (P; ^^)\%;)x'^>^-(l =0

represent the axis and tangent at the vertex when they are at right
angles; that is:

when

(4.7) >\ =

M%y

The latus rectum of the parabola is / ^ no.

It is obvious from the above discussions that the parabola is com-
pletely determined.

References

1. Weatherburn, C. E. Riemanian Geometry and Tensor Calculus (1957)

Cambridge University Press, U.K.

2. McConnel, A. J. Applications of Tensor Analysis (1957) Dover Publi-

cations, Inc., N.Y.

3. Ricci, G. and Leevi-Avita, T. Methodes de Calcul differentiel absolu et

leurs applications (1901) Math. Ann.

50

The Critical Temper of George Bernard Shaw

by

Arthur L. Brentson

The great literary men of the past creators and critics, are those
who took the truth as they found it, and restated it in the idiom of
their time. Very often they rethought the ideas, and rewrote the
works of men who were considered great before them, for in each
age, the truth in all its ramifications must be restated, elaborated,
modified and varied. New thoughts and new philosophies are neces-
sary for the advent of new creators and new critics. In any hterary
realm the first comer generally reaps the harvest, and those who
come after are gleaners.

Consequently, one may very well class George Bernard Shaw as
a gleaner. He may not rank with Swift or Pope nor may he have
made any impact on his age, but he remains an interesting and a
provocative contributor to modern criticism. Few writers have moti-
vated their contemporaries to sterner criticism and few writers have
enjoyed greater praise. Shaw was aware of the fact that criticism
originated from personal opinion; he also knew that subjectivity was
the core of all creativity and that the validity and the merit of criti-
cism emanated therefrom. Furthermore, the critic was conscious of
the factum that any effort to deny the importance of subjectivity,
or claim a criterion more absolute, constituted a perversion of criti-
cism.

Mr. John Freeman has made an excellent observation of Shaw;
he said that

It is a truism that no one can be so inexorably inhuman as a
convinced humanitarian. Mr. Shaw would sacrifice a nation
for a theory put forward in its behalf. His plays are, usually, in-
humanly frigid, and, for all their liveliness, unemotional; and it
is notable that the play of which this is but shghtly true, JOHN
BULL'S OTHER ISLAND, is one of his best and ripest dra-
matic experiments. Here his gift of seeing two sides of a subject,
and seeing them in spite of exaggeration, to some extent sym-
pathetically, finds an excellent opportunity.^

True, Shaw does appear to be, in some works, inhuman, but he
had to be destructive in order to be constructive. His academic
operations might have been painful, but the critic was of the opinion
that the ills of the world and particularly those of England, needed
such surgery.

As a comic dramatist, demonstrations of kindness and tenderness
were unsuited to his objectives; they were words that had been too
often profaned by the Victorians. His themes are those that deal
with the folly of romance, crime and punishment, the economic
oppression of women, the cupidity of doctors, and the prosaic reahty

iJohn Freeman, The Moderns (London: R. Scott, 1916), P. 8.

51

of florid history. He revolted against all that the Victorians pre-
tended to hold dear: respectability, morality, charity and modesty.
The authority exposed the snobbery of middle class culture, which,
as he saw it, had always encouraged the vice of aestheticism at the
expense of well-being. Shaw pictured the Victorian artist as one
who sat alone and contemplated himself and his remarkable sensa-
tions all was right with the world. This is not to say that the
artist was unaware of the condition of the world, but the satirist
saw that the artist was much less interested in what he had in com-
mon with the world than in what he had apart from it. In fact, to
Shaw, the Victorian artist was complacent; he was a conformer to
the hypocrisy of his time.

As evidence of the climate of the era, and the attitude which Shaw
took toward it, two plays, Heartbreak House and Getting Married,
have been chosen as examples of his dissatisfaction with the snobbery
and pretense of British Aristocracy, and the rose-colored sentimen-
tality of marriage.

Heartbreak House, begun in 1913 and completed in 1916, is one
of Shaw's most provocative plays. It illustrates the writer's life-long
belief that knowledge and wisdom are gained through conflict of
opinion. In the play, symbolic characters move about within the con-
fines of a complex English society. Everything denotes England as
the leader of an empire: the main drawing-room, in the form of
a ship, indicates England's maritime supremacy and colonial enter-
prise; the drawing-board symbolizes her supremacy in craft and in-
dustry. It is Victorian England wearing the mask of appearance to
hide reality. Lady Utterword gave a striking description of the
English atmosphere when she exclaimed:

Oh, this house, this house! I come back to it after twenty-
three years; and it is just the same: the luggage lying on the
steps, the servants spoilt and impossible, nobody at home to
receive anybody, and no regular meals, nobody ever hungry
because they are always gnawing bread and butter, or munching
apples, and what is worse, the same disorder in ideas, in talk,
in feeling. 2

Actually, the world of Heartbreak House was hollow, artificial,
but to the British aristocrats it was better than the world on the
outside; in this house they were safe from the competitive and in-
humane world of business. The work represents a class of people
who did not know how to live; they were negligent of duty, self-
conceited and trusted too much to Providence. Typical of the British
attitude was the answer given Mangan when he inquired of the nature
of the house. He was told that he was "beneath the dome of heaven."^
But Ellie Dunn, who was a realist, saw it from a different angle; it
became at once an "agonizing house," a "house without foundations."

-George Bernard Shaw, Heartbreak House (New York: The Modern Library,
1919), P. 370.

nbid., P. 377.

52

Nurse Guiness put it very succinctly when she said . . . "this house
is full of surprises for them that don't know our ways."^

Although Heartbreak House has been discussed from the stand-
point of Shaw's attitude toward England and its aristocratic in-
difference, it is also an anti-romantic diatribe against sentimental
marriage. The characters in the play had been similarly frustrated
in their romantic and spiritual aspirations and had to adjust them-
selves to reality. Most of them, however, lacked the courage for an
adjustment radical enough to insure salvation. Yet, Shaw infers that
their bitter realism would, in turn, "educate" them, if they were
capable of learning from experience.

Now the discussion proceeds to a play that is a more elaborate
exposure of romantic love Getting Married. To many who hold
to conventional ideas of marriage, the preface might be a shock, if
it is not, then Shaw failed in his attempt. However, he does not
mean it in the light from which he is often criticized. What he said
is not new or untrue; it is, perhaps, the method that the author used
which infuriated his assailants. Take, for an example, the following
quotation:

"When young women come to me and ask me whether I think
they ought to consent to marry the man they have decided to
live with . . . they are perplexed and astonished when I, who
am supposed ... to have the most advanced views attained
on the subject, urge them on no account to compromise them-
selves without the security of an authentic wedding ring."^

Moreover, it cannot be said that Shaw advocated immunities from
the obligation of real life nor can it be thought that his ideas were
a disparagement on the sacred view of the union. He knew that

. . . marriage is in effect compulsory upon all normal people;
and until the law is altered there is nothing for us, but to make
the best of it as it stands. Even when no such establishment
is desired, clandestine irregularities are not negligible as an
alternative to marriage. How common they are nobody knows;
for in spite of the powerful protection afforded to the parties
by the law of libel, and the readiness of society on various
other grounds to be hoodwinked by the keeping up of the very
thinnest appearance, most of them are probably never sus-
pected.*'

In Getting Married, the critic revealed his indifference to the
varying mores by which sexual union occurs. He was not against
marriage but he was concerned that it be fruitful. His quarrel with
marriage is its status as a sexual monopoly; he was of the opinion
that the Life Force is selectively at work seeking the advancement
of the species. Hence, domesticity is not important in reproduction

nbid., P. 378.

^George Bernard Shaw, Getting Married (New York: Brantano's, 1917), P.
94.
^Ibid., P. 101.

53

^what is important, according to Shaw, is to have some restrainmg
measure which will keep the worshippers of art, of love, of money
and of comfort from sterilizing the world.

Thus the novelist, through critical humor, exposed not only Eng-
land, but the entire civilized world. Try as one may, he cannot
dismiss Shaw as simply a Mephistophelian critic. He used his pen
as a sword in a struggle that was more ethical than aesthetic.

The author was unusually aware of the common frailties, the
vulgar ambitions and the rapacious egotism of man. One may not
agree with his opinions or the tenacity with which he held them,
but one must agree to the fact that, often, an effective critic is un-
compromising. As a critical writer, he may very well be placed in
the company of the immortals.

54

Academic Achievement and the Selection
of Friends

by
Charles I. Brown*

The central aim of this investigation was to determine if academic
achievement bears any relation to the choice of friends among a
select number of high ability students enrolled at Bennett College.
This longitudinal study, initiated in 1959 and concluded in 1963,
sought to examine certain aspects of the Bennett College year(s)
of ten students who were admitted to the Social Science Individual
Tutorial Program (SSITP) during their freshman year. In order to
admit a more proper evaluation of the above stated principal intent,
the Bennett College year(s) of the social friends and roommates of
the ten Tutorial Students (TS) were similarly examined. The
declared social friends and roommates of the ten TS during the
years embraced by this study numbered 40 thereby making a total
of 50 S's included in this investigation.

BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTION OF SSIPT

The general purpose of the individual tutorial was to allow students
of certain specified abilities the opportunity to do advanced work
and to provide the social science staff a means of working more
effectively and diligently toward producing individuals more alive
to social concerns, more skilled in analysis, more comprehensive in
judgment and more cognizant of their responsibility to the social
order. Specifically, the ten students selected for the pilot SSITP by
the Social Science Committee met with the following requirements:

1. Rank in the upper 10% of the class according to the results
of the freshman test battery. (The following listing of the
tests that comprised the complete battery maintains the order
in which the tests were administered: Iowa Silent Reading;
Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking; SCAT; STEP: Kuder
Preference; and the California Test of Personality.)

2. Rank in the upper 10% of the class in social studies aptitudes
and communication skills as derived from the results of the
Iowa Silent Reading Test, Revised Form AM-BM. (This
study makes use of the ISRT scores as the principal compara-
tive factor in its attempt to assay the relationship, if any,
between academic achievement and the selection of social
friends among the S's studied.)

3. A high school transcript denoting an overall academic average
of "B" or grades in the Social Science areas that would seem
to indicate success in the tutorial program.

4. A high degree of self-motivation and interest. (The most
notable attempt at objectifying this impressionistic factor was

55

the careful study and weighing of the several items mentioned
above by the selectmen of the Social Science Core in lieu of
face-value acceptance of possible halo-effect statements made
by the candidates during their separate personal interviews.)

Some other important provisions and reservations included in the
design of the SSITP that met with the satisfaction of both the pre-
ceptors were (1) voluntary participation in the program; (2) volun-
tary withdrawal from the program, without prejudice, if the student
felt that her needs were not being met, or if the tutorial method
proved too arduous an undertaking; (3) release of the student from
the individual-teaching program by the tutor, if the TS's work did
not satisfy the standards of the SSITP; (4) optional class attendance.
On the other hand it was mandatory that the student fulfill the
following requirements: (1) take mid-semester and semester ex-
aminations under the same circumstances as the other students;
(2) attend special forums, lectures, seminars, and other programs
designated by the Core; (3) to keep up with regular classroom
work and to complete several major projects with the guidance and
assistance of her instructor.

METHOD AJVD PROCEDURE

Hypothesis: A more lucid and succint reiteration of the hy-
pothesis which bears the brunt of the testing of this study is that
students exhibiting characteristics of excellence in academic achieve-
ment, specifically in the communicative skills, choose friends of the
same general quality and/ or characteristics.

Subjects: The total number of S's included in this investigation
is 50. Ten of the S's are Social Science Individual Tutorial Program
students who in turn identified or designated 40 other S's as being
their closest social friends (N = 28) and/or roommates (N = 12).

Materials: The materials utilized in the gathering of data for this
study were an interview sheet and the cumulative folders of the S's.
The interviews restricted to the 10 SSITP'ers were of a highly struc-
tured and personal nature, i.e., during the interviewing sessions
previously prepared questions were asked and the elicited responses
were recorded by the investigators. The TS were queried with regard
to membership in honor societies, their study habits, particularly
as to whether they studied alone or with others, and the names of
friends (excluding males) by whom they were most often accom-
panied or with whom they engaged in social activities. The last
question of the series required the interviewee to identify her room-
mate(s).

The second major source combed for data was the complete
cumulative folders, active or inactive, of all 50 S's, not only for
corroborative evidences, but more importantly to secure the Iowa
Silent Reading Tests scores, psychographs, grade point averages,
and other relevant information which they contained.

The data compiled through the use of these materials were then

56

submitted to artful treatment and analysis in the light of the hypothe-
sis. The resultant findings are summarized in the succeeding section.

FEVDINGS

The student participants of the SSITP were initially interviewed
in 1959 and again in 1963. An encapsulated version of these widely
spaced visitations is shown best in Table 1 along with comparative
entries (items 2, 3, 5) for the social friends and roommates of the
Tutorial Students.

Table 1, item 2 offers an interesting contrast as well as a finding
that runs counter to most studies in that the graduating TS is two
months older than her counterpart, having lost an initial advantage
of one month's youthfulness. This rather unusual circumstance is
doubtless due to the proportionate inequality in the number of col-
lege dropouts in both groups a 10 and 45 per cent loss respectively.

As freshmen 4 TS indicated their permanent residence as being
geographically north of the Mason-Dixon line while 6 claimed
southern origin. By their senior year one TS was lost to the group
via the dropout route, another had moved her permanent address
to the north, making the north-south distribution 5 and 4. Of the
40 S's in the original group of friends and roommates only 22 were
graduated with their class, 5 of this number were northerners, 15
were southerners, and 2 were students from abroad.

Six of the ten freshman TS had been or were members of high
school honor societies. The inclusion of one other student who had
not been an honor society student in high school increased to seven
the number of college honor society inductees. The foregoing offers
a vivid contrast to the 18 of 40 social friends and roommates who
had been similarly honored while in high school, but of this number
only 3 maintained academic averages sufficient to qualify for a
college honor society. This more or less select group of three was
joined by a fourth student who had not been a high school honoree.

Items 9, 10, and 11 are self explanatory to the extent that only
one further word of elaboration should prove suffiicent for each.
As freshman all of the TS laid claim to studying alone by reasons of
preference and habitual practice. As seniors, two defected from the
nine remaining TS in favor of co-operative study, with seven still
preferring to go-it-alone. Again, as seniors the number of social
friends and roommates of the TS had dwindled to a lasting 15 and
9 from respective highs of 29 and 12 recorded their freshman year.

57

Table 1. Interview Results for TS and Some Comparative Data

Tutorial Students Friends and Roommates

Age

Fresh.

(N-10)

Senior
(N-9)

Fresh.

(N-40)

Senior

(N-22)

2.

17.7

20.9

17.8

20.7

3.

Permanent Address
North
South
Foreign

4
6

5
4

10

28

2

5
15

2

5.

Honor Society Member
High School
CoUege

6

5
7

18

3
4

9.

Study Habits
Alone
With others

10

7

2

10.

Social Friends

28

15

11.

Roommates

12

9

The second tabular offering is more comparative in content and
attempts to highlight some of the more significant aspects of the
communicative abihties of the S's as measured by the Iowa Silent
Reading Test Revised Forms AM-BM, CM-DM.

Tutorial Students:

1. The initial ISRT scores (Form AM-BM) of the 10 TS who ac-
cepted the challenging study provisions of the SSITP ranged from
187 to 171. These scores may be otherwise interpreted as ranging
from the 64%ile to the 38%ile, or a reading level grade equiva-
lent of 13-)- to 12.1, The respective average median scores for
the several TS are 181, the 50%ile, and a reading level equivalent
of grade 13.

3. At the expiration of a semester or a year's study in the Bennett
College Reading Development Center the terminal ISRT scores
(Form CM-DM) ranged from 201 to 188. The grade percentile
range for these scores varied from the upper 1 per cent to the
67%ile, while the reading level grade equivalent was 134- ^^
all instances. The concluding median scores for this group in
order are 196, the 88%ile, and a reading level grade equivalent
of 13+.

3. The mean academic average of the TS at the conclusion of the
freshman year on a three point scale was 2.43. The variance
in academic averages ranged from a high of 2.86 to a low of
2.14 for a differential of .72. The mean academic average of
these same students, with but one exception a dropout, at the
termination of their undergraduate years was 2.22. The senior
year dispersion of academic averages ranged from 3.00 to 1.71
for a grade point differential of 1.29.

58

Social Friends and Roommates:

1. An examination of Table 2 discloses that at the beginning of

their freshman year the social friends and roommates of the
10 TS had an average median score of 166 on the ISRT (Form
AM-BM) and a range from high to low of 192 to 142; a 20%ile
mean with a range that extended downward from the 79%ile
to the l%ile; and a mean reading level grade equivalent of
10.9 that encompassed reading grade equivalences from 13-|-
to 6.5.

2. Upon the expiration of their Reading Center study the median

scored by the obverse group on the ISRT (Form CM-DM)
was 184 with a range of 41 points separating the high score of
202 from the lowest score of 161. The 58%ile mean is drawn
from an attenuated scale of percentile rankings ranging from
the upper 1 per cent down to the 6%ile; although the mean
reading grade equivalent for this group is 13-)- it is marred by
a range that includes grade equivalences from 13-f- to 8.2.

3. The mean academic average of the comparative group at the

completion of the 1958 freshman year is 1.54. This mean grade
point average is derived from a set of academic averages whose
extremes range from 2.38 to .43, the grade point differential
being 1.95. By the time of their graduation the mean academic
average of the social friends and roommates had experienced a
dramatic rise to 2.10 18 members having been lost to the
original group via the dropout route. The range of academic
averages for this latter group being 2.95 to 1.42 for a grade
point differential of 1.53.

59

Brown, C. I.

Table 2. Iowa Silent Reading Tests Scores and Academic Averages
of Tutorial Students, Social Friends, Roommates

STUDENTS

IOWA SILENT READING TESTS SCORES

Mdn. Scor Gde. P'tile Ode. Equiva.

AM-BM CM-DM AM-BM CM-DM AM-BM CM-DM

ACAD. AV.

Fresh. Senior

TS-A

184

201

57

U.1%

13+

13+

2.47

2.43

sfl

166

199

20

93

10.9

13 +

1.61

1.85

sf2

160

172

12

30

9.6

12.4

1.66

1.42

sf3

154

190

7

75

8.5

13

1.86

1.45

Rml

157

161

9

13

9.0

9.8

.57

DR

RM2*

160

172

12

30

9.6

12.7

1.66

1.42

TS-B

171

197

28

88

12.1

13+

2.30

DK

sfl

150

173

4

34

7.9

12.6

.43

NG

sf2*

166

199

20

93

10.9

13 +

1.61

1.85

sf3

171

183

28

54

12.1

13 +

1.12

DR

Rml*

160

172

12

30

9.6

12.4

1.66

1.42

TS-C

187

201

64

U.1%

13+

13+

2.31

2.65

sfl

174

190

34

75

12.7

13 +

1.61

1.80

sf2

185

199

59

93

13+

13 +

2.38

2.21

sf3*

154

190

7

75

8.5

13 +

1.86

1.45

Rml

140

175

1

37

6.5

12.8

.80

DR

Rm2

177

191

42

76

12.8

13 +

2.31

2.09

TS-D

174

196

34

88

12.7

13+

2.14

2.11

sfl*

150

173

4

34

7.9

12.6

.43

NG

sf2

164

191

17

76

10.4

13 +

2.13

2.24

sf3

173

202

32

U.1%

12.7

13 +

2.02

2.00

sf4

188

196

67

88

13+

13 +

2.31

DR

Rml

163

177

16

42

10.2

12.9

1.35

DR

Rm2

191

NR

79

NR

13 +

NR

2.29

2.95

TS-E

181

188

50

67

13

13+

2.18

1.89

sfl

162

181

14

50

10.0

13 +

1.05

DR

sf2

170

193

26

82

11.8

13 +

1.92

2.17

sf3

153

173

6

32

8.3

12.5

.63

DR

sf4

165

189

19

70

10.6

13 +

2.06

2.15

sf5

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

2.12

Rml*

170

193

26

82

11.8

13 +

1.92

2.17

Rm2

192

NR

79

NR

13%

NR

2.38

2.95

TS-F

181

196

50

88

13

13 +

2.32

1.79

sfl

165

173

19

32

10.6

12.7

.61

DR

sf2

153

183

6

54

8.3

13 +

1.60

2.30

sf3*

153

173

6

32

8.3

12.5

.63

DR

Rml*

153

173

6

32

8.3

12.5

.63

DR

RM2

150

NR

4

NR

7.9

NR

1.11

NG

TS-G

181

196

64

82

13+

13+

2.84

1.71

sfl

163

174

16

34

10.2

12.7

.67

DR

sf2

178

191

45

76

12.9

13 +

1.91

DR

sf3

164

177

17

42

10.4

12.9

1.08

DR

Rml

142

152

1

6

6.8

8.2

.44

DR

TS-H

185

199

59

93

13+

13+

2.38

2.21

sfl

178

NR

45

NR

NR

NR

2.30

2.42

sf2

163

181

16

50

10.2

13 +

1.92

DR

sf3

166

181

20

50

10.9

13 +

1.97

DR

Rml*

163

181

16

50

10.2

13+

1.92

DR

Rm2

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

2.12

TS-I

187

196

64

88

13+

13+

2.52

2.79

sfl

163

196

16

88

10.2

13 +

1.76

1.85

sf2

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1.93

DR

sf3

181

193

50

82

13+

13 +

1.11

DR

sf4*

185

199

59

93

13 +

13 +

2.38

2.21

Rml*

181

193

50

82

13 +

13 +

1.11

DR

Rm2*

164

194

17

84

10.4

13 +

1.04

NG

Rm3

158

173

10

34

9.2

12.6

1.75

2.14

TS-J

173

197

32

89

12.7

13 +

2.86

3.0U

sfl

170

184

26

58

11.8

13 +

1.66

2.08

sf2

169

196

24

88

11.6

13 +

1.36

1.83

sfS

174

189

34

70

12.7

13 +

1.40

1.76

sf4

164

NR

17

NR

10.4

NR

2.29

2.50

sf5*

166

181

20

50

10.9

13 +

1.97

DR

Rml*

170

184

26

58

11.8

13 +

1.66

2.08

Rm2*

165

189

19

70

10.6

13 +

2.06

2.15

Rm3*

166

181

20

50

10.9

13

1.97

DR

TS

sf & Rm

181

166

196

184

50

20

88

58

13

10.9

13+

13 +

TS Tutorial Student
sf Social Friend
Rm Roommate
Dr. Dropout

2.43

1.54

NR No record

NG Non-Graduating Student

* Duplicate entry

2.22
2.10

60

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

When the data presented in the above tables and comments are
joined in the hght of the hypothesis governing this study, there seems
to be ample evidence to indicate that the 1958-1963 group of Tutorial
Students selected their social friends, wittingly or unwittingly, on
the basis of consideration far more primary and mundane than
excellence in academic achievement.

The hypothesis, it may be recalled, sought to examine the premise
that students exhibiting characteristics of excellence in academic
achievement choose as intimate friends those persons possessing the
same general qualities. In advancing the thought that the proposed
hypothesis was not valid for these several S's, support for this con-
clusion may be found in the disparate mean scores for Iowa Silent
Reading Tests not only between the two major groups, but princi-
pally the even more widely disparate mean scores and academic
averages between individuals. (See Table 2 for further illustrations
akin to the measured communicative abilities and academic averages
of TS-A and her sf2.)

As further grist for the conclusion accepted by the investigators
of this problem, the idea was proffered above that purely mundane
reasons only a few of which will be mentioned played a much
larger role than was first suspected in the selection of social friends
by the TS. It was disclosed that through the operation of juxta-
position or "rubbing elbows" in all of its manifestations, barring a
real or imagined intolerable physical presence, intimate friendships
are formed. Other earthy planes upon which accordant friendships
may be created are mutual social interest and/or disinterests, re-
flected glory, heroine worship, and a searching for power on the
one hand and subservience on the other.

The investigators are of a mind that college life would lose much
of its savor for the adolescent of recondite learning abilities but of
few distinguishing social graces if, for instance, these persons did
not align themselves with or reflect in the glory of a "Chatty Hattie."
The obverse of the cited illustration is equally true.

Also germane to this point is the fallacy, unfortunately perpetuated
to an unwelcomed extent even in academic circles, that "egg-head
tendencies" are inevitably accompanied by some odd or queer be-
havior whereas the truth of the matter as suggested by the in-
formants interviewed is that students of intellectual acuity are subject
to the same pressures of intra and inter-personal relationships as the
individual or student of less intellectual acumen. Or put another
way, even though the TS measured up to every expectation in
completing the cycle of the pilot SSITP from raw eager intelligence
to finished products more skilled and knowledgeable in the diagnosis
and repair of the world's concerns, it is indeed heartening to report
that the 10 Bennett College TS early showed their mettle in coping
with their own social needs by remaining on the human-side through-
out the entire experiment.

A third general conclusion or implication emanating from the

61

data of this study and its 50 S's is that the TS, social friends, and
roommates grew toward one another the accounting factor prob-
ably being the pull of central tendency expressing itself in the large
number of dropouts and non-graduating students (N-28) leaving
the better equipped (?) among the friend and roommate group to
lessen the academic chasm that loomed exceedingly large during the
freshman year to a respectable 2.10 versus 2.22 academic average
for the TS group by the senior year. This phenomenon may be con-
tributed in part to the upward pull of central tendency. The down-
ward pull of central tendency may be significantly seen in the fact
that at the completion of their freshman year no TS has an academic
average of less than 2.14, whereas during the senior year 3 of 9
SSITP'ers compiled an academic average of less than 2.00.

On this same point pertaining to the groups trending toward
each other it is also interesting to report that a sort of in-group
development took place over the four year period to the extent that
when a student for whatever reason dropped out of college the missing
member was seldom, if ever, replaced by a surrogate.

SUMMARY

Ten students who assisted in the successful launching of the Social
Science Individual Tutorial Program at Bennett College in 1959
formed the nucleus of 50 S's comparatively studied in an attempt
to discern the validity of the hypothesis that students of excellent
academic prowess and potential select as their most companionable
social friends other students who demonstrate qualities that are much
the same.

The principal methodologies and sources of data from which the
content of this narrative report are drawn were: (1) interviewing
sessions; (2) an analysis of the S's Iowa Silent Reading Tests scores
made during their freshman year at Bennett; and (3) an analysis
of the S's freshman and senior year academic averages.

Apart from some minor considerations or qualifications in the
main the hypothesis as originally proposed could not be counted as
significantly proven and was therefore rejected for the following
reasons: (1) the occurrence of overlapping ISRT scores and aca-
demic average among the two groups, i.e., the social friends of the
TS were chosen from the several levels of measured communicative
abilities the sine qua non of successful endeavor in the Social
Sciences of academia; (2) when belated recognition was given to
the primacy of prosaic reasons that go into the making of extremely
partisan friendships. It was discovered that in choosing friends juxta-
position, mutual interests and the conscious or unconscious striving
to satisfy social and personal needs considerably outweighed academic
ability. Conversely, similar circumstances are likewise operative
when the TS is being selected as a social friend by another student
of either co-equal or less intellectual competence for the abstract;
(3) that it was principally at the completion of their year that the
members of the survival-group showed a remarkable resemblance

62

toward each other. Plausibihties lending at least in part to this nota-
tion are: (a) the attrition of academic chaff, the penurious, and
the discontented; (b) the seeming reluctance of the TS to include
a wholly new or different individual into an ever tightening circle
of social friends. On the rare occasions when social friends were
replaced, the mantle of social friend was bestowed upon an already
acquainted with roommate.

REFERENCES

Gladstein, Gerald A. "Study Behavior of Gifted Stereotype and Non-Stereo-
type College Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal, February, 1960,
pp. 470-477.

Hoyt, Donald P. "Size of High School and College Grades," Personnel and
and Guidance Journal, April, 1959, pp. 569-573.

Merry, F. K. and Merry, R. V. The First Two Decades of Life. Harpers,
1958, pp. 431-432.

Newton, Eunice Shaed. "Verbal Destitution: The Pivotal Barrier to Learn-
ing," Journal of Negro Education, Fall, 1960, pp. 497-499.

Social Science Core. "The Individual Tutorial," (Unpublished mimeographed
material) Bennett College, September, 1959.

Stuit, Dewey B. "Differential Characteristics of Superior and Inferior Stu-
dents," School and Society, December, 1937, pp. 733-735.

Vincent, E. L. and Martin, P. C. Human Psychological Development. Ronald,
1961, pp. 11, 377.

Zachary, C. B. and Lighty, M. Emotion and Conduct in Adolescence. Apple-
ton. 1940, pp. 349-356, 369.

*Authorship of this article is shared with Roslyn L. Smith and Gloria P.
Barnes, former students, and Lorraine Adams Gail, Guidance Counselor,
Greeensboro, N. C, Public School System.

63

Freeze-Dried Foods and Tomorrow's
Consumer*

by
Kermit Bird

We live in an age when "What's new?" is no longer an informal
greeting, but actually is important as a question. New foods of last
year are old hat today. New food processes of today may be passe
tomorrow. Let us examine one of these new food processing methods,
freeze-drying, and see if we may foretell its future.

Freeze-dried foods have been on the American market for four
or five years. Few of them, however, have been on grocery store
shelves as individual items. Some of these have been available in
soups. Others are in stews. A number of them are available in
sporting goods stores for campers, hunters, fishermen and for other
special users. The writer believes that a few of them will be avail-
able at a later date in the current year as freeze-dried grocery items,
packaged separately. A number of market tests are being conducted
across the United States with this hope in mind. At this point there
comes a need for considering what freeze-drying is and how it is
different from other food processing methods. It is also fitting to
discuss some of the advantages and limitations of the process.

Freeze-drying is a food processing method in which water is re-
moved from frozen foods. The water removing process is called
sublimation, and it is an interesting and different method of dehydra-
tion. Food to be freeze-dried is prepared in the usual manner. If
it is a vegetable it is taken out of the husk or the pod. If it is a meat
it is generally deboned or defatted. Then quite often these items are
cooked or blanched to cut down on the growth of some of unwanted
micro-organisms and enzymatic action. The food is quick-frozen in
the usual manner. It is then put into a vacuum chamber and dried.
During the drying process it is kept frozen at all times. This latter
point is important, for if the food melts, the process of subhmation
will not be taking place. During the drying, heat is applied, and the
heat, in combination with the vacuum, draws the water vapor out
of the ice so that the water does not go through the liquid stage. This
type of drying permits the food to be left in its original shape, size
and form.

Freeze-dried foods retain more of the color, nutrients, and flavors
of the original food than is possible through using any other drying
system. The disadvantage, at present, is that freeze-drying is costly.
Most freeze-driers of today find that their costs range from about
8 cents up to 30 cents per pound. This amount is high when we
compare it with roller-drying or spray-drying which costs less than
1 cent per pound.

In order to understand freeze-dried foods and tomorrow's con-
sumer, one needs a picture of what tomorrow's consumer may be like.

* Prepared for presentation to a group of home economists at Savannah State
College, Savannah, Georgia, July 6, 1964.

64

The writer's ideas about the housewife of the future are generated
by observing several teen-age daughters in the kitchen. Reared in an
age when mixes (cake, ice cream, pudding, bread, and muffin mixes)
are an accepted thing, these youngsters may give one an image of
tomorrow's housewife. My mother would have felt it beneath her
dignity to use a mix. She herself did the mixing, and I reflect with
fond remembrance delicious homemade items including corn meal
bread, bran muffins, corn starch puddings, and countless other home-
made dishes. My wife uses old fashioned cookbook methods, too,
but since she is a working housewife, she has come to use mixes
when she needs to cook in a hurry, or when a particular mix has
been recommended. The daughters, I observe, use prepared items
naturally. With them it is not a question whether to choose a recipe
or a mix. Rather it is the problem of which brand mix to use. The
conclusion I arrive at is that these teen-agers are different in their
cooking habits from previous generations. They are not disdaining
convenience as mother would, nor are they deliberately choosing
convenience as the present generation does. They accept convenience
as a way of preparing meals. This is what is sometimes called "built-
in-maid service."^

There is another emerging type of convenience that needs to be
mentioned in connection with prepared dishes. In this country there
is now and there has been an acute shortage of chefs, or well-trained
experienced cooks. The food processing industry has recognized
the need for high quahty cooking know-how, both in institutions and
in the home. Newly designed prepared foods are now being "created"
by highly trained chefs. These products are coming on the institu-
tional and retail grocery market in increasing numbers.

Tomorrow's freeze-drying industry. In terms of input product of
frozen food, the freeze-drying industry in 1962 was about 6Vi million
pounds. In 1963 there were a little over 11 million pounds of frozen
foods, freeze-dried, and it is predicted that there will be about 19
million pounds of foods freeze-dried by 1964. This is about 13 mil-
lion pounds of water evacuated and 6 million pounds of dried food
as in end-product. We are anticipating that by 1970 about 250
million pounds of frozen food will be dried using the freeze-drying
method. This sounds Uke a lot of food to be freeze-dried, but com-
pared with some of our other drying methods, it is small. Even
comparing it with some of our other drying methods, this is a small
proportion.-

^Harp, Harry and Dunham, Denis, Comparative Costs to Consumers of Con-
venience Foods and Home-Prepared Foods, MRR 609, June 1963, 91 pages.
ERS USDA, Washington, D.C.

-For example, in 1963 we dried about 44 million pounds of eggs, 54 million
pounds of beef, 122 million pounds of Irish potatoes, 284 million pounds of
whey, 79 pounds of whole milk, 2 billion pounds of skim milk, and 87 million
pounds of buttermilk. Note that skim milk and potatoes make up the large
volume of artificially dried items at present.

In addition there is a very large drying industry for fruit. In 1963, we dried
22 thousand tons of dates, 88 thousand tons of prunes, 18 thousand tons of
figs, 252 thousand tons of raisins, about 12 thousand tons of apples, 9 thou-
sand tons of apricots, 6 thousand tons of peaches, 1 thousand tons of pears,
and over 300 thousands tons of citrus pulp.

65

The freezing industry is much larger than the dehydration industry,
and in recent years about 7 billion pounds of frozen foods have been
frozen. The canning industry generally runs about 3 times larger
than the freezing industry, and in the last few years from 21 to 22
billion pounds of foods have been canned.

The main uses for freeze-dried foods of the future will be in re-
processing. This means that they will be used in mixes such as blue-
berries in the blueberry mix or they will be one or more ingredients
in a mix such as a stew, curry, or soup. They may even be used
in some of the Chinese dishes or the foreign or more exotic items.
Restaurants, vending machines, hospitals, and other away-from home
eating establishments may use them in the institutional or the food
service industry and the armed forces may use freeze-dried items in
their regular mess menus, in emergency and combat and for special
purposes like the space program. Almost all foods planned for space
flights are freeze-dried. Other uses for freeze-dried foods are found
in the civilian market for specialty items such as camping and for
grocery items sold at retail. Probably the last use holds our greatest
interest today.

A look at some of the items that are now or have been recently
market tested can reveal how freeze-dried foods will be used in the
future. About a year ago one of the major meat companies in the
United States market tested some freeze-dried mushrooms. This
product was available in certain East Coast cities. One could buy
them just as he would buy canned mushrooms. They could be taken
home and stored on the pantry shelf. Freeze-dried strawberries
packed with cornflakes have been market tested by one of the major
cereal companies and the writer has eaten these strawberries. He
judges them to be quite satisfactory. He also predicts that there
will be a future market of this type, not only for strawberries, but
also for peaches, raspberries, blueberries, banana slices, and other
fruits and berries. On the West Coast, freeze-dried chives are now
being sold. There may be a future for freeze-dried seasonings, flavor-
ings, and spices. To offset higher cost of processing, these items
have the advantage of retaining more of the flavor elements, and in
this type of product, retention of flavor is essential. Another item
being market tested at present is freeze-dried coffee. It has been
marketed in Italy for a year or more, and indications are that this
item is going to be a freeze-dried product in which volume will be
fairly high. A similar type product is freeze-dried tea. This product
has also been sold in several locations in Europe, and it may be
market tested in this country sometimes in the future. In the Midwest
there have been market tests of freeze-dried cottage cheese, and this
product appears to be of a very high quality, despite our not having
conducted objective tests of it. Market tests of cream cheese, cheese
dips, and sour cream have also been made and ice cream is being
developed. Some of these products have a good future. Vegetables
that have been tried include peas, green beans, asparagus, and some
members of the cabbage family such as broccoli, cauliflower, and
brussels sprouts. In general, processing costs have been too high
for most vegetables.

66

The housewife and jreeze-dried foods. "What advantages do
freeze-dried foods offer to tomorrow's housewife?" "Why would
she be interested in using them?" In the first place freeze-dried foods
offer a convenience in the sense that they can be stored for long
periods of time with Uttle deterioration. Most freeze-dried foods
are rehydrated quickly when one compares them with other dried
items. In this sense they are more convenient. They are probably
not so convenient as today's canned foods, nor are they as convenient
as most frozen foods. Frozen foods do have an inconvenience of
having to be stored in a freezing chest or in the frozen food cabinet
of a regular refrigerator. The quality aspect is another reason why
many of these freeze-dried foods will be preferred. Up to the present,
frozen foods give us the highest quality of any of our processed
foods. They come closer to fresh foods than any other form of
processing. Canned foods have a high quality, too. But quite often
the canning itself changes food so that it has a different texture or
a cooked taste. Freeze-dried foods have special uses and most
housewives like to have some items in the cupboard which would
allow them to prepare some of the more exotic type dishes. Freeze-
dried foods may be used for this purpose. They may have the built-
in-chef-service typical of the foods of tomorrow. Of course, frozen
and canned foods can also be prepared food items, and many of
them are.

The author predicts that tomorrow's housewife will use freeze-dried
foods in increasing numbers. Although there are indications that
chicken, beef, ham, pork, perhaps even veal and lamb will be im-
portant freeze-dried items in the near future, at this time the writer
is unable to make an exact statement as to which of these foods
will be available in the immediate future. Fruit items will include
many of the berries along with deciduous fruits such as peaches
and apricots. Tropical fruits like bananas, avocados, and papayas
will also be included. Vegetables will include asparagus, broccoli
and cauliflower, and the writer looks forward to some of the cheeses
and other dairy products. Without question he thinks that freeze-
dried coffee and tea will be large volume items and probably many
unknown and unthought of foods will be important to tomorrow's
housewife.

The freeze-dried foods of the future and tomorrow's housewife
are growing up. These new consumers will provide a market, and
the new foods will fill a convenience niche need.

67

On Geometry of Shock Waves in Lagrangian
Coordinate System

by
Nazir A. Warsi

SUMMARY: In this paper, we have found the jump-conditions
of flow parameters for the perfect gas flows in Lagrangian Coordinate
System.

1. INTRODUCTION

Let us consider a shock surface a> moving relative to a gas and
enveloping a particle at a time "t whose coordinates are given by

(11) A* = k^ Ct)

where motion is referred to the rectangular cartesian coordinate
system.

A Latin index takes values 1, 2 and 3; whereas a Greek index
takes 1 and 2. Throughout the discussion, a repeated index denotes
summation unless mentioned otherwise.

Now, let X^'X'* (H*t/ be the position of a fluid particle at a
time "t and let the position of the shock surface at the same time
be given by X* , then we have

(1.2) x'iax'^C-A^t)

The shock and the fluid velocities are given by
at

(L3) a>^ = AX

- ^X

and

(1.4) U^ = -^

respectively. Now, differentiating (1.2) partially with respect to "t ,
we get

(15) u^ = il^ l^i + U^

In what follows, T stands for the specific volume, f> for the
pressure, I for the specific enthalpy and X^ for the unit normal
vector to the shock surface. Also, ^^/ and jk/ denote quantities in
front of and behind the shock surface.

2. JUMP-RELATIONS

In this connection, we have the following theorems:

68

THEOREM (2.1 ) : For the conservation of the mass at the shock
surface, we have

(^n -fi>,, [-?] + CUn/] = O

and Cf ] = fj^/ - f 1/

PROOF: On substitution for ^^j from (1.2) b.[l], (1.5)
gives

(22)a KA^ XX ^ Y Sj + U'^
or

(2.2)b U"^ = -A"^ T + U^

Multiplying (2.2) by X and summing with respect to A , we get

(2 3) U^/ = ^n/ T + Lin/

where

(2.4) Fy = FXX^

Writing (2.2 )b for the regions in front of and behind the shock
surface, we get

(2.5)a Uvx/ = -^^z '^^Z + Uaa/
or

(2.5)b V^Kx/ = U<5tKX/-U"w/
where

(2.6) VdiK/ - U<^vx/- U.y
From (2.5), it is obvious that

which is equivalent to (2.1).

Theorem (2.2): -"KK/ is the mass crossing the unit area of
the shock surface normally from the front side to the back side.

PROOF: It is obvious from (2.5).

69

THEOREM (2.3): The law of conservation of momentum at
the shock surface is given by

(2.8)a Ct>] X^ = --ftK/ [U^J

or

(2.8)b [|f>] = - in/ [Urv/]

or

(2.8)c [p] ^ --Kn/ C'^J

PROOF: Let us consider an elementary area clA of the shock
surface. The mass crossing o A per unit time from the front side to
the back side is "Hvy dA. If 1PX/ be the fluid pressure in the
region, then the force due to the pressure is ^ci/ dA Since the
rate of change of momentum in time $\, per unit area is equal to
the impulse in that direction, therefore, we have

(2.9) EP]x"aA^t--i^/ aACu*]crt = o

which is equivalent to (2.8) a. Multiplying (2.8)a by X* and sum-
ming with respect to a , we get (2.8)b which gives (2.8)c in virtue
of (2.1).

THEOREM (2.4): The components of velocity along the shock
surface are continuous.

PROOF: Multiplying (2.8) a by X"*". ot ^nd summing with
respect to a , we get

(2.10)a Cu^] 5C*^ = O
or

(2.10)b CUol] = O
which proves the theorem.

THEOREM (2.5): The law of conservation of mass at the shock
surface is also given by

(2.11) [UO +-fiyi/ L-^] X^ = o

'^Space coordinates^X^of the surface are taken as the functions of
two parameters^ ^^. Comma following the Greek indices den9tes
partial differentiation with respect to the surface parameters. "3C *, A
will, therefore, be tangential to the shock surface.

70

PROOF: The velocity in the region J^y is given by
(2.12) U^/-= U^Kv/X^+ U^/^X-^,^
which, gives

(2.13) Lu^]= Cukv/Hx" -^ [u^]^^-^

In virtue of (2.10) and (2.1), (2.13) gives (2.11).

THEOREM (2.6): The law of conservation of energy at the
shock surface is given by

(2.13)a Ci Vk/ +I] = O
or

I. being the specific enthalpy.

PROOF: Mathematical statement of the law is

(2.14)a --Ikx/ aA CiV^ + I] - o
or

(2.14)b [iv^+I] =
From (2.1), (2.11) and (2.14)b, we get (2. 13) a. Substituting the
values of [V^^ 3 ^^^^ (2.5)b, we get (2.13)b.

References

[1] Warsi, N. A.: On Geometry of Gas-Flows In Lagrangian Coordinate
System. (Underpublication) : Savannah State Research Bulletin.

[2] Friedrichs-Courant (1948): Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves. Inter-
science Publishers. N.Y.

[3] Mishra, R. S. (1960): On Flows Behind A Three Dimensional Unsteady
Curved Shock Wave. Indian Journal of Math. Vol. 2, No. I.

[4] Mishra, R. S. (1960): Deflection of an Impinging Stream Through a
Shock Wave in a Perfect Gas, Tensor, Vol. 10. No. 3.

71

Religion on the Campus: A Need
and An Inadequate Response

by
James A. Eaton

During the past school year, these frightening hnes appeared in
an issue of the Savannah State College student publication:

Students appear to have lost all hold of self-control and tem-
perance. Onrushing impulses and passions are driving them
unbalanced and unchecked in moral judgment and conduct.
There is a tendency to engage in certain experiences mainly for
pleasure and satisfaction. Intemperance, fury, drunkenness, and
violence are moral disasters that are happening on our cam-
pus . . . Perhaps what we need as college students is a philosophy
of life which would guide us in our daily living. . . .^

This "cry in the wilderness" by a student, who was obviously
disturbed by what she saw happening to her peers, is closely akin
to another statement by another student a few years ago. Perhaps
his was a more sophisticated cry, but one can see that the plea is
essentially the same:

... As I see it we are a generation with very little to live
for except having children, monetary security, and the tenuous
hope that we won't be suddenly blown to oblivion. This is not
enough for me. I can't go through life quip-swapping at insane
parties where people can only enjoy themselves if they get drunk,
and studiously avoid anything that approaches serious con-
versation. . . .

It is an idea we are missing. It is an ideal we need.-

From where is to come this "philosophy of life which would guide
us in daily living", this "ideal we need"? By now it should be obvious
that neither of these is to be found in test tubes nor mathematical
formulas nor electronic computers. This philosophy, this ideal is a
spiritual need; if it is to be responded to adequately, it must come
from a source that will lead toward spiritual growth and maturity.
One such source, indeed, the greatest source, is reUgion. And while
interest in religion and the study of rehgion might be flourishing
on some college campuses, on many others religion is fast becoming
passe.

Why is there to be found on many campuses this vacuum of
spiritual life, or religious emphasis? Where has rehgion and its em-
phasis on morals and ideals gone? Why has rehgion become so un-
important among so many college students?

^Gwendolyn Buchanan, "Degraded Morals", The Tiger's Roar (April-May,
1964), p. 2.

2John Aigner, "Beat Generation", Observation Post (March 20, 1958), p. 3.

72

Surely the cause is not historical. It is quite possible that many
people fail to realize that in spite of a struggle for survival, there
has never been a time when the campus has been completely devoid
of religious influence, not even in the state-supported colleges and
universities. As Eddy points out, even the state-controlled colleges
and universities founded before 1860 were religious either in struc-
ture or control.^ Thomas Jefferson, the founder of pubUc-sponsored
higher education, had certainly intended for his university to be
free from sectarian control, but it was not his purpose to divorce
religion from education. Shedd reports Jefferson's feelings to be
these:

He (Jefferson) proposed that religion be taught as it is in-
hered in other parts of the curriculum and that "different sects"
be encouraged "to establish each for itself, a professorship of
their own tenents, on the confines of the universtiy, so near that
their students may attend the lectures there and have free use of
our library, and other accommodations we can give them, pre-
serving, however, their independence of us and of each other."^

Jefferson's policy was not universally adopted as the new state
schools came into existence, but it is clearly evident that even when
religion had no formal place in the curriculum, rehgious influence
was often represented by appointments to the controlling boards
of the schools (the University of South Carolina was one such ex-
ample) or rehgious influence was felt by the use of hymns and
prayers at assembly programs.

Many state schools continue to have some form of chapel service.
It is interesting to note that it has been a pattern for state colleges
for Negroes to have coUege sponsored religious services, usually with
required attendance, from the very beginning of their existence.

McKinney makes the following comment in regard to compulsory
religious services:

In general, the state colleges for Negroes have been able to
emphasize much more than the other state institutions, primarily
because of the religious homogeneity of their constituency ....
A second factor which has enabled the Negro state college to
present much more of a religious program than other state
schools is one that is difficult to document but is generally con-
ceded. This is that those who control the distribution of funds
to Negro colleges in many cases are inclined to allow greater
freedom in religious activities in accordance with the view that
rehgion may be "a good and safe thing" for the Negro to have.^

Could the present lack of interest in religion on some state college

^Edward D. Eddy, Jr., College for Our Land and Time (New York: Harper
and Brothers Publishers, 1956), p. 6.

^Clarence P. Shedd, The Church Follows Its Students (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1938), p. 2.

^Richard T. McKinney, Religion in Higher Education Among Negroes (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1945), p. 87.

73

campuses be a reaction against such a belief as this by students
and faculty of some Negro colleges? If this is the case, there is no
need for reacting against "special treatment." As time passed, many
educators at state institutions all over the country began to feel the
effects of a state university training which gave no opportunity to
study religion. They felt that something was missing and that educa-
tion without the rich cultural field of religion was something less
than education should be. In an effort to meet this need, many
state universities began to search for a method of bringing the in-
fluence of religion to their campuses. Their methods varied, but
generally the YMCA, the YWCA and the Student Volunteer Move-
ment found places on these campuses. As the years continued to
come and go, these organizations were supplemented by denomina-
tional student pastorates, denominational foundations, schools of
religion, and, finally, by college and university sponsored programs
of religion.

A study by the University of Minnesota of the practices of land-
grant colleges and state universities affecting religious matters, re-
ported in 1952, revealed quite vividly the responsibilities that these
schools have undertaken for a program of religion. Of the seventy-
five schools which responded to their survey, it was found that space
for business and social meetings of religious groups was provided
by all but two of these schools, which excluded these groups, and
seven, which made no provision for such. Only thirteen did not
provide space for prayer or worship. Forty-three provided office
and worship facilities for outside denominations to hold services on
the campus. Thirty-five schools provided opportunities for religious
counselors, while thirty schools did not. Perhaps most unexpectedly,
twenty-two reported university ownership of chapels or other meeting
places designed or designated especially for religious services; four-
teen of these were supported by state funds. Fifty-eight schools
recognized in some official manner a designated individual or indi-
viduals as having responsibility for this area of campus life. Fifty-
eight schools indicated university-sponsored special convocations
were held, emphasizing religious subjects, especially during religious
emphasis week.^

Historically, then, the university and the college, even state sup-
ported colleges, have been connected closely or loosely with religion
as Americans view religion. Why, then, is the religious vacuum felt
on some campuses? Surely it cannot be that there is no felt need
for the values of rehgion, nor is there a general agreement that reli-
gion as an academic discipline has no place in higher education.

Because students have made such comments as made in the two
introductory remarks to this paper, and because there is evidence
that there is something lacking in an education that totally excludes
religion, many modern educators have become concerned about
finding ways of integrating the values of religion with the total edu-

^Henry E. Allen, "Practices of Land-Grant Colleges and State Universities
Affecting Religious Matters", School and Society, Vol. 76 (December 6,
1952), 261 -262.

74

cational experience of the student. There is much evidence that
more attention should be given to this problem. Experiences seem
to prove the truth of a statement once made by Nathan M. Pusey,
President of Harvard University: ". . . Because a university is
non-sectarian, it need not indeed some of us believe it cannot to
its peril go further and eschew rehgion altogether."'^ The expres-
sion of a need for the values of religion, such as those mentioned
at the beginning of this paper, is sufficient reason for the college
to make definite steps toward an adequate response to that need.

Perhaps there is a greater reason for the college to become more
concerned. Nels Ferre' is among those educators who believe that
the college's objective must be to "train spirit, mind and body . . ."
"Modern education has material mastery," he continues, "and enor-
mous intellectual information; what is most needed is adequate train-
ing of the life of the spirit."^ His characterization of modern man
explains why this is necessary:

Modern man is too hollow; instead of being a person he is a
nodule .... He is afraid to be long alone; he dreads self-
examination, or the serious searching of the meanings and satis-
factions of his own life. Somehow education must mean the
continual enrichment of the inner man; the accumulation of
spiritual resources; the deepening of personal meanings; the
vitalization of individuality.'-*

An even more dogmatic point of view is represented by Boyer,
who believes that it is of prime importance that students acquire
skill in "the use of religious intelligence" and that it is the obhgation
of the college to provide opportunities for the developing of this
skill.

It (the hberal arts college) has for its major task the fitting
of young individuals to live in society. The creative mental
attitudes of the students should have full opportunity to assimu-
late the spiritual possessions of the race. The ultimate test of
the educational process in a democracy is its ability to develop
every realizable power and purpose within the personahty of
the individual. The vital experiences of college youth should
have meaning in terms of their relationship to society. Every
known value that functions to build the "more abundant life"
in the student has its place in the basic material used in the
teaching process. ^^

In view of the historical connections of college with religion, in
view of the present practices of many state-controlled colleges and
universities, must the need for the values and wisdom of religion go
unmet or inadequately met on the college campus? It is the opinion

"Baccalaureate Address, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

June, 1957.
^Nels Ferref Christian Faith and Higher Education, (New York: Harper and

Brothers, 1954), p. 244.
'"Ibid., p. 31.
^ ^Edward S. Boyer, Religion in The American College, (New York: The

Abingdon Press, 1930), p. 14.

75

of this writer that the answer should be a resounding "No!" The
faculty and administration of each college should feel an obligation
to adopt a vital, genuine program of making available to the student
body as well as the faculty and administration the values of re-
ligion (or religious intelligence, if one prefers that phrase.)

What would that program include? First, it would include courses
for credit in the history, philosophy and psychology of religion.
This is no novelty. Shedd states that "in more than two-thirds of
our state universities and land-grant colleges, through departments
or affiliated schools of religion, instruction in religion for academic
credit is available to students."^ ^ There is no good reason why all
or at least one of these courses cannot be available for credit in
each college.

A second feature of a recommended program to help meet the
need for religion on the campus is a year-round program geared
toward making the student think. Commenting upon a Rehgion in
Life Week once held at Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, a student
made this remark: "Religion in Life Week is causing me to think
and I don't want to think." And yet, if this needed philosophy
of life, this missing ideal is to be realized, those having the need
must think. If the spiritual lives of the campus population are to
be nourished to maturity, opportunities must be created which will
lead them to do serious thinking. For as Meland states, "the nature
of the thinking which pervades the college or university is, in the
last analysis, the most formative factor in determining expression."^-
This "thinking" will be motivated not only by the classes in religion,
but by provocative worship services, group meetings, discussion
groups, religious emphasis weeks, bull sessions, etc.

A third and more difficult to attain goal of the religious pro-
gram on the campus will be an attempt to make the entire atmosphere
or ethos of the campus more conducive to spiritual growth. Ad-
ministrators, faculty and student personnel workers have not given
half as much attention to the effect of the college "atmosphere" on
the personality of the student as should be given. It is amazing how
some of them go about the conducting of their business with the
most inhumane attitudes and behavior both toward their colleagues
and their students, literally charging the very air with hostility and
meanness; and yet, these very same people expect to produce a crop
of spiritual giants, effervescent with love and charity and democratic
ideals. It is not amazing that the students who live and breathe and
have their being in such an atmosphere depart from it just as poverty
stricken in spiritual values as their mentors are:

To reach the needed quality of spiritual ethos on the campus, there
must be more than singing a hymn in assembly, having an occasional
church service, and having an annual religious emphasis week. It

^ ^Clarence P. Shedd, "Religion in Higher Education Retrospect and Prospect;"
The CJiristian Scholar (December, 1955), p. 17.

^ ^Bernard E. Meland, "Higher Education and the Human Spirit, (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 21.

76

must even go beyond the level of establishing courses in religion. It
must reach what Meland refers to as a more basic level of interest
in spiritual growth:

A more basic level of interest in the spiritual emphasis of
higher education is indicated when an administrator acknowl-
edges that the educational process itself should be expressive
of fundamental motives and creative of a concern with values. ^^

To make this type of realization into a reality will not be easy on
most college campuses. On the other hand, if such a goal is greatly
desired, it can be accomphshed.

The final consideration for an adequate religious program on the
campus would be an insistence that the program be basically a
students' program. Arbuckle summarizes the aims of student in-
volvement by stating that the religious program should allow the
student "to enjoy the fellowship of students and faculty who have
found some meaning in rehgion. It should give him an opportunity
to participate in various activities that are religiously oriented. It
should provide him an opportunity to worship and to meditate. It
should help him to find answers to individual religious problems
and to work out a way of Living the good life."^'* If such a meaning-
ful involvement is to be found, then the religious program must be
well-planned to provide this involvement to as many persons as
possible.

The conclusion to this whole matter seems to be the answer the
college would give to this question: "What kind of people do we
want our college to produce?" If the college is unconcerned about
the spiritual needs or the moral growth of its students, then it can
continue to ignore or simply give hp-service to religion in higher
education. But in doing so, the college should be prepared to take
the responsibility for the ill effects brought on by this act of inade-
quate response to a known need. On the other hand, if the college
believes that it has an obligation to help fashion in the student a
mature, integrated personahty, then the college must put forth serious
effort to aid in this process. This is a spiritual need and the process
of meeting it is inward and spiritual. It can be aided by providing
courses in religion, by providing opportunities for religious experi-
ences of significance and depth, by providing an atmosphere on the
campus where the spiritual becomes integrated with the learning
process, and by providing meaningful involvement in the religious
program to make possible the practical application of religious in-
telligence to the everyday problems of living. Such a program as
this wiU present a challenge to anybody who decides to attempt to
implement it. Yet, as we look beyond the spiritual coldness of the
test tube and the electronic computor, we see the beckoning warmth
of greater attention to the spirits of mankind. What greater frontier
of educational practices can there be than to find an adequate re-
sponse to the spiritual needs of the students who attend our colleges?

^^Ihid, p. 22.

^"^Dugald S. Arbuckle, Student Personnel Services in Higher Education. (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953) P. 181.

77

Christian Realism: An Introduction To

Reinhold Niebuhr's Theory of

International Politics

by
Johnny Campbell, Jr.

Reinhold Niebuhr is one of America's leading contemporary
social, religious and political thinkers. He is a prominent Protestant
theologian and he has written widely on social ethics and political
affairs. His reputation as a poHtical philosopher continues to grow.
"Niebuhr's eminence as a prophet and theologian is now being
matched by his growing reputation as a poUtical theorist. Increasing-
ly, he is cited, reprinted and critically analyzed by students of inter-
national relations and political philosophy."^

Political Idealism and Political Realism

Niebuhr discerns two general types of approach to the problems
of international politics. The first is the historical and realistic school;
the second is rationalistic in method and ideahstic in its outlook. In
the realm of political phenomena, these terms are not analagous to
their metaphysical connotations. "In political and moral theory,"
writes Niebuhr, "realism" denotes the disposition to take all factors
in a social and political situation, which offer resistance to estabhshed
norms into account, particularly the factors of self-interest and
power."- Ideahsm, in contrast, is "characterized by loyalty to moral
norms and ideals, rather than to self-interest, whether individual or
collective. It is, in the opinion of its critics, characterized by a dis-
position to ignore or be indifferent to the forces in human life which
offer resistance to universally valid ideals and norms. "^ As defined
by Niebuhr, realism and idealism emphasize dispositions of the
theorists or writers rather than doctrines; therefore, the definitions
are not precise.

Niebuhr has employed the scriptual designations children of light,
and children of darkness to further distinguish between idealists
and realists. He writes:

The children of darkness are evil because they know no law
beyond the self. They are wise, though evil, because they under-
stand the power of self-interest. The children of light are vir-
tuous because they have some conception of a higher law than
their own will. They are usually foolish because they do not
know the power of self-will. They underestimate the peril of

^H. R. Davis and R. C. Good (eds.), Niebuhr On Politics, (New York, 1960),

p. 7.
^Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems, (New York, 1953),

p. 119.
^Ibid., p. 120.

78

anarchy in both the national and the international community.^

At this point, we may pause to examine one aspect of the con-
sequences of ideahstic and realistic attitudes toward the problem
of creating a world community. The ideahsts, in Niebuhr's opinion,
tend to view history from the perspective of the moral and social
imperatives which a rationahstic appraisal of the situation generates.
He writes:

They look at the world and decide its social and economic
problems demand and require a 'federation of the world.' They
think of such a federation not primarily in terms of the complex
economic and social interest and vitalities, which must be
brought into and held in a tolerable equihbrium. They are on
the whole content to state the ideal requirements of the situation
in as rigorous terms as possible.^

On the other hand, Niebuhr avers that the realistic school does
not deny the necessity nor the possibility of the creation of an inter-
national community. But, he says,

it views the task of realizing them in the light of its knowledge
of the stubborn inertia of human history. It wants to know how
nations are to be beguiled into a limitation of their sovereign
rights, considering that national pride and parochial self-suffi-
ciency are something more than the mere fruit of ignorance but
recurring forces in aU efforts at social cohesion.^

BeUeving that no historical process has conformed to the pattern
mapped out by the idealists, Niebuhr says that the difficult task of
world organization must be attempted from historical realism. Yet,
with characteristic dialectical synthesis, he tells us, "that the truth
does not lie simply on the side of the realists. Without an admixture
of the temper and the insights of the other school, there would be
no genuine advance in social organization at aU."''^

One crucial, complex issue is involved in the differences which
tend to polarize the thoughts and viewpoints of the two schools. It
is the perennial problem of power. The reahsts know that history
is no simple rational process, but a vital one. On this point of view,
Niebuhr contends:

Some dominant power lies at the center of every social organ-
ization. Some balance of power is the basis of whatever jus-
tice is achieved in human relations. Where the disproportions
of power are too great and where an equihbrium of social
forces are lacking, no mere rational or moral demands can
achieve justice.^

''Niebuhr, The Children of Light and The Children of Darkness, (New York,

1944), pp. 10-11.
^Niebuhr, Love and Justice, ed. D. B. Robertson (Philadelphia. 1958), p

207.

Hbid., p. 206.
''Ibid., p. 208.
^Ibid., p. 207.

79

The realists are well aware of the problems of power, but, to
Niebuhr, they tend to interpret it in too cynical terms. At times,
they forget that political power is compounded of many forces
besides their physical ingredient. "They do not fully appreciate
that a proper regard for moral aspirations is a source of political
prestige, and that this prestige is itself an indispensable source of

power."^

Christian Realism

Basically, Niebuhr's political orientation is realistic. His influence
on the realistic school of politics has been tremendous and promi-
nent thinkers have acknowledged their indebtedness to him. The
following comment by Professor Kenneth Thompson is representa-
tive:

Undoubtedly it is not without significance that these author-
ities admittedly owe an important intellectual debt to the Prot-
estant theologian, Reinhold Niebuhr, who as early as 1932 in
Moral Man and Immoral Society elaborated a realistic theory
of international politics. Not long ago Kennan in surveying the
growth of interest among the small group of responsible theorists
identified Niebuhr as the precursor of the so-called realists or,
in Kennan's words, 'the father of all of us.'^"

There is a juncture, however, where Niebuhr parts company with
the realistic school. The point at which the divergence of views
takes place is Niebuhr's insistence upon the introduction of norms
into the sphere of international politics. He charges that:

A realism becomes morally cynical or nihilistic when it as-
sumes that the universal characteristic in human behavior must
also be regarded as normative. Good and evil are not determined
by some fixed structure of human existence. Man, according to
the biblical view, may use his freedom to make himself falsely the
center of existence; but this does not change the fact that love
rather than self-love is the law of his existence in the sense that
man can only be healthy and his communities at peace if man
is drawn out of himself . . . .^^

As one of Niebuhr's interpreters puts it, "Moral cynicism does not
arise from a clear recognition of the fact that we must come to
terms with the brutal facts of existence, it arises from our investing
them with normative character."^-

Niebuhr, then, is a realist who seeks to subject the harsh and
brutal realities of political phenomena to a norm which is transcendent
to them. This is his Christian reahsm.

^Ibid., p. 208.
^"Kenneth W. Thompson, "Beyond National Interest: A Critical Evaluation

of Reinhold Niebuhr's Theory of International Politics," The Review of

Politics, XVII (April, 1955), 168.
^ ^Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems, p. 130.
*2Gordon Harland, The Thought of Reinhold Niebuhr, (New York, 1960), p.

194.

80

Power Politics and the Balance of Power

The concept of the balance of power is one of the vital precepts
of the realistic school. To Niebuhr, the balance of power is neces-
sary in order to achieve some degree of political justice; particularly
is this true on the national level where different groups are in con-
tention. On the international level, however, he holds that nations
can ultimately transcend the balance of power concept, for the
balance itself constitutes a form of managed anarchy. "Justice," he
writes, "is basically dependent upon a balance of power. Whenever
an individual or a group or a nation possesses undue power and
whenever this power is not checked by the possibility of criticizing
and resisting it, it grows inordinate. "^^ Furthermore,

All political justice is achieved by coercing the anarchy of
collective self-interest into some kind of decent order by the most
attainable balance of power. Such a balance, once achieved, can
be stabilized, embeUished, and even on occasion, perfected by
more purely moral considerations. But there has never been a
scheme of justice in history which did not have a balance of
power at its foundations.^"^

A balance of power is not to be confused with the harmony of
love. It is different from and inferior to love, yet, given the sinful-
ness of man, it is a basic condition of love. There is a process of
interaction between love and the balance of power, for, Niebuhr
says, "without love the frictions and tensions of a balance of power
would become intolerable. But without the balance of power even
the most loving relations may degenerate into unjust relations, and
love may become the screen which hides injustice. "^^ The law of
love which operates as an indiscriminate principle of criticism pre-
vents man's pride, vindictiveness and self-righteousness from cor-
rupting his endeavors to achieve justice.

Has the balance of power secured peace on the international level?
Historically, the period from the end of the Napoleonic War to the
beginning of the First World War is conceded to be one of such
periods. Niebuhr accepts this when he writes: "The peace of Europe
before the World War rested upon a balance of power. It was de-
stroyed by the mutual fears and animosities created by the tension
of such a balance. "^^

Niebuhr chides the realistic school for cherishing the belief "that
world poUtics cannot rise higher than the balance-of-power prin-
ciple."^^ Believing that no real unity among nations is possible, the
realistic school wishes to mitigate world tensions by the construction
of an adequate system which would most nearly equilibrate power
among the contending states. Niebuhr admits that "Such a policy,

^^Niebuhr, Christianity and Power Politics, (New York, 1940), p. 26.

^''Ibid., p. 104.

"^Ibid., p. 26.

^''Niebuhr, Refelctions On the End of An Era, (New York, 1934), p. 246.

^''Niebuhr, The Children of Light and The Children of Darkness, p. 173.

81

which holds all factors in the world situation in the most possible
equipoise, can undoubtedly mitigate anarchy."^ ^ He conceives of
the balance-of-power system as representing a kind of managed
anarchy, in which anarchy in the end always topples management.
This is the case because,

A balance of power implies a conflict of wills and contest of
interests in which injustice is prevented because contending
forces are fairly evenly matched. Such a procedure does not
remove the root of conflict, which is to be found in the corporate
egoism of contending groups. ^^

Not only does the cause of the conflict remain, but the equilibrium
is disturbed by the states which are never satisfied with their particu-
lar positions and seek to improve them.

Niebuhr is cognizant of the defects of the balance-of-power system
and has pointed out some of these shortcomings. It does not cure
the evils which gave rise to the need for the balance; it is potential
anarchy; and each nation feeling insecure with the balance, seeks to
improve its own position, thus disturbing the equilibrium. He does
not totally condemn the system, for he tells us that:

Despite its defects the policy of the balance of power is not
as iniquitous as the idealists would have us believe. For even
the most perfectly organized society must seek for a decent
equilibrium of the vitalities and forces under its organizations.
If this is not done, strong disproportions of power develop. . . .-*'

How does the so-called idealistic school view the balance-of-power
system? We believe that Professor Frank Tannenbaum qualifies as
an ideahst in terms of Niebuhr's definitions. He writes:

A great debate on the character and purpose of American
foreign policy has been precipitated by those who would per-
suade our people to abandon their humanitarian and pacific
traditions and frankly adopt the doctrines of power politics and
the balance of power as the basis of their foreign policy. This
doctrine is confessedly, nay, gleefully, amoral.-^

Professor Tannenbaum avers that the realistic school must predi-
cate inter-state relations upon the principle of the balance of power.
The ideahstic school, on the other hand, "believes that it is possible
and desirable, if man wishes to save himself from destruction, to
organize international relations on the basis of the coordinate state. "-^
We may pause at this point to consider what is the coordinate state.
It has nothing to do with wealth, power, size, population or culture;
it "implies a position of equal dignity. "^^

^^Ibid., p. 174.

^^Niebuhr, Reflections On the End of An Era. p. 243.

2 "Niebuhr, The Children of Light and The Children of Darkness, p. 174.

^^Frank Tannenbaum, "The Balance of Power Versus The Coordinate State,"

Political Science Quarterly, LXVII (June, 1952), 173.
'-Ibid., p. 175.
^^Ibid., p. 177.

82

Tannenbaum further contends:

It has everything to do with the recognition that compromise
is a continuing means of non- violent friction (peace) ... It is
only if all the states continue to have equal dignity among them-
selves that changes in power and wealth can be absorbed with-
out undue violence. That is the essence of the coordinate state. ^^

To Tannenbaum, the balance of power school derives its principles
from the modern European state system; the idealistic school, which
endorses the coordinate state proposal, derives its principles and
conclusions from the following sources: (1) the experience of the
federal system in the United States, (2) the Organization of
American States, (3) the British Commonwealth of Nations, and
(4) the federal history of Switzerland.

Professor Tannenbaum's approach is based upon creating com-
munity by constitution. Niebuhr warns us against this simple ap-
proach to creating an international community. He writes:

In a day as tragic as our own it would be pleasant to believe
there is a simpler way than the tortuous process by which the
nations are finding the road to community with one another.
But the short cuts are illusory. Constitutional questions, before
community is estabhshed are divisive rather than unifying. How,
for instance, would we decide how many votes Denmark, . . .
and the United States should have in a World Federalist senate?
. . . the great moral issue for Americans is how a rich and
powerful nation relates itself to a weak and impoverished world.
Not in terms of ultimate constitutional arrangements, but in
terms of immediate political problems.-^

Professor Hans Morgenthau-'' has made a direct reply to Professor
Tannenbaum's "coordinate" state proposal. Concerning the political
entities cited as examples of the coordinate state in operation, he
says, "The only thing that these four examples seem to have really
in common is the legal stipulation of the equality of the members
of the respective systems and this characteristic is not peculiar to
them, but a general principle of international law appUcable to aU
sovereign states."^'^

The National Interest

The reahsts, partly in response to the vague and abstract proposals
of international ideaUsm, and partly because of their awareness of
the constancy with which the self-interest of nations is actually in-
voked in international relations, have sought to make the national

2 4/fe/ci.

^ ^Niebuhr, Love and Justice, p. 217.

^^See "Another Great Debate: The National Interest of the United States,"
The American Political Science Review, XL VI (December, 1952), 961-88.
^Ubid., p. 968.

83

interest the fundamental principle for conducting foreign affairs.
"Foreign policies," former Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes
stated, "are not built upon abstractions. They are the positive result
of practical conceptions of national interest arising from some im-
mediate exigency or standing out vividly in historical perspective."-^
Admiral Alfred T. Mahan stated the same idea in more emphatic
language: "Self-interest is not only a legitimate, but a fundamental
cause for national policy; one which needs no cloak of hypocrisy
... it is vain to expect governments to act continuously on any
other ground than national interest. They have no right to do so
being agents and not principles."-^

The national interest is frequently referred to but rarely defined
by those who seek to make it the underlying principle for conducting
a nation's foreign pohcy. Niebuhr himself does not define the con-
cept, but seems to equate it with the self-interest of a nation. The
concept is difficult to define because it is usually invoked to justify
every action a nation takes which may affect another nation.

In general it may be said that the national interest of a
country is what its governmental leaders and in large degree
also what its people consider at any time to be vital to their
national independence, way of life, territorial security, and
economic welfare. They are those outlooks, convictions, posi-
tions, and goals which are held to be sufficiently important to
the existence, growth, security, and well-being of a nation to
have the weight of the state thrown behind their advancement
and protection.^"

As a realist, Niebuhr accepts national interest as an inevitable
fact of international politics, but as a Christian, he rejects it as a
norm. Throughout much of his writings, we are confronted with
his recognition of the national interest as a fundamental guide in
the formulation of policies. In one place he writes:

We must be constantly reminded of the simple fact that no
nation is so generous as to sacrifice its interest to others. If it
is wise enough to find the point of concurrence between its own
interests and those of others, it clouds its reputation for wis-
dom when it makes excessive moral claims for its prudence. ^^

"It is foolish," he tells us, "to hope that America could bear its
present responsibilities in the world without regard to national self-
interest."^- And in numerous works he has cited the dictum of

^^Quoted in Charles A. Beard, "The Idea of National Interest, (New York,
1934), p. 1.

^^Ibid.

^Norman J. Padelford and George A. Lincoln, International Politics, (New
York, 1954), p. 309.

^ ^Niebuhr, "The Conditions of our Survival," Tlie Virginia Quarterly Review,
XXVI (Autumn, 1950), 483.

^-Niebuhr, "Hazards and Resources, "The Virginia Quarterly Review, XXV
(Spring, 1949), 203.

84

George Washington that no nation can be trusted too far beyond
its own interest.

Yet, to recognize the prevalence of the national interest is not
to justify it morally. As a Christian realist he insists that, "The
children of light must be armed with the wisdom of the children
of darkness but remain free from malice. They must know the
power of self-interest in human society without giving it moral
justification."^^

An example of the vague and abstract principles on which idealists,
would base our foreign affairs is Tannenbaum's bland assertion that
our foreign policy

derives from the assumption that security rests upon coopera-
tion, that cooperation is possible only among equals, that
equality ehminates the basic reason for political disruption be-
cause those equal politically are coordinate in dignity and in
rank.2^

He would further have us believe that "The very essence of Ameri-
can international relations rests upon the idea of a cooperative re-
lationship."^^ Professor Tannenbaum's assertion overlooks or simply
ignores the obvious fact that a great deal of cooperation among
unequal states takes place. And furthermore, constitutional schemes,
as Niebuhr points out, will not solve the problem of equality among
states.

George F. Kennan has labeled this type of approach to policy
formulation as the "legalistic-moralistic approach to international
problems. "^*'' He advocates a return to the concept of the national
interest as the cornerstone of our foreign policy. "He does not,"
Niebuhr writes, "intend to be morally cynical in the advocacy of
this course. He beheves that a modest awareness that our own inter-
ests represent the limit of our competence should prompt such a
policy . . . yet his solution is wrong. For egotism is not the proper
cure for an abstract and pretentious idealism. "^^

Niebuhr avers that a too consistent self-interest on the part of
a nation will in the end mihtate against its interest because it will
not do justice to the larger interests, which are inextricably bound
with the interests of other nations. ^^ In other words, the national
interest can be defined too narrowly. The preoccupation by a nation
with its own interests will cause it to fail to recognize the mutuality
of interests that it shares with other nations.

^^Niebuhr, The Children of Light and The Children of Darkness, p. 41.

^^Tannenbaum, 'The American Tradition in Foreign Relations," Foreign Af-
fairs, XXX (October, 1951), 47.

^^Ibid.

^'George F. Kennan, American Diplomacy, 1900-1950, (New York, 1954)
p. 93.

^''Niebuhr, The Irony of American History, (New York, 1952), p. 148.

^^Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems, p. 136.

85

Moral cynicism is an outgrowth of a nation's preoccupation with
its self-interest. And this cynicism can and does degenerate into
moral pretension, for nations insist that they cannot act beyond
their interest; yet they always invoke some higher moral principle
when they do act. "A modern nation," he tells us, "does not dare
to go to war for reasons other than those of self-interest and cannot
conduct the war without claiming to be motivated by higher motives
than those of self-interest."^^

If self-interest is, as Niebuhr informs us, inevitable among nations,
what does he propose to mitigate the situation, or what other
alternative is there for nations which will lead to justice without
the nation sacrificing itself or destroying another to preserve itself?
He writes:

It is necessary ... to draw upon another moral and spiritual
resource to widen the conception of interest. The citizens of
a nation must have loyalties and responsibiUties to a wider
system of values than that of the national interest to a civiliza-
tion for instance, to a system of justice, and to a community
of free nations. These moral concerns will serve to leaven
the mind of a nation and prevent a national community from
defining the interest too narrowly.'**^

Evaluation

The impact of Neibuhr's thought upon the realistic school, as
we have had occasion to point out, has been widespread and pro-
found. His analysis of the role of power and interest in the inter-
national realm of politics leaves very little to be desired. He has
constructed a reahstic theory of international politics based upon
the empirical behavior of states in which the concept of national
interest is central. After having constructed a realistic theory of
international politics, Niebuhr seeks a normative theory, beyond the
national interest, "in order to avert what he has called the abyss
of moral cynicism inherent in a merely rational theory.""*^ It is at
this point that we encounter two dilemmas involved in his attempt
to transcend the national interest.

To begin with, Niebuhr attempts to achieve a synthesis of realism
and idealism, embodying the "temper and the insights" of idealism
with the wisdom of realism within the framework of a normative
theory. He does not, therefore, formulate precise definitions of
realism and idealism, but views them as dispositions either to recog-
nize or to ignore the factors (of which self-interest and power are
the most important) which offer resistance to established norms.
But the real test of any scientific theory according to Thompson
is its capacity for bringing order and meaning to a mass of data
which otherwise remain unrelated. It is legitimate to ask

3 ^Niebuhr, The Children of Light and The Children of Darkness, p. 170.
^ONiebuhr, Niebuhr On Politics, eds., H. R. Davis and R. C. Good, p. 334.
^ ^Thompson, op. cit., p. 183.

86

whether the concepts of ideaUsm or reahsm as formulated and
applied by Niebuhr contribute more to this end than the defi-
nitions of other political scientists who conceive of politics,
as distinct from economics or aesthetics, as the pursuit of inter-
est defined in terms of power.^^

If realism is the disposition to take into account those factors in a
social and political situation which offer resistance to established
norms, then the central question is: what are these "established
norms" and how can we determine their applicability to specific
cases of disputes? As Thompson says, "Is it not true that norms
Uke equality become in the pohtical arena objects of endless con-
tention, rationalization, and self-deception?"'*^

A second dilemma involves Niebuhr's conception of justice. In
reference to social and political justice Niebuhr conceives of justices
as being composed of "the harmony of the whole which does not
destroy the vitality of the parts." In Niebuhr's analysis, therefore,
"The criterion of moral value becomes the freedom of each unique
part to assert its vitality; equality and hberty are the informing and
regulative principles of justice. "^^

But equality and liberty are never simple possibilities because of
the ambiguity which power and coercion introduce into politics. And
since nations cannot act except in regard to their national interest,
what is the essential role of justice in establishing the "harmony of
the whole which does not destroy the vitality of the parts?" Kenneth
Thompson writes:

Niebuhr critics can legitimately ask what role is played by
justice or equality or liberty, as the highest morality possible for
nations is, not a sacrifice of its interests to maintain other na-
tions, but an effort to find the point of concurrence between its
interests and those of others. ^^

In other words, the justice of which Niebuhr speaks is actually
achieved by statesmen acting in response to the national interest of
their particular country; but in his analysis, Niebuhr denies the pos-
sibihty of this. Statesmen have to be motivated by a higher interest
devotion to justice or to the creation of a wider community
before they can discover the mutuality of interest which would lead
to justice. Niebuhr avers that statesmen acting solely from self-interest
will never discover the mutual interests which are necessary if justice
on the international scenes is going to be achieved.

In his effort to establish a normative theory beyond the national
interest, Niebuhr does not wholly succeed: "Yet if Niebuhr has
failed to transcend the tragic paradoxes of politics, he has clarified
and illuminated the problem as no other present-day philosopher."^*'

*^Ibid., p. 185.

'^^Ibid.

'"'Ibid., p. 184.

*^Ibid.

^^Ibid., pp. 187-8.

87

The Supreme Court's Justifications for Deciding
to Integrate Public Education Racially

by
Isaiah Mclver

The Problem

It is realized that criticisms of the Court due to its reversals of
previous decisions cannot be considered fair to that body if it is
the Court's responsibility to interpret and decide issues in the light
of contemporary philosophy. If the Court's duty is to keep the Con-
stitution a living and flexible instrument, then it must of necessity
reverse previous findings. To have change and flexibility, changes
and modifications are necessary.

In reality, the Justices of the United States Supreme Court make
constitutional law, and the changes which come about in the law as a
result of its decisions reflect in a great measure the ideas and
attitudes of the Court's personnel.

Many precedents have been reversed and many of these reversals
have been widely criticized since there are few questions of consti-
tutional law which are not debatable.

It is the opinion of the Court that the individuals who framed
the United States Constitution did not intend that it be considered
an inflexible or dead instrument to be used in guiding the fate of a
growing America. It is the responsibility of the Court through its
decisions and interpretations to make the Constitution as flexible
as time itself and at the same time serve the needs of an ever changing
society without sacrificing those basic principles which lie at the
very roots of American democracy.

The Bill of Rights forbids the Federal Government from invading
the civil liberties of the citizen; the Fourteenth Amendment forbids
the state governments from invading the civil Uberties of the citizen.
A private citizen can not violate the BiU of Rights or the Fourteenth
Amendment, because neither forbids the citizen from doing anything.
These measures merely place limitations on the individual states
and the Federal Government.

The Fourteenth Amendment does not protect the Negro or any
other minority against racial discrimination practiced by private in-
dividuals. What a state is forbidden through its statutes may be
done by private individuals, since there are no federal constitutional
restrictions regarding acts committed by private citizens in an attempt
to deny civil liberties.* This fact, however, does not mean that
private invasion of the right or immunity of a citizen can not be
punished. States do enjoy broad police powers, and they are per-
mitted to punish individuals who invade the civil rights of their
neighbors.

*This was true prior to the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Decisions by the Supreme Court relating to segregation in public
education and the destruction of the separate but equal doctrine
established by the Plessy versus Ferguson decision were justified and
based on that portion of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees
equal protection of the laws to all citizens. Ironic as it may seem to-
day, the Fourteenth Amendment had been ratified and proclaimed as
the law of the land twenty-eight years prior to the infamous 1896
Plessy versus Ferguson decision which established the separate but
equal doctrine.

After reviewing decisions handed down by the Supreme Court
over a period of approximately fifty years, one needs only to con-
sider the present attitude of the same Court in order to conclude
that the change seems almost revolutionary. Possibly, old attitudes
died with old justices, but the recent justices are more aware of
social and psychological doctrines than their earlier counterparts, and
they seem to be dedicated to the proposition that constitutional
guarantees must be protected and defined.

Despite revolutionary and controversial decisions by the Supreme
Court, the Negro remains in a rather paradoxical position. The
decisions and statutes have become a part of American history, but
the Negro still does not enjoy those rights and privileges for which
the laws were passed to provide. The substance of the decisions
are yet to be reahzed.

Not only do states practice segregation to the detriment of the
Negro's constitutional guarantees, but the Federal Government for
centuries embraced and actively supported segregation. This prac-
tice was and continues to be rather widespread even in circles that
depend on public funds for support. Until very recently the national
government permitted private and public persons subject to its
authority to exclude certain minority groups from employment in
public and semipublic services and accommodations.

During the Second World War, the armed services segregated
Negroes. In another phase of governmental activity, the District
of Columbia which is under the direct authority of Congress main-
tained segregated schools until the Supreme Court in 1954 declared
segregated public education unconstitutional. Even after New York
and many other states prohibited segregated public education, the
nation's capital continued to embrace vigorously segregated public
education.

Possibly the Federal Government and the District of Columbia
were proceeding under Plessy versus Ferguson which implied that
the First Amendment did not give the Negro greater protection
against federal segregation than the Fourteenth Amendment gives
him against state segregation.

Courts do not act on their own initiative. Laws may be violated
for centuries without favorable action. The litigation of cases is
extremely costly, and before the 1964 Civil Rights Act someone
other than the Court had to initiate the test whereby a Court de-

89

termined the constitutionality of statutes and practices. Until certain
practices are challenged so that the Court will have an opportunity
to act, nothing can be done by this body. The precedent established
by Plessby versus Ferguson remained the law of the land for nearly a
century before it was decided that the precedent was inapplicable to
education.

If there is difficulty being realized by the Federal Government in
its attempt to implement the 1954 Supreme Court decision which
declared segregation in public education unconstitutional, those peo-
ple who are resisting the implementation of the decision could be
considered as only resisting a change of attitude on the part of the
Court. A whole segment of the nation's population finds it much
more difficult to change its attitudes, thinking, and prejudices either
moderately or rapidly. The same court that in 1954 maintained
that segregation was inherently constitutionally illegal, ruled several
decades earlier that separate but equal facilities were constitutionally
proper.

The average American citizen does not and in many cases cannot
read and comprehend the sociological and psychological findings.
Many even find it impossible to comprehend that the highest Court
could change its mind or that its decisions should transcend local
customs.

Those justices who have realized that they have the responsibility
of making the Constitution a continuous living instrument should
be complimented. But in praising the Court for its varied shades
of judicial integrity and its handing down social action decisions,
it must be remembered that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal pro-
tection clause was ratified twenty-eight years before the Court de-
cided that Plessy versus Ferguson should be the law of the land.

This paper wiU give the final decisions of the Supreme Court in
six cases dealing with segregation in education and show how the
Court rationalized its decisions. Those cases cited are the 1896 Plessy
case, the 1938 Gaines case, the 1948 Sipuel case, the 1950 Sweatt
case, the 1954 Brown case, and the 1958 Cooper case. The Plessy
case is being cited, because it established the separate but equal
doctrine in rail transportation, and was later appUed to other avenues
of human activity.

Judicial Precedents

In the 1896 Plessy versus Ferguson decision, the Supreme Court
held that a Louisiana statute requiring railroads to provide equal
but separate accommodations for white and colored passengers did
not constitute a denial of the equal protection of the laws in violation
of the Fourteenth Amendment.^

Instead of saying that the Louisiana statute was unconstitutional
or constitutional, the Court ruled that the Louisiana law was a proper

^Robert Cushman, Leading Constitutional Decisions (New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1950), pp. 182-183.

90

exercise of the state's police powers aimed at maintaining peace
and order.

The contention that enforced separation of the race stamps the
colored race as inferior was dismissed by the Court. These justices,
who made the Plessy decision that separation but equality was proper,
maintained that if the Louisiana statute made the colored people
feel inferior, then this inferiority was due solely to the Negro's in-
terpretation of the law.-

Twelve years after the 1896 Plessy decision, the United States
Supreme Court in 1908 ruled in Berea College versus Kentucky that
the state of Kentucky could legally forbid this private college from
teaching whites and Negroes at the same time and place.

The precedent established by Plessy versus Ferguson and Ken-
tucky versus Berea College left no doubt of the validity of statutes
in southern states requiring that the education of whites and Negroes
be separate in tax supported schools. ^

Segregation of whites and Negroes in public education was con-
sidered valid as long as the facilities of the two races were equal.
The court did not demand that equality in accommodations be
mathematically equal. The equality had only to be substantial.

The fact that equahty of facilities had only to be substantial was
made quite clear in 1899 when the court ruled in Cumming versus
the County Board of Education that there was no denial of equal
protection of the laws in the failure of a southern county to provide
a high school for sixty colored children, although Richmond County,
Georgia maintained a high school for the white children of the
county. The United States Supreme Court accepted as valid that
Richmond County, Georgia, could not afford to build a high school
for the sixty Negro children.*

In 1927, equal protection of the laws was again denied when the
Court ruled in Gong Lum versus Rice that a Chinese girl could validly
be required to attend a school for colored children in a neighboring
district rather than be allowed to attend the nearby school for white
children.'^

From the Reconstruction era until Lloyd Gaines was refused ad-
mission to the School of Law at the University of Missouri, Negroes
were not only segregated in public education, but they were also
obliged to remain content with very inferior accommodations and
services as a result of the 1896 Plessy decision.

Initially in 1938 and again in 1948 the Supreme Court started
slowly but surely to shatter precedents relating to the separate but

""Ibid.

^Harry Carman, A History of the American People (New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1961), pp. 768-769.
*Cushman, op. cit., pp. 182-183.
^Ibid.

91

equal doctrine in education. The Court ruled in 1938 that Lloyd
Gaines, a Negro, should be admitted to the School of Law at the
University of Missouri. Ten years later, in 1948, the Court held
that a colored female student should be admitted to the law school
at the University of Oklahoma.

The 1938 Gaines case and the 1948 Sipuel cases against Missouri
and Oklahoma respectively reached the United States Supreme
Court because these two universities refused admission of Negroes
solely on the basis of race, and the practices of these institutions
were upheld in the lower courts.

In these decisions, the Court declared that the state cannot provide
education for one race and refuse the same privilege to another race.
Such practice, according to the Court, violated the equal protection
clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court ruled that even
though the state provided tuition fees for Negroes to attend out-
of-state schools, this does not remove the state's obligation to afford
aU citizens equal protection. The Court ruled that this equal pro-
tection could not be provided in another state even though the state
financed the protection or privilege. It was the Court's contention
that state laws could not operate so as to grant a privilege to one
group and then deny the same to another group solely on the basis
of color. To do so denies equality of a legal right to the enjoyment
of a privilege created by the state. Providing for the payment of
tuition fees in another state does not remove the discrimination.
The court held that the state is obligated to give the protection of
equal laws in the area where its jurisdiction lies. States, according
to the Court, are bound to furnish equal protection within their
borders. Equal opportunities must be provided for all persons even
though others of the excluded group do not seek the opportunity.*'

The Court held that since there were no similar facilities for the
training of Gaines within the state of Missouri, he had to be admitted
to the University of Missouri.

Even though an attempt was made to create a law school at
Lincoln University for Negroes and tuition was available for Gaines
to attend an out-of-state college on a temporary basis until separate
and equal facilities were produced, the Court decreed that discrimi-
nation could not be excused by what is called a temporary character.
Since all students in the state did not have to wait for similar facilities
to be constructed so as to obtain a legal education, the Court ruled
that Missouri violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment.^

When Sweatt attempted to gain admission to the University of
Texas Law School for the February, 1946 term, his application was
rejected solely because he was a Negro. Suit for mandamus was
brought against the appropriate school officials to compel his ad-
mission. At that time no law school in Texas admitted Negroes.

^Carman, op. cit., pp. 768-769.
'Cushman, op. cit., p. 183.

92

State trial courts in Texas recognized that the action of the state
in denying Sweatt an opportunity to gain a legal education while it
did grant the privilege to others deprived him of equal protection
of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. The state
court, however, did not grant the reUef Sweatt requested. The case
was continued for six months. After the expiration of six months
the court again denied the writ. It ruled that university officials
were going to open a law school for Negroes the following February.
Texas university officials built the law school, but Sweatt refused
to enroll even though the state court contended that faciUties at the
new Negro law school had facilities that were substantially equivalent
to those of the University of Texas Law School.^

The school from which Sweatt was excluded had sixteen full-time
and three part-time professors. These professors were nationally
recognized authorities in the law profession. The school's student
body numbered 850 and its library had over 65,000 volumes. Stu-
dents at the University of Texas Law School had access to law re-
views, moot court facilities, scholarship funds, outstanding alumni,
and the school was recognized as one of the nation's top ranking
law schools.

The law school that was to be opened for Negroes in February,
1947 was to have no independent faculty or library. Teaching was
to be done by four faculty members from the University of Texas
Law School. These professors were supposed to teach both at the
University of Texas and at the Negro law school while maintaining
their offices at the University of Texas. ^

By February, 1947 few of the 10,000 volumes ordered for the
Negro law school had arrived in time for the school's opening nor
was there a full-time librarian. The school lacked accreditation but
was supposedly on the road to accreditation. Eventually, the school
procured a faculty of five full-time professors, a student body of
twenty-three, and a hbrary of some 17,000 volumes serviced by a
full-time staff. The school even had one alumnus who was a member
of the Texas Bar.^*^

Despite the attempt on the part of Texas to manufacture a top
law school for Negroes over night, the United States Supreme Court
ruled that the law school at the University of Texas was superior,
had a larger faculty, had more volumes in its library, had law reviews,
and possessed to a greater degree those qualities which are incapable
of objective measurement, but which make for greatness in a law
school. Its faculty, contended the court, had a national reputation,
it had an experienced administration, its alumni had influence and
position, and the school had traditions and prestige. Justices of the
Supreme Court decided that a student can not be an effective law

^Ibid.

^David Fellman, The Supreme Court and Education (New York: Bureau of
Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1962), pp. 69-94.
^^Ibid., pp. 72-74.

93

student while being isolated from individuals and institutions with
which the law interacts. The Court also stated that a person can
not study law in an academic vacuum, removed from the interplay
of ideas and the exchange of views with which the law is concerned.

It was held that to be excluded from the University of Texas
would exclude Sweatt from associating with eighty five per cent of
the racial groups which comprise the state's population which in-
cludes most of the lawyers, witnesses, jurors, judges, and other people
with which Sweatt would be dealing when he would be permitted
to practice law. It was further asserted that being excluded from
such a significant segment of society should be considered unequal. ^^

The unanimous court maintained that equal protection of the
laws can not be achieved through indiscriminate imposition of in-
equities. Members of the court held that Texas had to provide edu-
cation in conformity with the equal protection clause of the Four-
teenth Amendment and the state had to provide this equal protec-
tion as soon for Negroes as it does for others of any racial group.
Sweatt was ordered admitted to the University of Texas Law School.

Whereas earlier decisions handed down by the Court pertained
to higher education, the 1954 decree was all-inclusive so far as
public education is concerned. The unanimous decision in 1954
by the Supreme Court resulted from cases that arose in Kansas,
South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware. The legal contests were
basically the same in these several cases, and the court ruled on them
at the same time.

Negro children were attempting to enter public schools in Topeka,
Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware on a non-segregated
basis. In these states Negroes were excluded from public schools
attended by whites because these states had statutes which legalized
segregated education. i-

Negroes contended that segregation deprived them of equal pro-
tection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment. In each case
where segregation was contested, with the exception of Delaware, a
three-judge federal district court denied relief to the plaintiffs and
solely on the basis of the 1896 Plessy precedent which established
the separate but equal doctrine. The case was first argued in 1952
and later in 1954. Argument questions were propounded by the
court. Re-argument was devoted largely to circumstances surrounding
the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. Racial segre-
gation practices were considered when the amendment was adopted
and ratified. The Court realized that those who opposed the amend-
ment hoped the Fourteenth Amendment would have very limited
effect, and those who supported it intended that all legal distinction
among all persons born or naturalized in the United States be re-
moved. It was rather difficult for the Court to decide how the rati-
fying states felt about the amendment when it was ratified, nor could

^^Ibid.

i^Langston Hughes, Fight For Freedom (New York: Berkley Press, 1962),
pp. 143-146.

94

the Court determine with certainty what the legislatures and Congress
had in mind when the amendment was passed. Southern laws for-
bade Negroes to attend schools, and a large segment of the race
was illiterate. The school term was only three months and attendance
was not compulsory. With so little education to be had, the amend-
ment, according to the Court, did not have its intended effect on
public education. ^^

In 1868 the Court probably felt that the Fourteenth Amendment
prescribed segregation and discrimination in public education. Be-
fore 1954, the Court gave relief to several Negro plaintiffs where
states did not provide equal educational opportunities on the graduate
level. The Plessy versus Ferguson mandate remained the law of the
land until the Court ruled in 1954 that the Plessy decree was in-
applicable to education.

Members of the Court did not rationalize the 1954 decision solely
on constitutional principles. The psychological and sociological ef-
fects of segregation on public education were also considered. The
Court concluded that segregation in education in present-day America
denied equal protection of the law. Today, according to the Court,
education is essential to perform as a responsible citizen; education
is essential for good citizenship; education prepares the child for
trades and professions; education enables the child to adjust normally
to his environment; and the Court declared that the child can not be
expected to succeed if he is denied an opportunity to receive an
education. It was held that when education is made available by
the state, it must be given on equal terms. The Court declared that
segregation, even though facilities are equal, does deprive one of
equal educational opportunities.^'*

The effects of intangibles were also considered by the court. The
Court felt that intangibles often make an institution great, and the
Justices of the Court maintained that it should be possible for all
students to engage in discussions and to exchange views with students
of all races. This can not be done in a segregated school. Segrega-
tion solely on the basis of race, said the Court, generates feelings
of inferiority and such feelings are difficult to remove. ^^

The Kansas court felt that segregation in public education was
detrimental, but to have segregation sanctioned by law is even more
detrimental, since segregation denotes inferiority and decreases the
motivation to learn. The Kansas court stated further that segregation
with legal sanction tends to retard mental development and deprives
students of benefits that would normally be received in a racially
integrated atmosphere.

Even though the Kansas court propounded some rather noble
ideas and doctrines by admitting that segregation in education hin-
dered the educational process, it ruled against the Negro plaintiffs
who were aiming for those things which segregation and the lower

^^Ibid.

^'Fellman, op. cit., pp. 69-94.

^Hbid.

95

courts denied. The Kansas court did not see fit to remove an evil
that was plainly evident.

In spite of setbacks in Kansas and other states where Justices held
views similar to those of the Kansas court, the separate but equal
doctrine was declared unconstitutional and denied a place in public
education. Separate educational facilities were declared inherently
unequal, and in 1954 it was finally decided that segregated education
in public schools deprives the segregated persons of protection by
the laws which the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed.

Shortly after the Brown versus the Topeka, Kansas Board of Edu-
cation decision was handed down, the Arkansas legislature and its
governor attempted to disregard the decision and to exclude students
from the Little Rock public schools on racial grounds.

The Federal District Court granted Arkansas a delay of two and
one half years to implement its program of racially integrated public
education, but the Supreme Court reversed the decision of the Dis-
trict Court. Now the Little Rock, Arkansas School Board told the
Court that it would comply with the order to integrate when the
Court outlined a program for desegregating the schools. ^"^

In the meantime, the Little Rock School Board devised a plan
whereby senior high school grades ten and twelve would desegregate
first with mixing on the junior high school and elementary school
levels following next. Complete desegregation was to be implemented
by 1963. Most Little Rock citizens agreed that since desegregation
was unavoidable, the plan devised by the school board was the
most desirable. A group of Negroes challenged the slowness of the
proposed desegregation process, but the board's plan was upheld by
the Federal District Court and the Federal Court of Appeals af-
firmed it.

This picture reflects the situation in Little Rock. Two opposing
forces were at work in Arkansas while the Little Rock school board
was attempting to desegregate its schools; one Arkansas element
was attempting to perpetuate racial segregation in the "Land of
Opportunity" despite the Supreme Court's ruling that segregation
in public education violated the Fourteenth Amendment. ^'^

The Arkansas legislature passed a law relieving school children
from compulsory attendance at racially mixed schools. The May 17,
1954 decision was called unconstitutional, and a pupil assignment
law was passed.

Despite the State of Arkansas' attempt to perpetuate segregation,
the Little Rock School Board continued to make plans for enroUing
nine Negro children at Little Rock's Central High School in Septem-
ber, 1957. More than 2,000 white students were already enrolled in
this secondary school.

^ ^Hughes, op. cit., pp. 140-142.
^^FeUman, op. cit., pp. 69-94.

96

One day before their scheduled entrance, Governor Orville Faubus
dispatched the Arkansas state militia to Central High School, which
he placed off limits to colored students. This move was made with-
out a request from the Little Rock School board. The board asked
the Federal District Court for instructions, since the Negro students
were being withheld because of the presence of the Arkansas Na-
tional Guard, The Court's advice was to proceed with its plan to
desegregate.^^

Unfortunately, the nine Negro students were prevented from enter-
ing Central High School on September 4, 1957, because the national
guardsmen, under Faubus' order, stood shoulder to shoulder around
the school. At this point the Little Rock School Board filed a petition
for permission to delay integrating that school. The District Court
denied the board's request. ^^

A United States district attorney for the Eastern District of Arkan-
sas investigated the problem and found the Governor of Arkansas
to be responsible for obstructing the court's order. The district at-
torney and the United States Attorney General went to the federal
courts and secured an injunction which enjoined the governor and
the national guard officers from preventing the attendance of Negro
children at Central High School and from obstructing the court's
order to desegregate the public schools. This injunction was issued
September 20, 1957. On September 21, 1957, the nine students
entered Central High School under the protection of local and state
police. Due to the gathering of a difficult mob around that school,
the students were removed from the school.-"

On September 25, 1957, President Eisenhower dispatched federal
troops to Central High School to enforce the federal court order.
Regular army troops remained at Central High School until No-
vember 27, 1957, when they were replaced by federalized national
guards who remained there for the remainder of the school term.
Eight of the nine Negro students remained throughout the school
year.^^

On February 20, 1958, the Little Rock School Board and the city
superintendent filed a petition in an effort to postpone desegregation.
They cited the extreme hostility of the Governor of Arkansas and
of the state legislators. It was also contended that there was extreme
hostihty on the part of the public and that his complexion prevented
the maintenance of a sound educational program at Central High
School when Negroes were in attendance. The school board pro-
posed that Negro students be withdrawn and that they be sent to
segregated public schools. They suggested that integration be at-
tempted again in two and one half years. This request was granted
by the district court, but the ruling was reversed by the Court of

^^Lee Garber, Yearbook of School Law (Danville, Illinois: Interstate Printers

and Publishers, Inc., 1962), pp. 146-158.
-"Fellman, op. cit., pp. 69-94.
-^Ibid., pp. 70-90.

97

Appeals, and the United States Supreme Court affirmed the decision
of the Appeals Court.--

The Supreme Court agreed that the educational program at Cen-
tral High School had suffered during the 1957-58 school year and
that education would not progress if conditions which prevailed
during the crisis were permitted to continue. All branches of the
Arkansas government opposed the 1954 Brown decision and at-
tempted to resist it violently. No steps were made by the state
government to maintain public peace.

Despite governmental and public resistance and the suffering of
local education, the Court ruled that if citizens' constitutional rights
are to be equally protected, they must not be sacrificed or be yielded
to the violence and disorder of a governor, public citizens, or a state
legislature.

Although the Supreme Court has sanctioned segregation to pro-
mote public peace and to prevent racial conflicts, it was further
maintained that one's constitutional rights can not be denied through
ordinances under the disguise of preserving public peace. The Court
concluded that law and order are essential, but law and order are
not to be preserved by depriving Negro children of their consitutional
rights. It was held that the state of Arkansas created the violence,
and that it should be able to control its internal affairs.-^ Further
justifications were given by the Court for its decision when it
declared that the Fourteenth Amendment states that no state shaU
deny equal protection of the laws to any person within its jurisdiction.

The Justices concurred that the constitutional rights of children
are not to be denied or limited in school admissions solely on the
basis of race or color. Constitutional guarantees, according to the
Court, are not to be nullified indirectly or through evasive schemes.-^

Article VI of the Constitution makes the Constitution the supreme
law of the land, and the judicial branch has the sole responsibility
for determining what the law is to be. The judiciary therefore is
supreme in the exposition of the law of the United States Consti-
tuition. The interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment in the Brown
case outlawing segregation in the public schools is the supreme law
of the land.

State legislators and executives take an oath to support the Con-
stitution. This oath guards against resistance to the Consitution and
attempts to destroy it. To permit legislators of the several states to
annul judgments of the courts of the United States makes a mockery
of the United States Constitution. A governor can not nullify a
federal court order. The Constitution and its interpretation by the
court, not the governor, is the supreme law of the land.

Embraced in the concept of due process, states the Court, is the
fundamental right not to be segregated on racial grounds. States
must obey the Supreme Court's decisions if freedoms guaranteed by
the Constitution are to be preserved.

Hbid.

^Hughes, op. cit., pp. 155-159.

Hbid.

98

Summary

Congress had passed the Fourteenth Amendment and it had sub-
mitted it to the several states thirty one years before Plessy versus
Ferguson became the law of the land. Approximately twenty-eight
years before the 1896 Plessy decision was announced, the Fourteenth
Amendment had been ratified and proclaimed by the required num-
ber of states essential to make constitutional amendments effective.

Segregation was a national phenomenon, but in the South atti-
tudes were reinforced by Jim Crow laws that required separate facili-
ties for Negroes in most public places and in all schools. These laws
had been upheld by the Supreme Court in 1896 in the Plessy deci-
sion. Although at the time Justice Harlan in a minority opinion
stated that the Constitution was color-blind, the majority had ruled
that segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment, if the
separate facilities for Negroes were equal to those provided for
the whites.

The Plessy versus Ferguson decision favored Louisiana's segre-
gation ordinances, because the Court felt that the state's police
powers allowed it to eliminate a situation that could possibly create
racial violence. Louisiana had maintained that if the races were
not segregated, racial problems would result. The Supreme Court
supported Louisiana's contention that separation was essential to
maintain peace and order in the state. Justices participating in the
Plessy versus Ferguson decision contended that separation of the
races did not stamp Negroes as inferior, nor did this practice deny
them equal protection of the laws.

Even though Plessy versus Ferguson was proclaimed to establish
separate but equal facilities for Negro and white railroad passengers,
the courts applied this precedent to every activity in which the
inequity of segregation was cited or challenged.

In 1954 and in 1958 the Court completely reversed its Plessy versus
Ferguson thinking. The unanimous decision in 1958 declared that
segregation had been sanctioned in the past to promote pubhc peace
and to prevent racial conflicts, but in 1954 and again in 1958 the
Court held that one's constitutional guarantees are more important
than ordinances used as disguises for promoting public peace. The
court agreed that law and order are essential, but law and order
should not be enforced at the expense of one's constitutional rights.

Not only did the Court rule that segregation violated the equal
protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, but it also declared
the 1896 Plessy decision inapplicable to education, since it was a
decision that dealt with transportation.

The 1954 Brown decision was not rationalized solely on consti-
tutional principles. Basis for the decision was not based solely on
measurements that were determined on whether or not educational
facilities were equal. One factor considered by the Court was the
effect of segregation on public education. The Court ruled that segre-
gation in present day America does deny equal protection of the

99

law. According to the Justices, education is essential for good citi-
zenship, a desirable job, proper adjustment, and future success.
When the state supplies a commodity, it must be given to all on
equal terms. The Court stated further that segregation, even though
facilities be equal, deprives the segregated of equal educational
opportunities. Along with the constitutionally illegal aspects of segre-
gation, the Court also considered the intangible aspects of segrega-
tion which prevented various elements of society to engage in dis-
cussions and exchange views. In the realm of psychology, the Court
maintained that segregation generates a feeling of inferiority and
that inferior feehngs are extremely difficult to remove. It was also
held that segregation was socially harmful and hinders the motivation
to learn.

At least six times after the Plessy decision became the law of the
land, the nation's highest court denied Negroes equal protection of
the laws based upon the separate but equal doctrine established by
the Plessy decision. In 1896, the Federal Court affirmed Jim Crow,
and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
had to pay more than $100,000 to litigate the 1954 case which
resulted in the decision outlawing the separate but equal doctrine.

In 1952, Mordecai Johnson, the former president of Howard
University, declared that New York paid $4,000 a year to support
a classroom of twenty three students, but Negro schools in the former
states which practice segregation received only $400 per year for
the same number of students. Johnson concluded that if a Negro
with one son walking from Mississippi to New York, his son's educa-
tional advantages would have multiplied ten fold upon arrival in
New York.

Contrary to popular opinion, Plessy versus Ferguson did not pro-
mote separate and equal opportunities. Instead, the Plessy decision
provided the essential disguise for gross inequality, and it took al-
most a century for this precedent to be declared unconstitutional
and inapplicable to educational matters.

The Court justified its mammoth decision through the equal pro-
tection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. After the Court was
challenged, the Court made it crystal clear that a segment of the
population was discriminated against by the practices of segregation.
The Court declared in subsequent decisions that equality can not at
all times be measured in objective terms. The Court also maintained
that equal protection must be granted within the state's borders for
all citizens, and it insisted that education can not be obtained in a
vacuum. When students are excluded from a large segment of so-
ciety and denied the privilege of intellectual interaction with a large
segment of the population, the Court found that segregation in
education was a denial of the equal protection of the law.

Since America is a melting pot of people from many lands and
embracing many races, colors, and creeds, segregation in education
is unreahstic. The Court, in strong language, declared that segre-

100

gated education did not permit segregated citizens the opportunity
to reach their maximum potential in the land of the free and the
home of the brave. May 17, 1954, represents a historic day for all
Americans. Every red-blooded American has a responsibility to aid
in the implementation of this decision which democratized American
education.

101

Santo Domingo
A Rejected Annexation in Retrospect

by
Blanton E. Black

The administration of President Ulysses S. Grant is peculiarly
characterized by his persistent efforts in favor of the annexation of
the Caribbean republic, Santo Domingo, to the United States of
America.

This letter appears in the initial phase of his first term:

Washington, January 10, 1870

To the Senate of the United States:

I transmit to the Senate, for consideration
with a view to its ratification, a treaty for
the annexation of the Dominican Republic
to the United States, signed by the pleni-
potentiaries of the parties on the 29th of
November last.

U. S. Granti

This official request was but the first among a welter of repeated
petitions, explanations, and exhortations as to the wisdom of the
annexation of the Negro republic and the inclusion of its residents
as citizens of the United States. For President Grant, this proposal
and its advocacy became an obsession disturbing in its persistence
and disruptive in its intrusion.

Santo Domingo had secured independence from Haiti in 1844. Her
sovereign status, however, proved to be a doubtful blessing due to
internal dissention and intrigue as well as constant threat of invasion
by Haiti. In desperation, the tiny republic entreated various Euro-
pean powers to consider her a protectorate. Such efforts failed.
However, in 1861, Santa, as president, brought about the annexation
of the country to Spain. This state of affairs met resistence from
the populace who resented the reactional colonial policy of the
Spanish. This opposition, plus the scourging effect of yellow fever,
precluded Spain's efforts to reinstitute her former political dominance.

The end of the Civil War left the United States free to reassert
the hands-off tenets of the Monroe Doctrine. Whereupon, Spain in
1865, gracefully rehnquished jurisdiction of her former dependency.

The petition for annexation to the United States was made in
1869 and found strong support in the newly elected President, U. S.
Grant.

^ James D. Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Vol. 7, 1908.
p. 46.

102

This study does not purport to evaluate the motives, now a century
old, which prompted the Dominican RepubUc's plea for annexation.
There still remains the question as to whether its ratification in Santo
Domingo was truly indigenous in its popularity, or whether the project
was inspired by conniving American adventurers and unscrupulous
local politicians. Neither will this study review the acrimonious de-
bates and interparty quarrels which the protracted affair engendered
in the 1870's.

It is expedient, however, to consider a tragic and puzzhng develop-
ment in the Dominican affair. Its chief opponent and most out-
spoken critic was Charles Sumner, Chairman of the Senate Committee
on Foreign Relations. Sumner's opposition was vindictive and
vitriolic even in the face of those proponents who heralded Santo
Domingo as a haven for the free Negroes of the South who would
find there immediate and full exercise of their civil rights.

Why then the vitriolic opposition of Sumner, champion of Negro
freedom and suffrage? Had he not pubhcly stated that the Negro
could be protected only by giving him the ballot? Did not this same
Charles Sumner foster the enactment of civil rights legislation to
secure equality of treatment of Negroes in pubHc places? And was
he not filled with remorse and chagrin when this act was declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court?

Sumner's opposition was based upon the surmise that the cost
of annexation was unduly expensive. It was felt that parties close
to President Grant who favored the measure were seekers after per-
sonal gain, and, moreover, there was the danger of the establishment
of a questionable precedent: would not, ultimately, the rest of the
West Indies and republics of Central America follow suit with like
pleas of annexation resulting in the dire prospect of the United
States incorporating as its territorial jurisdiction the islands and
nations of the Caribbean? Such a state of affairs, Sumner felt, would
indeed be deplorable! Thus many of the Republicans and all of the
Democrats arrayed against the measure.

Against such a coalition the blandishments of Grant's inept political
maneuverings were of httle avail. Particularly, his reticence and
taciturnity were a handicap to legislative persuasion. There per-
sisted, too, around U. S. Grant, President of the U. S. A., the military
image of U. S. Grant, General of the Army. His rigid mihtary
decorum was a paltry substitute for political finesse. In the position
of president, U. S. Grant possessed neither the politician's perception
of the popular mood, nor the statesman's penchant for moulding
public sentiment.

The proposed annexation was rejected by the Senate, but not
before acrimonious debate, allegations of fraud, and interparty schism
had done their irreparable harm. President Grant, though beaten,
never receded from an abiding faith in the benefits of his proposal.
Encouched in the swan song of his farewell message to Congress,
December 5, 1876, is his plaintive effort for vindication of his
Caribbean venture:

103

Santo Domingo is fertile, and upon its soil may be grown
just those tropical products which the United States use so
much and which are produced or prepared for market now
by slave labor almost exclusively, namely, sugar, coffee, dye-
woods, mahogany, tropical fruits, tobacco, etc.

In reference to Cuba in this matter he says:

About 75 per cent of the exports of Cuba are consumed in
the United States .... legislation, particularly in Cuba, being
unfavorable to a mutual exchange of the products of each
country .... All that is produced in Cuba could be produced
in Santo Domingo . . . The Cuban question would have been
settled long ago in favor of "free Cuba" ....

He spoke of the sparsely settled areas of Santo Domingo by saying:

The island (Santo Domingo) is but sparsely settled, while
it has an area sufficient for the profitable employment of several
millions of people. The soil would have fallen into the hands of
United States capitalists.

Grant also describes possible improvements in Negro-white rela-
tionship stemming from his proposal by saying:

The products are so valuable in commerce that emigration
there would have been encouraged; the emancipated race of
the South would have found there a congenial home, where
their civil rights would not be disputed and where their labor
would be so much sought after that the poorest among them
could have found the means to go. Thus in cases of great
oppression and cruelty, such as has been practiced upon them
in many places within the last eleven years, whole communities
would have sought refuge in Santo Domingo. I do not suppose
the whole race would have gone, nor is it desirable that they
should go. Their labor is desirable indispensable almost
where they now are. But the possession of this territory would
have left the Negro "master of the situation," by enabling him
to demand his rights at home on pain of finding them else-
where. ^

An objective reappraisal of the rejection of the petition for an-
nexation of the Dominican Republic a century ago can but lead to
the following conclusions that now, even as a century ago,

1. the Dominican Republic is perplexed with the problems of
(a) political intrigue from within, and (b) Haitian attack from
without.

2. there exists the fear that unless the United States asserts pa-
ternalistic protection, a left wing European power with inimical
ideology will fill the void of the domestic security.

3. the government of Cuba is hostile toward the United States;

^Richardson, Messages, p. 412.

104

moreover, there persists the problem of "free Cuba:" namely, chattel
slavery in the 1860's communistic slavery in the 1960's.

4. there persists a plaintive though unanswered appeal for the
exercise of civil rights by a major segment of America's native born
citizens.

5. there is the urgent need for reaffirmation of the Monroe
Doctrine emphasizing America for the Americans.

6. the privilege of power politics can not be divorced from the
responsibilities of paternalistic protection.

7. the Halls of Congress are hampered by coalitions of obstruc-
tionists and caucusing conventicles of ineptitude.

8. prolonged and acrimonious debate is self-defeating resulting
in desultory decisions and inane procrastinations.

9. the diplomatic perception and prophetic foresight of Ulysses
S. Grant continues to be maligned and unrequited.

A view in retrospect of President Grant and Santo Domingo is
related to Reconstruction repressions, Negro migration and civil
rights, national expansion, and hemispheric pohcy.

And where do we stand today? For an answer there is but the
frustration of silence conceived in ignorance, prejudice and mis-
understanding, for we know not.

Admittedly, the objective historian, picturing a true narrative,
concedes little room for the subjunctive emphasizing "what might
have been." Nevertheless, the philosophy of history holds yet a cup
for lamentations withal praying that the recognized and admitted
mistakes of the past will point a clearer path for aciton in the future.

What, then, may be said to be some philosophical implications
of this study?

1. Oftentimes, individuals for personal aggrandisement are, never-
theless, proponents of measures beneficial to the plurahty. And
men of base ideals may perchance be involved in events of mo-
mentous importance. Indeed, such events should be evaluated on
their merits rather than by the reputations of the persons associated
therewith.

2. Moreover, for those who aspire to freedom, there is no de-
limiting of time, creed, or place. And, for such aspirants there is
a natural proclivity toward union and the desire for corporate an-
nexation with those already free. The realms of democratic ideaUsm
are beyond defining, for freedom is composed both of material con-
dition and spiritual circumstance.

3. There is a manifest destiny of the United States of America
not of America's own choosing; but rather the resultant of forces
engendered by international crisis coupled with compelUng demands
of national survival. Already her growth from within constitutes

105

the marvel of nations. Yet, it is imperative that the eagle wings of
the Dominion of Democracy spread further to shelter even the waifs
among nations. The writer holds that democracy's growth is in-
evitable. Nevertheless, it is felt that there must be expansion by
peaceful annexation rather than expansion by military aggression.
A broader territorial base of the blessings of democratic ideaUsm
can and will arrest the cancerous spread of the arch-enemy, com-
munism. Mutual incorporation and territorial adoption are far more
potent than atomic domination or dollar diplomacy.

106

A New Clarification of an Old Problem:
Book Selection for College Libraries

by
E. J. Josey

College librarians throughout America welcomed the appearance
of Choice this year. Choice is a new book selection journal which
is published by the Association of College and Research Libraries,
a division of the American Library Association. Choice was not
only hailed by college librarians, but it was also acclaimed by college
professors, because there has been a strong feeling for many years
that there should be a book selection tool for current books, which
would give judicious and timely suggestions on new books for the
undergraduate college library. The weekly issues of Publishers
Weekly, The New York Times Book Review, Book Week and the
fortnightly appearance of Library Journal are too extensive in their
coverage, i.e., the reviews in these publications pervade the entire
field of publishing. In too many instances, scholarly books from
the university presses and foreign publishers are omitted.

This new book selection tool. Choice, will pubUsh brief annota-
tions for about 3,000 current titles per year. These titles will be
selected from the new publications in the subject fields that are
represented in the undergraduate arts and sciences curriculum. The
real value of this publication, in this writer's opinion, is the fact
that these new books will be reviewed and evaluated by college
faculty members currently engaged in teaching in undergraduate
programs throughout the country. Therefore, college faculty mem-
bers may now return to a great responsibihty that too many of their
number wish to abbrogate.

College professors are inextricably a part of the curriculum, for
they are in the classrooms, thus, they should be inextricably bound
to the college library's book selection program, for the college library
undergirds the instructional program and if the college library is
to have a modicum of success in supporting the instructional pro-
gram, then it is imperative that college professors join hands with
hbrarians in building a well balanced book collection for their
libraries.

Although Choice will be limited in that it will review books for
the Liberal Arts curriculum subjects, it will be broad enough for
our purposes here at Savannah State College, for it will, neverthe-
less, cover Reference and General Books, the Humanities, Science
and Mathematics and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. For tech-
nical titles, we must continue to examine The Technical Review Book
Index, Publishers Weekly and Library Journal. In fact, the ap-
pearance of Choice will in no way dictate that the judicious librarian
or meticulous professor in selecting books for the college library
will turn completely away from the standard book selection aids.
The real value of the reviews in Choice will be that the reviewer

107

himself is a part of an undergraduate college program, and he wiU
expUcitly indicate whether or not in his judgment the book which
he is evaluating should be added to the undergraduate library. If
there already exists a better title in the library, he will state this
fact, for this is very important to the college hbrarian who has a
small book budget and who must try to spend wisely among all
subject areas in the curriculum.

The subject of small book budgets makes this a good point at
which to reiterate standards for college library book collections. "An
analysis of small college library statistics suggests that no library
can be expected to give effective support to the instructional pro-
gram if it contains fewer than 50,000 carefully chosen volumes. A
steady growth is essential to any good college library .... Since
there appears to be a correlation between the growth of the student
body and the growth of the collection, there is a convenient measure
based upon observation of the development of college libraries,
which may serve as a guide: up to 600 students, 50,000 volumes; for
every additional 200 students, 10,000 volumes. "^ From the foregoing
standards, it is obvious that many college libraries throughout Ameri-
ca do not meet minimal book collection standards as set forth by
the American Library Association and endorsed by the eight regional
accrediting associations. Consequently, in many college libraries, and
especially in Negro college hbraries, there is a dire need for a crash
program in order to improve these inadequate library collections.^

Is there a relationship between book selection and book collection
standards? The obvious answer is a resounding 'yes.' For the words
of the standards implicitly state "carefully chosen volumes." Thus,
it is of paramount importance that faculty members and librarians
do not select books because they are on the best seller hsts or
because they represent what is currently being read by the avant-
garde. Instead, there should be proper or judicious selection rather
than adding books for the sake of numbers. In short, every title
must not only be viewed for its immediate contribution to the cur-
ricular program, but serious thought should be given to its potential
use. This point has been made crystal clear by a scholarly librarian
who makes a similar reference to the university library which is
germane to the college library. "The quality, that is the value for
research, of a university library ten or fifty or a hundred years from
now is a direct result of its day-to-day selection and acquisition in
the intervening years, just as its value today is direct result of this
activity during the previous years of its history."^

There may be college librarians and professors who would debate
whether or not a college library is a research library in the same

^Association of College & Research Libraries, "Standards for College Librar-
ies," College & Research Libraries, 20:278, July 1959.

^E. J. Josey, "Negro College Libraries and ACRL. Standards," Library Journal
88:2994, September 1, 1963.

^J. Periam Danton, Book Selection and Collections: A comparison of Ger-
man and American University Libraries, (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1963) p. 5.

108

sense as a university library. Since this subject was adequately dis-
cussed at Bowdoin college recently, I shall refrain from adding more
fuel to the flame. ^ Nevertheless, I must hasten to add this point.
The truth of the matter is that if we are serious in our undergraduate
colleges, when we add honors programs to the curriculum and state
that our students will now engage in research and independent study,
then college libraries do take on the characteristics of research
libraries. In a broad sense. Professor Danton's remarks, as quoted
above, have great relevance for college libraries.

In terms of its collections, the college library should not purchase
esoteric materials which would rarely be used except to serve some
parochial interest of a professor in his narrow subject specialty. For
this type of material may easily be borrowed from the university,
the large public and the research libraries within the region or
throughout the nation. In carrying out sound book selection policies
and in adhering to the standards that "... the collection should
contain the standard works which represent the heritage of civihza-
tion. These works should be continuously supplemented by a wide
variety of books which combine timeliness with enduring value
chosen to arouse the intellectual curiosity of students and to satisfy
their recreational needs,""* it is this librarian's firm belief that this
type of collection, as described in the standards, could serve as the
starting point for research and independent study in an undergradu-
ate college program. Of course this presupposes that a strong refer-
ence collection with extensive bibliographies, indices and scholarly
journals in a wide variety of subject fields are also a part of the
library's total resources.

College hbrarians and professors must be cognizant of certain
key factors which must be always kept in mind when they are en-
gaged in the art of book selection for the college library. Carter and
Bonk contend that there are three important factors, for they write,
"The Library of the hberal arts college has three major functions:
( 1 ) to support the curriculum with materials in these subjects taught
by the college; (2) to provide a basic collection aimed at the de-
velopment of the 'humane,' the 'liberally educated person apart
from the curriculum requirements; (3) to support a degree of
faculty research."*'

In the light of the purposes for which the college library exists,
librarians and professors must view book selection as being more
than academic; it is vital. It is essential to growth and development
of the college library. In the words of Guy Lyle, ". . . you can-
not have a first-rate library without a systematic, resourceful, and
enlightened program of book acquisition."^ Unwise book selection

* Place of a Research Library in a Liberal Arts College; Proceedings of a

Symposium, February 21-22, 1963, (Brunswick, Maine: Bowdoin College,

1963) 85 p.
^Association of College & Research Libraries, Op. cit., 276-277.
^Mary Duncan Carter and Wallace John Bonk, Building Library Collections,

2d. ed.; New York: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1964) p. 85.
''Guy Lyle, The President, the Professor, and the College Library, (New

York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1963) p. 35.

109

decisions can be disastrous to the library as well as to the faculty
and students when books that are selected do not meet their curricu-
lar and research needs.

Who should engaged in the book selection process? Ostensibly,
we could answer this question by stating that all persons connected
with the college the college administration, the faculty, the students
and even personnel in the Buildings & Grounds Department, if
they are in need of books that will aid them in their work may
recommend books for purchase. In spite of this liberal policy, there
must be a systematic program developed. In describing the Savannah
State College policy, I attempted to make an appeal for a flexible
program of book selection by the faculty by suggesting that "some
departments have designated one person to make suggestions of books
for purchase. One division asked each faculty member to survey
the holdings in his field and contribute a suggested list which is
compiled and submitted to the division. Some departments have a
laissez faire approach and all faculty members of the departments
may submit book requests whenever they deem it necessary. The
plan used is not important, but it is essential that faculty members
participate in the book selection process, for they are in the class-
room and are aware of their mstructional needs. "^

In some institutions, faculty members have been discouraged from
participation in book selection, because one or two members in a
department dominated the scene. In his terse but succinct manner,
Lyle warns "whenever a department head or individual professor
dominates the selection and acquisition process, there is inevitably
a disinclination on the part of other faculty members to participate
fully. An authoritative attitude toward selection, sometimes mis-
takenly interpreted by hbrarians as an indication of 'hbrary-minded-
ness' on the part of a professor, chokes off, in their early stages,
those younger members of the faculty who could give their time
and interest to the library, '"'^ I share Lyle's view, and in my annual
letter to the faculty at the beginning of each academic year, I indi-
cate that all faculty members may suggest books for purchase, in
spite of the fact that a person may have been designated by his divi-
sion or department head, and/or the department may collectively
submit a list. This freedom to participate in the book selection
process is essential academic freedom for each professor, for ex-
ample, if he is reading his professional journals or the current re-
viewing media, and if, at the same time, he discovers a book that
wiU support his teaching or research requirements, then it is im-
perative that the book should be ordered immediately, rather than
through the Parkinson's red tape of a department or division chair-
man.

Why do college hbrarians attach so much importance to faculty
participation in book selection? College librarians, by and large,

^E. J. Josey, "Enhancing and Strengthening Faculty Library Relationships,"

The Journal of Negro Education, 33:195-196, Spring, 1964.
Guy Lyle, Op. cit. p. 39.

110

view college professors as experts in their fields, and as experts,
they bring not only subject knowledge, but also subject interest in
a field where they have a responsibility for selecting books for the
college library. In a brilliant commencement address at Skidmore
College in 1962, Constance E. Smith, the distinguished Director of
the Radcliffe Institute for Independent Study, presented an excellent
comparison of an expert and an amateur in her speech, "Experts
and Amateurs," which delineates clearly the difference between the
two kinds of persons. Smith stated ". . . that an expert is 'one
who has special skill or knowledge in a particular subject whether
he has acquired it by experience or study.' That is, an expert is a
speciahst, while an amateur is one 'who cultivates a particular pur-
suit, study or science as painting, from taste, without pursuing it
professionally.' Notice that both pursue something, but that the
amateur, although competent, is not professionally engaged in his
field. Neither is a dilettante who 'follows an art or a branch of
knowledge desultorily or superficially . . .' The difference in these
three turns on the degree of commitment, on the style and the en-
thusiasm that one shows for a continuing interest." Thus, librarians
believe that as experts, professors have a strong commitment, possess
a greater enthusiasm, and take a continuing interest in the develop-
ment of the book collection in their subject fields. Consequently,
the professor is the key to the development of an excellent under-
graduate college hbrary.

Throughout this paper, there has been great emphasis placed upon
the role of the professor. It is a great temptation for a hbrarian,
while writing for his professorial colleagues, to minimize the work
of the library staff in book selection. It might be well at this point
to examine the role of Hbrarians in book selection. One of the most
obviously meaningfully stated comments on the librarian's role to
appear in print in recent months is that "actually, in the weU-admin-
istered college or university library, librarians exert just as positive
and direct influence on the development of the book collection as
the coach on the team he trains. The results of their work are
evident in the nature of the book collections. That librarians can
directly build book collections rich in scholarly materials has been
brilliantly demonstrated by some of our large public libraries; the
Chicago Public Library, for instance, has built up collections that,
in some scholarly fields, rival those of universities where undoubtedly
much of the growth has proceeded by faculty interest. "^ College
librarians have also built scholarly collections in their libraries,
especially, in fields where faculty members have little knowledge of
the hterature of their field and in subject areas where faculty mem-
bers have been derelict in their responsibility of suggesting books for
purchase.

Returning to our initial discussion of Choice, to what extent wUl
this new book reviewing journal for college libraries help to clarify
an old problem? From my examination of the first five issues, this

^John Emmett Burke, "The Rising Tide Research Libraries," Stechert-Hafner
Book News, 18:18 October, 1963.

Ill

publication is the panacea for college libraries. In the first place, the
reviewers represent all types of colleges public and private as well
as prestige and the less known institutions. Secondly, the evaluations
and reviews answer specific questions about the books under review.
Thirdly, the professor and librarians who serve as reviewers are
specialists in their subject areas and are cognizant of the needs of
the undergraduate library. Fourthly, the point of view of the evalu-
ator is one of objectivity, i.e., he simply judges the book from the
facts presented, and, in most instances, compares it with another
title in the field. Consequently, these professors' reviews are not
concerned about alienating the author or the publisher. Instead,
they had one central mission, i.e., to inform hbrarians if the title
will fit the needs of their library.

At the time of this writing, three of our faculty members have
reviewed for Choice. Others have been invited and probably they
will appear in future issues. One of these three persons had never
suggested a book for purchase to our hbrary; however, he was
recommended, for he is scholarly, and there may be other reviewers
from other colleges who were recommended by their librarians who
fall in this same category. The preceding discussion incontrovertibly
demonstrates that the advent of Choice is making some professors
aware of their responsibility to the library in terms of book selec-
tion. It is intolerable that the vast reservoir of subject knowledge
which exists in our faculties is not being used for improving the
book collections of libraries. The lack of faculty participation in
the book selection process of our nation's college libraries can not
only impede the progress of the proper growth and development
of our collections, but it can stymie the intellectual growth of students
and faculty, when books necessary for study and research are not
available in their college libraries.

By no stretch of the imagination can we look upon Choice as
solving all of our book selection problems, for it will aid only in
the selection of current books, but the invaluable editorial discussion,
"In the Balance," by its able editor, will be of priceless value to
the busy college librarian. The April and May issues are of special
significance, for the editor discussed basic lists which could serve
as buying guides for many hbraries that must continue to buy standard
works which were not procured during lean years of library support.
Once more it must be emphasized that Choice has mobilized an
untapped reservoir of professional help in the selection of book
collections.

In his scintillating inaugural address as the president of Yale,
Kingman Brewster, Jr., predicted that "day after tomorrow it will
be technically feasible for the core collection of any research library
to be available to all institutions and students wherever they may
be if only they are on the other end of a coaxial cable over which
a printed page can be selected, retrieved, and printed."^ ^ I share
President Brewster's optimism, but 1 must quickly declare that most

^New York Times, April 12, 1964, p. 74.

112

of the colleges of our land do not possess financial support which
will permit them to have access to the "coaxial cable." Therefore,
librarians in these institutions will have to use Choice as the coaxial
cable for their students and faculty. In the years ahead, we will look
to Choice for a new clarification of an old problem, book selection
for college libraries.

113

A Study of the Use of the National Teacher

Examinations Within Institutions and School

Systems Located Primarily in the

Southern Region

by
Calvin L. Kiah

Since 1963, Savannah State College has used the National Teacher
Examinations as the institutional comprehensive examination for
all persons majoring in a teaching area offered by the College. Prior
to our decision to employ these examinations as the comprehensive
examination for all teaching majors, institutional policy at our college
had required successful completion of a comprehensive examination
of all persons to qualify for graduation. Until our employment of
the NTE, however, comprehensive examinations were of institutional
origin, constructed and administered within each specialized de-
partmental area. Satisfactory performance on such examinations
was, thereby, departmentally determined. At the outset it was
decided that no cutting or qualifying score indicating satisfactory
completion would be established, but based upon the experience
gleaned from the results over a period of time one would be agreed
upon at a later date.

Some discussion during the past year in a committee considering
the institutional comprehensive examination resulted in a decision
to establish a critical or minimum score to be achieved by each
student in order to qualify for graduation.

To achieve maximum defensibility for this decision, it was deemed
wise to solicit the policy and procedure followed by other profes-
sional bodies interested in determining teacher quahty. This seems
particularly applicable in view of the fact that our comprehensive
is a standardized one, widely used by both educational institutions
and employing agencies in the assessment of teacher competence
and potential.

In order to assemble a fund of data which would aid us in our
effort to arrive at an acceptable minimum score, a brief question-
naire was prepared for circulation among a selected number of
teacher preparation institutions and employing school systems. To
guarantee maximum response, the questionnaires were inscribed on
self-addressed postal cards.

They asked for responses to the following items:

Institution

I. Do you employ the National Teacher Examination in your pro-
gram of Teacher Education? Yes No If so, what

purpose does it serve?

114

1 ) Admission to student teaching? Score Req.

2) General requirement for graduation? Score Req.

n 3) Other Score Req

(Please state)

II. What disposition is made of persons who fail to achieve quali-
fying scores?

1) Retake exam at earliest opportunity

2) Required to take additional courses before taking exam again

3) Student is allowed to take exam but one time

D 4) Other

(Please state)

School System.

I. Do you employ the National Teacher Examination as a screen-
ing device in the selection of teachers for your system?

Yes No

II. If you do, what minimum score must an applicant achieve to
be favorably considered for employment? Score

III. Please indicate whether this is a state requirement or a local
one. State Local

We concentrated our inquiries primarily in our own geographic area
and in institutions of a size roughly comparable to our own. Though
this was the general pattern of our sampling, we did, nevertheless,
spot check institutions in other areas and of varying sizes and types
which also prepare teachers. The school systems contacted were
wholly within our own region and the border states. Institutions
contacted were selected from the 1961-1962 membership list of the
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. The school
systems we selected rather arbitrarily keeping in mind that our ob-
jective would be to select a group from which we might expect to
elicit a reasonably representative picture of what the performance
in the area is.

The questionnaires were distributed to a total of 75 institutions
and 43 school systems. Of the 75 institutions contacted, 67 or 89%
responded. Of the 43 school systems contacted, 40 or 93% re-
sponded.

115

A summation of the findings of the survey is herewith presented.

No.
Institutions
Contacted

No. Respond-
ing

No. Employ-
ing Exam

Percentage of
total contacted
employing exam

No. Requiring
Minimum Score

75

67

22

29

Purpose for Which Exam is Employed

Admission to
student teaching

Gen. Graduate
Requirement

Other

None

13

Retake

Exam

Disposition of Failures

Additional Courses
Acquired

Exam taken
only once

Other

1

1

1

1. The number of institutions employing the NTE was small
only 29%

2. For the purposes of this study, and using the NTE, the most
significant finding is the following: of the colleges responding,
only one institution indicated a critical score and this seemed
tied to state certification requirements rather than to basic
institutional policy.

3. Some of those responding from the colleges which presently
use the NTE indicated some intention to estabhsh critical
scores but "none has as yet been estabhshed" (the foregoing
is a typical statement).

4. One institution, a large one in the northern area of the nation,
expressed deep distrust of the NTE as an instrument for
assessing teacher competence.

5. Of the institutions contacted outside the southern area, there
seemed httle evidence of employment of the NTE.

6. Three institutions commented that while they do not use the
National Teacher Examinations, they do employ the Teacher
Education Examination Program (TEEP) which is another
examination provided by the Educational Testing Service. None
of these institutions, however, has established a critical or
cutting score.

7. Under "Purpose for Which Education is Employed," 9 re-
ported, as a general requirement for graduation and 13 re-
ported under other reasons. In only one case, however, was
a certain score established which each student was required
to attain to qualify for graduation. No institution reported
employment for determining ehgibility for admission to student
teaching.

8. Of the 13 institutions reporting "other" under purposes for

116

employing the NTE, 8 of the reasons were connected with
providing opportunity for their students to comply with certifi-
cation requirements.

The mformation requested under II, dealing with the dispo-
sition of persons who score lower than the minimum was
understandably sparse, even inappropriate, in view of the
virtual unanimity of the respondents in not having established
minimum critical scores. However, it will be noted that 5 in-
stitutions reported measures taken. It is interpreted here that
these institutions, observing scores lower than certification
requirements, provide opportunities for their students to retake
the examination. One institution, it will be noted, provides
additional courses designed to help students strengthen them-
selves in areas of weaknesses as revealed by the examination.

No. School

Systems No. Respond-
Contacted ing

School

No. Employ-
ing Exam

System

No. Requir-
ing Minimum
Score

State Re-
quirement

Local Re-
quirement

43 40 15(38%) 10(25%) 3 15

1. Of the 40 systems reporting, 15 or 38% of the school systems
responding employ the NTE as a screening device in the se-
lection of teachers for employment. Of the 15, 10 or 25%
set a critical or minimum score. The lowest qualifying score
reported by a school system was 425 on the common and
420 on the optional. Considerable tendency was observed on
the part of the school systems reporting to require the NTE
for employment as local policy where no state requirement
exists. Also, where no local or state policy presently exists,
comments from many systems indicated that they are moving
in the direction of establishing such policy in the not too dis-
tant future.

2. There was evidence that at least two states within which insti-
tutions reporting are located are presently requiring applicants
for certification to take the NTE. Comments from the re-
spondents in these two states indicate that failure to achieve
satisfactory scores will affect salary and certification levels.
An additional state is actively considering adoption of the
NTE as an aspect of its certification process.

Conclusions

From the above data it would seem safe to conclude the following:

1) That, insofar as the sampling in this study can attest, institu-
tions which prepare teachers in our region do not make ex-
tensive use of the National Teacher Examinations as was
originally assumed at the outset of this study.

2) That, of the number who do employ the NTE there is almost
complete absence of critical minimum scores which must be

117

attained by a student in order to qualify for graduation. One
is led to speculate as to why this is so. The scope of this
study did not permit assessment of this aspect of the problem.
Is there reluctance to commit such weighty authority to one
single instrument when the student has successfully completed
all requirements of local origin? Is it fear that NTE results,
as with any test other than actual performance, may constitute
insufficient evidence of ability to perform effectively in an
actual situation? Or could it be that our programs have simply
not grown as there was some indication of, to the point where
a device of this nature has become an integral aspect?

3) That, on the other hand, there is evidence that employing
systems in our area are making use of the NTE as a screening
device in establishing eligibiUty for employment and/or de-
termination of salary level. Such systems establish critical
scores and refuse employment to persons faiUng to achieve
the minimum.

4) That the percentage of school systems which presently employ
this device, as revealed by this study, while not a majority,
does seem to indicate that the agencies which employ our
graduates tend to use the NTE as the measuring rod. The
approving statements of systems not now employing the NTE
plus the seeming trend of state certifying agencies acting as
a spur leaves the impression in this study that the trend, at
least in our area, will be toward a more extensive use of the
NTE by employing agencies as the screening device for de-
termining teacher selection and employment.

Finally, there can be no doubt that the function served by the
NTE in our institutions as revealed in this study is vague and in-
decisive. There is, possibly, need for concerted action on the part
of the institutions preparing teachers to assess the potential of NTE
for revealing teacher potential so that we may have a basis for
decisive action in our programs designed to realize upon that po-
tential. It would appear that employing agencies are going to make
increased use of NTE as a measuring device. We should either
reveal its invalidity, if that is so determined, or design ways for
effectively incorporating it as an aspect of our programs so as to
assure that the most effective practitioners possible complete our
programs and present themselves for employment as teachers in
our schools.

118

Senior Majors and Their Ratings
On the NTE and TEEP

by
James A. Eaton

The concern of the Savannah State College faculty with achieve-
ment approaching the state of excellence might well be centered
upon the performance of the college's seniors on two standardized
tests taken during the 1963-1964 school term The National Teach-
ers Examination and the Teacher Education Examination. While
these tests deal specifically with the work of the teacher education
majors, they yield some interesting reflections on how well the
students are grasping the work within their major areas in comparison
to other persons who have taken the tests and who have similar
major areas.

The National Teachers Examinations (NTE and the Teacher
Education Examination Program (TEEP)) are both sponsored by
the Educational Testing Service with the general idea of evaluating
the general professional preparation and the teaching field optional
preparation of teachers or seniors in the teaching curriculum. TEEP
is the newer of the two and it is designed specifically for seniors,
although the NTE has been used and is still being used by many col-
leges to evaluate their seniors' weaknesses and strengths. This year,
Savannah State College had as "either/or" provision on the tests,
but beginning next year, all students in the teaching curriculum will be
required to take the TEEP as a senior comprehensive examination.

While this report will deal only with the results within the majors
or teaching fields area, it might be worthwhile first to take a brief
look at the performance of this year's seniors on the General Pro-
fessional Examinations of the NTE and the TEEP.

On the General or Commons Examination of the NTE, the fifty-
three students taking it had a mean score of 429.88, with a range
in scores from 328 to 537. According to ETS, approximately half
of the people taking the test scored between 545 and 655; one quarter
score above 655 and one quarter, below 545. The national mean
score is given as 600. Seven of the seniors scored 500 or above,
none made 600, and the highest score was 29.4 national percentile
ranking.

On the TEEP General Professional Examination, there is no total
score as on the NTE. Consequently, to approximate a similar score,
an average of the mean scores set by the test makers to give some
idea of the comparative ranking. The average mean of the local
group was 14.08 as compared to the national mean of 20.08. This
is approximately in the 37th percentile ranking higher than the
percentile ranking on the NTE. Four or 18.18% of the seniors
taking the TEEP made total scores as high as or higher than the
national mean. Consequently it is apparent that the students taking

119

the TEEP tended to make a better showing than did those taking
the NTE.

Looking at the major concern of this report, the comparative
scores in the major teaching fields, one finds variations in what was
accomphshed. By comparing national percentile rankings, one can
see that business education and mathematics majors who took the
TEEP made better scores than they did on the NTE. On the other
hand, elementary education majors and English majors taking the
NTE did remarkably better than those taking the TEEP. There was
no substantial difference in the performance of physical education
and social studies majors on the two tests, (see table :#:!)

Table No. 1 Mean Percentile Ratings on NTE and TEEP, 1963

NTE

TEEP

Major Areas

Mean

Range

No.

Mean

Range

No.

Art Education

3.0

3.0

1

none

Business Education

15.86

9-28

7

22.75

3-425

2

Elementary Education

14.29

3-28

14

5.72

1-13.50

9

English

9.33

3-16

6

1.0

1.0

1

Gen. Sc, Biology

Concentrate

16.38

3-42

8

N.S.*

Phy. Sc, Con-

centrate

2.0

3.0

1

none

Industrial Arts

22.0

4-34

3

none

Physical Education

3.0

3.0

1

2.0

2.0

1

Mathematics

4.83

1-14

6

10.88

1-22

4

Social Studies

7.57

1-13

7

7.13

1-13

4

*No national norms available.

This table indicates some other rather sobering facts. Percentile-
wise, on the NTE, the highest mean score (in Industrial Arts) was
m the 22nd percentile, although the range of scores in that area was
from 4 to 34 percentile. The highest mean on the TEEP was also
in the 22nd percentile, but they were in the area of business educa-
tion. Excepting the 3 to 42 range in biology (made by non-teaching
biology majors), all of the percentile means and ranges, excluding
those previously mentioned, were painfully low on the percentile
scale. Some fields are lower than others, but there is not too much
"to shout about" in any area.

The "why" behind these scores is something that deserves con-
sideration. It can be assumed that no single factor can reveal that
"why." Obviously, many combinations of factors exist involving
the students, the teachers, the college atmosphere, the campus and
city living conditions, the general motivational factors of the culture,
etc. Because so many factors are involved, it might seem easier to
forget the poor performance the students are making and to continue
with "business as usual." But in view of the imperatives of our age,
in view of the certain stiff competition the graduates of the College
will face, does it not seem mandatory that some serious research
efforts be made to determine not only why the students perform as
they do on these tests but to attempt to improve their performance?

120

Library Use at Savannah State
A Symposium

by

E. J. Josey, Althea Williams and Luella Hawkins

Introduction

E. J. Josey

At regular intervals, the librarian and his staff must report to the
faculty and the administration on the state of the college library.
One of the best methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the library
in supporting the instructional program of a college is to study the
use made of the library by the students.

American scholars contend that colleges which rank high in
academic excellence possess a student body which does extensive
reading. On the other hand, they indicate that poor use of library
resources reflect a poor college in the academic sense. About five
years ago, Patricia Knapp, in her book, "The Role of the Library in
College Training" declared, "educators are giving to calling the
library 'the heart of the college' but is it really? In my opinion
it is an untapped reservoir."

In order to ascertain to what extent students make use of the
materials in the library collection, the library staff decided to embark
upon an investigation. It was decided that a study should be made
of books circulated to students also a study should be made of the
extent of the use made of reference tools in the Reference Depart-
ment during a five-day period, January 27 through January 31, 1964.

Althea Williams, our Circulation Librarian, studied the use of
books borrowed from the library during the period, and Luella
Hawkins, our Reference Librarian, surveyed the use made of refer-
ence books and facihties.

A Study of Student Book Circulation at Savannah State College:

Althea Williams

This self study was conducted in order to inform the library staff
of the characteristics of users of books and the purpose for which
the books were circulated.

The study was in operation for a five-day period, January 27-31,
1964. Figure 1 shows the special call slips filled in by students
during this period. These slips were used by students who checked
out fourteen-day books and it can be seen that these slips indicate
the following data: (1) student's name; (2) his classification;
(3) his sex; (4) the author's name; and (5) the call number and
title of the book. The slip also indicated whether the book was
checked out for the following reasons: a) assigned by instructor;
b) extra reading for class initiated by the student; and c) purely
recreational reading.

121

Library Survey
Savannah State College

Call

No

Author .

Title

Borrower

Sex

Classification

Please check one of the following:

1. Assigned reading

2. Extra reading on your own for class

3. Recreational reading

Figure 1. Sample of Call Slip Used in Study

The shps were tallied daily so that use per day could be determined.
The students were not alerted that the study was being conducted.
Only when they came to check out materials did they learn that the
extra slip was to be filled in. The desk attendant explained that this
study had no bearing on the student personally. This was done so
that we could get a normal record of usage. We did not want the
study biased by students checking out books just to get their names
on record.

The use which is expected to be made of these data is as follows:
1) to determine what use is being made of our facilities 2) to
present these findings to the faculty for purpose of guidance and
stimulation of student reading habits and 3 ) to encourage the facul-
ty to make more use of the hbrary in their teaching.

The information obtained is presented in the following tables:
Table 1 Per day Book Use of Library by Classification and Sex
Table 2 Book Use Per Day by Purpose

122

Table 3 Distribution of Book Use by General Divisions of
Dewey Decimal System

Table 4 Recreational Reading by Classification

Table 5 Classification, Sex, Quarter Average and Use Purpose
of Students Borrowing Five or More Books

Table 6 Borrowers by Sex and Use by Classes

Table 7 Quarter Averages for 230 Borrowers

Summary of Findings

This survey resulted in diversified findings. A total of 230 students
out of a total enrollment of 1152 students or roughly 20% of the
total student enrollment borrowed 43 1 books during the survey period
January 27-31.

Of the 230 students who borrowed books, 87 students or 37.8%
of the total borrowers were freshmen; 45 students or 19.6% of the
total borrowers were sophomores; 49 students or 21.3% of the total
borrowers were juniors; 47 students or 20.4% of the total borrowers
were seniors; and 2 students or .9% of the total borrowers were
unclassified. Book borrowers by classification ranked in the order
of the greatest number of student borrowers are as follows: fresh-
men, juniors, seniors, sophomores and unclassified. A more mean-
ingful comparison would have resulted if the total number of students
who used books by classification could have been compared with
the total number of students, enrolled by classification. However,
since classification of students is made by the Registrar's office only
once a year, during the fall quarter, this classification was not possible.

An assessment of books checked out for assigned reading shows
that of the 431 books borrowed during this period, 164 books or
38.1% were assigned books. Book borrowers by student classifica-
tion and ranked on the basis of the greatest number of books bor-
rowed for assignments stated percentagewise are as follows: fresh-
men, 54.8%; juniors, 29.4%; seniors, 28.1%; sophomores, 26%;
and unclassified, 0%.

The only comment felt to be justifiable is that assigned readings
comprised the largest portion of the books which freshmen borrowed.
It might be inferred that on the basis of this study, assigned readings
were more prevalent among the freshman students.

An examination of extra reading for class work reveals that of the
431 books that were borrowed during this period, 213, or 49.4%
were books borrowed by the student on his own volition for class
purposes.

123

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Table 1 reveals the fact that the largest number of books borrowed
by the student on his own and stated as a percentage of the total
number of books circulated to students within a specific classification
is as follows: unclassified, 100%; seniors, 59.4%; juniors, 55.3%;
sophomores, 54.5%; and freshmen, 36.9%.

While the total number of students enrolled at the institution
may influence the total number of books borrowed by book classifi-
cation, it appears, excluding the unclassified students, that the longer
a student stays at the College, the more aggressive he becomes in
securing books on his own to supplement class assignments.

Table 2. Recreational Reading by Classification

000

None

100

Personality and adjustment

The art and skill of getting along with people

Life and knowledge

Unpopular essays Total ____ 4

200

None

137

Patty.

150

Duvall.

192

Russell.

192

Russell.

300

N301.5 Baldwin. Nobody knows my name

301.15 McDermott. Living for young modems

327 Laserson. The American impact

328 Sturgis. Standard code for parliamentary procedure
338.5 Bye. Social economy

371.13 Bell. Effective teaching

372 Burgess. Courtship, engagement and marriage

372 Klausmeier. Teaching in the elementary school

392 Brown. Sex and the single girl Total

400

468.2 Giner. De Los Rios Cumbres de la Civilizacion

468.8 Grismer. Buenos amigos, buenos vecinos

468.2 McSpadden. Introduction to Spanish usage Total

500

510 Allendoerfer. Principles of Mathematics

510.7 Martin. Practical mathematics
575 Darwin. Origin of the species

Total

600

620.7 Leach. Elementary problems in engineering
658 Lehrer. Work simplification

125

Total

700

759 U. S. Gallery. Great painting

782.8 Loewe. My fair lady
793 Textbook on ballet

Total

800

N810.8 Cromwell. Readings from Negro authors

N811 Hughes. Ask your mama

J811 Whitaker. Singing teakettle

813.4 Jefferson. Henry James

821 Church. John Keats

823.8 Bronte. Jane Eyre

844.9 Camus. Resistance, rebellion and death

Total

900

N917.3 Wright. Twelve million black voices

921 Blanche. The life and letters of Emily Dickinson

921 Edwards. Joan of Arc

921 Lewis. With love from Gracie

921 Nathan. Tales of a teacher

921 Ward. Chaucer

921 Woodham. Lonely crusader

N927 Moore. The Archie Moore story

920.2 Belzines. I fought with Geronimo Total

Buck.

Dane.

Gardner,

Gardner.

Kaufman.

Mercer.

Panter.

Spellman.

Taylor.

Van Vechten.

Weinreh.

Williams.

Wouk.

Young.

Fiction

Command the morning
The flower girls
Case of curious bride
Case of runaway corpse
Remember me to God
Rachel Cade
One fine day
The foundhng
Chicken every Sunday
Nigger heaven
The Socerers
House divided
Youngblood Hawke
A good man

Total Recreational Reading
out of total of 431
or 12.5% of use

Total .-._ 14
._. 54 books

Turning to recreational reading as revealed in Table 4, it was
discovered that of the 431 books that were borrowed during this
period, 54 books, or 12.5% were borrowed by the student for
recreational reading. An examination of the titles indicated as

126

recreational reading by the students raises serious questions regard-
ing their use for recreation. A breakdown of books circulated for
recreational reading is as follows: sophomore, 19.5%; juniors
15.3%; seniors, 12.5%; freshmen, 8.3%; and unclassified, 0%.

Perhaps the only inference to be made is that freshmen tend to
do less recreational reading when expressed as a percentage of their
total readings, than do sophomores, juniors and seniors. This reading
behavior would appear to be normal since assigned readings are
expected to constitute a significant part of the freshman work.

Table 3. Classification, Sex, Quarter Average and Use Purpose
of Students Borrovi'ing Five or More Books.

Number of
Books

Classification

Sex

Quarter
A verage

Purpose

10

Senior

Female

C

Assigned

9

Senior

Female

C

Extra

6

Junior

Female

c

Assigned

6

Freshman

Male

c

Assigned 4
Extra 2

5

Junior

Female

c

Assigned 1
Extra 4

5

Sophomore

Female

c

Assigned 1
Extra 4

5

Sophomore

Female

c

Assigned 1
Extra 4

5

Freshman

Female

B

Extra

5

Freshman

Female

C

Assigned

5

Freshman

Male

C

Assigned 2
Extra 2
Recreational 1

According to Table 3, fifty books were borrowed by girls during
this period while only sixteen books were borrowed by boys. It is
also noteworthy to find that both male borrowers were freshmen.

127

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The heaviest day of circulation was Thursday, January 30. This
did not run true to form as Monday is usually the heaviest circulation
day of the v^eek.

When a check on quarter averages was made, the majority of
the borrowers maintained a 'C average; those with 'D' averages
followed; students with averages of 'B' next and three students main-
tained an average of 'F'.

Table 4 shows the per day book use of the library by classification
and sex and it reveals the fact that there were 431 books borrowed
during the period and it also shows the daily circulation. Classifica-
tion and sex of the students are also reflected by the table.

It can be seen from Table 5 that fiction led the list in recreational
reading, followed by books in history and social science classifica-
tions. It should be noted that books in education fall in the 370
classification.

129

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A total of ten students checked out five or more books. The high-
est number was ten books, checked out by a senior female with an
average of 'C. All of these books were borrowed for assigned read-
ing. All of the students in the category of five books or more main-
tained a 'C average, with the exception of a freshman female, with
an average of 'B' whose five books were for extra reading on her
own for class. These numbers and percentages can be seen from
Table 6.

Table 6. Quarter Averages for 230 Borrowers,

Average

Percentage

B

20

8.7

C

123

53.5

D

84

36.5

F

3
230

Students

1.3

100 %

Reference Services:
Luella Hawkins

Samuel Rothstein, after studying a number of reports on the sub-
ject, made the following observations which are pertinent to our
discussion: 'The measurement and evaluation of reference service
has been more often discussed than attempted . . . The reference
service of college and university, school and special libraries has
been subjected to very Httle quantitative analysis in any of its aspects
other than inter-library loans. "^ Rothstein confirms our observation
that comparable reference statistics are difficult to obtain. Although
no comparison will be attempted in this study, the library staff was
of the opinion that a self-examination would, nevertheless, be valuable
in helping them determine the quantity and type of service demanded
as well as the use made of reference tools and the seating facilities.

Such a study was made May 9-13, 1960, eight months after the
library moved into new quarters in September 1959. The present
study made January 27-31, 1964, was patterned along the lines of
the initial one which sought to determine:

1 . The number of patrons and the use made of the facilities in the
Reference Department.

2. The distribution of these patrons throughout the day.

3. The number and time distribution of persons making use of
the reference services offered.

4. The type of reference questions asked and the resources used
to answer them.

^Samuel Rothstein, "The Measurement and Evaluation of Reference Service,"
Library Trends, 12 (January 1964) pp. 456-57.

131

5. The number and time distribution of directional questions.

In order to obtain this information the Reference Department set
up the following procedures:

1 . A daily attendance sheet was kept at the desk. Approximately
twenty minutes after each class period began, a count was
made of the persons using reference books, periodicals (bound
or unbound) records, or microfilm. A check was also made
of those using other materials personal books, papers, maga-
zines, or other library materials not classed as reference. How-
ever, no attempt was made to subdivide the two classes by type.

2. All directional questions were tallied. Examples of this type
of question are : Where is Smith's Political Science Dictionary?
Do you have a copy of Gardner's Art Through the Ages, etc.?

3. When a patron asked a question that required the librarian to
give some assistance, he was asked to fill out a special slip
provided for this study. The following information was soli-
cited: date, time, name, classification, sex, and a short nota-
tion on the nature of material wanted. The librarian com-
pleted the slip to show the reference source or sources used
in answering the question, whether instruction was given in
the use of the material, and whether the department had suffi-
cient material on the subject.

A study of the information gathered through the above means
showed that the majority of students at Savannah State College were
not using the Reference Department even as a study hall. There are
162 study stations in the Department. On Wednesday, January 29,
at 10:40, only 80 persons were counted. This was the largest number
present at any one time during the survey.

132

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The total attendance for the period of the study was 1853 and is re-
corded in Table 7. Of this total, 620 or 33.5 per cent of the patrons
were using materials from the Reference Department.

During the five-day study period, the library was open a total of
61V^ hours thirteen hours daily Monday through Thursday and
91^ hours on Friday. Significant use was made of the reference
facilities for only the first seven hours of each day.

Of the 1853 patrons who used the Reference Department during
the study, 1362 or 73.5 per cent were counted during these hours,
8:40 A.M. to 2:20 P.M. Two hundred eleven or 11.4 per cent used
the department during the three periods of the count at 3:20, 4:20
and 5:20. Two hundred eighty or 15.1 per cent of the total number
of patrons were counted during the 6:20, 7:20 and 8:20 check.

It should be noted here that the attendance would have been higher
at the 10:40 period except for the fact that there were assemblies on
Monday and Friday. The night attendance was also affected by
basketball games placed on Monday and Wednesday.

On the basis of the above distribution of attendance in the Refer-
ence Department of the Library, the same conclusions and recom-
mendations made in the 1960 report are valid in 1964 specifically,
"Most of the attendance is in the first seven hours of the day. Sa-
vannah State College is mainly a commuter's college; consequently,
students come early to study and to attend classes. If there is ever
a problem of space, thought should be given to adjusting the course
offerings of the college, so that use of the facilities will be spread
more evenly over the entire day."

An examination of rejerence and directional questions reveals in-
teresting facets of use of the reference department at Savannah State
College. Students are not taking full advantage of the reference tools
provided for them by their library. The number of questions re-
quiring the librarians to give some assistance was infinitesimal. The
foregoing statement does not mean to imply that students are study-
ing or using reference tools only if they have asked the librarian for
assistance. Observation has shown, however, that when most of the
students do not seek assistance, they tend to use the same tools re-
peatedly. They do not become familiar with the many titles avail-
able in the various fields. Table 8 shows the number and the varied
indexes that the students were referred to when assistance was
solicited.

Table 8. Indexes Ranked in Order of Number of Times Used For
Answering Reference Questions.

No. Times
No. Times Used Instruction Given

Reader's Guide to Periodic Literature

International Index to Periodicals

Business Periodicals Index

Granger's Index to Poetry

Biography Index

Education Index

New York Times Index

134

5

3

3

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

No attempt was made to prorate the weekly total of 39 reference
questions among the 1152 students enrolled during the study. Actual-
ly, the students submitted only 33 of the reference questions. Four
of the inquiries were made by community patrons and two by mem-
bers of the faculty and staff. These figures are shown in Table 9.

Table 9. Reference Questions by Classification and Sex of Patron.

Faculty
Sex Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Staff Community

Male

3

1

6

6

2

Female

5

4

6

2

4

Total 8 5 12 8 2 4

No pattern of correlation could be found between total attendance
at any given hour and the number of reference questions. Only one
time period, 2:20, placed fourth in both categories. On the other
hand, the 3:20 period ranked tenth in attendance and first in the
number of reference questions. Two instances of correlation could
be found in the daily tables Tuesday ranked second and Friday
ranked fifth in both attendance and reference questions.

In addition to the reference questions, the department received
many inquiries of a directional nature. These, of course, are inci-
dental to true reference or research work, but they do serve a real
purpose. During the period of the initial Use-Study in 1960, the
students did not know the location of the materials in the new library.
Consequently, they asked 211 directional questions. According to
Table 10 only 49 questions of this nature were asked during this
study.

Table 10. Comparison of Statistics from 1960 and 1964 Use
Studies Attendance number and percentage.

Date Total

8:20 - 2:20

3:20 - 5:20

6:20 - 8:20

Questions
Reference Directional

May 9-13 1379
1960

Jan 27-31 1853
1964

997 (72.3%)
1362 (73.5%)

212 (15.4%)
211 11.4%)

170 (12.3%)
280 (15.1%)

56 211
39 49

Enrollment: Sprin

g 1960-878

Winter 1964-1152

In the first study, students submitted more reference questions than
they did in the present study 56 in 1960 and 39 in 1964. The
attendance in both years shows that students visited the Reference
Department an average of 1.6 times during the five-day period.

Today, the students seem to know how to find their way around
the library, but they are doing less research work.

135

Implications for the Instructional Program

E. J. Josey

The members of the hbrary staff view the findings as being serious
and challenging. The implications for the instructional program are
quite apparent, as we examine Althea Williams' disclosure that only
twenty per cent or 230 students from the total student body borrowed
books from the college hbrary during this period. We regard this
finding as being rather alarming, for it substantiates our belief that
teaching methods here at Savannah State, for the most part, are
geared to the use of one text book, and, therefore, our students can
pass their courses without consulting additional reading materials.

At this point, we are reminded of a criticism of faculty teaching
methods made about 25 years ago by Randall and Goodrich who
stated "in many cases, the instructors themselves must be blamed.
It is much easier to find one or two books which are useful, and to
assign them over and over again, than it is to be constantly seeking
material to produce bibliographies for student use which will admit
of choice and will remove to some extent the stigma of assignment."^
In short, professors should expose their students to a wide variety
of readings rather than confine them to the covers of one textbook.

Turning to assigned reading. Miss Williams reported that of the
431 books borrowed, 38.1 per cent or 167 titles were circulated for
assignment purposes. Thus, some faculty members are requiring as-
signed reading, but 167 titles constitute only a small per cent of the
library's total collection.

One bright ray of hope is the fact that a large number of books,
213 or 49.4 per cent, were borrowed for extra curricular reading.
Reinforcing Williams' observations, it must be noted that the seniors
borrowed more books than students in other classifications for volun-
tary reading. Nevertheless, it is still tragic that seniors constituted
such a small per cent of the total number of students borrowing
from the library. From Table 11 its appears that senior courses
should also require more of these students to use the hbrary on their
own volition or to use the hbrary because of the reading demands
of the advanced courses.

Table 11. Borrowers by Sex and Use by Classes.

Total Male Enrollment Total Checking Books

Winter Quarter

432 77 or 1.78%

Total Female EnroUment Total Checking Books

Winter Quarter

720 153 or 2.13%

-William M. Randall and Francis L. D. Goodrich, Principles of College Li-
brary Administration, Chicago: American Library Association and the
University of Chicago Press, 1936, p. 152.

136

Use by Classes

Freshmen 87 or 37.8%

Sophomore 45 or 19.6%

Junior 49 or 21.3%

Senior 47 or 20.4%

Unclassified 2 or .9%

An examination of recreational reading left us a little disturbed
to discover that only 54 books or 12.5 per cent of the total titles
circulated were for recreational reading. It is essential that our students
begin to read beyond the formal requirements of the classroom. We
must find some way to make our students aware of the facts that
books may be read for conscious and unselfconscious pleasure. Extra-
curricular reading is one of the imperatives of our times for Negro
college students, especially if they envision and expect to acquire the
lifetime reading habit, which must be stimulated while they are still
in college.

In talking with the Savannah State College faculty recently,
President Howard Jordan, Jr., quoted one of Martin Jenkins' ad-
monitions about Negro college students. The admonition is that "they
must be led, somehow, to read widely for information, understanding
and enjoyment and to carry this habit of reading into and throughout
their adult years. "'^ Therefore, it is the library staff's belief that the
faculty must encourage extra-curricular reading. Even more im-
portant than encouraging extra reading, faculty members must discuss
books that they are reading with their students, thus inculcating a
love for and an appreciation for reading of good books. A professor's
comment about good books can become an infectious virus passed
on to the student. Sometime ago, I made an assertion which I believe
is still relevant. "The faculty is in an advantageous position to nurture
the love for books and reading in the classroom or in any situation
where they have face-to-face contact with students."^

In considering reference, we agree with Shores who contends that
"reference is to library service what intelHgence is to the military."
It may be said that the Reference Department in the college library
is the index to the research and to the informational needs of students
and faculty. No significant inquiry or research can take place with-
out having consulted reference tools and, at some point, having con-
ferred with the reference hbrarian. In short, meaningful scholarship
begins with an exhaustive bibliographical search, which is a direct
and spontaneous product of knowledge of reference tools and the
professional assistance from the reference hbrarian.

On the negative side, it may very well be that our students do not
have to engage in independent study and research, for Luella Hawkins

^Martin P. Jenkins, "The Negro College Needed: A New Emphasis in
Curriculum and Teaching," Tlie Howard University Magazine, Vol. 6
(January 1964) p. 14.

*E. J. Josey. "The College Library and Reading," Education, Vol. 80 (March
1960) p. 425.

137

indicated that "at only one time period did patrons take up almost
fifty per cent of the seating capacity of the Reference Department
of the Savannah State College Library." Term papers may have
gone out of style, or the period from January 27-January 31 was
far too early for our students to begin an exhaustive bibUographical
search for their research papers.

The results of Luella Hawkins' investigation of the use of reference
sources point up some important ramifications. Firstly, the small
number of students who use the reference sources and facihties cor-
roborates Knapp's premise that the college library "is an untapped
reservoir." Secondly, it is shameful and ludicrous to amass an ex-
pensive reference collection which could illuminate and aid our
students for study and research, and, yet, these tools are not used.
And thirdly, the very little use made of the indexes, as pointed out
by Hawkins, demonstrates the need for a coordinated instructional
program in the use of the hbrary. Lack of use of these materials,
in all probability, stems from lack of knowledge regarding the real
reference value and the creative use that may be achieved by using
these important bibliographical tools.

Writing about the need for library instruction, Daniel Gore, As-
sistant Librarian at Ashville-Biltmore College, stated "The time is
at hand, it seems to me, to begin teaching students the principles of
bibliographic procedure as part of the required curriculum, so they
will not remain forever dependent on the costly and inefficient
services of the reference hbrarian. (I say inefficient for the reason
that often the student knows so little of the resources of the help,
and routinely neglects many aids to study simply because he hasn't
even imagined they exist. The reference librarian cannot answer the
questions that are not asked, and they may well be more important
than the ones that are.)"^

I concur wholeheartedly with Gore, except on one point. Although
he clarified his definition of inefficient, I still believe that if the
student has some knowledge of reference tools, the reference libra-
rian's task then would be one of efficiency, for his or her very act
of reference assistance would be an act of perpetual interpretation
of reference sources. One of the greatest tributes that may be given
to a reference librarian is for a library patron to inform him or her
that an act of creation was born and led to productive scholarship
as a result of an encounter with reference tools.

The results from this investigation tend to show that the hbrary
must become central in the teaching program of the college. The
library staff would not be pretentious to say that these findings are
conclusive evidence, for this was a study over a short period of five
days. Nevertheless, Guy Lyle, one of the recognized authorities on
the college library feels that a study over a short period of time is
an excellent index to a Ubrary's role in the educational process.

^Daniel Gore, "Anachronistic Wizard: The College Reference Librarian,"
Library Journal, Vol. 89 (April 15, 1964), p. 1690.

138

One general observation is that this study is similar to the 1960
study in that freshmen continue to use the hbrary more than upper-
classmen. Obviously, advance courses for upperclassmen do not
stimulate extensive use of the library. If our students are to have
a modicum of success on the graduate record examination and other
pre-professional examinations, then it becomes increasingly urgent
that they engage in more independent reading and more independent
study.

Finally, in our quest to obtain standards of academic excellence,
it may be wise that we examine three standards from Winslow R.
Hatch's recent monograph, published by the U. S. Office of Educa-
tion, What Standards Do We Raise?

1. Quality may be indicated by a college's disposition to make a
distinction between the acquisition (acquiry) and the exami-
nation (inquiry) of information. It is manifested in its success
in getting students to accept a larger role in "acquiry" and in
getting its faculty to make their teaching a joint "inquiry."

2. Quality may be indicated in colleges that provide adequate
learning resource materials and with students that use them.

3. Quality may be indicated in colleges whose students do ex-
tensive reading and specifically, a great deal of general reading
on their own initiative.

The foregoing standards, if adopted by our institution, may be
the key to making the library the real heart of the instructional
program. Moreover, the library staff believes there is an inseparable
relationship between extensive use of a library and the quality of
the College.

139

On Geometry of Gas-Flows in Lagrangian
Coordinate System

by
Nazir A. Warsi

SUMMARY: In this paper, we have derived the conservation
equations in Lagrangian coordinate system.

1. INTRODUCTION

In Lagrangian Coordinate System the position of a fluid particle
in motion at any time is given by the rectangular cartesian coordi-
nates X * * which are functions of time and other parameters char-
acterizing the initial position of the moving particle. Let us define
a quantity W satisfying the equation

(1.1) ^' = / p^^'

Differentiating (1.1) partially with respect to h , we get

(1.2)a 5'| = PTTT"
or

(1.2)b r I - TV
where

(1.3) ^ = T

In the above equations P is the density of the fluid at the point
x' . Also quantities h\ h-, h^, t are independent and every other
state variable is their function. In the following work P will stand
for the pressure, u' for the components of fluid velocity and "^J
for the specific entropy of the fluid.

2. EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY AND MOTION

In this connection we have the following theorems.
THEOREM (1.1): For an unsteady fluid flows, we have

*In this and what follows Latin indices take values 1, 2 and 3; and a repeated
index denotes summation unless mentioned otherwise. Throughout the dis-
cussions the notations of C. E. Weatherburn used in Riemanian Geometry and
Tensor Calculus have been followed.

140

(2.1)a AL + _?- u.' = O
or

(2.1)b J p. ^_L u,''. =.

" 3 f

O

or

(2.1)c ^ _- ^ a,'.= O
at 3 "

or

(2.i)d. tx'c,i ~_L u,;., =

PROOF: Differentiating (1.2) a partially with respect to t, we
get

(2.2) . +- P rz O

where

ax'

(2.3) Lu =

Multiplying (2.2) by -^;^ , we get
(2.4)a_^ S' ^ pl^ =. o

or

(2.4)b H - -f- ^,', = o

from which (2.1 )a and (2.1)b are obvious. Again putting p = c
we get (2.1 )c which is trivially equivalent to (2.1)d.

LEMMA (2.1) : If F is a function of state variables and coordi-
nates, then we have

(2.5)^/pFdv=yP5^dv

where dv is an elementary fluid volume at the point.

PROOF: Left hand side of (2.5) is the total variation of the
integrand within the volume V. This will be affected by the variations
of two parts: (i) the variation of F with respect to t within V,
and (ii) the variation of pdv with respect to t. Contribution of

141

the first part isj<^t. P^^ and that ot the second is zero, for pdv
denotes elementary fluid mass which is invariant with regard to time.
Therefore, the total variation is / -r-r- pdv and hence (2.5) is
true. Now we have ^ '^

THEOREM (2,2): The law of conservation of momentum, for
a viscous and non-isotropic fluid is given by

(2.6)ap^b - pri - p,i *-'-[,-}

or

(2.6)b pai,^ a^ = p-Pi - [s,-^ + i-^,-i

where Ti is the external force per unit mass, p the pressure of the
fluid, Lc' the velocity vector and E i ^ the viscosity tensor.

PROOF: Putting u) for F in (2.5), we get

(2.7) Tt/P"-:^^ =c/p^^"

Again the law of conservation of momentum is:

(2.8)ir/p^''^' =yp^i'i--/p^-.d5 -^Jk;.^M3

vCO vCb) 3(k) sCtT)

From (2.7) and (2.8) we get

(2.9)a Jp|f =. /pfldv -yf.x:ds -.jEMxida

v(t)^ vCb) j-co ;?(t:>

or

(2.9)b J^P-ii^ = J"p-^'dv-JjD,;dv-f- jili'^^-T^/v
vCt) *=*= v(fe.) vCt; v^t)

which, obviously, gives (2.6)a. The equation (2.6)a is equivalent to
(2.6)b.

COROLLARY (2.1): The equation of motion for a perfect
fluid, with no external force, is given by

(2.10)a ^^ -. -j,,,

or

(2.10)b pu-,^u3 = "Jp-fi

142

or

(2.10)c uui^^ u,"^ f -C [d^L = O

PROOF: Putting El.'-j =o and Tl =0 m (2.6), we get
(2.10)a and (2.10)b. Again putting -f-^ Z , we get (2.10)c.

THEOREM (2.3): // the coefficient of viscosity be given by

tj "^ , then the equations (2.6)a and (2.6)b can be put in the form:
1 -.

(2.11) PTT = P^-i-P'i- ^^^.^"i,^-^^;^ u-i,H

PROOF: The viscosity tensor 1 ; can be put in the form:

(2.12) H;^ = i^;^ "-l-llKr,

Substituting the values ofHi-j from (2.12) in (2.6)a we get
(2.11).

THEOREM (2.4): For homogeneous isotropic and nonisen-
tropic flow, the equation of motion is given by

(2.13) p|^ =. pfi -t'ol ^ ir- '''^'^' ^>""''>^'^

/)e/g the coefficient of viscosity.
PROOF: For a homogeneous flow

(2.14) ^.-^^^ - ^
and for an isotropic flow

(2

3r an isotropic tlow

where each delta is unity for equal indices and zero for the different.
In the equation (2.15), 7\ and ^^ are the constants of elasticity.
Again, for compressible flows, we have

(2.16) -A -*- -3->^ = O

In virtue of (2.14), (2.15) and (2.16), the equation (2.11) gives
(2.13) which is an equation equivalent to Navier-Stokes equation.

THEOREM (2.5): For an isentropic fhud flow, the equation
of motion is given by

(2.17) TT^\:TpVp =.^^.('^y[) (-^pA-

143

PROOF: Assuming that the entropy "^~l(.p^P>/ is mo-
mentarily constant along the stream line, we have

(2.18)a .^ = O

S> t
or

(2.18)b uj '^^i = d
or

(2.i8)c p"^^ cj^yp ^ "^ L?py L^^ J^^ -o

Substituting the values of r<^ t, from the equation of motion in
(2.18)c, we get (2.17). p

3. EQUATION OF ENERGY

We have the following theorems.

THEOREM (3.1): For a viscous fluid flow, the equation of
energy is given by

(3.1) P^Ci ^*-^)=- -(fl^^-^'Xl +-(u-'.-A.^<JCT,0,^-*-p^u'-

where K. is the coefficient of thermal conduction and T is
temperature.

PROOF: The law of conservation of energy can mathematically
be given by

By means of the LEMMA (2.1), we have

(3.3 )J9 St & "-*'* ^^^ = J^^' ^i ^^ lf^ 'i ''^"'' ^^ ^S^"^*^^ ''^^ f-Jp-P/u'dv
Applying Green's Theorem, we get

(3.4)J?^C*"^+^)^^=J?P"''J.i^^tr(^E-'i'*''^'^^*J^'<ni\i'^^t/P^="y^
from which (3.1) follows at once.

THEOREM (3.2).: For the equation of energy we also have

(3.5) P^CiuSe)-. '^'C^'^" -r ^1-7 "-'--{ ""P^^'-KO

' P*^\i *"M'7"'*-i '^'>'^ "*" ^ '^"^J'-^s^-
PROOF: From (2.12), substituting the values of the viscosity
tensor in (3.1), we get (3.5).

144

THEOREM (3.3): For a perfect fluid, with no external force,
the law of conservation of energy is given by

(3.6)

plr(i^'-^^^-=-'-^h^-K.-

PROOF: Putting B;^^T^ \C and Pi equal to zero in (3.9),
we at once get (3.6)

THEOREM (3.4) : For an isentropic flow the equation of
energy is given by

(3.7)

(4JV^>,.=|^)^(-tt^ll-4-'0

PROOF: Entropy is given by

(3.8)

which is momentarily constant along the stream lines. Hence, we
have

(3
or

.9)a uj($j}h h^ ^ ^'("^^jb Pi- ^ O

(3.9)b <^' h"^"^y{j *' <^^^^f'^\> ^o

Substituting the value of U-' b^L from (3.6) and that of-^-z"
from (2.4)b, we get (3.7).

REFERENCES

1. McConnel, A. J. (1947): Application of Tensor Analysis, Dover Publi-

cation, N. Y.

2. Howarth, L. (1956): Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics Vol. I,

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

3. Eisenhart, L. P. (1941). Introduction to Differential Geometry: Prince-

ton University Press.

4. Mishra, R. S. (1960): On Stream Lines with reference to a Shock Sur-

face, Proceedings of National Institute of Sciences of India Vol. 26,
No. 6.

145

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