Faculty Research Edition of The Savannah State College Bulletin

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE LIBRART

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

SAVANNAH. GA.

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SAVANNAH STATE COUM UfiRART

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FACULTY

RESEARCH

EDITION

of

The Savannah State
College Bulletin

aAV;^

i6 UBK/i^r i

Volume 11, No. 2

October, 1957

Published by

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

Stafe College Branch

SAVANNAH. GEORGIA

FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION

OF

THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE BULLETIN

Published by

THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

Volume II, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia October, 1957

William K. Payne, President

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

W. H. M. Bowens J. Randolph Fisher

Joan L. Gordon Calvin L. Kiah

Alonzo T. Stephens Ben Ingersoll

R. Grann Lloyd, Chairman
Elson K. Williams

Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and
neither the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College
assumes responsibility for the views expressed by contributors.

Contributors

William H. M. Bowens, Director of Audio-Visual Center

John H. Camper, Assistant Professor of Education

Yvonne T. Grantling, Instructor in Biology

Calvin L. Kiah, Professor of Education

R. Grann Lloyd, Professor of Economics

Farnese Hughes Lumpkin, Assistant Professor of
Home Economics

Eldridge E. Scales, Registrar and Professor of Education
Fort Valley State College

Alonzo T. Stephens, Associate Professor of Social Science

Elson K. Williams, Professor of Social Science

The Savannah State College Bulletin is published in October,
December, February, March, April, and May by Savannah State Col-
lege. Entered as second-class matter, December 16, 1947 , at the Post
Office at Savannah, Georgia under the Act of August 24, 1912.

69902

The men and women who conduct
learning activities in the college determine
to a large extent the nature of the product.
Much of what students learn can be traced
directly to factors other than lectures,
reading, recitations, discussions, and ex-
aminations. The learning of students in-
cludes the methods, the processes, and the
approaches of teachers to problems in liv-
ing. An active growing faculty helps stu-
dents to develop habits that lead to con-
tinuous growth.

This issue contains a number of studies
by faculty members of Savannah State
College and one by a faculty member of
Fort Valley State College. It is encourag-
ing to see new contributions and the variety
of interests. The use of research methods
to solve institutional problems as well as
individual problems is a desirable charac-
teristic of college faculties. The College is
glad that the Board of Regents has con-
tinued to make such studies possible. It is
hoped that these studies will encourage
and stimulate the present contributors and
other members of the staff to initiate and
continue studies which provide for better
educational opportunities here at the Col-
lege and in the field of higher education.

W. K. Payne
President

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Research Note on the Methodology
Employed in Training Interviewers
for a Study Utilizing the Intensive
Interview Techniques 5

R. Grann Lloyd
John H. Camper

The Role of the Ectodennal Crest in
the Developing Wing of the Chick
Embryo 8

Yvonne T. Grantling

A Report of the Persistence of a
Group of Entering College

Freshmen 12

Eldridge E. Scales

The United Nations: A Scheme for

Peace in Our Time 20

Alonzo T. Stephens

Serviceability and Suitability of

Denim 36

Farnese Hughes Lumpkin

The Status of Audio-Visual Educa-
tion in Florida's Accredited Negro

High Schools ..- 51

William. H. M. Bowens

A Study of the Personnel of the Sen-
ate in the Eighty-Fourth Congress,
1955-1956 65

Elson K. Williams

Research as a Technique in Curricu-
lum Construction 72

Calvin L. Kiah

Research Note on the Methodology
Employed in Training Interviewers
For a Study Utilizing the Intensive
Interview Techniques

by
R. Grann Lloj^d

and
John H. Camper

Increasingly refined intensive interview techniques are
being used in socio-economic research. Intensive interview
techniques are especially useful when the investigator is
primarily interested in determining patterns of action and
thought. The use of these techniques, however, requires
special training. This research note is designed to share
the experience derived from training interviewers to use a
semi-structured intei'view schedule for the first time.

Probably, the most significant feature of this tech-
nique is its objectivity. The materials were prepared in
advance, with all interviewers making the same inquiries
of interviewees selected according to well-established sam-
pling procedures. Hence, the findings afford a representa-
tive cross section of prevailing community thought.

One characteristic of the semi-structured interview tech-
nique employed was to use open-end questions which though
leaving the interviewee stimulus free tended to structure
the responses. It is believed that the use of this type of
interview schedule tended to maximize the variety of re-
sponse, to reduce to a minimum guidance and direction by
the interviewer, and to allow the interviewee greater free-
dom of expression. Hence, whereas the semi-structured
questions used did not focus attention on any particular
phase of the stimulus situation, they did tend to circum-
scribe the informant's responses. The individuals inter-
viewed were, within the limits prescribed by the semi-
structured questions, free to give expression regarding the
things of most significance to them. This non-directive ap-
proach may be used with much profit in exploratory studies.

The interviewers used in this study were primarily junior
level college students in a teacher-education program. How-
ever, a minority of them were mature individuals pursuing
studies in an adult education program. Because of its rela-
tion to the successful use of semi-structured interview sched-

ules and/or open-end questions, it seems not without sig-
nificance to emphasize their maturity and training at this
point. Many facts, which though relevant are not specifi-
cally solicited by the interview schedule, might be revealed
which an interviewer without adequate prior academic
training may neither observe nor record. Whereas it would
have perhaps been more desirable to have the interviews
conducted by college graduates, it is believed that the
thorough training received by the interviewers in the use
of intensive interview techniques, coupled with their en-
thusiasm, resulted in a creditable explorative study.

The training period for the interviewers who conducted
this study extended over a period of ten days. This training
was initiated with a five days orientation period, with at-
tention focused on (a) the sampling design employed,
(b) the nature, scope, and objectives of the survey, (c) the
interview schedule, with particular reference to the semi-
structured schedule or questionnaire, and (d) the intensive
interview techniques. The primary objectives of this initial
training period were (1) to acquaint the interviewers with
the nondirective approach and the mechanics of the inter-
view schedule, (2) to acquaint them with techniques that
generally secure usable responses, and (3) to familiarize
them with the objectives underlying each question. The
remaining portion of the training period was devoted to
practice interviews among the interviewers themselves and
conducting interviews in non-sample areas. After each ses-
sion of practice interviews and/or interviews in non-sam-
ple areas evaluation sessions were held with the trainees.
Each question was carefully edited with the interviewer in
order to give the interviewer a thorough understanding of
the question, to correct recording and procedural errors,
and to eliminate deficiencies. Indeed, these evaluation ses-
sions involved a qualitative analysis of the completed inter-
view schedules.

The interviewers were urged to become familiar with
and observe the following criteria of a successful interview :

1. Help the interviewee feel at ease by meeting him
cordially with a pleasant greeting and by calling
his name.

2. Provide an atmosphere conducive to a good inter-
view and allow the interviewee to "get settled"
to get the "feel" of the situation before plunging
into the interview.

3. Be sincere.

4. Make the interview a cooperative undertaking.

5. Avoid approaches that might destroy rapport and
arouse antagonisms, but uncover the real issue or
difficulty.

6. Seek a positive a "yes" response at the very be-
beginning. Often the interviewee will take a "yes"
response cue and go on from there.

7. Do not embarrass the interviewee unnecessarily.
The interview is not, and must not, be allowed to

become an inquisition.

8. Face the facts professionally.

9. Alleviate the shock of disillusionment.

10. Listen let the interviewee tell his own story in
the way he wants to tell it.

11. Avoid a patronizing attitude and use your sense of
humor.

12. Avoid interruptions and achieve something defi-
nite.

Since the research design specified that the inter-
viewers should enter 1000 homes in the Savannah-Chatham
County community, a large number of interviewers were
needed. Hence, it was necessary to train a relatively large
number of individuals. On the other hand, since the ques-
tions were semi-structured in advance, relatively little skill
was required of the interviewer; moreover, the chances of
the interviewer injecting his own bias were reduced to a
minimum. Furthermore, the interview schedule was care-
fully designed with a view to gathering data in a manner
affording fairly simple analysis. This design made it pos-
sible to use some volunteers in the analysis of the data who
had no previous training a possibility that would not have
existed if the questions had been unstructured or in an
analysis based primarily on the interpretation of complex
data. Thorough training in the use of intensive interview
techniques, together with participation in the analysis, gave
the interviewers a satisfying sense of identification with
the total research survey.

The Role of the Ectodermal Crest
In the Developing Wing
Of the Chick Embryo

by
Yvonne T, Grantling

I. Introduction

The embryo of the chick has been repeatedly employed
in extensive studies on morphogenesis and differentiation.
Recently, however, the development of the appendage buds
of the chick embryo have been studied with the purpose of
following the pattern of differentiation in a more or less
independent system. These studies involve the develop-
ment of the young appendage buds on the chorio-allantoic
membrane. Much fruitful information has been obtained
from this type of investigation. Most recently Saunders
(1948) and Zwilling (1952) have emphasized an inter-
action between the ectodermal crest of the wing bud and
the underlying subadjacent mesoderm in the proximal distal
growth of the appendage components.

Warren (1934) reported that definite bones would be
missing in the definitive wing upon removal of the anterior
or posterior halves of the wing bud. He indicated that a
mosaic pattern of wing parts is resident in the mesoderm
of the three-day old wing bud.

Hansborough (1954) removed plugs of mesoderm
varying in sizes from 5% to 50% without disturbing the
distally located ectodermal crest of the four-day old em-
bryo wing bud. He observed that since complete regulation
can take place after the removal of one-third to one-half
of the tissue from the bud, the mosaic arrangement of ma-
terials for the future wing parts if present is not a rigid
one.

Wolff and Hampe (1956) excised an intermediate
segment of the three day old limb bud and transplanted it
on the chorio-allantoic membrane. The terminal cap was
replaced on the base of the limb bud. The operated bud
forms a perfect leg and the transplanted fragment gives
rise to several bone elements. Their evidence showed that
regulation is sub-total in that only the fibula and first digit
is absent. They termed this "regulation intermediaire."

Hunt (1932) grafted wing buds of embryos ranging in
age from forty-eight hours to seven days old to embryos
eight to ten days old for the purpose of analyzing the dif-

ferentiation of the limb buds and the extent to which the
chief components or limb, bone and muscle are self differ-
entiating. He observed that the muscle of the chick limbs
are capable of initial independent differentiation, but they
do not maintain this independency.

Zwilling (1952) transferred the ectoderm from three
day chick embryo wing buds to the mesoderm of the leg
bud denuded of its ectoderm. He concluded that although
the presence of the apical ectoderm is a specific requisite
for limb out growth, it has no influence on the determina-
tion of the limb type (i.e. leg or wing).

II. Materials and Methods

The eggs used in this experiment were obtained from
New Hampshire Red Hens from the Poultry Department
of the University of Maryland. They were incubated at 3b
degrees Centigrade for a period of 31/2 days (stages 21-24
of the Hamburger-Hamilton series). Before operating each
egg was candled and the site of the embryo marked. The
small end of the egg was sterilized with 70% alcohol and
a small hole was made from which i/o cc. of albumin was
removed with a 5 cc. syringe. With a rotary drill, a win-
dow 1.5 cm. square was drilled in the egg through which
the operations were made.

After exposing the embryo, the amnion and chorion were
deflected to expose further wing bud. An incision was made
into the ectodermal crest with number 12 sewing needles
which were sharpened to a fine point. Portions of the crest
were stripped off with micro-forceps. After the operations
were completed camera lucida sketches were made of the
bud. The amniotic folds were then pressed together with
the micro-forceps to insure their union and to prevent the
deformation of the bud during future development. The
window was firmly sealed with cellophane tape and the
eggs were replaced in the incubator. Development was
allowed to continue until the tenth day at which time the
embryos were recovered and fixed in 10% formalin. Each
operated wing was observed for morphological changes and
camera lucida sketches were made for comparison with the
controls. The embryos were not stained for the study of
their skeleton.

III. Observations

TABLE I

oved

No.
Operations

No.

Survivals

Results

Crest Rem

Normal Abnormal

Anterior

Middle

Posterior

Vz
Vz
Vz

121

47
87

68
11
58

13

55
11
58

Total

255

137

13

124

Table I shows that a total of 255 embryos were oper-
ated upon of which 137 survived. The embryos operated
upon were divided into three categories. In the first group
in which the anterior third of the crest area was removed,
there were 121 such operations of which 68 embryos sur-
vived. In the second group in which the middle third of the
crest was excised, there were 47 operations of which 11
embryos survived. In the third group where the posterior
third of the crest M^as removed, there were 87 operations of
which 58 embryos survived. In the first group (ant. 1/3
removed) 13 of the 68 surviving embryos were normal. In
the second group (middle 1/3 removed) there were no nor-
mal embryos of a total of 11 survivals. In the third group
(posterior 1/3 removed) all of the 58 surviving embrj^os
were abnormal.

Results for the different excisions: ~^

A. Anterior one- third excised

Upon removing the anterior one-third of the ecto-
dermal crest of the wing bud, there were 13 normal defini-
tive wings and 55 abnormal wings. The abnormal wings
in this group were expressed in the complete absence of
digit two.

B. Middle one-third excised

Removal of the middle-third of the ectodermal crest
of the bud produces drastic abnormalities in the definitive
wing. There is a characteristic absence of all the wing
parts distal to the humerus. In other cases, the entire wing
was absent.

C. Posterior one-third excised

When the posterior third of the ectodermal crest is
removed, the abnormalities are more pronounced than those
produced when the anterior one-third of the crest is excised,
but less so than when the middle third is removed. The
abnormalities range from the complete absence of digits 2,
3, and 4, to the absence of the radius and ulna.

IV. Interpretations

In the light of the data reported here and those re-
ported by Warren (1934), Hansborough (1954), Wolff
and Hampe (1956), it can be concluded that the factor
which influences the outgrowth of wing components resides
in the ectodermal crest of the early bud. Its absence in the
wing bud of the wingless embryo as Zwilling (1949) has
demonstrated, is responsible for the lack of a definitive
wing in the older chick. Its injury or removal, as Saunders
has demonstrated, causes a deficiency in wing parts of the
definitive wing or their complete absence. The work re-
ported here is the initial step in plotting the areas of the

10

crest ectoderm which seem to be specific in their influence
on the elaboration of distal wing parts. Further studies
may result in a complete fate map of inductive regions and
their specific influences on the differentiation and growth
of wing components.

V. Summary and Conclusions

1. Portions of the ectodermal crest of the wing bud
have been excised for the purpose of studying the
factors operating in the growth and the elabora-
tions of the parts of the definitive wing.

2. When the apical ectodermal crest of the wing bud
is damaged or injured an abnormal wing develops.

3. Removal of the anterior third of the crest results
in the growth of a normal wing or the absence of
digit 2.

4. When the middle third of the crest is removed,
there is a complete absence of the distal wing parts
or the presence only of the humerus.

5. Removal of the posterior third of the apical crest
results either in the absence of all the digits or the
complete absence of the digits, radius and ulna.

6. The ectodermal crest of the wing bud determines
the growth and the differentiation of the future
wing parts of the definitive wing.

Bibliography

Hamburger, V. 1938 Morphogenetic and axial self differentiation of

transplanted 2 days old chick embryos. J. Exp. ZooL, 77:379-400.
Hansborough, L. A. 1954 Regulation in the developing wing of the

chick embryo. Anat. Rec.
Hunt, E. A. 1932 The differentiation of chick limb buds in chorio-
allantoic grafts, with special reference to the muscle. J. Exp. ZooL,

62:57-91.
Saunders, J. W. 1948 The proximo-distal sequence of origin of the parts

of the chick wing and the role of the ectoderm. J. Exp. ZooL,

108:363-403.
Warren, A. E. 1934 Experimental studies in the development of the

wing in the embryo of Gallus domesticus. Am. J. Anat., 54:449-486.
Wolff and Hampe 1956 Sur la regulation de la patte de poulet, apres

resection d'un segment intermediaire du bourgeon de membre comptes

redus. Sac. de Bio., 148:154-156.
Zwilling, E. 1955 Ectoderm-mesoderm relationship in the development

of the chick embryo limb bud. J. Exp. ZooL, 128:423-438.

11

A Report of the Persistence of a
Group of Entering College Freshmen

by
Eldridge E. Scales

Registrar and Professor of Education
Fort Valley State College

Admission officers and other college officials antici-
pate rapid enrollment increases during the next few years.
This prospect of increased enrollment calls for long-range
educational planning and careful consideration of student
and college characteristics relative to the retention and
withdrawal of students. Such deliberations may lead to
modifications and revisions of programs pertinent to admis-
sions, recruitment, and instruction.

This report is an examination of the retention and
academic progress of a group of entering freshmen over a
four-year period at The Fort Valley State College.

The total entering group numbered 227. The group
under consideration, however, consists of 215 students who
registered as entering-freshmen in September, 1952. Of
this freshmen group, 80 were men. All of the students
were graduates of Georgia high schools and were residents
of the state at the time of admission.

The Academic Quarters Registered

The freshmen of September, 1952 could have been
registered twelve full quarters by June, 1956 and could have
been graduated by that date. Table I describes the distribu-
tion of students according to the total academic quarters
registered during this period. Throughout this report sum-
mer quarters attended are not included.

However, among the forty-six graduates of June,
1956, 13.1 per cent of the students had attended one or
more summer quarters sometime during the four years.
Correspondence courses or extension courses were taken by
3.7 per cent of the group.

It is noted from Table I that during this period 43.7
per cent of the students were registered for three quarters
or less ; 26.0 per cent were registered for all twelve quarters ;
while 21.1 per cent of the group were graduated at the end
of the four years.

12

TABLE I

DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS ACCORDING TO QUARTERS
REGISTERED FROM SEPTEMBER, 1952 TO JUNE, 1956

-e

^

J.!

1

"

420-

8

OB

s

to

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1^
^1

CO

o*^

^

Oh

ai

1

19

8.8

215

2

12

6.1

196

3

63

34.2

184

4

6

10.7

121

5

13

11.3

115

6

16

15.6

102

7

4

4.7

86

8

5

6.1

82

9

7

9.1

77

10

6

8.6

70

11

8

12.5

64

12

56

26.04

56

Total . - _ 215

Number of graduates 46

Per cent of Graduates 21.39

The mean number of quarters registered was 5.95.
Registration loss occurs markedly after the first three quar-
ters. Of the group, 43.7 per cent of this group failed to
register for the fourth quarter, 1953-1954 ; 56.2 per cent of
the enter-freshmen registered at that time as compared
with 85.5 per cent who registered the previous quarter. This
is a loss of 29.3 per cent. The over-all loss after the third
quarter of 1952-1953 was 14.4 per cent of the beginning
group. Losses occurring thereafter average 4.54 per cent.
Only 26.04 per cent of the students were registered twelve
quarters.

Table II presents the distribution of students registered
by number of consecutive quarters attended.

Of the students who were registered three consecutive
quarters, 50.6 failed to register the fourth consecutive quar-
ter. Those registered three consecutive quarters numbered
42.3 per cent of the group. More students failed to register
after the third quarter of the freshman year, than any other
quarter of any particular year.

Academic Action Taken Against the Group

Table III describes the administrative action taken
against the group as a result of poor scholarship, transfers
to other colleges, and drop-outs.

13

TABLE II

DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS BY CONSECUTIVE QUARTERS
REGISTERED FROM SEPTEMBER, 1952 TO JUNE, 1956

-ts

1

Student
egisterec
ding Qu

5i^

CO

og

?^ S

1.2

^^l

^^

o-s

o S

6-tH

d^

5- s

^c^

^^^

:^a.

c^fcj

1

22

215

10.2

2

9

193

4.7

3

78

184

42.3

4

8

106

7.5

5

8

98

8.1

6

16

90

17.7

7

1

74

1.4

8

5

73

6.8

9

6

68

8.8

10

2

62

3.2

11

4

60

6.7

12

56

56

26.04

Total ..-.. 215

TABLE III

THE ACADEMIC ACTION TAKEN AGAINST THE GROUP
PARTITIONED BY QUARTERS REGISTERED

Dropped

Qtrs.

No.
Reg.

Probation

Dropped

Returned

Not Returned

Reg.

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

1

19

7

36.8

2

12

11

91.6

1

8.3

1

100.0

3

63

50

79.3

30

47.6

30

100.0

4

6

5

83.3

2

33.3

2

100.0

5

13

11

84.6

4

30.8

4

100.0

6

16

9

56.2

3

18.8

2

75.0

1

25.0

7

4

2

50.0

1

25.0

1

100.0

8

5

3

6.0

9

7

5

71.4

2

28.6

1

50.0

1

50.0

10

6

5

83.3

2

33.3

1

50.0

1

50.0

11

88

5

62.5

12

56

18

32.1

Total 215

134

62.3

45

20.9

11

24.4

34

15.3

Number of Graduates

46 18 39.1

% of entering group
21.4

13.4

14

Many of the original group felt some form of academic
action during this period. Of the group, 62.3 per cent did
run into scholastic difficulties, probation or dropping action.
Relative to these categories, it is noted that 20.9 per cent
of the students were dropped by the college at some time
during the four-year period.

Of those dropped, 91.0 were registered for three
quarters or less. Of those dropped and returned, 45.5 were
registered six quarters or more.

Once again attention is drawn to the third quarter. A
group of noticeable size were recipients of academic action
at this point. Of the students registered for a total of three
quarters, 79.3 per cent were on probation.

Of those students who were probation-bound sometimes
during their stay at the college, 13.4 per cent were gradu-
ated within the expected time. The graduating group num-
bered 37.6 per cent against whom no academic action had
ever been taken during their stay.

Relationship of Selected Variables to Quarters Registered

Generally relationships, or the making of comparisons,
are interpreted by correlation coefficients or other statisti-
cal techniques. Far too often these tools are readily under-
stood only to the specially initiated. Under these circum-
stances much of the effectiveness of the data is lost because
of a lack of statistical sophistication. The expectancy table,
on the other hand, is a simple, easy to construct, and easier
to understand tool which presents the relationships in a
language readily understood by the sophisticated and lay-
man alike. The relationship between the number of quarters
registered and the three variables taken separately, (1)
cumulative average of high school performance, (2) per-
centile rank score on the American Council on Education
Psychological Examination, 1952 edition, and (3) the first
quarter grade-point average are graphically described in
Table IV.

How long these freshmen remained in college as par-
titioned by these variables is indicated in the tables which
follow.

Cumulative High-School Grade-Point Average

High-school cumulative averages were available for
201 students of this entering group of the Fall, 1952. Table
IV presents these data. There is little progression of high-
school grade-point averages in any group from one per-
sistence group to another.

The mean of high-school averages is 1.32. Averages
range from .30 to 3.0.

15

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Of those students entering college with high-school
averages of "C" (1.0) or higher, 47, or 27.01 per cent, were
registered twelve quarters. The twenty-seven entering the
college with averages less than 1.0 dwindled to 29.6 per
cent (8) who were registered twelve quarters.

There, seemingly, is no point in high-school averages at
which we can expect a student not to persist for quite a
few quarters or graduate. Perseverance and determination
seem to have their own rewards. However, the chances of
twelve quarter registration and graduation are considerably
reduced by a low high-school grade-point average.

Percentile Rank Score on the Psychological Examination
and the Number of Quarters Registered

Table V describes group persistence according to the per-
centile rank scores on the A.C.E. Psychological Examination
(Edition 1952).

The students earning percentile rank scores of fifty and
higher and who were registered for twelve quarters number
32.3 per cent (32). Of the total group, 20.95 per cent (22
students) entered college with an earned score of forty-
ninth percentile or less and were registered twelve quarters.
Once again, although at every percentile level a greater
per cent of the group were registered for twelve quarters,
there is little indication that psychological examination
scores predict those who will persist. Generally, however,
the higher the score, the better are the chances of per-
sistence.

It seems likely that some students regardless of intelli-
gence (as measured by this examination) will remain in
college a considerable number of quarters. Caution should
be exercised. A low score does not rule out a successful
college career, in terms of graduation and twelve quarter
registration nor does a high score assure twelve quarter
registration or graduation.

First Quarter Grade-Point Average and the Number
of Quarters Registered

College success is commonly measured in terms of how
good is the first quarter grade-point average.

First quarter scholastic averages were obtained for 209
students as shown in Table VI.

The 2.0-3.0 group (12 students) accounted for 6, or
50.0 per cent of its members registered for twelve quarters.
In contrast, the .70-. 79 group, admittedly small (7 stu-
dents), indicates that 33.3 per cent of its group registered
for twelve quarters.

Once again, there is a disorderly progression of first-
quarter averages from one group to another.

17

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Summary

Under inspection was a group of 215 students who
entered The Fort Valley State College as new freshmen in
September, 1952. All were graduates of Georgia high-
schools and were residents of the state at the time of
admission,

1. Of the original group 26 per cent, or 56 students,
were registered twelve quarters; 46, or 21.4 per
cent, were graduated.

2. Although a loss in registration occurred through-
out the twelve quarters, the greatest loss was after
the third quarter (13.9 per cent).

3. A large number of the original group has some
scholastic action taken against them sometime dur-
ing their stay in the college (62.3 per cent). Of
those students graduated in four years, 39.1 per
cent (18) had experienced academic action.

4. During the four-year period 43.7 per cent of all
freshmen were registered three quarters or less as
compared with 26.04 per cent who were registered
twelve quarters.

5. The three variables, high-school grade-point aver-
age, percentile rank score of the psychological ex-
amination, and the first quarter average, do little
to indicate which student or group of students will
persist. Student persistence is enhanced, however,
by performance, high-school or first quarter (col-
lege), or test performance.

The first quarter grade-point average is the earliest
definition of the worth of a student. This initial encounter
between the student and college affords a measure of ac-
tual college performance that is readily available. This
measure seems to be the better measure of prediction of
persistence. The higher the measure of attainment in any
one of the selected variables, the greater are the chances
of persistence in terms of quarters registered. It seems that
we are better able to identify the student who will probably
persist than the one who will not. But after he has been
identified, we can not be too certain that he will persist.
Perhaps it would be well if attention turned to identifying
those who can not and will not persist. Identification with-
out doubt is needed.

Individual predictions are not warranted on the basis
of the criteria presented in this report. We have all heard
the faculty yelp when an "untouchable" does remain in col-
lege for twelve quarters and does graduate. The criteria
discussed in this report are, in the main, merely a part of
the growth pattern of the student. This pattern is a grow-
ing and dynamic one, not characteristically absolute or
static.

19

The United Nations: A Scheme for
Peace in Our Times

by
Alonzo T. Stephens

Since the dawn of civilization, man has been fighting
wars and at the same time he has been fighting or strug-
gling toward some scheme for a lasting peace. From this
statement, we can easily see that there has always been the
question of peace and war. What a paradox PEACE

WITH WAR AND PEACE WITHOUT WAR.

It is strange that in weighing the forces that made for
peace or war one hardly thinks to mention religion. Europe
is predominantly Christian, yet for well nigh 2,000 years
Christianity not only has proved unequal to the task of
keeping its adherents from flying at each other's throats
but often has actually aggravated their hatreds.^

Many historians have written that each party or nation
for the past 500 years attempted to justify their participa-
tion in a war by showing that God was on their respective
sides. The Crusades were not the only religious wars. Even
American presidents have attempted to justify war with
such slogans "To make the world safe for democracy" or
as Joseph Louis Barrow put it in Yankee Stadium during
World War II, "I know we are going to win because we
have God on our side." In 1917 it is undeniably true that
the strongest clamor for war came from the industrial East,
an area with numerous churches, but which had an enor-
mous trade and investment stake in the cause of tottering
Allies. Thomas W. Lamont, of Morgan and Company, later
estimated that 500,000 Americans had invested in loans to
the Allies, and this group consisted of the more substantial
and influential citizens. ^

Winston Churchill, the great British Statesman and
former Prime Minister, wrote that "The History of man-
kind is nothing more than a History of War." Even the
Holy Bible carries numerous descriptions of wars, rumors
of wars and preparation for war. If one were to examine
the words and pages of the Bible, he would find possibly,
except for the section which deals with Christ on Earth,

^Erik Achorn, European Civilization and Politics Since 1815, New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934, p. 382.

^C. C. Tansill, America Goes to War, Boston: 1938, p. 657, (a best seller
with an isolationist bias), also Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic His-
tory of the American People, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
Inc., 1950, p. 644.

20

more dedication to war than to schemes or plans for peace.
It is no wonder that Jesus Christ had such a terrible strug-
gle trying to establish himself as the Prince of Peace.

Many of the European rulers attempted to establish
and maintain peace, but they all wanted peace on their
terms. In this group, the names of Julius Caesar, Otto Von
Bismarck and Napoleon Bonaparte easily fall.

During the last half of the 19th century, from the ap-
proximate dates of 1865 to 1912, there was an anti-war
feeling in Europe and as a result these cooperative agencies
developed :

Monetary Union of the Latin States 1865

Scandinavian Monetary Union 1873

Copyright Union 1874

The Postal Union 1874

Telegraph Union 1875

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures
1875

The Patent Union 1883

Railway Tariff Union 1890

Customs Tariff Union 1890

Men thought with the establishment of these economic
agencies, nations would have less desire to fight one an-
other. Here again is a paradox. The agencies described
above did lessen tension in some areas but in others, as was
the case in Austria, Germany, France and England in July
1914, faster communication only served to hasten war.

In international politics during the same period rapid
strides were made. In 1873, the Institute of International
Law was organized. In 1891 the Bureau of International
Peace was organized to serve as an intermediary between
the peace societies in different countries.

In 1889 Nicholas II of Russia called a peace conference
at the Hague, but only twenty-six (26) nations participated.

Russia was suspected of having motives not stated and then
too, England feared Russia's might and did not want her
as an international leader. In 1907, a second Hague Con-
ference was called and this time a more favored Nation
under the leadership of Theodore Roosevelt called the
menu Forty- four (44) nations went to listen and the legis-
lation resulting was directed toward Germany.

In spite of these moves toward peace, there was in evi-
dence factors tending to intensify international hostility.
These factors are still with us in 1956. They are:

Rise of Nationalism

Nationalistic Trends in Education

Jingo Press

21

International Anarchy

Exaltation of War

Mob Psychology

Race Consciousness

Colonialism

Desire for Independence

Struggle for Control of Raw Materials in Poor Countries

The above factors along with fear, want, hate, and
unGodliness pushed the World into World War I. As the
war neared a close, Woodrow Wilson, a great American
statesman, began to hasten the end to his own life for cer-
tain principles called a ''League of Nations." Although the
majority of the American people did not understand his
plea, his mark was made toward a permanent and lasting
peace. Wilson wanted a community of understanding, but
he failed to see his dream come true because he was at-
tacked by politicians and because he was thirty (30) years
too soon.

The League which the United States did not join was
divided into five (5) major agencies.

THE ASSEMBLY A representative body. It could ad-
vise, consider and deliberate. It met in Geneva.

THE COUNCIL Composed of one delegate from each
qualified member state. Here plans were formulated for
the reduction of armaments, of advising means of protect-
ing member states, but it had no drafting power or no
army at its disposal.

THE PERMANENT SECRETARIAT The first secre-
tary was an Englishman Sir Eric Drummond.

THE PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL
JUSTICE Called the World Court.

THE INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

Intended to raise the standards of workers throughout the
world.

As Americans probably remember from their history
classes, the League of Nations had no power. The nations
wanted peace but none wanted to pay the price. The United
States never joined. England withdrew much of its moral
support. France was left almost alone to carry on the
League's business because she was in constant danger. Rus-
sia eventually became a member but she found no guidance
in a failing organization. In the 1920's Germany's republi-
can government fell. Then in the 1930's Italy, Germany,
Japan, all started to take a slice of their neighbor's territory
as if they nourished on three squares of land as food every
day. These aggressive acts were unchecked. By the end

22

of the decade the world was in its second war of universal
destruction.

Perhaps by now one may feel that the writer has failed
to deal directly with the United Nations: A Scheme for
Peace in Our Time. On the contrary, he has been writing
about united actions toward peace. He has attempted to
point out that the development of the United Nations was
a long, steady, evolutionary process. The roots of this or-
ganization are deep in world history and human struggle
for a better life. This background is necessary for an under-
standing of why a new organization was needed. The
writer shall hereinafter devote his explanation toward the
organization of the United Nations and its successes with
the intention of pointing out to Americans, and people the
world over, that peace is available for mankind if he takes
the right steps, and of course use the precepts of Chris-
tianity as the blueprint.

The United Nations organization was born in wartime
and conceived by leaders of the Allies Great Britain and
the United States. Later France, China and Russia were
invited to participate in this grand alliance for the defeat
of the enemies and the establishment of peace.

On August 14, 1944 the Atlantic Charter was released
by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. On this
historic date the basic principles of peace, after the defeat
of Germany, were outlined. These principles became a part
of the United Nations Charter.

On January 1, 1942 twenty-six (26) nations pledged
a united effort toward the defeat of the Axis powers. In
May 1943, a United Nations conference on Food and Agri-
culture was held and in October of this same year in the
Moscow Declaration, China, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R.,
and the United States recognized the necessity for setting
up a general international organization for peace. In No-
vember 1943 a United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
Agency was set up. No less than forty-four (44) nations
participated.

In August 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference a
bank and fund constitution was established. In October of
this same year the Dunbarton Oaks Conference with China,
the U.S.S.R., Great Britain and the United States drew up
the second proposals for a General International Organiza-
tion. More proposals were considered, introduced and
adopted at the controversial Yalta Conference.

The evolutional process was now becoming a fast mov-
ing revolutionary one. In April 1945, in spite of Roosevelt's
illness and untimely death, the San Francisco Conference
was held and fifty (50) nations drew up the United Nations
Charter. One June 25, 1945, this charter was adopted and

23

the United Nations Organization was born, a new baby
ready and eager to embark on a hard long road to peace.

This organization had one prime purpose : To do away
with war and to build a better world for all mankind re-
gardless of race, position or political affiliation. Two other
motives are important : (1) To reaffirm faith in fundamental
human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human per-
son, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations
large and small, and (2) to promote social progress and
better standards of life in larger freedoms. This new inter-
national organization was conservative in that it drew
heavily upon the old, sick and ineffective LEAGUE OF
NATIONS.

The main organs of the new United Nations are : A
General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and
Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International
Court of Justice and a Secretariat. A quick glance at these
agencies will reveal a great likeness to the old League of
Nations. The closer and studied investigation will show-
that each agency is stronger. For example, the General
Assembly has the permanent power to recommend measures
for peaceful settlement of any situation regardless of origin,
which threatens peace. Each delegation has only one vote.
The General Assembly, therefore, is a World Parliament.
It is significant that Madam Vijaya L. Pandit, Indian Am-
bassador to U.S.S.R., 1947-1949, an eloquent speaker
against discrimination against Indian Nationals by the
Union of South Africa in 1948, and Indian Ambassador to
the United States in 1949, was the first woman to lead this
agency in 1953-1954. Her presence in this agency gave
hope to underprivileged and Colonial peoples throughout
the entire globe.

Another major difference in the new United Nations
is the role of the Security Council. This agency functions
in continuous session. In addition to investigating and sub-
mitting cases to the Court of Justice, it may use force to
preserve the peace.

The Economic and Security Council has done remark-
able work toward the advancement of mankind. Its scope
is broad, covering nine fields :

Unemployment and economic development

Transport and communication

Fiscal reforms and stability

Statistical analysis

Population problems

Social betterment

Narcotic drugs

Human Rights and the Improvement of the Status of
Women

24

The International Court of Justice has been strength-
ened by the Security Council action in coming to its aid in
enforcing a decision the former agency has made.

The Secretariat has a new role. By 1952 some sixty
(60) nations were represented. Here Russia blocked the
admission of nine (9) states while the United States blocked
the admission of Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania and
the Chinese Communist Government.^

The United Nations in 1955 considered the admission
of twenty-two (22) candidates or states among which were
Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland,
Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Jordan, South Korea, South
Vietman, Portugal, Rumania and Spain. ^ Trygve H. Lie,
the first secretary-general of the United Nations set a prece-
dent by taking an active part in negotiations rather than
contenting himself with the role of figurehead.

The World was elated by Christmas of 1955 with the
admission of Bulgaria, Austria, Albany, Cambodia, Ceylon,
Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal,
Portugal, Rumania and Spain. With the admission of these
sixteen nations the United Nations could boast of a mem-
bership of seventy-six, but actually the world is now di-
vided into three camps or three worlds. There is the "free"
world of Western Alliances, the Communist World of the
U.S.S.R., and Satellites, and the Third World-Nations not
a member of either of the other two military blocs. This
Third World is populated mostly by darker skinned races.
Spain, Switzerland, the Union of South Africa and Yugo-
slavia are the major exceptions. As long as the World is
divided into two and three camps the peace is not assured.

One of the major criticisms of the old League was the
notion that it was created to preserve the status quo of the
Allied nations thus guaranteeing the victory nations after
1919 the spoils at the expense of the weaker and defeated
nations. Mr. Lie is accepting his new job as Secretariat
wrote: "In the exercise of the responsibilities of promoting
and preserving peace the Secretary-General of the United
Nations must use his influence not for the interest of any
nation or group of nations, but for the interests of the
organization as a whole as he saw them."^

Probably one of the most approved moves made by
Mr. Lie was his choice of Dr. Ralph J. Bunche as principal
secretary of the commission to settle the Palestine question.
In appointing Dr. Bunche Lie said : "The invasion of Pales-

" Russia through the veto blocked admission for Austria, Ceylon, Fin-
land, Italy, Jordan, Korea, Portugal and Nepal.

*The New York Times, October 9, 1955.

^Trygve Halvdan Lie, In the Cause of Peace: Seven Years With the
United Nations, New York: 1954, pp. 14-17 (First Secretary-General
of the United Nations in 1946-1953, a native of Norway) .

25

tine by the Arab states was the first armed aggression
which the world had seen since the end of the war. The
United Nations could not permit that aggression to suc-
ceed. . . ."'' One remembers Bunche's success and his ele-
vation to the station of America's most popular and honored
Negro. Significantly Mr. Lie made this observation: "It
is obvious that there would not have been an armistice at
this stage (in Palestine) without the skill and dedication
of Ralph Bunche, and we were proud of him.""

The second Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold fol-
lowing the path cleared by Mr. Lie and stressing the neces-
sity of aid to underdeveloped and undeveloped countries
reported on July 12, 1955 this observation that "the large
divide between productive capacity and human require-
ments in underdeveloped countries is the long-term eco-
nomic problem facing our generation."^ He also said that
while the world had increasingly come to understand the
need for developing the underdeveloped countries, it did
not appreciate sufficiently the urgency of the need.^

Time will not permit a step by step analysis of the
machinery of the United Nations. The writer will, there-
fore, devote only a small portion of this discussion to some
of the other accomplishments which have helped to
strengthen the United Nations thereby making it a strong
international organ for peace.

In 1954, the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization sent thirty-six (36) experts to twenty-four
(24) countries to aid governments in establishing, revising
or expanding annual food production in countries through-
out the world, ^" The resulting increase was about 25 per
cent for those areas covered.

In 1955 the National Catholic Rural Life Conference
pledged to work for: "National economic policies designed
to achieve and maintain full employment with full and
efficient production both in industry and agriculture."^^
This example is presented to show how the United Nations
is influencing other agencies to take up this huge task of
aiding all peoples in their respective areas.

A United Nations panel of 1954 looking into the racial
situation in South Africa made a 121-page report to the
General Assembly. In summary, the report carried this
weighty observation : "The road to gradual integration is
the only one that seems to be open, and it alone is likely to
lead to a peaceful future acceptable to all parties. "^^

^Ibid., p. 174.
-"Ibid., p. 192.
^The New York Times, July 13, 1955.

^'^The New York Times, May 5, 1955.

'^'^The New York Times, October 17, 1954.

26

In order to facilitate as easy understanding of world
problems a compiled history in five languages is being writ-
ten at the United Nations headquarters at the rate of 260,-
000 words a day. In spite of this seemingly rapid pace the
United Nations has a backlog of papers all pre-1949, that
have yet to be translated into Spanish, Russian, Chinese,
English and French, the five official languages of the world
organization of seventy-six (76) members. ^^

There are hundreds of illustrations one could use to
point out activities carried on day by day in the United
Nations. However, the writer will stop with this last ex-
ample. In 1954 the United Nations reported that women
delegates to this international organization were on the
increase. In 1954, there was a total of twenty-eight (28)
women as delegates of the General Assembly. Such states
as Argentina, Guatemala, Cuba, the United States, Costa
Rica, Sweden and Indonesia had women representing them
in this great assembly. Here again one may see the rise in
status of women at the National and International level. ^*

The reader is not to be left with the false impression
that the United Nations has had a road of smooth sailing.
There have been difficulties. The daily papers carry attacks
against the U.N. The American Legion meeting at Miami,
Florida during the month of October 1955 attacked the
United Nations and demanded that it abolish its commission
for UNESCO because there were some alleged Communists
who should be fired or discharged. The United Nations
stood the test of attack from the Legionnaires. On Thurs-
day, October 13, 1955, the entire body of this great organi-
zation, the American Legion, beat down a move calling for
the United States to withdraw completely from the United
Nations. It is interesting to point out that the American
Legion endorsed "principles and purposes of the United
Nations," but insisted that "the United Nations charter be
amended and strengthened to the end that the sovereignty
of these United States be preserved. ^^ The original charter
of the United Nations carries provisions and means through
which this great international agency can be strengthened.
Intelligent people do not burn the house down because ants
are found in the sugar container.

In 1955, there were problems which called for imme-
diate solution. France had walked out of the United Na-
tions because of her problems in North Africa. In this
eleventh year of United Nations growth, it seems that it
w^ould pass out of childhood to adolescence as an agency

^^Ibid. (In 1955, when this report was carried in the New York Times,
the membership totaled 60 nations; by the end of 1956 the membership
was 80).

^^The New York Times, October 3, 1954. (Mrs. Francis P. Bolton served
in 1953 for the U. S.).

^^Savannah Morning News, October 15, 1955.

27

for lasting peace. On October 9, 1955, Henry Cabot Lodge,
Jr., described the United Nations as "the Avorlds' greatest
single engine for influencing world opinion." The persua-
sive power of the U.N., he said "has prevented the eruption
of world wars in spite of very dangerous situations in Iran,
Greece, Israel, Kashmir, Indonesia and Korea. ^^

Many people, quite possibly some of you, have asked
the question, How much does the U.N. cost? During the
year 1952, exclusive of the costs of the Korean War, the
United States contributed a total of $97.6 million for all of
its financial obligations to the United Nations. This amounts
to roughly 62 cents per person each year, or just about the
price- of a good movie. For the entire 10 years, 1945-1955,
the average cost per person was about $5.60.

In spite of the fact that the United States has con-
tributed as much as 70 per cent of the funds for voluntary
programs such as technical assistance for underdeveloped
areas, the international children's fund, the Korean recon-
struction agency and the aid for Palestine refugees, the
contributions represent only about 8 to 10 cents per capita
or less than the cost of cleaning the streets of New York
City. While the United States' contribution on a percentage
basis is the largest of any, she does not lead in the per
capita basis. Canada's contribution to the 1954 budget was
9.2 cents, New Zealand's 9.7 cents and Sweden's 9.5 cents.
Iceland topped the list with 11 cents. All of these figures
seem to indicate a very small price for peace.

As the year 1955 drew to a close, an increasing number
of Americans expressed a desire for peace and a need for
strengthening peoples who desired freedom from the Krem-
lin's tactics. Governor Harriman of New York, speaking to
members of the American Federation of Labor and Congress
of Industrial Organizations, made this observation:

There are many things we must do to rally and
strengthen the free peoples. In addition to maintaining
military defenses, we must identify ourselves with the
hopes and aspirations of people everywhere. They
need technical and economic assistance. ^''^

The march of democratic governments toward a solu-
tion of world peace is not easy. On February 25, 1956,
Senator Walter F. George, Chairman of the Senate For-
eign Relations Committee and Democratic spokesman on
international affairs, warned Americans that they were not
thinking seriously about Russia's role in the U.N. and also
Russia's new look. In a statement, he made the observation
that Russia was abandoning some of her past policies and
was taking on some of the things we are doing.^^

^^The New York Times, October 9, 1955.
^T^e New York Times, December 7, 1955.
^^Savannah Morning Neivs, February 26, 1956.

28

It was also clear that Anglo-American relations in
1956, although seeming united to the world, were not all
unity and agreement. President Eisenhower and Prime Min-
ister Anthony Eden of England made the joint declaration :

We are parties to the Atlantic Charter, the United Na-
tions Charter, the Potomac Charter and the Pacific
Charter. In them we have, with our friends, dedicated
ourselves to the goal of self government and independ-
ence of all countries. ... A settlement between Israel
and her Arab neighbors is the most urgent need.^^

By mid-summer the Near East and Mediterranean
countries were on the lips of many world leaders. Secre-
tary-General Dag Hammarskjold made a special trip to
the Near East. When he returned he said : "There is no
need for specific United Nations action by the General
Assembly or the Security Council." A few months later he
regretted this delay. On May 7, 1956, as the situation be-
came acute, he urged quiet diplomacy by the Security
Council. ^^

In the Fall of 1956 the United Nations had so many
problems to face, it was hard to separate the urgent from
the most urgent. There were problems in India, China,
Nationalist China, South Africa, French northwest Africa,
and Germany, but the problems of Egypt and the Suez
Canal were the most talked about. In Egypt the West,
Great Britain, France, Holland and the United States
seemed more concerned because the oil, which the west
needed so badly, came through the 103-mile waterway.
These nations sought to have the Security Council endorse
the international operation of the Suez Canal. Sir Selwyn
Lloyd, British Foreign Secretary, and Christian Pineau,
French Foreign Minister debated the six principles. But
most important of all, it seemed that these men wanted the
Security Council to play the role of Santa Claus and return
"their" canal to them, which was nationalized by President
Nasser on July 26, at least by Christmas.

No one can foretell the outcome of this dispute, but
all thoughtful people the world over seemingly desired a
just settlement. As negotiations continued it seemed that
Russia was marching step by step, day by day, to her warm
water window into the Mediterranean and subsequently into
the world as a great sea power and a menace to the West.

Aside from dealing with problems of wars the United
Nations made some advances in the areas of human better-
ment in 1956. In this year, countries and territories receiv-
ing assistance numbered over 100. By the start of 1956,
over 1,400 international experts were working to promote
better living conditions through improved agricultural and

^^Savannah Morning News, February 28, 1956.
2o/6id., May 8, 1956.

29

industrial production, production methods, health, educa-
tion, public administration and education.

Culturally, the United Nations had made progress.
Rome, famed for centuries as a repository of art master-
pieces, was selected by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization for the establishment
of an international center for study of the preservation and
restoration of cultural objects. ^^

In December as Christians were preparing for Christ-
mas and the whole world was looking toward a New Year
two major problems of the United Nations remained un-
solved. Russia, one of the Big Five of the world and a
member and organizer of the United Nations, was faced
with revolts in Hungary which were labeled, because Rus-
sia used force to quench, as aggressive acts. Great Britain,
Israel and France were criticized, for their movement
against Gamal Abdel Nasser and Egypt. It seemed that the
majority of the "big powers" of the world except the
United States were moving toward war rather than toward
peace.

An editorial in the Savannah Morning News, Novem-
ber 2, 1956 made this observation:

Aggressor nations should be quarantined. They should
be isolated by economic reprisals, brought to bear
through the United Nations, so that they have to an-
swer for their actions to world opinion. Israel must
be held accountable for this aggression against Egypt.
Similarly, England and France are guilty of aggres-
sion. If the seizure of the Suez (canal) by Nasser
constituted sufficient provocation for military retalia-
tion, such retaliation should have been taken at the
time the offense was committed. If the problem could
be settled ultimately without the use of force, then the
use of force before all avenues aimed at a peaceful
settlement had been explored, and before all other
recourse was exhausted, constitute aggression. --

Hungary's uprising against Russian domination, which
was transformed into a revolt against communism before
the Soviet Army quenched it in blood during the first days
of November 1956, started on July 18 when Erno Gero,
Matyas Rakosi, Stalin's gauleites, called for reconciliation
with Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia and a strengthening of
collective leadership in Hungary on the New Soviet model
and the destruction of the "cult of the individual."

The revolts which came in August, September and Oc-
tober grew in proportion and on October the rebels more
numerous refused to lay down their arms until the Russians

^^The New York Times, December 11, 1955.
"^"Savannah Moi~ning Ne^vs, November 2, 1956.

30

had pulled out of Budapest. The Russians msisted that they
would not leave until the rebels had laid down their arms.
Clearly the lines of war or point of no retreat were clearly
drawn by both countries.

On October 31, Soviet troops evacuated Budapest but
dug in outside the City, and on November 1 it was reported
that fresh Soviet divisions moved toward the capitol. With
his back to the wall the new Hungarian Defense Minister,
Major General Pal Maleter, hero of the revolution, opened
negotiations with the Russians. The Russians on November
4 unleashed a massive surprise attack, roared into Budapest
at dawn, seized Premier Imre Nagy and most of the gov-
ernment, and installed a new government. Hungary's fight
for freedom was lost once more. This problem will plague
the Security Council of the United Nations for many months.

Strategically, and in a sense economically, the Middle
East is possibly the most important area in the world. It
links three continents: Asia, Africa and Europe. The Mid-
dle East represents the shortest sea and air traffic link
between Europe and Africa and Asia. The Middle East is
the second largest oil producing area in the world. Only
the United States produces more oil. The Middle East is
far ahead in proven reserves, for it holds three-quarters of
the total known reserves known to exist in the world. At
present oil is playing a key role in supporting many nations
of the Middle East. In 1955 estimated revenues from oil
in this area were about $1,000,000,000.^3

The Middle East has been of crucial importance to the
great industrial nations of Europe, Africa and Asia for al-
most four hundred years. The Ottoman Turks succeeded
by the middle of the sixteenth century in overrunning most
of it, but their hegemony held only about 100 years. At-
tempts by France under Napoleon, by Russia and by Ger-
many and her allies in World War I to use the Middle East
as a springboard for drives into Southern Asia and North-
east Africa failed, largely by British domination of the
important sea routes.

In World War II, Germany and Italy made unsuccess-
ful attempts to seize the Middle East. Also during World
War II, the United States moved into the Mediterranean
area to strengthen the West's hold on the Middle East.
Britain is linked today with Iran and Iraq, Turkey and
Pakistan in the Baghdad Pact.^^

Immediate events leading up to the Middle East crisis
now debated in the United Nations had beginnings on May
14, 1948 as the British mandate in Palestine ended and
the independent State of Israel was proclaimed. Immedi-

'-^The New York Times, November 4, 1956.
-*Loc. at.

31

ately Arab armies invaded Israel. This war only ended in
an armistice agreement between Israel and Egypt on Feb-
ruary 24, 1949. On July 27, 1954 the British agreed to
withdraw troops stationed in the Suez Canal area, or urged
by Secretary of State Dulles of the United States and
Cyprus became England's main base in the Mideast.

In November 1954, Colonel Nasser became Egyptian
head of Government and by March 1955, Syria, Saudi
Arabia and Egypt were joined in a military pact. On June
23, 1956, Nasser, the only candidate, was elected President
of Egypt. On July 19, the United States withdrew offers
to aid Egypt in building the Aswan High Dam and this
gave Nasser the excuse to nationalize the Suez Canal in
order to get money for needed Egyptian projects. These
chain of events in which all leading nations directed, sanc-
tioned or "unconcernedly watched," led to the present crisis
and will tend to prove the most serious test to permanence
of the United Nations.

Because Russia wanted to draw attention from Hun-
gary she attacked Britain, France and Israel. In a news
release from Moscow, November 10, the Russians stated :

The reckless policy dictated by narrow interests of cer-
tain circles in Britain, France and Israel, created a
threatening situation which could result in serious con-
sequences for the people, for general peace. ^^

On the other side of the fence, non-communist diplo-
mats chorused demands that United Nations observers be
admitted into war-torn Hungary. Burma, Iraq, New
Zealand, Australia and Israel added their weight to the
mounting pressure for an on-the-spot check. ^^ In the United
States, Acting Secretary of State Herbert Hoover, Jr.,
warned the Soviet Union to keep its "volunteers" out of
the Middle East or face United Nation opposition backed
by United States power.^'^

Through the smoke of each nation accusing the other
and one world pointing a finger at the other the careful
observer could see that the British-French debacle in Egypt
had not only strained the Western alliance but had also
caused these two powers to lose ground. By mid-December
the Middle East burden had shifted to the United States.
Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden, the principal author of
the policy of intervention in Egypt, left England for Ja-
maica. What he would do upon his return was debatable,
but many in close quarters thought this was the 14th round
for a man who had previously been a champion in inter-
national politics, especially where they concerned England.

"^The New York Times, November 11, 1956.
'^'^ Savannah Morning News, November 27, 1956.
-''Ibid., November 17, 1956.

32

As Santa Claus packed his basket, it was clear that
the United States and the United Nations must move swiftly
if any promise of peace was to come by the New Year.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower in speeches from the
White House and Philadelphia's Convention Hall set down
his philosophy of United States foreign policy:

I am ever more deeply convinced that the U.N. is the
soundest hope for peace in the world, and for this
very reason, I believe its processes need to be strength-
ened. I speak particularly of increasing its ability to
secure justice under international law. . . . There can
be no peace without law.^^

After telling how, since the close of World War H, the
United States had labored tirelessly to bring peace and
stability to the Middle East, Eisenhower spoke of how di-
rect relations of Egypt with both Israel and France kept
worsening to a point at which Israel, France and Great
Britain determined that, in their judgment, there could be
no protection of their vital interests without resort to force ;
he did not feel the actions were right and made this decla-
ration :

We cannot and we will not condone armed aggression,
no matter who the attacker and no matter who the
victim. We cannot, in the world any more than in our
own nation, subscribe to one law for the weak, an-
other for the strong, one law for those opposing us,
another for those allied with us. There can be only
one law, or there will be no peace. -^

History will record the worth and strength and per-
manence of this declaration. It was the vital direction
when needed most for it tended to show the world the
strong power of the West was morally right and felt that
the United Nations should settle the disputes and solve, if
possible, the problems of the world in favor of right against
wrong.

Slight-shouldered, sandy-haired Swedish statesman and
Secretary-General of United Nations since April 7, 1953,
Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjold met the six feet,
hefty Egyptian, Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and a solu-
tion was found to bring the fighting to an end, clear the
canal, and remove the troops of England, France and Israel
out of Egypt. The complex job of providing the United
Nation's Army (Police Force) with uniforms, rations, weap-
ons and billets was turned over to Ralph J. Bunche, an ex-
pert in solving problems in the Middle East. By December
31 the rehabilitation was underway and the world began
again a restful furlough.

-^Time, November 12, 1956.
^^Loc, cit.

33

Most important of all was the growth of the United
Nations in November and December. The United Nations
General Assembly opened its eleventh regular session in
November by admitting three new nations: Morocco, Tu-
nisia and the Sudan and formally welcoming the 16 other
new members who were hastily admitted in the closing
days of the 1955 session. In the 79 nation United Nations
the balance of voting power shifted from the 20 Latin
American republics, which generally voted with the United
States, to the Asian-African members, which, despite the
absence of Red China numbered twenty-six. ^"^ On Decem-
ber 18, 1956, Japan was elected as the eightieth member
of the United Nation. The Japanese application, approved
by the Security Council, and sponsored by fifty-one nations,
was admitted by the vote of 77 to 0, with Hungary and
South Africa absent.^^ The African nation, Ghana, com-
posed of the former Gold Coast and the British trust terri-
tory of Togoland, was voted into the world organization by
76 votes later raised to 77 at the request of Morocco with
no member states opposed and with no abstentions. Hungary
and South Africa walked out of the Assembly earlier in
the session. Seth Kobla Anthony, the temporary repre-
sentative of Ghana, was seated in the General Assembly.
Prince Wan Waithagkon, president of the General Assem-
bly after praising the admission of Ghana and entrusting
further action in the Middle East situation to Dag Ham-
marskjold suspended its 1956 session which began Novem-
ber 12, 1956 at 8:25 p. m., March 8, 1957.^^

Now that the total member is 81 the Western Allies are
outnumbered. By adding their votes to those of the nine
Communist members, the new nations of Asia and Africa
can henceforth prevent any resolutions they dislike from
obtaining the necessary two-thirds majority. This writer
is confident that the nations of the Middle East, except
Egypt, and Israel, and possibly South Africa and the na-
tions of Asia, except Japan, are much too busy with grow-
ing pains and domestic problems that the African-Asian
Bloc will in the immediate future cause less trouble than
some of the "big powers" and thereby pave the way for
a more lasting international peace.

Americans do not generally look at the United Na-
tions with regret for the United Nations is a symbol of hope,
faith and peace. There will be problems, but it is felt that
the presence of the United Nations will limit wars in size
or at least in duration. The United Nations Organization,
especially on its economic and social side, is essentially a
device for facilitating consultation among member govern-
ments and for making collective recommendations to them.

3 Time, November 26, 1956.

^^The New York Times, December 19, 1956.

^^The New York Times, March 9, 1957.

34

Nothing will really happen unless the national governments,
through national legislative and administrative machinery,
make it happen. ^^ Perhaps the words of Mamoru Shige-
mitsu, Foreign Minister of Japan, who officially accepted
the Japanese seat in the world organization will be realized
in the second ten years of the United Nations youth.

We earnestly hope that under the leadership of the
United Nations the great task of disarmament will be
successfully consummated and mankind secured from
a calamitous fate and relieved from the inhibitive psy-
chology of fear.^*

'*Hans Joachim Morgenthau, Peace, Security and the United Natio-ns,

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1946, p. 128.
**The New York Times, December 19, 1956.

35

Serviceability and Suitability of Denim

by
Farnese Hughes Lumpkin

One of the greatest problems confronting the consumer
in purchasing yard goods and ready-to-wear garments is
shrinkage and colorfastness. Most of the garments and
yard goods are preshrunk, but in spite of that some shrink-
age and colorfastness are still observed. Investigations are
still being done in that direction by such organizations as
the American Society for Testing Materials, (ASTM) Com-
mittee D-13, and by others.

PROBLEM

Three samples of denim fabric were selected for test
purposes. Each sample was approximately one yard square.
The price per running yard ranged from $0.59 to $1.39.
Tests were made on swatches or specimen of each fabric.

The three samples were selected and tested for serv-
iceability and to determine which fabric was best suitable
for such garments as casual suits, dresses, or play clothes.
Each of the fabrics was tested according to the methods
recommended by Commercial Standard CS59-44 to de-
termine the following qualities: Dry breaking strength
(pounds) warp and filling; wet breaking strength (pounds)
warp and filling; shrinkage (percent) to dry cleaning,
warp and filling; shrinkage (percent) to laundering, warp
and filling; fastness of color to light; fastness of color to
perspiration; fastness of color to dry cleaning; and fastness
of color to laundering.

Other test methods and calculations were used to de-
termine: Fiber content, W and F; price per square yard,
width in inches, yam structure, W and F; Thickness in
inches; weight in ounces per square yard; change in
strength ( % ) ; and method of coloring.

PROCEDURE

Each piece of fabric was laid out on a flat surface
without pressing or tension and cut into swatches or speci-
men for shrinkage and breaking strength.

SHRINKAGE Two specimen were cut, one for shrink-
age in cleaning, dry, the other for laundering. The speci-
men were taken no nearer the selvage than one-tenth the
width of the fabric. Each measured at least 12 by 12 inches.
A 10-inch square whose sides were placed parallel with
the warp and filling of the specimen was outlined on it
with the aid of a rigid templet. The comers and mid-points

36

of each side of the square were marked with a fine thread
sewed into the fabric. Other possible markings could have
been indelible ink applied with a fine pen or by 1/16-inch
holes punched in the fabric.

Cleaning, dry The apparatus was filled approximate-
ly one-third with Stoddard Solvent to which was added 270
ml. of dry-cleaning soap. Time of first operation was 25
minutes, second operation was 5 minutes.

DIAGRAM FOR MARKING WOVEN FABRIC TO BE
CUT INTO SWATCHES

Scale: 1 block = 1 inch

r

~

f

' 1

-

T

^

1

Dry
eanin

^

C

Q

z

s

.

L .

.J

:T.

i

*.

r'

' 1

a

*

"z

au

idr

i

,,

s

i

w

"*'

Warp
Wet

^

~^

4

"

"

~

-1

~"

^

1

^

Wa

4-

~~

Dry

~

'

-

^^

.

^1

^^

Laundering The washing was carried out in a re-
versing wash wheel of the cylindrical type. The machine
had a 20 or 24-inch wheel that took a load of about 3
pounds of dry wash. The soap solution was that of a good
grade of laundry soap prepared into a stock solution.

The hand pressing method was used for both specimen.

BREAKING STRENGTH Twenty specimen, each 4
inches wide and not less than 6 14 inches long were cut for
this test. Ten of those specimen were cut with their long

37

sides parallel to the warp yarns (for warp breaking
strength) and 10 specimen were cut with their long sides
parallel to the filling yarns (for filling breaking strength)
in such a manner that there were five pairs of specimen in
each direction ; each pair of which contained the same warp
or filling yarns but no two pairs of which contained the
same yarns (warp or filling). No specimen was taken near-
er the selvage than one-tenth the width of the material.

Five specimen in each set, of which no two specimen
contained the same yarns (warp or filling), were used for
determining the breaking strength of the material under
standard atmospheric conditions and the remaining speci-
men for determining the breaking strength of the material
when wet.

A motor-driven pendulum machine was used. It was
of such a capacity that when the specimen broke, the angle
between the pendulum and the vertical was between 9"
and 45. The jaws through which the load vv^as applied
moved at a uniform rate of 121/4 inches per minute.

The method used to determine the breaking strength
of the specimen was the Grab Method.

COLORFASTNESS TO LIGHT Five specimen were
cut, each measured about 21/2 by 3 inches, the longer dimen-
sion running in the direction of the warp, lengthwise of
yarns. Each specimen included all of the colors in the
design. A piece of the original specimen or specimen num-
ber 1 was saved for comparison with the tested swatches.
Number 2 was exposed 10 hours, number 3 20 hours,
number 4 30 hours and number 5 40 hours.

FASTNESS OF COLOR TO LIGHT
Specimen Number Hours of Exposure Rating

Original Not Exposed

2 10 Fair

3 20 Poor

4 30 Poor

5 40 Poor

Average Poor

COLORFASTNESS TO PERSPIRATION Two speci-
men of the fabric, approximately 2 by 4 inches, were cut
so they could be rolled lengthwise and inserted in the glass
tube one for the acid test and one for the alkaline test.

One piece of composite test cloth of the same dimen-
sion as the specimen was used for each specimen tested.

Two solutions were used as follows :

38

ACID SOLUTION

10 g of sodium chloride
1 g of lactic acid, USP 85 percent
1 g of disodiiim orthophosphate anhydrous
1 liter was made up with distilled water

ALKALINE SOLUTION

10 g of sodium chloride

4 g of ammonium carbonate, USP

1 g of disodium orthrophosphate anhydrous

1 liter was made up with distilled water

PRESENT STUDY

(Testing)

The different fabrics were tested according to : Tex-
tiles Testing and Reporting (Fourth Edition) Commercial
Standard CS59-44, U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Bureau of Standards.

The three fabrics were of the same fiber content
cotton. Method of coloring yarn dyed. Fabric number 1
had a special finish flock print design. Fabric number 2
was a four color stripe colors woven in by wrap yarns.
Fabric number 3 was solid color. Fabric number 1 was of
plain weave. Fabrics number 2 and 3 were of twill weave.

FABRIC NUMBER ONE The breaking strength (wet
and dry) of the warp yarns was less than that found in
fabric two and three. The percent elongation (dry) for the
warp and filling yarns were higher. The warp and filling
yarns stretched in the dry cleaning process and shrunk in
laundering. Color fastness to light was poor, laundering
fair, dry cleaning good, perspiration (acid) good, per-
spiration (alkaline) fair.

FABRIC NUMBER TWO The breaking strength (wet
and dry) of the warp yarns were higher in fabric number
one and three. The percent elongation (wet) in the warp
was higher than in fabrics one and three. The filling yarns
in dry cleaning shrunk 1 % . In the laundry process the
filling yarns shrunk 2%. Color fastness to light was poor.
A slight amount of bleeding was observed on the alkaline
test to perspiration. Acid test good.

FABRIC NUMBER THREE The breaking strength
(wet and dry) of the filling yarns was less than that found
in fabric one and two. The warp and filling yarns had a
high percent shrinkage to laundry. Both warp and filling
yarns stretched in the dry cleaning process. Perspiration
(acid and alkaline) good.

39

Fabric Number

1

2

3

Fabric

Denim

Denim

Denim

Price per running yard

$ 1.39

$ 0.59

$ 0.59

Price per square yard

$ 1.35

$ 0.5883

$ 0.57

Fiber Content W

Cotton

Cotton

Cotton

Fiber Content F

Cotton

Cotton

Cotton

Width in inches

37.44"

36.1"

37"

Yarn structure W

Simple
Single

Simple
Single

Simple
Single

Yarn structure F

Simple
Single

Simple
Single

Simple
Single

Fabric structure

Plain

Twill

Twill

Yarn count per inch W

68.4

47 1/5

62

Yarn count per inch F

56.8

50

44.1

Thickness in inches

.0166

.019

.020

Weight in oz. per sq. yd.

5.78

6.24

6.3

Dry breaking strength (lbs.) W

71

107.6

103.5

Dry breaking strength (lbs.) F

58.6

40.0

36

Wet breaking strength (lbs.) W

80.2

129.7

116.6

Wet breaking strength (lbs.) F

65.2

46.4

37.7

Fabric Number

1

2

3

Change in strength (%) W

12.9

20.5

12.6

Change in strength (%) F

1.1

1.6

4.7

Elongation {%) dry W

29

25

25.6

Elongation (%) dry F

20.3

17

17

Elongation (%) wet W

22.4

28.6

26.5

Elongation (%) wet F

23.5

20.6

19.5

Dry
Cleaning

Laundry

Dry

Cleaning

Laundry

Dry
Cleaning

Laundry

Shrinkage {%) W

+ .1

1.9

+ 1

2

+ 1

1.2

Shrinkage (%) F

+ .2

1.4

1

+ .3

+ .2

+ 2.5

Shrinkage (in. per yd.) W

+ .036

.684

+ .36

.72

+ .36

.43

Shrinkage (in. per yd.) F

+ .072

.504

+ .36

.108

+ .072

.9

Method of coloring

Yarn Dyed

Yarn Dyed

Yarn Dyed

Fastness of color to light

Poor

Poor

Good

to laundering

Fair

Good

Good

to dry cleaning

Good

Good

Good

Special finishes

Flock Print

None

None

Perspiration (Acid test)

Good

Good

Good

Perspiration (Alkaline test)

Fair

Fair

Good

40

12 3

Fabric Number

Warp

Filling

41

Lbs.
200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Fabric Number

WET BREAKING STRENGTH (lbs.)

I I
I I
I I
I I

Warp

Filling

42

Fabric Number

CHANGE IN STRENGTH (Vc)

I I

Warp

Filling

43

F^T^c^T^^ '<^ Fabric Number

-100 12 3 12 3

90

80

^0

1; 60

k; 50

40

30

20

10

ELONGATION {%) DRY

Warp Filling

44

Percent .^__ Fabric Number

-100 12 3 12 3

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

ELONGATION (7r) WET

Warp Filling

45

/" < Fabric Number

12 3 12 3

+ 5

+ 4

+ 3

+ 2

+ 1

SHRINKAGE (%) WARP

5

Laundry B ^^y Cleaning

46

Fabric Number

Laundry H Dry Cleaning

47

Inches per yd.
+ 5 1 2_ 3

12 3

Fabric Number

+ 4

+ 3

+ 2

+ 1

SHRINKAGE (IN. PER YD.) WARP

3

4

5

Laundry Dry Cleaning

48

Inches per yd.

. K 1 2 3

12 3

Fabric Number

SHRINKAGE (IN. PER YD.) FILLING

Laundry H Dry Cleaning

49

SUMMARY

Laundering caused the three cotton denim fabrics to
shrink from 1.2% to 2,5%. Dry cleaning caused the fabrics
to stretch .1% to 1%. Fabric number 3 was colorfast to
light, laundry, dry cleaning, and perspiration (acid and
alkaline).

CONCLUSION

Fabric number 3 was found to be more suitable for a
dress, suit or play-clothes than fabrics 1 and 2.

50

The Status of Audio-Visual Education
In Florida's Accredited Senior Negro
High Schools and Accredited
Vocational High Schools "^

By W. H. M. Bowens

Nature of the Survey

Eighty-eight checklist-type questionnaires were mailed
to the 88 Negro accredited senior high schools and voca-
tional high schools listed in the October 1956, Florida
Educational Directory, published by the Florida State De-
partment of Education. Forty or 45.5 percent of the ques-
tionnaires were returned. The questionnaires were mailed
in April 1956. By the end of May 1957, 39 returns had
been received. An additional questionnaire was received in
early June 1957.

The purpose of this survey was to determine the status
of Audio-Visual Education in the 88 schools surveyed with
a view toward helping Negro teacher-training institutions
in the area involved to set up more effective audio-visual
training programs.

Florida has 67 counties ; returns were received from 27
or 40.3 percent of the State's counties. Of these, four or
ten percent of the 40 questionnaires returned came from
the most populous county in the state Dade of which
Miami is the County Seat.

Three or 7.5 per cent of the 40 returns came from
Escambia county of which Pensacola is the county seat and
two returns each were received from Broward, Lake, Leon,
Marion, Orange, Polk and Volusia counties. Eighteen coun-
ties returned one questionnaire each.

As the map on page two shows, the returns were well-
distributed over the entire state, with the largest number
coming from the northern part of the state. One return
was received from the southernmost county in the state
Monroe.

*This article is the third in a series on the status of Audio-Visual Educa-
tion in Georgia and neighboring states. The first two articles dealt with
the status of A-V Education in Georgia and South Carolina accredited
high schools respectively.

51

The information sought through the questionnaire
involved the following areas:

1. Organization of the Audio-Visual Program

2. Equipment owned

3. Materials produced by the individual school for
classroom use.

4. Methods of procuring audio-visual materials

5. Functions of the audio-visual program

6. Budgets and methods of obtaining them

7. Promotional and developmental programs

OUTLINE MAP OF FLORIDA
SHOWING POSITIONS OF COUNTIES

Organization

According to Weaver and Bollinger :

If a visual program is to function efficiently, it must
be properly organized and managed regardless of
the size . . . The problems of organization and admin-

52

istration of a visual aids program are very much the
same whether they are those of a single school or a
city system. These problems differ only in magnitude,
not in kind.^

In short, if an audio-visual program is to be effective,
it must be well organized and administered, with someone
permanently responsible for these functions. Florida schools
are apparently aware of this fact, because, according to the
data, 27 or 67.5 per cent of the 40 responding schools have
audio-visual directors and coordinators. The same number
have audio-visual committees. Furthermore, only 6 or 15
per cent of the 40 responding schools had no director or
no committee. In other words 34 or 85 per cent of the
schools responding had directors or committees or both.
(See Table I below).

TABLE I SCHOOLS HAVING AUDIO-VISUAL DIRECTORS
AND COMMITTEES

Yes

No

NA*

No.

Per
cent

No.

Per
cent

Per
No. cent

1. Do you have an Audio-
Visual Director?

2. Has Your Director had
special training?

3. Do you have an A-V
Committee?

27
18
27

19

67.5
45.0
67.5

47.5

13
18
13

16

32.5
45.0
32.5

40.0

4 10.0

4. Are all Departments or
Subject-Matter Areas
represented on your
committee?

5 12.5

*NA No Answer

Another aspect of organization is the place of utiliza-
tion of materials and equipment by teachers and others.
There are several possibilities here. The most ideal is to
have every classroom equipped for using audio-visual ma-
terials and equipment. Other possibilities are to have one
classroom adequately equipped in each building where
there are several buildings on a campus; to have one audio-
visual room on each floor in case of multi-storied buildings
or to have one central room used by the entire school. The
latter arrangement is the least desirable due to unavoid-
able scheduling problems as well as the inconvenience of
moving from the classroom to a central center.

^Gilbert G. Weaver and Elroy W. Bollinger, Visual Aids: Their Con-
struction and Use, (New York, publisher 1949) pp. 288-289.

53

Only nine or 22.5 per cent of the responding schools
stated that every room in their respective schools was
equipped for using motion pictures, slides, filmstrips and
other projected audio-visual materials. On the other hand
more than half (23 or 57.5%) of the responding schools
stated that they had one central audio-visual room which
was used by the entire school. According to the Depart-
ment of Audio-Visual Instruction of the National Education
Association, in one of their special booklets on various
phases of audio-visual education, central audio-visual
''rooms are a hmdrance to the school program and have
been condemned by modern educators."- In short this is
not a desirable practice.

Twenty-five or 62.5 per cent of the responding schools
stated that they had several buildings on their campuses,
however, only 9 or 22.5 per cent (as previously stated)
indicated that every room in their respective schools was
audio-visually equipped.

Audio-visual specialists unanimously agree that the
best place to use audio-visual materials and equipment is
in the classroom. They also agree rather emphatically that
school auditoriums should not be used for audio-visual
teaching, because students tend to feel that they are being
entertained rather than educated in an auditorium. Ac-
cording to the Audio-Visual Education Association of Cali-
fornia, auditoriums are acceptable for special occasions,
such as Washington's Birthday or Fire Prevention Week,
but should not be used for general classroom teaching.^
How do the 40 responding schools stand on the matter
of the use of auditoriums for teaching purposes? Far too
many use it for teaching 25 or 62.5 per cent. Eight of the
40 responding schools or 20 per cent use the auditorium as
an audio-visual center.

Housing is another phase of audio-visual organization
and administration. Two points of view pervade present
thinking on this matter. One is that audio-visual materials
and equipment should be housed in the school library and
checked out and used the same as books, magazines and
other traditional library equipment. In short, they should
be a part of the library, administered by the library staff.
The other is that audio-visual materials should be housed
and administered independently.

Florida schools apparently believe in the library hous-
ing school of thought because 27 or 67.5 per cent of the
responding schools stated that their AV Centers were
housed in the library. Two additional schools stated that

-Planning Schools for Use of Audio-Visual Materials: No. 3, AV Instruc-
tional Materials Center (Department of A-V Instruction of the NEA,
Washington, D. C. 1954.) p. 5.

^Setting Up Your Audio-Visual Education Program (AV Education Asso-
ciation of California) (Stanford University Press) 1949, pp, 16-17.

54

their centers were housed in the library office annex and
adjacent to the library. Only two schools or 5 per cent
reported that their centers were housed in the principal's
office (generally, considered undesirable) while one each
stated that their centers were housed in (1) the record
room, (2) a special room, (3) the related study classroom,
(4) the social science classroom, (5) the supervisor's office,
and (6) the county materials center. (See Table II below).
Three schools or 7.5 per cent did not answer this question,

TABLE II HOUSING OF THE AUDIO-VISUAL CENTER IN
40 FLORIDA ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS

No. Percent

1. Library _. 27 67.5

2. No Answer 3 7.5

3. Principal's Office 2 5.0

4. Library Office Annex 1 2.5

5. Adjacent to Library __ _ 1 2.5

6. Record Room 1 2.5

7. Special Room 1 2.5

8. Related Study Classroom 1 2.5

9. Social Science Classroom 1 2.5

10. Supervisor's Office 1 2.5

11. County Materials Center 1 2.5

Totals 40 100.0

Equipment

The number of students in an individual school is very
important in determining the equipment needs of that
school, as well as the type of program and the equipment
preferences of individual teachers. According to Hartsell
and Norford, the Audio-Visual Commission on Public In-
formation recommends the following basic minimum equip-
ment:

1. 16mm. Sound Projectors 1 per 300 students or
major fraction thereof; at least one for each build-
ing.

2. Filmstrip and 2" x 2" projector 1 per 200 students
or a major fraction thereof; at least one per build-
ing.

3. Opaque Projector 1 per building (one must be
equipped to handle 314" x 4" slides).

4. Record Players (3 speed) 1 per first school-year
class ; 1 per five other classrooms ; at least two per
building.

5. Tape Recorders 1 per 300 students or major
fraction ; at least one per building.

6. AM-FM Radio and TV All-Channel Receivers
(where appropriate program materials are avail-

55
SAVftNNftH STATE COLLEGE U8RAR^ 9 90X

able) 1 radio per five classrooms; at least one TV
set per building.

7. Overhead Projector (7" x 7" or larger) 1 per
building.

8. Screens (square 60" x 60" or larger) 1 per each
two classrooms.^

The survey showed that the 40 responding schools
owned more record players 132 or 3.3 players per school
than any other type of equipment. Thirty-nine or 97.5
per cent of the 40 schools owned these 132 record players.
Thirty-eight or 95 per cent of the schools owned 78 film-
strip projectors; 39 or 97.5 per cent owned 52 motion pic-
ture projectors; 33 or 82.5 per cent owned 49 tape re-
corders; 32 or 80 per cent owned 64 microphones and 28
or 70 per cent owned 35 public address systems. Next in
order of number of pieces of equipment owned were com-
bination filmstrip and slide projectors; AM-FM radio sets,
opaque projectors, central sound systems, disc recorders,
lantern slide projectors, motion-picture cameras^ 2" x 2"
slide projectors, still picture cameras, overhead projectors,
stereo viewers, all-channel TV, enlargers and darkroom
equipment, wire recorders and microprojectors (See Table
III below).

TABLE III EQUIPMENT OWNED BY 40 FLORIDA ACCREDITED
NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS

Total Average Schools Owning
No. Per School No. Percentage

1. Record Players 132 3.3 39 97.5

2. Filmstrip Projectors 78 1.9 38 95.0

3. Microphones 64 1.6 32 80.0

4. 16mm SMP Projectors 52 1,3 39 97.5

5. Tape Recorders 49 1.2 33 82.5

6. PA Systems 35 .90 28 70.0

7. Combination Filmstrips and

2" X 2" Slide Projectors 28 .70 19 47.5

8. AM-FM Radio Sets 22 .55 15 37.5

9. Central Sound System ... __ , . 16 .40 15 37.5

10. Opaque Projectors 17 .43 14 35.0

11. Disc Recorders 14 .35 7 17.5

12. Lantern Slide

Projectors 3%" x 4" 8 .20 6 15.0

13. MP Cameras -__ ..- 6 .15 6 15.0

14. 2" X 2" Slide Projectors ___ _. 3 .08 3 7.5

15. Still Picture Cameras 3 .08 3 7.5

16. Stereo Viewers _._.- 2 .05 2 5.0

17. Overhead Projectors ..._ 2 .05 1 2.5

18. All-Channel TV 1 .03 1 2.5

19. Enlarger and Darkroom

Equipment . ._ 1 .03 1 2.5

20. Wire Recorders -- 1 .03 1 2.5

21. Microprojectors 1 .03 1 2.5

* Horace C. Hartsell and Charles A. Norford, "Selecting Equipment or
Steve's Problem," Audio-Vis^iul Instruction, Nov., 1956, p. 174.

56

The 40 schools surveyed had most of AVCPI's recom-
mended basic equipment, with a few exceptions. No at-
tempt was made in this survey to determine the adequacy
or inadequacy of equipment owned by the responding
schools.

Many schools with limited budgets have developed
their audio-visual programs through the use of certain
teacher-produced materials such as posters, charts, flannel-
boards, still pictures and bulletin boards. Furthermore,
audio-visual specialists generally agree that teachers should
be able to produce some of these simpler types of materials.

Of the materials produced by teachers in the 40 re-
sponding schools, posters headed the list with 34 or 85 per
cent indicating that they produced posters for teaching
purposes. Sixteen or 40 per cent of the schools produce
motion pictures of athletic contests and 9 or 22.5 per cent
produce motion pictures for teaching purposes. Eleven or
27.5 per cent produce filmstrips and still pictures for teach-
ing purposes while 12 or 30 per cent produce photographic
slides and 7 or 17.5 per cent produce handmade lantern
slides. Only 9 or 22.5 per cent of the responding schools
indicated that they produce materials other than those
aforementioned. Among other materials produced for
teaching purposes, were maps, globes, bulletin boards, his-
torical and natural displays, disc recordings, tape record-
ings, graphs, charts, collections of local objects and atlases.

The data indicate that some of these schools should
explore the possibility of producing more of the less ex-
pensive audio-visual materials such as feltboards, photo-
graphic slides, filmstrips, lantern slides, still pictures, ex-
hibits of local objects and other such inexpensive materials.

Procurement of Materials

Audio-visual materials may be procured by several
methods free loan, rental, purchase, donations and local
production. The 40 responding schools were asked to indi-
cate which method or methods they employed.

Of the 40 responding schools, 32 or 80 per cent get
some materials on a free loan basis from industries, govern-
ment agencies and other free loan sources. Eleven or 27.5
per cent procure some materials from the Florida State
University Audio-Visual Center. Eight or 20 per cent bor-
row films from county audio-visual libraries, and the same
number indicated that they buy some film and some film-
strips. One-hundred per cent of the responding schools in-
dicated that they procure materials from at least one or
more sources. Procurement, according to the survey, did
not seem to constitute a major problem for the responding
schools.

57

Functions of the Audio-Visual Center

According to Margaret W. Divizia :
The audio-visual movement in American education has
quickened and grown strong because its motivating
force is service service to people of all ages, and
teachers of all subjects. Its equipment and materials
are designed for one purpose, to serve the needs of
education. Audio-visual departments exist to serve the
schools which create them.'"'

Service, then, is the primary and general function of
any audio-visual center or department. This service may
take varied and infinite forms. With this in mind, the 40
responding schools were asked to indicate the types of
services rendered by their respective audio-visual centers
or departments. _^

Table IV (below) indicates that 35 or 87.5 per cent of
the responding schools have as their primary function the
servicing of high school classes using visual aids, and as-
sisting high school teachers in the selection of audio-visual
materials. Thirty or 75 per cent assume responsibility for
the selection and maintenance of all audio-visual equip-
ment while 26 schools or 65 per cent conduct promotional
programs in the most effective methods of using audio-visual
materials in high schools. Nineteen or 47.5 per cent of the
responding schools stated that their A-V Center or depart-
ments assist teachers in producing A-V materials and 10
or 25 per cent provide photographic services for all high
school needs.

TABLE IV FUNCTIONS OF THE AUDIO-VISUAL PROGRAM
IN 40* FLORIDA NEGRO ACCREDITED HIGH SCHOOLS

Yes No NA**

1. To serve high school classes using visual aids 35 1 3

2. To assist high school teachers in the selection

of Audio- Visual materials 33 2 4

3. To conduct a promotional program in the most

effective methods of using A-V materials in

high school classrooms 26 5 8

4. To provide photographic service for all high

school needs 10 13 16

5. To assume responsibility for selection and

maintenance of all audio-visual equipment 30 1 8

6. To assist teachers in the production of A-V

materials 19

7. Others .____.

1. To service elementary classes 1

2. To secure A-V materials for school use 1

*Note: one school had no A-V Center.
**No answer.

5

15

1

36

'Margaret W. Divizia, "Administration of an Audio-Visual Center,"
quoted in Charles F. Schuller, ed., The Scliool Administrator and His
Audio-Visual Program, (Washington, D. C, 1949) p. 34.

58

Budgets

Before an audio-visual program can be a going con-
cern, it must have a budget the sine qua non of an effec-
tive, developing program.

The Audio-Visual Commission on Public Information,
an audio-visual public relations group organized in 1956,
has the following to say on budgets for individual school
programs :

The commission believed that the minimum cost of
the local school program should be (one per cent of
the school's instructional budget; used to provide all
materials of instruction except textbooks ; and exclu-
sive of all salaries.)

L. C. Larson, director for the Audio-Visual Center at
Indiana University and U. S. delegate to the Paris
UNESCO, stated that the annual pupil cost for instruc-
tion would run between $250 and $600 in the U. S.
'That means that with an average pupil cost of $300
annually, educators cooperating for the highest effi-
cient use of the school dollar can employ the most
modern teaching tools for only $3 per pupil,' Larson
explained.*^

How did the 40 responding schools rate with reference
to the proposed per pupil expenditure of AVCPI? As
Table VI shows per pupil expenditures in 21 of the 40
schools (only 21 gave budget figures) ranged from a mini-
mum of 10 cents to a maximum of $1.50. The median ex-
penditure was .52 per pupil and the average per pupil
expenditure was 65.9 cents per pupil; both figures are far
below the recommended $3 average of AVCPI.

Audio-visual budgets may be determined on a per
teacher basis, a per pupil basis, a per pupil in average daily
attendance basis, a per building basis, a fixed per cent of
the total budget basis and a per school basis within a given
school system. As Table VI shows, of the 21 schools giving
a budget figure, 14 or 66% per cent use a per pupil basis
for determining their audio-visual budgets. The per pupil
basis, incidentally, is one of the most widely used methods
of computing audio-visual budgets.

Despite the fact that only 21 or 52.5 per cent of the
responding schools listed definite budget figures, 36 or 90
per cent indicated that they received monies for audio-visual
use. (See Table V). Only 4 schools or 10 per cent gave no
answer to the budget question.

'Charles F. Schuller, "The Audio- Visual Commission on Public Informa-
tion," Educational Screen and Audio-Visual Guide, July 1957, p. 367.

59

TABLE V SOURCES OF AUDIO-VISUAL EXPENDITURES IN
40 FLORIDA ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS

Number Percentage

County Board of Education 23 57.5

County and State 6 15.0

No Answer 4 10.0

Board of Public Instruction 2 5.0

State _._.. 2 5.0

General Funds 1 2.5

Instructional Materials Budget 1 2.5

County and State and Finances Raised by School 1 2.5

Total 40 100.0

TABLE VI BUDGETS OF AUDIO-VISUAL PROGRAMS IN 21
FLORIDA ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS, 1956-57

Total

Per Pupil

Bases for

Budget

Enrolhnent

Expenditures'"

Determining Budget

1.

$ 259.50

173

$1.50

Per Pupil

2.

1.723.45

1175

1.47

Per Pupil

8.

400.00

300

1.33

25 '^f of Instructional
Budget

4.

684.00

684

1.00

Per Pupil

5.

270.00

274

.99

Per Teacher

6.

600.00

655

.92

Need

7.

450.00

601

.75

Per Pupil

8.

250.00

335

.75

Per Pupil

9.

375.00

646

.58

Per Pupil

10.

894.00

1694

.53

County-Wide Basis

11.

384.00

735

.52

Per Pupil

12.

164.00

328

.50

Per Pupil

13.

570.50

1141

.50

Per Pupil

14.

189.00

378

.50

Per Pupil

15.

350.00

735

.48

Per Pupil

16.

100.00

260

.39

Per Pupil

17.

500.00

1500

.38

Per Pupil

18.

475.00

1935

.25

No Answer

19.

150.00

657

.23

No Answer

20.

75.00

355

.21

Per Pupil

21.

96.00**
plus repairs

935

.10

Size of the School

*Figures to the nearest cent.
**The amount for repairs -was not given.

Promotional and Developmental Programs

It is now a well-established and widely accepted fact
that audio-visual materials make for a more effective learn-
ing situation. Despite this fact, however, audio-visual pro-
grams in many schools are hampered because many teachers
do not know how to use the equipment and materials pro-
vided by such programs, and many school administrators,
though they are aware of the value of such programs, have
not been thoroughly sold on them. In short, audio-visual
programs, like all good products, must be sold to teachers.

60

administrators, parents and other interested groups. This
is the function of the promotional programs.

A visual handbook prepared by the Audio-Visual Edu-
cation Association of California which is composed of lead-
ers in audio-visual education at all levels suggests the fol-
lowing check-list for promoting the use of audio-visual
materials and equipment among in-service teachers, who,
incidentally are the chief users of audio-visual equipment
and materials in the individual schools:

1. Give demonstrations on the use of materials and
equipment before teacher groups, or at faculty
meetings.

2. Supervise use within the classroom.

3. Permit teachers to observe other teachers who use
audio-visual materials well in your school and else-
where.

4. Keep teachers informed concerning new mate-
rials, equipment, and new ways of use, and give
them teacher's guides and manuals.

5. Preview materials in groups together and discuss
their worth and possible use.

6. Encourage the production of slides, photographs
and other simple aids.

7. Train teachers to use equipment with confidence.

8. Encourage teachers to take summer session classes
and attend workshops and institutes in audio-
visual education.

9. Encourage teachers to join professional organiza-
tions.

10. Help individual teachers by telling them about
the materials they can use, and suggest ways of
using them.

11. Bring in outside expeiis who can inform and
stimulate teacher interest.'^

The 40 responding schools were asked to indicate
methods used by them to promote effective methods of
utilizing audio-visual materials among their teachers. They
were also asked to comment on plans for future develop-
ment of their audio-visual programs.

Twelve or 30 per cent of the 40 schools gave no an-
swer to the query concerning promotion while 21 or 52.5
per cent gave no answer to the query concerning develop-
ment of their programs. In addition, six schools or 15
per cent answered the question concerning development

''Setting Up Your Audio-Visual Education Program, (Audio- Visual Edu-
cation Association of California), Stanford University Press, 1949, p. 25.

61

by saying they hoped to develop programs but gave no
definite plans for doing so.

Eight or 20 per cent of the 40 responding schools indi-
cated that they use in-service training sessions to promote
more effective use of audio-visual-materials. Approximate-
ly the same number indicated that they use demonstrations
by teachers familiar with effective utilization, as well as
demonstrations by visiting consultants and experts. Among
other methods cited were keeping teachers informed
through personal contact and through publications of avail-
able materials and new materials, as well as sources of free
materials; placing materials catalogues in all departments;
organizing student projectionists clubs; assisting teachers
in selecting materials ; group previews by faculty members ;
assisting teachers in programming and integrating audio-
visual materials in their classroom lesson units ; urging
teachers to use audio-visual materials in their teaching and
encouraging teachers to attend summer-school classes in
audio-visual education.

Of the 13 schools stating plans for developing their
audio-visual programs one had no specific plans, but hoped
to develop its program. Among plans listed by the remain-
ing twelve were: (1) plan to organize an audio-visual com-
mittee made up of members of each department; (2) plan
to give in-service training to teachers in equipment opera-
tion during the pre-school conference in August; (3) plan
to purchase more equipment and materials with a view
towards expanding the program; (4) plan to build a more
complete library of audio-visual source books and other
audio-visual literature ; (5) plan to organize a camera club ;
(6) plan to utilize available materials more fully and to
take advantage of local and other helpful agencies; (7)
plan to try to get a special audio-visual teacher to ade-
quately supervise, teach and distribute equipment and ma-
terials; (8) plan to begin a production program of slides
and other materials, and (9) to develop an audio-visual
aids room and work towards a more adequate budget.

Conclusions

1. The responding schools are definitely audio-visual
conscious. All had audio-visual programs of some type. All
had some audio-visual equipment. The data seem to indi-
cate that the audio-visual movement has a solid foothold in
Florida's Accredited Negro High Schools.

2. The majority of the responding schools 85 per-
cent have directors and/or committees. In other words,
most of the responding schools have organized programs
with one person or several persons (committees) responsi-
ble for directing these programs. The data also indicates
that the majority of the directors have had some kind of
special training in audio-visual education.

62

3. Although a large number of the schools surveyed
owned numerous pieces of certain types of equipment,
notably record players and filmstrip projectors (one school
had 12 record players for 1600 pupils and another school
with 655 students owned 6 filmstrip projectors), not one
school had the minimum equipment recommended by
AVCPI although several had everything recommended ex-
cept all-channel television receivers. Despite this fact, how-
ever, most schools had a variety of equipment and materials.

4. According to the data, 67.5 per cent of the respond-
ing schools housed their audio-visual centers in the school
library. According to some audio-visual experts this is
undesirable since librarians are not trained in audio-visual
techniques, while others feel it is a desirable arrangement
because it places all teaching materials books, magazines,
other printed matter and audio-visual materials in a cen-
tral source. From the data, it seems that housing the audio-
visual center in the library is a widespread practice in Flor-
ida schools. Incidentally, no attempt was made to deter-
mine whether or not librarians served as audio-visual di-
rectors, although several schools indicated that this was
the case.

5. The data indicated that procurement was not a
problem. All of the responding schools make use of sev-
eral sources for procuring audio-visual materials. Of par-
ticular significance was the fact that 80 per cent of the
responding schools make use of free sources of materials.
This becomes even more significant in view of the limited
audio-visual budgets of the 40 responding schools.

6. Adequate budgets seem to constitute a major prob-
lem in the 40 responding schools. In fact, this may be the
cause of most of the other problems faced by these schools,
since all of them seem to be eager to develop better audio-
visual programs. Perhaps more long-range planning and
promotional activities would lead to larger audio-visual
appropriations (52.5 per cent had no long-range plans for
developing their programs) since planning and promotion
help to sell the audio-visual program to administrators and
others. These suggestions merit some consideration since
only 21 of the 40 schools indicated that they had budgets
earmarked specifically for audio-visual education.

7. Examination of the data suggests that the respond-
ing schools are well aware of the functions of an audio-
visual program. Functionally, according to the data, pro-
grams were lacking most in local production programs,
that is, production of simple, audio-visual materials locally.

8. On the whole, the data indicated that small, rural
schools had programs just as good (and in some cases bet-
ter) as those schools in large, metropolitan counties.

63

Recommendations

1. Every school should develop a long-range audio-
visual program based upon careful, concerted study, with
a view towards increasing the effectiveness of the program,

2. Every school should, as an initial step following
the development of a long-range plan, secure an adequate
budget earmarked specifically for audio-visual education.

3. Every school should appoint a part-time or full-time
person (depending upon the size of the school) to direct
its program.

4. Every school should work to develop a full pro-
gram one which would make use of all kinds of non-
projected as well as projected materials.

5. Every school should have as its goal eventual elimi-
nation of central projection rooms and the equipping of
every classroom for using all kinds of audio-visual mate-
rials. A healthy slogan might be, "Every classroom an
audio-visual classroom."

6. The in-service training programs in operation in
many of the schools should be continued, increased and
improved and every teacher and administrator should be
urged to attend workshops and special courses in audio-
visual education. They should also be urged to join pro-
fessional audio-visual organizations and to attend meetings
of these organizations whenever possible.

7. Every community should be carefully surveyed and
a resource file on audio-visual education possibilities set
up for use by the entire faculty.

8. All schools should have audio-visual committees
with at least one member representing each major subject-
matter area comprising these committees.

9. Every school should thoroughly survey, evaluate
and improve its use and purchase of audio-visual materials
and equipment on the basis of curriculum needs and teacher-
preference.

i

64

A Study of the Personnel of the
Senate in the Eighty-Fourth
Congress, 1955-1956 "

by
E. K. Williams

The purpose of this study was to analyze the factors
of age, party distribution, education, legislative experience,
length of service and occupations of senators in the Eighty-
fourth Congress of the United States. Several related
studies have been made of the personnel of the Senate.
Some of the most significant ones include those of the per-
sonnel from the Fifty-fourth to the Fifty-eighth CongressesS
the Sixty-first Congress-, the Sixty-third Congress^, the
Sixty-eighth Congress"*, the Seventy-third Congress"^ and the
Seventy-seventh Congress.*'

The main sources of data used in this presentation were
collected from the Congressional Directory^ and the Con-
gressional Quarterly.^ The paucity of data on the lives of
several senators included in the Congressional Directory
imposes some limitation on this analysis.

Age of Senators

The change in the average age of senators has almost
been indiscernible within the past fifty years. The increase
in the span of life has had no significant impact on the age
of senators in Congress. The average age of the senators
of the First Congress was forty-eight years'^ In 1913, the

*The senators used in this analysis include only those who were mem-
bers of the first session of the Eighty-fourth Congress. William Laird,
III, of West Virginia, appointed March 3, 1956, Thomas A. Wofford
of South Carolina, appointed April 5, 1956, and Robert Humphreys
of Kentucky, appointed June 21, 1956, are not included in this study.
They served temporarily until the general election of 1956. See: Con-
gressiotial Quarterly Ahnanac, XII, 1956, p. 17.

^The Election of Senators (Henry Holt and Company), 1906, pp. 71-99.

-" 'Congress and the Senate,' " in Cyclopedia of American Government,
1911.

3" 'The Changing Senate,'" North American Review (August, 1914),
222-34.

*" 'Senate New Style,'" Atlantic Monthly (August, 1924), 252-63.

'^George H. Haynes, The Senate of the United States, II, (Houghton-
Mifflin Co.), 1938. This volume also accounts for the previous studies.

"Madge M. McKinney, "The Personnel of the Seventy-seventh Congress,
American Political Scieyice Review, XXXVI (1942), 67-75.

'84th Congress, 1st Session, Congressional Directory (U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1955), pp. 3-157.

^Congressionial Quarterly Almanac, XI, 1955.

"Haynes, op. cit., I, p. 43.

65

average age was 57, and in 1933, 58.^^ In 1942, McKinney
concluded that the average age of the senators in the
Seventy-seventh Congress was 58.^^ In this study (1955-56),
the median age of the members of the upper chamber is
57.25.

Haynes contends^- that the distribution of senators in
age-decades is more significant than the average age of
senators. In this respect, Table I gives an analysis of the
distribution of senators by age-decades. Column seven in-
dicates that more than forty per cent of the senators fall
in the age-group from fifty to fifty-nine.

TABLE I
AGE OF SENATORS IN THE EIGHTY-FOURTH CONGRESS*

Age-Decade

Democrats

Reptiblicans

Total

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

1

2

3

^

5

6

7

80 - 89

2

6

10

20

9

2

04.08
12.24
20.40
40.81
18.36
04.08

5
14
20

7
1

10.63
29.78
42.55
14.89
02.12

2
11

24

40

16

3

02.08

70 - 79

60 - 69-..:

50 - 59

40 - 49

30-39 --

11.45
25.00
41.66
16.66
03.12

Total

49

99.97

47

99.97

96

99.97

^The median age for Democrats is 56.75; Republicans 57.75; and for
both 57.25. Senator T. F. Green, at the age of 89, became on November
30, 1956, the oldest person ever to serve in Congress. See : Congressional
Quarterly Almanac XII, p. 16.

This study reveals that more than half of the personnel
are fifty-nine years old or older. Of this number, twenty-
five Democrats are fifty-eight years or older; and twenty-
five Republicans are fifty-nine years or older. A study of
the personnel of the Seventy-seventh Congress revealed that
half of the senators were fifty-seven or older.^^ In the
present study, approximately eighty per cent of the sena-
tors are past fifty. Haynes remarked: ". . . In 1883, 73
per cent of the senators were past fifty years of age. By
1913, that percentage had risen to 79, and by 1933 to
85. . . ."1^

57.

io/6id., II, p. 1044.
1^ McKinney, op. cit., p. 57
^-Haynes, op. cit., p. 1044.
1"' McKinney, op. cit., p. 67.
^''Haynes, op. cit., p. 1044.

66

Evidence seems to point to the conclusion that the Sen-
ate is not growing younger. Conversely, this century has
witnessed an imperceptible trend toward an older Senate.
This perhaps assures a predominance of conservative
ideology in the upper chamber.

Party Distribution

Patterns of party distribution and control are obvious
determinants of the type, nature, and quality of legislations
that may be enacted by Congress. The integrity of the
government at home and its leadership abroad may well be
stifled in the geography of politics.

TABLE II

PARTY DISTRIBUTION OF SENATORS BY REGIONS
AND BY STATES

Region

Democrats

Republicans

Total

New England

Connecticut

Maine

Massachusetts

New Hampshire --

3

1

2

1

1

2
1

1

3

1
2

13
1
2
2

2
2
2
2

9
2
2

1
2

2

5
2
1
2

8
1
2
1
2
2

11
2
2
1

2
2
2

3
1

2

12
2
2
2
2

Rhode Island

2

Vermont

Middle Atlantic

New Jersey

New York

Pennsylvania

East North Central

2

6
2
2
2

10

Illinois

Indiana

Michigan

Ohio

Wisconsin..

"West North Central

Iowa

Kansas

Minnesota

2

2
2
2
2

14
2
2
2

Missouri

2

Nebraska .

2

North Dakota

South Dakota

2

2

South Atlantic

Delaware

16
2

Florida

2 '

Georgia

2

Maryland

North Carolina

2
2

South Carolina .. . .

2

Virginia

2

West Virginia

2

67

TABLE II cont'd.

Region

Democrats

Republicans

Total

East South Central.....

8
2
2
2
2

8

Alabama

Kentucky

Mississippi

Tennessee

2
2
2

2

West South Central

8
2
2
2
2

8

Arkansas

Louisiana

Oklahoma

Texas

2
2
2
2

Mountain

7

9

16

Arizona

Colorado

Idaho

1

2
2
1

1

1
2
2

1
2
1

2
2
2

Montana

New Mexico

2

2

Nevada

Utah

Wyoming

2
2

2

Pacific

4

2

6

California

Oregon*

Washington

2
2

2

2
2

2

Total (U. S.)

49

47

96

Of the nine regions of the United States, Table II indi-
cates that the Democratic party asserts political hegemony-
over four of these, and the Republican party over five. In
two regions, East South Central and West South Central,
the Democrats have complete control. The Republicans do
not exercise complete control over any of the regions. Only
the border states of Delaware and Maryland, of the South
Atlantic region, elected Republican senators to the Eighty-
fourth Congress, while the state of New York elected one
Democratic senator from the Middle Atlantic region. If
the assumption that the two-party system promotes democ-
racy is valid, then there is an indispensable obligation for
Americans to make the two-party system theory a genuine
instrument for the furthering of democracy in those states
where virtually one party exists.

Education

With respect to the education of the personnel of the
Senate, evidence clearly indicates that the formal educa-
tion of senators substantially surpasses that of the general
public. Current data indicate that ninety per cent of the

*Senator Morse of Oregon officially became a Democrat, February 17,
1955.

68

members of the upper chamber of the Eighty-fourth Con-
gress have graduated or have attended a college, univer-
sity, or a professional school. Approximately sixty per cent
have graduated or attended law school, and forty-two per
cent have received a degree in law. The education of sena-
tors in this investigation compares favorably with that indi-
cated in previous studies. McKinney found that eighty-eight
per cent of the senators of the Seventy-seventh Congress
had attended college, professional school, or both.^"* Haynes
contends that four-fifths of the senators in 1933 were col-
lege trained.'"

The mere fact that the members of the upper house
are college trained or legally trained does not guarantee
that they are educationally prepared for the complicated
task of legislating. A college education does not necessarily
prepare one for a specific task. Law-making is a profession
which requires special skills and vast knowledge of the
many facets of the domestic and international scene. Law-
yers may have an excellent background for the profession
of law, and still lack the prerequisite for law-making.
Robert Bruce comments : "Lawyers are liable to be poor
law makers because their mental habit is backward looking.
Their whole training has taught them ever to rely on prece-
dents. They worship the past. This has its advantages, but
among them is not the facility for meeting needs and antici-
pating the tomorrow."'" Perhaps legislators for today need
to be more directly prepared for the job that they are
expected to do.

Legislative Experience*

Legislative experience of senators prior to their pres-
ent position has been indicated in an appreciable number
of senators. Table III indicates the previous service of

TABLE III

LEGISLATIVE EXPERIENCE IN THE HOUSE OF
REPRESENTATIVES

Terms Number of Senators

One 4

Two 4

Three 5

Four 2

Five 10

Six 4

Seven 5

Eight 6

Total - 40

^"'McKinney, op. cit., p. 70.
^"Haynes, op. cit., p. 1045.
^'McKinney, op. cit., p. 70.
* Experience in the legislatures of state, city or county is not included.

69

senators in the House of Representatives. The data indicate
that forty-one per cent of the senators in the Eighty-fourth
Congress have formerly served in the House of Representa-
tives as compared with twenty-nine per cent of the senators
in the Seventy-seventh Congress.^ ^ In addition to the legisla-
tive experience in the House of Representatives : seventeen
senators have served as governors ; six as former senators ;
one as Senate clerk ; one as secretary to a senator, and one
as Secretary of the Air Force.

Length of Service

Table IV shows that approximately forty-two per cent
of the senators have served less than two terms ; forty per
cent have served only one term ; and seventeen per cent
have served two or more terms. _^

TABLE IV
LENGTH OF SERVICE

I

Terms* and Years

Democrats

Republicans

Total

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

No.

Per cent

1

2

3

-4

5

6

7

Freshmen

4

8.16

5

10.63

9

9.37

Less than one term
0-1 yr. "

1 yr. "

2 yr. "

3 yr. "

4 yr. "

5 yr. "

15
4

6

5

30.61

16
2

'8

6

34.04

31
6

14

ii

32.29

One Term

18

36.73

21

44.68

39

40.62

6 yr. "

7 yr. "

8 yr. "

9 yr. "
10 yr. "

10
2
3

3

2
1
13
2
3

12
3

16
2
6

Two Terms

4

8.16

5

10.63

9

9.37

12 yr. "

13 yr. "

14 yr. "

16 yr. "

17 yr. "

3
1

1
2
1

1

3
1
2
1
2

Three Terms

6

12.24

6

6.25

18 yr. "
20 yr. "
22 yr, "

2
2
2

2
2
2

Four Terms

2

4.07

2

2.08

28 yr. "
32 yr. "

1
1

1
1

Total

49

99.97

47

99.98

96

99.98

i^McKinney, o'p. cit., p. 70.

*A term is equivalent to six years.

70

Occupations

In 1776, John Adams stated : "The representative as-
sembly should be an exact portrait, in miniature, of the
people at large. . . . Equal interests among the people
should have equal interests in the representative body."^^
The previous occupations of senators in the Eighty-fourth
Congress do not approximate the ideal pattern envisioned
by Adams.

TABLE V*
PROFESSION OF SENATORS

Profession Democrats Republicans Total

1 2 3 U

Agriculture 7 14 21

Business/Banking 10 18 28

Civic Service and Politics 48 46 94

Journalism 6 4 10

Law 27 33 60

Teaching 11 6 17

D(ent.), E(ng), M(ed.) 2** 2** 4

Veteran 30 32 62

**Includes 2 E(ngineers)

Column four points out that sixty senators were formerly
associated with the profession of law. This compares fa-
vorably with fifty-nine senators in the Seventy-seventh Con-
gress-*^ and sixty-four in the Seventy-fourth Congress.-^ Un-
questionably, the profession of law is predominant in the
upper chamber, McKinney comments on this issue : ". . . If
their [senators] background goes far toward predetermin-
ing their votes, the American traditional form of govern-
ment will be safeguarded, religious freedom will be main-
tained, business will be protected, and financial interest will
not suffer. Labor, particularly unskilled labor, however,
may lack champions on Capitol Hill."-- The writer feels that
a more equitable election of senators from the major eco-
nomic and social interests of the United States would be
more in line with goals of democracy.

^"Writings, IV, 205, as quoted by Haynes, op. cit., 11, p. 1062.
-"McKinney, op. cit., p. 71.
-^Haynes, op. cit., p. 1064.
"-McKinney, op. cit., p. 75.
*See Table, Congressional Quarterly Almanac XI, 1955, p. 26.

71

Research as a Technique in Curriculum
Development

by
Calvin L. Kiah

The concept of the curriculum in the modern American
sense has undergone tremendous change during the past
half century. If one but pauses to reflect, he will realize
that even today when the term curriculum is mentioned,
there is the tendency to think of large sheafs of printed
material outlining a body of subject matter to be covered
or learned. Such requirements would, of course, have been
devised or formulated by persons on "higher levels," possi-
bly the State Department of Education and/or, even the
State legislature. The lowest echelon for curricular de-
velopment in this pattern of thinking would be at the local
administrative level.

Implications of this approach for the development of
instructional materials and procedures are far too numerous
to mention in this discussion but one may readily draw gen-
eral conclusions in this regard. In such a pattern of think-
ing one sees the classroom teacher as a passive nonentity in
the educational process. His job is at best that of an educa-
tional middle man who sees to it that this body of learning
materials, as handed down, is properly mastered.

Learning, in such a setting also assumes a passive char-
acter. It is quantitative in nature, and achievement, in such
a system, is in quantitative terms. That is, one who absorbs
or memorizes the most has achieved the most.

Such a system as described above tends to place a
premium upon subject-matter as an end in itself with lit-
tle regard for the learner. It is at this point, therefore,
where newer curriculum concepts differ quite basically with
the more traditionally oriented type. In short, conceptually,
the traditional-minded conceive of the curriculum as being
served by the learner while the modern approach rates the
learner first in importance, served by the curriculum.

One often hears the modern viewpoint herein set forth,
expressed with unswerving allegiance professed thereto.
One does not find, however, with corresponding frequency,
implementation of this principle, at the classroom level.
This discussion has as its purpose to present concrete ways
of putting these principles into action using research tech-
niques to aid the process.

Some months ago the writer, with the cooperation of
the social studies staff of a certain secondary school, set

72

about to develop social studies curricula which, it was felt,
would be in keeping with the philosophical bases under-
lying the modern school. It was decided that, if it is be-
lieved that the curriculum should serve the learner, there
should be some study given to determining ways by which
the program could best accomplish this task. If the cur-
riculum would serve, learner needs must be discovered in
order that such service might be accurately and effectively
directed.

A quick glance at the instructional program then in
operation seemed to suggest rethinking along modern lines
might be worthwhile.

It was felt that to plan an effective social studies pro-
gram of instruction, the staff would need to have informa-
tion in the following three problem areas: (1) domestic or
family, (2) economic (3) civic.

It was decided that to acquire this information on pupil
needs, the staff would ask all pupils in the school to react
to a questionnaire which was designed to supply informa-
tion in the needs areas decided upon by the group.

The questionnaire contained the following items:

1. Do you live with your mother and father?

2. If not, with whom do you live?

Place a check beside the following statements which
apply to you :

(a) My mother and father are living

(b) My mother is dead

(c) My father is dead

(d) My mother and father are divorced

The following persons work for a living in my

family :

(a) Father

(b) Mother

(c) Others
1.

2.

3.

The members in my family perform the following
occupations :

(a) Father

(b) Mother

(c) Others

1.

2.

3.

73

The members of my family make the following
amounts of money per week :

(a) Father

(b) Mother.

( c ) 0th ers-

1.

2.

3.

7. How many persons in your family are registered to
vote ?

8. How many in your family actually voted in the last
election ? .

Pupil enrollment in the school was 850. Technical dif-
ficulties encountered in the process of administering the
instrument, however, resulted in a proportion of the data
being rendered unusable. Sufficient data were secured,
however, to give us leads as to directions to take in our
program of curriculum development.

The following data were received :

TABLE I

Domestic Status

Living With Relatives Number Percent

(1) Living with father and mother 285 43

(2) Living with mother 189 29

(3) Living with grandparents 78 12

(4) Living with aunt and uncle 69 11

(5) Living with brother 19 3

(6) Living with sister 13 2

Total Respondents 653 100

Simple analysis of the above data reveals a consider-
able proportion of the pupils responding, existing in a do-
mestic relationship at variance with the normal family
pattern in our culture, 47% living either with mother alone,
grandparents, aunt or uncle, brother or sister. It seems
inescapable that conditions such as this should, if unrecog-
nized, have a disconcerting effect upon the school program.
It would seem, therefore, that curriculum development
would do well to determine the extent to which such social
deficiencies may be in part alleviated by arranging instruc-
tional patterns in light of these conditions.

TABLE II

Family Organization
DoTnestic Status Number

Mother and father living 354

Mother dead L 53

Father dead 65

Mother and father divorced 75

Total 547

74

This area of the study was designed to give some idea
as to what, if as suspected, would be the cause for domestic
instability. Some slight discrepancy will be noted to exist
between the total responding to this item and that of the
item immediately preceding. However, the characteristic
of domestic instability is still markedly present. It will be
noted that 354 report that both parents are living, yet in
Table I only 285 are living with their parents, a difference
of 69.

TABLE III

Employment Status

Members in Family Em.ployed Number

Father '. - 330

Mother 215

Others 225

The intention in asking for this information was to
get some idea as to how much parental influence is present
in the home constantly. These data would suggest that
adults in the family are of necessity too much concerned
with making a living and so are out of the home in some
type of gainful employment.

This condition the school program should also be aware
of and encompass in its instructional plan.

TABLE IV

Types of Jobs Performed by Members of the Family

Family Member Job Type Number Percent

Father Labor 205 93

Business 10 5

Professional 6 2

221 100

Mother Labor (Domestic) 183 78

Business 30 13

Professional 21 9

234 100

The intent of the study in this area is probably quite
obvious and as simple as this area seems, knowledge of
these data and action upon them by curriculum planners is
of tremendous importance to groups really interested in
making the school program effective.

It will be noted first of all that the range of employ-
ment is exceedingly narrow. For all practical purposes,
the typical pupil attending the institution, comes from a
home in which economic opportunity is restricted to occu-
pation classifiable as common labor 85% falling in this
category. Further analysis of the available occupational
opportunity would show that even within this classifica-

75

tion, occupations engaged in by parents and guardians of
this group are of the lowest order, of the type that no other
group would wish to perform.

Disregard of this by curriculum planners is to adopt
the ostrich technique and stick our education planning heads
in the sand and pretend that these conditions hold no con-
cern for us. We are interested in "educating" our children
and from thence we resume our usual patterns.

TABLE V

Family Eavning Levels

Member Amount Weekly

Father .__ $52.00

Mother 27.30

There has been no effort to compare these earnings
with comparable groups in other segments of the culture.
Opinion of the planners is that, particularly for the male
member, the average seems higher than was anticipated,
though in terms of the present high level of the general
economy, with the activity of definite union wage scales,
there may be foundation for such figures. It may also be
that pupil pride translated into reluctance to report too low
figures may also have played a part in the seemingly high
figures.

This is not to suggest that reported figures are suffi-
ciently high to maintain an adequate existence under pres-
ent conditions. The observation is only that the opinion
of the investigators is that the actual figure may be some-
what less.

Family Registration For Voting

The figure of 1021 members of the families represented
in this study as having registered to vote is another category
which seems at variance with the community pattern. Regis-
tration rolls, it is well known, show far below the number
registered as would indicate an effective realization of civic
responsibility on part of the segment of the population
from which this group comes. It was anticipated by the
planners that this would be an area which would also indi-
cate tremendous need for concentration. It is agreed that
further study in this area is needed to affirm these findings,
or to determine the variable.

Family Voting Record

As could be expected, there were actually fewer family
members voting than the number listed as registered. As
anticipated, then, there is indication that the instructional
program could emphasize this area.

76

Conclusions

Having assembled the data called for in the instrument
it would seem pertinent to draw some basic general con-
clusions as indicated by the data.

(1) The family from which pupils come is likely to
be an unstable one varying from the pattern con-
sidered to be the normal family in our culture.

(2) That the security, stability and equilibrium of the
pupils coming to this school will tend to deviate
from that of children coming from homes where
normal family relationships exist.

(3) That behavior patterns of children which vary
from what might be considered normal is probably
normal behavior for these children.

(4) That contributory causes of these undesirable fam-
ily conditions may be found in employment pat-
terns and earning levels.

(5) That effective curriculum planning must be based
upon and take recognition of these all-pervasive
factors.

(6) That the entire school program must be analyzed
and organized if it is to aid in alleviation of these
cultural deterrents.

(7) That curriculum organization must take the form
of organization around pupils' basic needs pro-
ceeding from thence to the more formal study.

(8) That the curriculum emphasize cultural needs
found lacking in pupils' lives.

Suggested Curriculum Patterns and Procedures Based
Upon the Study

A. In view of the manifest instability of the domestic
environment, it would seem that areas of study or
units such as the following would be very much in
order in this school.

(1) How can I help my family get more out of life ?

(2) How important is adequate housing to success-
ful family living?

(3) How important to good family living is appli-
cation of the rule "a penny saved is a penny
earned?"

(4) What are some rules for strengthening and
maintaining strong family ties ?

B. In the area of the economic, the following might
represent topics for study:

(1) What is the significance of the "Negro Job?"
77

(2) What are some considerations involved when

we talk about "making a living?"

(3) How does the Negro's economic status affect
his general cultural status?

C. Civic.

(1) May the exercise of one's civic responsibility
improve one's cultural status?

(2) How have we achieved, in our culture, the
democratic principle of a "government of, by
and for the people?"

It will be noted that the above suggestions make no
reference to chapters, syllabi or texts. Each suggestion is
in the form of a unit title, deliberately phrased in problem
form, based upon known needs, thereby familiar to the
pupils and designed to provoke a challenge response within
the learner.

There is, though, no intent to discount textual ma-
terials. Rather is the converse true. Casual examination
will reveal that any or all of the problem areas suggested,
for adequate treatment, will lead pupils into vast areas of
learning, requiring investigation in many and varied reading
materials plus calling on many other types of resources.

It is likewise envisioned that learning experiences
organized in this fashion, under guidance of a skillful teach-
er, will enlist pupil participation at all stages of develop-
ment of the learning activity; that the learning activities
will provide a maximum of opportunity for pupils to literally
"get into the act."

It will be recalled that this study was done in the area
of the social studies. It is deemed necessary, though to
point out that this same principle is applicable in any area
of learning. The science group for instance might follow
this same pattern or a variation thereof and come up with
findings regarding pupil needs in the science area and pro-
ceed on a basis of the principles herein set forth. It is felt
that such an approach to the determination of learning
activities holds the key to effective enlistment of the pupils'
genuine participation in instructional experiences provided
by the school.

In conclusion, the purpose of this study has been to
set forth a suggested procedure by which curriculum org-
anization and presentation may be enhanced by the employ-
ment of research techniques in the determination of basic
pupil information which in turn may be used in the organ-
ization of effective learning experiences.

r' ^'

V 78

/h^ eA<^ 0uu-

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE LlBRARf

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

SAVANNAH, GA,

,V.

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE LIBRART

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

SAVANNAH. GA.