Faculty Research Edition of The Savannah State College Bulletin

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ATE COLLEGE LIBRARY

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FACU LTY

RESEARCH

EDITION

of

The Savannah State
College Bulletin

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SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE i\**$t

STATE COLLEGE BRANCH

SAVANNAH, GEORGIA

Volume 10, No. 2 October, 1956

published by

SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

State College Branch
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA

5

FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION

Published by

THE SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE

Volume 10, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia October, 1956

William K. Payne, President

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

W. H. M. Bowens J. Randolph Fisher

Joan L. Gordon Calvin L. Kiah

Alonzo T. Stephens Ben Ingersoll

R. Grann Lloyd, Chairman

Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and
neither the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College
assumes responsibility for the views expressed by contributors.

A

Contributojs

William H. M. Bowens, Director of Audio-Visual Center

Ella W. Fisher, Instructor in Physical Education

Phillip J. Hampton, Instructor in Fine Arts

Thelma M. Harmond, Assistant Professor of Education

Madeline G. Harrison, Assistant Professor
and Assistant Librarian

Luella Hawkins, Associate Professor and Librarian

Walter Larkins, Assistant Professor of

Languages and Literature

R. Grann Lloyd, Professor of Economics and Chairman of

the Instructional Staff Committee on College-wide

Improvement of English

Alonzo T. Stephens, Associate Professor of Social Sciences

Althea M. Williams, Assistant Professor and
Assistant Librarian

Martha W. Wilson, Assistant Professor of Mathematics

the Savannah State College Bulletin is published in October,
December, February, March, April, and May by Savannah State Col-
lege. Entered as second-class matter, December 16, 1947, at the Post
Office at Savannah, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912.

34834

The men and women who conduct
learning activities in the college determine
to a large extent the nature of the product.
Much of what students learn can be traced
directly to factors other than lectures, read-
ing, recitations, discussions, and examina-
tions. The learning of students includes
the methods, the processes, and the ap-
proaches of teachers to problems in living.
An active growing faculty helps students to
develop habits that lead to continuous
growth.

This issue contains studies of some of
the problems sensed by faculty members
of Savannah State College. The use of re-
search methods to solve institutional prob-
lems as well as individual problems is a
desirable characteristic of the college fac-
ulty. The College is glad that the Board
of Regents has continued to make such
studies possible. It is hoped that these stu-
dies will encourage and stimulate the pres-
ent contributors and other members of the
staff to initiate and continue studies which
provide for better educational opportuni-
ties here at the College.

W. K. Payne
President

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Student Reading at Savannah

State College Library . 50

Luella Hawkins,

Althea M. Williams and

Madeline G. Harrison

A Critical Analysis of Selected
Freshman and Sophomore Test
Scores and Quality Point Ratios
of 87 Savannah State College
Students Enrolled in the Gen-
eral Education Curriculum _ 5

Martha W . Wilson

The Status of Audio-Visual Edu-
cation in South Carolina's Ac-
credited Negro High Schools 11

William H. M. Bowens

The Report of An Experimental

Study Designed to Improve

English Usage 24

William H. M. Bowens,

Ella W. Fisher,

Thelma M. Harmond,

Walter Larkins, and

R. Grann Lloyd

An Historical Analysis of the

Growth of America's Massive

Retaliatory Foreign Policy 28

Alonzo T. Stephens

Impressions of College Art 43

Phillip J. Hampton

A Critical Analysis of Selected
Freshman and Sophomore Test Scores
And Quality Point Ratios of 87
Savannah State College Students
Enrolled in the General
Education Curriculum

By Martha W. Wilson

In September, 1953, after several years of study, in-
vestigation and planning, the faculty and administration of
Savannah State College adopted the curriculum of General
Education. It is generally accepted among educators that
there is a core of knowledge and broad understanding which
is needed by all citizens in a democratic society. At Savan-
nah State College, the decision was made to devote the first
two years of college work to the acquisition of such knowl-
edge, attitudes, competencies and values as would give the
individual a sense of meaning and direction in life. In order
to make it possible for all the students to profit to the fullest
extent from their participation in the General Education
program, the freshman testing program is administered.
The results of these tests are used for sectioning students,
for curriculum planning, and for general guidance purposes.
Two of the tests administered to all students on entering
are: (1) The American Council on Education Psychological
Examination and (2) the Cooperative English test (Form
Z).

The General Education program for the freshman and
sophomore years includes the following courses: English,
literature, mathematics, physical science, social science,
biological science, psychology, geography, art, music, and
a foreign language. The Sophomore testing program ad-
ministered at the end of the second year attempts to measure
the success with which the objectives of the General Educa-
tion program have been attained. Two of the tests included
are: (1) the Cooperative General Culture Test and (2) the
Cooperative English Test (Form Rx). The Cooperative
General Culture test measures broad understanding and the
knowledge of general principles in the same areas included
in the General Education program. The Cooperative Eng-
lish test (Form Rx) is a form comparable to that adminis-
tered to entering freshmen and is used to determine whether

the student has met the English standard necessary to
qualify for graduation.

The students who took the Sophomore Comprehensive
Examination in May, 1955, were mainly students who enter-
ed Savannah State College as the General Education pro-
gram was being initiated in September, 1953. This study is
an analysis of the performance of 87 of the above mentioned
students on the ACE Psychological Examination, and the
Cooperative English Test (Form Z) taken as entering
freshmen; the Cooperative General Culture test and the
Cooperative English test (Form Rx) taken as sophomores
and their cumulative quality point ratios at the end of their
sophomore year. This analysis is intended as a preliminary
report on a study which must be conducted continuously
for a period of several years if the results are to be inter-
preted reliably as being characteristic of the student body
of Savannah State College. The conclusions drawn here,
therefore, are tentative in nature. We would like to think
that the results reported here would point to problems
which need further investigation and study rather than
represent answers to questions which have arisen. The pur-
poses of this study are :

1. To test the significance of the difference between
the mean score on the Cooperative English test (Form Z)
administered to entering freshmen and the mean score on
the comparable Form Rx of this same test earned by these
students at the end of their sophomore year.

2. To discover the relationship, if any, between the
scores obtained by students on the Cooperative Culture test
and their quality point ratios earned during their first two
years at Savannah State College.

3. To determine whether students selecting the several
major areas of concentration differed significantly among
themselves with respect to mean score on Cooperative Cul-
ture test, mean quality point ratio or mean score on ACE
Psychological examination.

To determine whether the students' knowledge of Eng-
lish fundamentals had improved significantly, a test was
made of the significance of the difference between the
mean scores obtained on the Cooperative English Test
(Form Z) and Form Rx of the same test. The mean score
on Form Z was 67.5 ; the mean score on Form Rx was 81.25.
The difference of 13.75 had a standard error of 2.28. The
critical ratio of this difference to its standard error was
found to be 6.03 with a probability of occurrence of less
than 1 in 1000. Therefore, we must reject the hypothesis
that there is no difference in performance on the two tests.
These results seem to lend support to the newly established
practice at Savannah State College of using this Sophomore
English test to replace the former English Qualifying ex-

animation. These results also seem to indicate, without ac-
tual measurement, the relative effectiveness of the General
Education program in English fundamentals.

Since the first two years of college work are comprised
mainly of general education courses, the quality point ratio
at the end of the sophomore year was assumed to be an in-
dex of the level of achievement in the area of general edu-
cation. Since the Cooperative General Culture Test meas-
ures the same outcomes as are set forth as the objectives
of the general education curriculum at Savannah State Col-
lege, the scores on this test were correlated with the quality
point ratios of 87 students taking the test in May, 1955.
One would expect a close relationship between two vari-
ables which are measures of essentially the same charac-
teristic of a population. However, the product moment co-
efficient of correlation between these two variables was
found to be .47. This indicates a positive relationship be-
tween knowledge in these areas as measured by the Co-
operative General Culture test and grades received in the
same areas, but the correlation is not high enough to indi-
cate a very close correspondence between the two. In a
similar study conducted a number of years ago by the au-
thor at the University of Minnesota, a correlation ratio of
.57 was found to exist between honor point ratio and scores
in the 1936 Comprehensive examination in the School of
Business Administration. This comprehensive was admin-
istered at the end of four years of academic work and it is
likely that forgetting was a more important factor, in that
case, in accounting for the lack of a closer association be-
tween variables. It is also to be remembered that teachers'
grades are unreliable as a true measure of students' growth.
However, the coefficient of correlation between scores made
on the Cooperative General Culture Test and the ACE Psy-
chological Examination (by 67 of these students for whom
scores were available) was found to be .62, and between the
ACE Psychological Examination and quality point ratio,
the coefficient of correlation was .54. Since the goals of
the General Culture test coincide so closely with the objec-
tives of the general education curriculum, these results
seem to indicate that further study is needed to devise
means of making this curriculum more effective in attain-
ing its goals.

In separating the students into major preference groups,
chemistry and home economics were excluded since there
was only one student in each of these areas. In determining
whether the mean scores on the Cooperative Culture test,
quality point ratios, or ACE psychological test differ signi-
ficantly among the 8 major preference groups considered,
the technique of analysis of variance was employed. The
author tested the hypothesis that there was no significant

difference among the mean scores made by the eight major
preference groups. The areas of concentration considered
were : mathematics, English, biology, social science, indus-
trial eductaion, elementary education, business and general
science. The data in Table I and II show the analysis of the
variation among the mean scores on the Cooperative Cul-
ture test of the 8 major preference groups. The value of the
F ratio is 2.449 which corresponds to a probability of .05.
If we establish our criterion at the 5 % level of significance,
then we may reject our hypothesis that there is no difference
among the mean scores of the groups. The difference is too
great to be attributed to chance.

The data in Tables III and IV show the analysis of the
variation among the mean scores on the ACE Psychological
Examination of the 8 major preference groups. The value
of the F ratio is 2.897 which corresponds to a probability
of .02. Here we reject the null hypothesis at the 2% level
of significance.

Table I

Statistics on Cooperative General Culture Test Scores Made

by Eight Major Preference Groups (May, 1955)

Math. Eng. Biol. Soc Sci. Ind. Ed. El. Ed. Bus. Gen. Sci. Totals

N 96355 46 85 87

Mean 81.9 70.7 83.0 80.6 69.4 66.4 71.5 84.0 71.3
S.D. 13.4 16.3 21.6 6.3 16.7 13.7 10.8 18.0 15.6

Table II

Analysis of Variance of Eight Major Preference Groups with Respect to

Cooperative General Culture Test Scores (May, 1955)

Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square

Total 86 463855 5393.66
Among Means of Groups 7 3798 542.57

Within Groups 79 17505 221.58

542.57
F = = 2.449 P = .05

221.58

Table III

Statistics on ACE Psychological Examination Scores made by Eight

Major Preference Groups (September, 1953)

Math. Eng. Biol. Soc. Sci. Ind. Ed. El. Ed. Bus. Gen. Sci. Totals

N 64253 36 64 66

Mean 53.7 40.3 59.0 54.0 58.3 38.9 60.0 68.5 46.7

S.D. 16.4 22.8 21.0 11.2 20.5 15.0 14.1 27.3 19.6

Table IV

Analysis of Variance of Eight Major Preference Groups With Respect

to ACE Psychological Examination Scores.

Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square

Total 65 169205 2603.15

Among Means of Groups 7 6575 939.29

Within Groups 58 18803 324.19

939.29

F = = 2.897

324.19

P = .02

Table V

Statistics on Quality Point Ratios of Eight Major Preference
Groups (May, 1955)

Math. Eng. Biol. Soc. Sci. Ind. Ed. El. Ed. Bus. Gen. Sci. Totals

N 96355 46 85 87

Mean 1.44 1.58 1.37 1.75 1.24 1.08 1.39 1.65 1.27
S.D. .51 .49 .37 .25 .53 .46 .35 .66 .52

Table VI

Analysis of Variance of Eight Major Preference Groups with
Respect to Quality Point Ratios (May, 1955)

Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square

Total 86 163.5512 1.9017
Among Means of Group 7 4.5131 .6447

Within Groups 79 18.7920 .2379

.6447
F = = 2.710 P = .03

.2379

The data in Tables V and VI show the analysis of va-
riation among mean quality point ratios. The F ratio has a
value of 2.710 which corresponds to a probability of .03.
In this case, we may reject the hypothesis at the 3% level
of significance.

Since it appears from the data that the scores of the
group selecting elementary education as a major contribute
the most to the total variance in each of the variables con-
sidered, a test was made of the significance of the difference
between the mean score of this group and the other seven
groups combined on the Cooperative Culture test, the ACE
Psychological Examination and the cumulative quality point
ratio. The mean score on the Cooperative Culture test for
the elementary education major preference group was 66.4;
the mean of the other groups combined was 76.9. The dif-
ference between these means was 10.5, and the standard
error of this difference, 3.16. The critical ratio of the dif-
ference to its standard error was 3.32 with its probability of
occurrence less than 1 in 1000. The mean score on the ACE
Psychological Examination for the elementary education
major preference group was 38.9 ; the mean of the other
groups combined was 56.0. The difference between these
means was 17.1; its standard error, 4.5. The critical ratio
of this difference to its standard error was 3.8 with its prob-
ability of occurrence less than 1 in 1000. The mean quality
point ratio of the elementary education group was 1.08;
the mean of the other groups combined was 1.48. The dif-
ference between these means was .40 ; its standard error
.7. The critical ratio was found to be 5.7 with a probability
of occurrence less than 1 in 1000.

The results of this analysis seem to indicate that there
is a real difference existing among the students who select

the several academic areas of concentration as their major
preferences. The difference between the performance of the
elementary education major preference group and the other
sequences grouped together seems to be too great to be at-
tributed to chance. Although the number of students in-
cluded in this analysis is too small for the results to be con-
clusive, the need for further investigation of the problems
set forth here is definitely indicated. First, to what extent
are our general education courses doing what they are de-
signed to do and second, is there some factor operating
to cause students who perform on an inferior level to select
elementary education as a major area of concentration?

10

[ The Status of Audio-Visual Education
[ In South Carolina's Accredited
| Negro High Schools

By W. H. M. Bowens

In January, 1956, questionnaires were mailed to the
104 Accredited Negro High Schools listed in the 1954-1955
School Directory of South Carolina for the purpose of de-
termining audio-visual program practices in these schools.
It was felt that this information would be useful in helping
teacher-training institutions serving South Carolina schools
to more effectively plan their course offerings to meet the
needs of these schools audio-visually.

Nature of the Survey

Of these 104 accredited high schools scattered through-
out South Carolina's 46 counties, 37 or 35.6 per cent co-
operated by answering the questionnaire. This figure be-
comes even more significant when it is noted that these re-
plies came from 24 or 52.2 per cent of the State's counties.
(See Figure 1). Also, as Figure 1 shows, distribution of re-
turns was good. All sections of the state were represented.

The highest number of returns, four, came from
Charleston County in the southeast corner of the state. Two
counties sent three returns each; 12 counties sent two re-
turns each and one return was sent from each of 15 counties.

The information obtained through the questionnaire
form involved the following general areas:

1. Organization of the Audio-Visual Program.

2. Equipment owned.

3. Materials produced by the individual school for
classroom use.

4. Methods of procuring audio-visual materials.

5. Functions of the audio-visual program.

6. Budgets and methods of obtaining them.

7. Promotional and developmental programs.

The survey furnished the information upon which the
following findings were based :

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Organization

As McKown and Roberts long ago pointed out, "Be-
cause audio-visual aids are used at every grade level and in
practically every subject field, it is necessary that some one
person supervise and coordinate their use." 1 Thus the sur-
vey was interested in determining to what extent the co-
operating schools had audio-visual directors. As Table 1 in-
dicates, less than half of the responding schools, only 14 or
37.9 per cent, have audio-visual directors. On the other
hand, 21 or 56.8 per cent have audio-visual committees.
Of those having directors and committees, 10 or 27.1 per
cent have both; 11 or 29.8 per cent have committees but no
directors and 12 or 32.5 have neither committees nor direc-
tors.

With respect to audio-visual committees McKown and
Roberts recognized the importance of a functioning, school-
wide committee when they stated that:

It is impossible for the director to carry out the
manifold duties of his department without the
assistance of an energetic committee. The mem-
bers should be selected, one from each building
or department, to represent the entire staff.
The chief function of this group is to work with
the director in coordinating administrative and
teaching procedures. 2

Of the 21 schools having committees, 16 or 76.1 per
cent stated that either every department or every subject-
matter area in the school was represented.

Another aspect of organization is that of providing
housing and other physical facilities for the implementation
of the audio-visual program. There are several alternatives
here. Every classroom may be equipped for audio-visual
use which would be an ideal situation; one room in each
may be set aside for audio-visual use; in case of a multi-
storied building, one room may be set aside for audio-
visual purposes on each floor; one centrally located room
may be set aside for use by the entire school, which in some
instances, unfortunately, may be the auditorium.

Concerning the use of auditoriums for audio-visual
teaching purposes, Sands points out that:

It is maintained by some educators that every
film ought to be shown in the pupils' own class-
room rather than in an auditorium or audio-
visual room, and that moving a class to see a pic-
ture is a disturbance to continuity. No findings
of research settle the question either way, but

1 Harry C. McKown and Alvin B. Roberts, Audio-Visual Aids to Instruc-
tion (New York, 1949), p. 532.
"Ibid., p. 530.

13

experience with students strongly suggests that
moving a group to another room for a film show-
ing distracts them neither more nor less than
stopping for recess or luncheon or for getting a
book out of the library. 3

Nevertheless audio-visual specialists agree that audi-
toriums tend to foster the idea of entertainment in the minds
of the students and, therefore, should not be used at all for
teaching purposes. The Audio-Visual Education Associa-
tion of California states that special projection rooms, such
as the auditorium, provide only temporary solution to the
audio-visual room-conditioning problem and that audito-
riums should be used only for special purposes and occa-
sions such as Fire Prevention Week, Washington's Birthday
or Arbor Day. 4

Miller states that in the auditorium the lesson is no
longer a lesson but a show; blackboards are almost always
never provided in an auditorium and that texts and maps
are usually not to be found in the auditorium. 5

With reference to audio-visual administration, there
are currently two diametrically opposed schools of thought.
One is that audio-visual materials should be administered
through the librarian, that books and audio-visual materials
should be combined in one center. The other is that the
library and the audio-visual center should be separately ad-
ministered and separately housed. Table II reflects the
nature of audio-visual administration and housing in the
37 responding schools. Fifteen or 40.6 per cent of the re-
sponding schools stated that their audio-visual center was
housed in the school library. Whether or not the librarian
was also the audio-visual coordinator was not revealed by
these 15 schools. Four schools or 10.8 per cent of the re-
sponding schools stated that they had no specific place to
house their audio-visual center; three or 8.1 per cent did
not answer the question; eight schools (2 each) stated that
their centers were housed in (1) the classroom, (2) the
principal's office, (3) a special audio-visual aids room and
(4) partially in the library and partially in the principal's
office; six schools (one each) stated that their audio-visual
centers were housed in (1) an audio room, (2) a work room,
(3) partially in a classroom and partially in the principal's
office, (4) a bookroom, (5) a storage room (6) the audito-

:i Lester B. Sands, Audio-Visual Procedures in Teaching (New York,
1956), p. 335.

^Setting Up Your Audio-Visual Education Program (Audio- Visual Edu-
cation Association of California), Stanford University Press, 1949, pp.
16-17.

r, Miller, Leo R., "Classroom Is Place for Audio-Visual Teaching," The
Nation's Schools, Vol. 38, No. 1, July 1946, pp. 58, 60; quoted in James
S. Kinder and F. Dean McClusky, The Audio-Visual Reader, (Du-
buque, Iowa, 1954), p. 49.

14

rium stage. One school gave the wrong answer to this ques-
tion.

Equipment

How much equipment and what kinds of equipment are
necessary for an effective audio-visual program? This is
a difficult question to answer, however a good answer is that
the amount of equipment depends upon the frequency of
usage and the kinds depend upon the preferences of the
teachers in the particular school or school system.

Lemler and Leestma state that:

Equipment needs can be determined on the basis of the
anticipated average frequency of use of the different
types of audio-visual materials. If, for example, teach-
ers on any grade level plan to use motion pictures on
the average during one of each ten periods, then one
motion picture projector should be required for each
ten teachers. 6

Another very "widely quoted equipment guide is that
recommended by a Committee on Visual Aids of the Ameri-
can Council on Education in 1944. Sands lists it thusly:

A 16-millimeter sound projector for every 200 students.
A filmstrip projector for every 200 students.
A 2-by-2-inch slide projector for every 400 students.
A 3 1 4-by-4-inch slide projector for every 400 students.
A set of stereoscopic materials for every 400 elementary

pupils.
An opaque projector for each school building.
A table radio for each classroom.
A 2-speed portable 16-inch transcription player for

every 200 students.
A microphone for use with projectors or for playback

in every school.
A wall type screen or suitable projector surface for each

classroom. 7

Sands adds that:

Since the publication of the report some additions to
these basic needs have come to be in order:
A tape recorder for every 200 students.
A set of duplicating materials for every three class-
rooms.
A (slide) camera available to teachers in every school.
A TV receiver for each school building. s

Ford L. Lemler and Robert Leestma, Supplementary Course Materials
in Audio-Visual Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1953), p. 120.

7 Helen Hardt Seaton, A Measure for Audio-Visual Programs in Schools,
American Council on Education, Wash., D.C., 1944, pp. 542-46; quoted
in Sands, Op. cit., p. 517.

s Sands, hoc. cit.

15

Table III indicates that 94.6 per cent of the responding
schools own record players and sound motion picture pro-
jectors, the largest number of pieces of equipment being
record players. Thirty-five schools owned 56 record players
and 40 sound motion picture projectors. Next in the order
of frequency of the number of schools owning were 22 or
59.5 per cent of the responding schools with 41 micro-
phones; 21 or 56.8 per cent of the 37 schools with 23 tape
recorders; 20 or 54.1 per cent with 25 silent film-strip pro-
jectors; 19 or 51.4 per cent of the schools with 20 radios;
17 or 46 per cent of the schools with 21 public address sys-
tems; 15 or 40.6 per cent with 15 central sound systems;
14 or 37.9 per cent of the schools with 18 combination film-
strip and 2" x 2" slide projectors; eight or 21.7 per cent of
the schools with 8 opaque projectors and 8 disc recorders;
five or 13.5 per cent of the responding schools with 5 2" x 2"
slide projectors; four or 10.8 per cent of the schools with
four stereoscopic viewers; three or 8.1 per cent of the re-
sponding schools owning five still picture cameras, four
bioscopes, three lantern slide projectors, and three motion
picture cameras; two schools owning two combination
opaque and 314" x 4" slide projectors and two maps and
charts and one school or 2.7 per cent owning one human
model, one microscope, one mimeoscope, one overhead pro-
jector and one television set.

Whether or not the equipment of the 37 schools was
adequate or inadequate was not explored. (One school had
no equipment nor program). A cursory inspection of Table
III, however, indicates that according to the ACOE equip-
ment recommendations, the responding schools are lacking
in basic equipment requirements. Incidentally, enrollments
of these schools ranged from 236 to 1264 with an average
enrollment of approximately 650.

Production

It is generally felt among audio-visual specialists that
"The teacher should be able to make some of the simpler
types of audio-visual materials. Among these are exhibits,
slides, photographs, stencils, linoleum cuts, blackboard
drawings, and the silk screen process."

The 37 responding schools were asked to indicate
whether or not they produced photographs, motion pictures,
f ilmstrips, posters, charts, slides or other materials for teach-
ing purposes. They were also queried as to whether or not
they had photographic darkrooms or camera clubs.

Ten or 27.1 per cent of the schools responding indicat-
ed that they had darkrooms, while only eight or 21.7 per

''Ford L. Lemler and Robert Leestma, Supplementary Course Materials
in Audio-Visual Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1953), p. 3.

16

cent sponsored camera clubs. In the area of production,
more posters were produced than any other medium. This
is understandable in light of the budgets of the responding
schools. Twenty-six or 70.3 per cent indicated that they
produced posters for teaching purposes. Ten or 37.1 per
cent produced photographs for teaching purposes. Inciden-
tally, these ten schools had their own photographic dark-
rooms. Seven or 19 per cent of the schools produced motion
pictures, filmstrips and slides while one school each pro-
duced maps and exhibits for teaching purposes.

Procurement

How and where may audio-visual materials be secured?
Shall necessary materials be rented, purchased or otherwise
procured? These are questions that concern audio-visual
directors as well as teachers and others who use such ma-
terials.

According to Dale, procurement, functionally, may be
reduced to three basic sources those within the school it-
self, those within the school system and those outside the
school. 10

Of the 37 responding schools, 20 or 54.1 per cent stated
that they rent some film and other materials from commer-
cial sources. Seventeen or 46 per cent borrow film on a free
loan basis. Twenty or 54.1 per cent rent film from the State
Department library and the State University film library.
Five schools or 13.5 per cent of these responding use the
county film library. One school each indicated that they
(1) use the District film library and (2) get materials from
any source desired by the instructor.

Functions of the Audio- Visual Center

Too often the audio-visual center turns out to be just
a room where all classes are assigned for the purpose of see-
ing motion pictures. A true audio-visual center, however,
is much more than just a film room and performs many
more functions than just showing films. Harcleroad and
Allen have outlined the following as functions of the audio-
visual department:

a. Evaluation of materials and equipment.

b. Selection and procurement of materials and equip-
ment.

c. Local production of certain instructional materials.

d. Classification of materials (cataloging).

e. Distribution of materials and equipment.

f. Maintenance of materials and equipment.

10 Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching (New York, 1954), p.
86.

17

g. Correlation with other instructional materials and

with the curriculum,
h. In-service education (promotion and utilization),
i. Research,
j. Consultant services (re: buildings and problems of

staff) .
k. Public relations.
1. Evaluation of audio-visual program. 11

Table IV indicates that the 37 responding schools' au-
dio-visual centers perform less than half of these functions.
The number one function as the Table indicates is servicing
high school classes using visual aids followed in order by
assisting teachers in selecting materials, conducting in-
service programs in effective usage, selection and mainten-
ance of materials and equipment, assisting teachers in pro-
ducing materials and providing photographic services for
all high school needs. Not one school indicated that its cen-
ter engages in evaluation of materials, equipment and the
total audio-visual program, classification (although they
must), research, consultant services and public relations.
If this is true, these are areas that need attention.

Budget

Indubitably, the effectiveness of any audio-visual pro-
gram hinges upon the budget provided for the operation of
the program. Without a budget, adequate to meet the
needs of the particular school program, the most capable
director, the most energetic committee and the most en-
thusiastic and cooperative faculty cannot conduct a real
audio-visual program. As Haas and Packer have stated it,
"If audio-visuals are worth anything educationally, they are
worth paying for as a regular budgetary item." 12 Dent
points out that an adequate audio-visual budget should
make provisions for purchase of materials and equipment,
proper maintenance of equipment and materials, a staff
adequate to operate the program and a planned program
for equipping existing buildings audio-visually. 13

As indicated by Table V, 22 or 59.5 per cent of the
responding schools stated that they had no audio-visual
budget as such. They did, nevertheless, point out that some
money was spent from other budgets for audio-visual ma-
terials. Only eight schools or 21.7 per cent had specific
audio-visual budgets. The per pupil expenditures of these

"Fred Harcleroad and William Allen, Audio-Visual Administration,

(Dubuque, Iowa), p. 16.
1 -Kenneth B. Haas and Harry Q. Packer, Preparation and Use of Audio-
visual Aids, 3d ed. (New York, 1955), p. 296.
13 Ellsworth C. Dent, The Audio-Visual Handbook (Chicago, 1949), p. 188.

18

eight schools ranged from a low of 47^ to a high of $1.38,
as Table VI indicates.

Six of the schools or 16.3 per cent get their funds
through special fund-raising projects which is highly ob-
jectionable if the program is to be an integral, developing
part of the entire school program. An obvious lack of funds
for financing the programs in the majority of the responding
schools, perhaps, in large measure, account for the apparent
lack of effective audio-visual programs in these schools.

Promotional and Developmental Programs

An audio-visual program, like any other program, must
have a long-range plan of development if it is to become a
vital part of the school program. A program must also be
sold or promoted if it is to achieve the desired results. Ex-
perience has proved that teachers and administrators do
not use audio-visual materials because they make teaching
and learning more effective. They have to be convinced
that this is the case. Also many teachers do not use them
because of a lack of training in their utilization.

One of the most effective methods of promoting the
use of audio-visual materials then is to increase teacher
competency in the use of these materials through in-serv-
ice workshops, demonstrations, conferences, clinics and in-
stitutes. As Kinder states, "The organization of workshops
and clinics has been found to be more functional than most
formally organized classes. Actual teacher needs seem to
be given more consideration. 11

Eleven or 3.4 per cent of the responding schools indi-
cated that they use in-service meetings to increase teacher
competency in the use of audio-visual materials, while the
same number of schools failed to answer the question re-
garding methods of increasing teacher competency. Among
the other methods used were : audio-visual clubs (one
school) ; asking classes to use materials (three schools) and
the use of catalogs and mimeographed information (three
schools). One school stated that it had no special methods
and one school stated that it had no method of improving
teacher competency in the use of audio-visual materials.
Still another school reported that it required each teacher
to preview materials before using them while another re-
ported that a list of available materials was placed on the
bulletin board.

In stating plans for future development it is interesting
to note that 11 or 29.7 per cent of the responding schools
stated that they had no future plans for developing an au-
dio-visual program. Eighteen or 48.6 per cent did not an-

14 James S. Kinder, Audio-Visual Materials and Techniques (New York,
1950). p. 560.

19

swer this question at all. One school each gave the following-
plans for developing their audio-visual programs: (1) In-
terest teachers in workshops, etc., and (2) build the pro-
gram through organized committees. In short, only two
schools or 5.4 per cent gave any indication of any plans
for a future audio-visual program. Still another school stat-
ed that it was in the process of setting up a program while
another stated that it was planning to develop a real pro-
gram in the very near future.

Conclusions

1. Approximately two-thirds of the schools have their
audio-visual directors or committees to give direction to the
program, while the other one-third have neither directors
nor committees.

2. Even though a large number of the schools surveyed
(94.6) owned motion picture projectors and record players,
not a single school had even the minimum equipment rec-
ommended by the American Council on Education. It was
also interesting that none of the schools had a variety of
equipment and materials. Most of the equipment was con-
fined to one or two machines, usually a motion picture pro-
jector or one or more record players.

3. In the area of production, almost nothing is being
done. Except for posters, a very few still pictures and
fewer motion pictures, production of audio-visual materials
in the responding schools is non-existent.

4. The data seemed to indicate that most of the schools
were familiar with audio-visual sources, at least in their
own counties and state. Few of them, however, indicated
that they have made use of the many sources of free ma-
terials outside their communities and state.

5. With regard to functions of the audio-visual centers
of the responding schools. As Table IV indicates, over fifty
per cent of the schools confine their functions to servicing
classes, selection of materials and promoting the effective
use of audio-visual materials among teachers.

6. An adequate budget is perhaps the sine qua non of
a really effective audio-visual program. Without a budget
there can be no program. Perhaps this is the biggest single
reason why the responding schools have no real audio-vis-
ual program. They do not have adequate budgets. Only
eight or 21.7 per cent of the responding schools have budgets
specifically earmarked for audio-visual purposes. The other
78.3 per cent either have no budgets or must rely upon
other budgets for audio-visual purchases.

7. Another weak phase of the audio-visual program in
the 37 responding schools is the lack of plans for promoting
and developing a really effective audio-visual program. Ap-

20

proximately 95 per cent of the responding schools indicate
that they have no plans for developing and improving their
audio-visual programs.

Recommendations

1. Every school should develop a long-range audio-
visual program with a view toward the eventual establish-
ment of a sound, efficient, effective program.

2. Every school should set as its first objective the se-
curing of a budget specifically earmarked for audio-visual
purposes. Without this vital and necessary step, there is
little hope of developing a really effective audio-visual pro-
gram.

3. Every school should appoint an audio-visual direc-
tor or coordinator and an audio-visual committee to give
organization and direction to the program. Every worth-
while organization must have a director or head if it is to
realize its goals or objectives.

4. All kinds of audio-visual materials should be in-
cluded in the school program, not just motion pictures, rec-
ords and filmstrips.

5. The goal of all of the responding schools should be
to do away with central film rooms and equip every class-
room for audio-visual use.

6. Teachers and audio-visual directors should be en-
couraged to become proficient in the use, selection and eval-
uation of audio-visual materials through joining professional
organizations, attending audio-visual clinics and institutes,
reading audio-visual literature and through in-service
courses and workshops.

7. An audio-visual resource file on audio-visual ma-
terials available in the community and outside the com-
munity should be set up in each of the responding schools.

TABLE I SCHOOLS HAVING AUDIOVISUAL
DIRECTORS AND COMMITTEES

Yes

No

NA

1.

Do you have an

No.

Percent

No.

Percent

No.

Percent

A-V Director?

14

37.9

23

62.1

2.

Has your director
had special
training ?

8
21

21.7
56.8

6
16

16.3
43.2

23

62.1

*3.

Do you have an
A-V committee?

4.

Are all departments
or subject-matter
areas represented on
your committee?

16

43.2

5

13.5

16

43.2

*Ten or 27.1 per cent of the 37 schools have directors and committees;
eleven or 29.8 percent have committees and no directors and 12 or 32.5
have neither committees nor directors.

21

TABLE II. ORGANIZATION HOUSING OF THE AUDIO-VISUAL

CENTER IN 37 SOUTH CAROLINA ACCREDITED

NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS

1. Library _.. 15

2. None 4

3. NA 3

4. Classroom 2

5. Special AVA Room 2

6. Principal's Office 2

7. Library and Principal's Office .._ 2

8. Audio Room 1

9. Work Room 1

10. Wrong Answer 1

11. Classroom and Office 1

12. Bookroom 1

13. Storage Room 1

14. Auditorium Stage 1

TABLE III EQUIPMENT OWNED BY 37 SOUTH CAROLINA

ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS

"Total Schools Owning

Number No. Percentage

Record Players 56 35 94.6

Microphones 41 22 59.5

Sound Motion Picture Projectors, 16mm 40 35 94.6

Filmstrip Projectors, Silent, 35mm .... 25 20 54.1

Tape Recorders 23 21 56.8

Public Address Systems 21 17 46.0

Radios 20 19 51.4

Combination Filmstrip & 2" x 2"

Slide Projectors 18 14 37.9

Central Sound Systems 15 15 40.6

Disc Recorders 8 8 21.7

Opaque Projectors 8 8 21.7

Still Picture Cameras 5 3 8.1

Slide Projectors, 2" x 2" 5 5 13.5

Bioscopes 4 3 8.1

Stereoscopic Viewers 4 4 10.8

Lantern Slide Projectors, 3*4" x 4" .___ 3 3 8.1

Motion Picture Cameras 3 3 8.1

Combination Opaque & SM" x 4"

Slide Projectors 2 2 5.4

Maps and Charts 2 2 5.4

Human Models 1 1 2.7

Microscopes 1 1 2.7

Mimeoscopes 1 1 2.7

Overhead Projectors 1 1 2.7

Television 1 1 2.7

*Total number of pieces of equipment in the 37 schools.

22

TABLE IV FUNCTIONS OF THE AUDIO-VISUAL PROGRAM
IN 37 SOUTH CAROLINA SCHOOLS

Yes No *NA

1. To service high school classes using visual aids .... 25 3 9

2. To assist high school teachers in the selection of

Audio-Visual materials 18 4 15

3. To conduct a promotional program in the most

effective methods of using Audio-Visual

materials in high school classes 18 3 16

4. To assume responsibility for selection and

maintenance of all Audio-Visual equipment 12 8 17

5. To assist teachers in the production of

Audio- Visual materials 11 9 17

6. To provide photographic services for all

high school needs _ 7 10 19

7. Others 4 33

*NA No answer.

TABLE V SOURCES OF AUDIO-VISUAL EXPENDITURES IN
37 SOUTH CAROLINA ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS*

Number Percentage

No answer 13 35.2

District Fund 5 13.5

**None 4 10.8

County 3 8.1

General School Funds 2 5.4

Instructional Fee paid by each student 2 5.4

Extra-curricular Activities 1 2.7

Local School Board 1 2.7

Director of Instruction, City Schools 1 2.7

Raise the money 1 2.7

Activity Fee 1 2.7

State Aid 1 2.7

General Science Budget 1 2.7

Local Sources 1 2.7

*Twenty-two of these schools indicated they had no Audio-Visual budget
as such, but that some money was spent for audio-visual materials
and equipment from other budgets. Seven schools indicated that
money was spent each year for audio-visual materials but that they
didn't know how much, while eight schools listed specific budgets. (See
Table IV for a breakdown of these budgets).

TABLE VI BUDGETS OF AUDIO-VISUAL PROGRAMS IN EIGHT
SOUTH CAROLINA ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS, 1955-56

Total Per Pupil Bases for

Budget Enrollment Expenditure* Determining Budget**

$ 600 435 $1.38 Per Pupil

450 354 1.27 Needs of Individual

675 540 1.25 Teachers

225 351 .64 Per Pupil

250 496 .50 Average Daily

290 580 .50 Attendance

140 298 .47 Partially on needs

*** 5000 1120 Unknown of teachers

Per Pupil
Per Pupil
^ Enrollment

*Figured to the nearest cent.
**Listed exactly as stated on questionnaire.
***This school gave the $5,000 as a total budget figure, stating that
some of the money was used for audio-visual purposes. No specific
amount was given for this purpose.

23

The Report of An Experimental Study
Designed to Improve English Usage

By William H. M. Bowens, Ella W. Fisher.

Thelma M. Harmond, Walter Larkins

and R. Grann Lloyd

During the Winter Quarter of the 1955-56 school year,
five members of the Savannah State College faculty con-
ducted a concentrated experiment, designed to improve the
English usage of students enrolled in their classes. The de-
partments or areas represented by the experimental group
were Economics, Education, Languages and Literature, and
Physical Education. The two basic assumptions of the study
were that: (1) the experiment was diffused widely enough
to reveal the typical English usage errors committed by
students at Savannah State College, and (2) the extent to
which, if any, concentrated effort by teachers might im-
prove English usage by students at the college.

The major purposes of the experiment were:

1) To determine the major errors in English usage
oral and written committed by students enrolled in the
experimenters' classes.

2) To concentrate on the improvement of English by
students in the classes involved, with special emphasis on
the correction and/or elimination of the basic errors dis-
covered in their oral and written contributions.

3) To observe and record the results, if any, of the
foregoing procedures.

Each instructor in the experimental group was asked
to make a critical study of three written specimens of each
class' work, or nine different sets of papers since the nor-
mal load at Savannah State College is generally three five
hour courses. The data compiled from the written speci-
mens of students' work are as follows:

The total number of papers studied critically were
1,302 and contained a total of 11,818 English usage errors.
Hence, the average number of errors per paper was 11.5.
In the order of decreasing frequency these errors were dis-
tributed as follows: misspelled words, lack of subject-verb
agreement, faulty sentence structure, misuse of possessives,
misuse of single words, improper tense, and faulty end punc-
tuation.

The most pronounced misuse of the English language
by the students involved in this experiment was the mis-

24

spelling of words. This seems particularly unfortunate
since spelling is an integral part of every writing activity
which an individual undertakes. Furthermore, by the time
the individual reaches college he should have command of
a spelling vocabulary of several thousand of the most com-
monly used words in our language, plus many special and/or
technical words. As the student attacks the more advanced
content fields he has many more needs for writing, and
correct spelling is of great importance. Hence, the teachers
engaged in this experiment not only called attention to the
misspelled words discovered in their students' writings and
how to correct them, but sought to impress upon their stu-
dents the importance of:

1. The ability to automatically spell correctly those
basic words which will be used in writing, both as a
student and as a member of society.

2. The ability to automatically spell correctly such
special or technical words as recur frequently in
classroom writing and other phases of one's experi-
ence.

3. The desire to spell correctly in order that one's writ-
ten communications will be acceptable and intelli-
gible to those reading them.

The second most frequent group of errors in English
usage revealed by an examination of the writings of the
students involved was the lack of subject and verb agree-
ment. This is not surprising, since it is generally conceded
that approximately 50 per cent of the grammatical errors
made by students are mistakes in the use of the verb. Close-
ly associated with this group of English usage errors was
the plethora of instances of mis-usage of inflected forms
of verbs. Hence, the teachers involved in this experiment
not only called their students' attention to the many in-
stances of lack of subject-verb agreement and the mis-
usage of inflected forms of verbs and how to correct them,
but sought to impress upon their students the importance of :

(1) A thorough knowledge of the eight parts of speech
and their inflections, including

(a) Correct use of troublesome verbs

(b) Agreement of verb and subject

(2) The ability to recognize the verb or verb phrase
as an essential part of every sentence.

Faulty sentence structure was the third most common
error discovered in the writings of the students involved
in the experiment. The discovery of two major lacks in
sentence sense emphasize sharply the need for college-wide
improvement of English usage. They were :

(1) The large number of run-on sentences a large

25

number of the sentences in the papers submitted by the stu-
dents involved ended with no punctuation mark, or a comma.
A lesser number, but still a formidable group, of sentences
were begun with small letters.

(2) The large number of sentence fragments in a
large number of instances a period, and in a few instances
a question mark, was placed after a group of words that
did not express a complete thought.

Many of the students' sentences were awkward be-
cause of the use of the wrong grammatical element. Others
were ambiguous and without variety. Hence, the teachers
participating in the experiment not only called attention
to faulty sentence structure and how such faults could be
corrected, but sought to impress upon their students that:

(1) Failure to use periods, question marks, exclama-
tion points, and capital letters properly reveals
one's inability to recognize a sentence, and is a
major fault.

(2) A sentence is a group of words expressing a com-
plete thought ; and a reliable way to test whether
one has written a sentence is to locate the subject
and the verb of the principal clause.

(3) Sentences should be clear in order to convey one's
exact thoughts to readers or hearers. Otherwise,
they may be interpreted in various ways.

There were numerous instances of confusion of single
words accept-except; affect-effect; consul-council-coun-
sel; beside-besides; and frequent misuse of possessives.
Hence, the experimenting teachers not only called attention
to these errors and how to correct them, but sought to im-
press upon their students that :

(1) The ability to avoid confusion of single words,
especially words of similar sound or spelling, will
not only insure correctness but safeguard against
much embarrassment.

(2) Possession should not generally be attributed to
inanimate objects.

(3) Best usage requires that a noun or pronoun linked
with a gerund should preferably be in the pos-
sessive case.

Provisions were made in the experiment for recording
the observation of the teachers involved, regarding such
factors as class attitude, progress, typicalness of findings,
and so forth. The data are as follows :

1. In the overwhelming majority of the classes in-
volved in the experiment, the initial attitude of the students

26

was either hostile or indifferent. In only a few classes was
initial interest in the experiment reportedly observed among
the students. However, the reports show that the students'
attitude toward the project improved as the experiment
proceeded. It appears that as the students became aware
that it is not feasible to isolate satisfactory English usage
from any part of one's social experience their attitudes im-
proved, their interest increased, and their enthusiasm for
the project heightened.

2. The experiment served to awaken in students a
keener awareness and appreciation of correct English
usage. As their awareness of what constitutes satisfactory
English usage and its importance increased, their sensiti-
vity toward it increased. Indeed, the data indicates that
such sensitivity increased even among those students in-
capable of correcting their errors.

3. The data indicate that without exception, as the
experiment proceeded the number and frequency of errors
decreased. This was probably due to such factors as an im-
proved and steadily improving attitude on the part of stu-
dents, increased sensitivity relative to satisfactory English
usage, effective teaching, and painstaking and deliberate
efforts to improve themselves by students.

4. Practically all of the reports indicate that the find-
ings are typical of the group. However, one teacher re-
ports that, in one of the classes involved, "glaring errors
were made eventually only by two very limited students."

The findings of this study seem to indicate that :

(1) It is possible to improve students' English usage
if teachers are painstaking, intelligent, and unrelenting in
their efforts.

(2) As students' sensitivity to clear, correct English
increases their efforts to improve their use of English in-
crease.

(3) Students need the help of all their teachers in
their efforts to develop: (a) the ability to write clear, cor-
rect English; (b) the ability to recognize common errors in
speech and writing and to correct them intelligently; and
(c) the ability to speak before a group clearly, correctly,
and with some degree of ease and assurance.*

*One phase of the experiment, to be reported later, was concerned with
improving the oral English usage of students.

27

An Historical Analysis of the Growth
Of America's Massive Retaliatory
Foreign Policy

By Alonzo T. Stephens

An old slogan, "The best defense is the best offense,"
has become the United States' slogan for her foreign policy.
With Thule, Greenland, the United States' huge 480 acre
military installation five hours from Moscow, with Alaska,
California and New York within a few hours flying time
of Russia, a new theory of defense is in the making. Many
experts and lay Americans feel that our chief defense re-
liance must rest upon our offensive capability. They also
believe that we must be able to destroy the enemy's air-
fields, atomic facilities, submarine bases and launching
sites and to pose the threat of "bigger and better retalia-
tion" against the enemy's cities.

Many Americans are unaware of the new foreign pol-
icy. How did it originate? Why did we change? In 1782
John Adams made this famous statement: "America has
been long enough involved in the wars of Europe. She has
been a football between contending nations from the be-
ginning . . . ' n

The United States from 1607 to 1783 was but the far-
therest fringe of Europe ; she was Europe's frontier. Georgia
was established as a buffer colony to protect the Carolinas
from the Spaniards and the Indians. Between 1689 and
1815 England and France fought seven times. Four of
these wars were fought while the Americans were still colo-
nials. Colonial experience convinced the leaders of the
United States that it was decidedly to the advantage of
the new nation to stay on its own side of the Atlantic.
Geography made possible its partial fulfillment during the
national period, therefore, isolation from the wars of Eu-
rope became the American foreign policy. After the Span-
ish-American War this concept was gradually abandoned
because we had become imperialistic.

During the American Revolution, the foreign affairs
of the United States were directed by the Second Continen-
tal Congress, a confederation with representatives from the
thirteen colonies. The members of this body had the mem-
ory of the Seven Years War, 1756-1763, (The French and

Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., p. 1.

28

Indian War, 1754-1763), to guide their thinking. In No-
vember 1775 the thirteen-state confederation commissioned
Arthur Lee, a Virginian, to seek peace with England. On
March 3, 1776 this body sent Silas Deane to France as a
"commercial" agent. Both commissions were granted prior
to the Declaration of Independence.

Our first military alliance came during the year of the
American Revolution. The Americans were reluctant to
enter into a military alliance with France for the memory
of the involvement in the conflicts of Europe was still pain-
fully fresh. However, faced with the necessity of help,
America and France on February 6, 1778 signed two pacts.
Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane following closely the
"Plan of 1776" received a liberal treaty of amity and com-
merce, which granted privileges to American shipping. The
second and more important treaty, that of alliance, carried
these important provisions: Both France and America would
fight England until American independence was assured;
both nations would consult the other before signing a "truce
or peace" with Great Britain ; and each of the two nations
guaranteed the possessions of the other in America against
all other powers, particularly Great Britain and Spain. The
French terms were received with rejoicing in the United
States, despite the growth of the isolationist tradition, be-
cause the American colonies were in dire need of outside
help.

This treaty of Alliance was our first military alliance.
It was also to be our last for many years. By the end of
1780 Britian was fighting with her back to the wall. Cath-
erine II of Russia and Vergennes of France took the lead in
organizing the Baltic Nations into the Armed Neutrality of
1780 which discouraged the British and inspired their ene-
mies. By April, 1782 John Adams secured from the Nether-
lands a formal recognition of the independence of the Unit-
ed States.

The alliance with France paid off, for on September 3,
1783 the British recognized the complete independence of
the United States. The thirteen colonies now had become
a legal nation.

Immediately after the end of the Revolutionary War
Great Britain set out to mend relations between herself
and the young American nation, a policy which resulted in
our ultimate isolationist tradition. On November 19, 1794,
George Hammond and John Jay signed a treaty which states
"that the United States would under no circumstances join
the Armed Neutrality." Jay was damned for such action.
Nevertheless the Jay Treaty helped to hasten a settlement
with Spain. On October 27, 1795, the Madrid government
concluded a treaty with Thomas Pinckney which gave the

29

United States free navigation of the Mississippi, the right
to deposit goods at New Orleans, the boundary of Florida
at the 31st parallel, and a promise from Spain to restrain
the Indian on the American frontier. 2

It is important to understand that the Americans re-
garded the Treaty of 1778 as a war measure against Great
Britain. On April 22, 1793 George Washington issued his
Neutrality Proclamation which signalized the withdrawal
of the United States from old world embroilments a mani-
festo of diplomatic independence. 3 Washington's valedic-
tory came on September 19, 1796 upon which occasion he
said: "It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent al-
liances with any portion of the foreign world . . . We may
safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emer-
gencies. . . . " 4

The Federalist party established as the polestar of
American diplomacy the policies of peace, neutrality, non-
interference and nonintervention. Jefferson was to modify
this policy through embargo and neutrality ; Madison was
to have war; Monroe was to have isolation and the Monroe
Doctrine and the United States was to become less and less
involved in the affairs of Europe until 1898.

The American nation went through the horrible Civil
War without becoming involved in a military alliance. The
thirty years following this conflict the nation became a
world power being made possible in part by the unwritten
agreement to the Monroe Doctrine by Great Britain. In the
years 1898 to 1900 the expansionists and imperialists over-
powered the isolationists and Americans began to think
about such things as the "open door" for China, the Panama
Canal for themselves, based on the theories of the "end
justifying the means" and "a mandate from civilization."

The Russians, by 1867, having ruthlessly "furred out"
Alaska, were eager to unload their frozen asset on the
United States. Russia wanted to strengthen the United
States as a barrier against their ancient enemy Great Britain.
The Republicans with the ardent expansionist, Secretary of
State Seward, purchased the frigid territory for the bargain
price of $7,200,000 and started the Department of State on
a path of expansionism while the average American was
still preoccupied with reconstruction and internal problems.
Why did Congress sanction the purchase of Alaska? Russia
had been friendly to the North during the Civil War and

-Bailey, op. cit., p. 68 (See also S. F. Bemis', Pinckney's Treaty, Balti-
more, 1926) ; and A. P. Whitaker's The Spanish-American Frontier;
1783-1795 (Boston 1927).

;! C. M. Thomas, American Neutrality in 1793, (N.Y., 1931), pp. 47-48.

4 J. D. Richardson, ed., Messages and Papers of the Presidents, (Wash-
ington, 1896), I, 223.

30

"we did not feel that we could offend our great and good
friend, the Czar, by hurling his walrus-covered icebergs
back into his face. Besides, the territory was rumored to
be teeming with furs, fish and gold. . . . " 5

Marcus Alonzo Hanna, the iron millionaire and Presi-
dent-maker, believing in the Hamiltonian functions of gov-
ernment selected ex-Congressman William McKinley of
Ohio to keep the United States on the road of expansion-
ism. With 271 to 176 electoral votes the Republicans were
sure in 1896 that the Americans wanted an empire. Alex-
ander Hamilton again triumphed from the grave and the
apostles of Big Business had a field day.

Following are some of the notable sentiments in Wil-
liam McKinley's speech at the Pan-American Exposition at
Buffalo, September 5, 1901, which were received with great
enthusiasm :

Isolation is no longer possible, or desirable. We must
not rest in fancied security that we will forever sell
everything and buy little or nothing. The period of ex-
clusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and
commerce is the pressing problem. Reciprocity treaties
are in harmony with the spirit of the times ; measures
of retaliation are not. We must encourage our mer-
chant marine. We must have more ships. They must
be under the American flag. We must build an Isth-
mian canal. The construction of a Pacific cable can
no longer be postponed.

A mournful interest soon attached to William McKin-
ley's last public address delivered to the great throng at
Buffalo, for Thursday, September 5, was a long ovation to
him. This statement explains the reason for the need for
possessions overseas.

Our industrial enterprises, which have grown to such
great proportions, affect the homes and occupations
of the people and the welfare of the country. Our ca-
pacity to produce has developed so enormously and
our products have so multiplied that the problems of
more markets requires our urgent and immediate at-
tention. 7

McKinley made the observation that a policy of good
will and friendly trade relations would prevent reprisals for
reciprocity treaties which would be in harmony with the
spirit of the times as measures of retaliation were not. In
asking for larger commerce and truer fraternity he said :

5 Thomas A. Bailey, The American Pageant: A History of the Republic.

Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1956, p. 481.
6 G. W. Townsend, Memorial Life of William McKinley, Washington:

Memorial Publishing Company, 1901, p. 146.
"'Ibid., 148.

31

We must build the Isthmian canal, which will unite the
two oceans and give a straight line of water communi-
cation with the western coasts of Central and South
America and Mexico. Our earnest prayer is that God
will graciously vouchsafe prosperity, happiness and
peace to all our neighbors, and like blessings to all the
peoples and powers of the earth. s

William McKinley's death, the Spanish-American War,
Dewey's guns in the Pacific and Theodore Roosevelt's in-
auguration was in reality a gigantic coming-out party. An
exhilarating new spirit suffused America. Roosevelt, with
his impulsiveness and radicalism, out-Bryaned Bryan and
announced after McKinley's death that he would carry out
the policies of his distinguished predecessor. 9 The Rough
Rider had both a big stick and a big voice.

The hand-picked William Howard Taft was selected by
Roosevelt to carry out American policies, a situation com-
parable to the selection of Martin Van Buren by Andrew
Jackson in 1837.

Woodrow Wilson reversed the diplomacy of Theodore
Roosevelt and William Howard Taft. His theory of diplo-
macy was not based in terms of material interest. He ne-
gotiated thirty pacts during 1913 and 1914 based on con-
ciliation. Wilson thought of "Human Rights" and "Prop-
erty Rights" and sought neutrality. Wilson made a genuine
effort to pursue a strict neutral course during the first
World War, but soon found himself gravitating more and
more to the side of the allies. Woodrow Wilson managed
to keep America neutral throughout the war which in the
end spelled his defeat in the League of Nations and the de-
feat of his program for World Peace.

The great rejection of Wilson's Fourteen Points, even
though four-fifths of the Senators professed to favor the
treaty, haunted the American people in the decade follow-
ing the election of Warren G. Harding. Traditionalism,
southern sectionalism, isolation, disillusionment, plain ignor-
ance and politics all confused the picture. Harding winning
the election of 1920 by a 404 to 127 electoral margin was
mistaken as a mandate against the League of Nations. The
public-smashing Wilsonism adopted the slogan "Return to
Normalcy."

The ultimate collapse of the Treaty of Versailles was in
part the United States' idea of claiming advantages and op-
portunities without duties or responsibilities. The United
States made its own restless bed when it buried its head in

*Ibid., 150.

'Bailey, The American Pageant, p. 636.

32

the sands. President Harding was unsuited for his new po-
sition. In the Senate he had followed the party whips on
domestic legislation and Henry Cabot Lodge on foreign
policy and issues concerning peace. It was too much of a
task for him to change with so much conditioning prior to
assuming the role of President of the United States.

America's foreign policy reached its nadir under the
administration of "Silent" Calvin Coolidge, the homespun
vice-president who took over the presidency in August 1923.
In the 1920's the revisionist historians wrote that Germany
had not been solely responsible for the war which began
in 1914. In this age of uncultured materialism and jazz-and-
gin, citizens of the United States became cynical while pro-
hibition spawned gangsterism and hypocrisy flourished.
During most of the campaign of 1924 Coolidge remained
quietly in Washington, for he seemed to feel that active
campaigning was undignified. He responded to Democratic
attacks with complete silence. Perhaps the Democratic slo-
gan, "A Vote for Coolidge is a Vote for Chaos," 10 best de-
scribes his administration in both the domestic and foreign
fields. In Paris, on August 27, 1928, the Kellogg-Briand
Treaty was signed by fifteen powers. War as an instru-
ment of national policy was solemnly renounced but no ex-
planation was given as to how such a renounciation was to
be enforced.

In the 1928 election scramble, it seemed that the form-
er chairman of the Commission for Relief in Belgium,
Chairman of the Interallied Food Council during the recent
war and Secretary of Commerce under both Warren G.
Harding and Calvin Coolidge was the man suited for the
job as president of a nation recognized as a major power.
Hoover made his fatal step when he adopted full measure
the policies of his former Republican executives. Life was
full of promise and America's future looked rosy, but the
picture looked far from promising. "Two cars in every ga-
rage and two chickens in every pot had little foundation in
reality." 11 On October 24, 1929, only seven months after
Hoover took office, the market crashed and the Republi-
cans, the nation and the world were headed toward im-
pending disaster.

Franklin D. Roosevelt and his "New Deal" diplomacy
was dedicated to the policy of the good neighbor. He recog-
nized Russia as a sister nation on November 16, 1933 and
made efforts to open markets for foreign trade. During the
Seventh International Conference of American States, which
met at Montevideo in 1933, Roosevelt supported the idea
that "no state has the right to intervene in the internal or

10 Stefan Lorant, The Presidency, New York: The Macmillan Company,

1951, p. 563.
11 Ibid., p. 577.

external affairs of another." 12 On December 28, 1933,
Roosevelt announced that the "definite policy of the United
States from now in is one opposed to armed intervention."
From 1933 to 1939 the United States remained neutral al-
lowing purchasers of munitions to operate on a "come and
get it" and "cash on the barrel head" basis. 13

In December, 1941, the United States still was working
on the basis of lend-lease. This bill passed the Senate by
the vote of 60 yeas and 31 nays, while in the House the
vote was 317 yeas and 71 nays. American public opinion
favored lend lease while Congress was divided. On Decem-
ber 7, 1941, the Japanese brought the war to America. Af-
ter this horrible conflict during which time we signed the
Atlantic Charter and made extensive secret plans for war
against the Axis powers, America was rapidly moving into
a new phase of international relations. The people of the
United States were now determined that the end of World
War II should bring peace in our time.

For the first time in history the United States was now
making serious efforts to make military pacts during peace
time. Modern technological advances made this action
necessary. American public opinion was only to follow the
natural course which had been dictated by the scientists.
Man must follow a natural law, that of survival and defense
based on offense. This theory was over a century in the
making how long it would be the basis of the United
States' foreign policy no one could truthfully say.

In 1947 the United States concluded the Rio Pact un-
der which the signatory nations pledged themselves in the
event of aggression against any one of them, to provide as-
sistance to that nation on request. This pact was signed by
the United States and twenty Latin American Republics. A
second pact, the North Atlantic Treaty, was signed in April,
1949, under which the United States and thirteen North
Atlantic Nations agreed to regard and attack on all. and to
aid the one attacked.

In August, 1951, the United States and the Philippine
Nation signed a treaty by which they served notice on any
"potential aggressor" in the Pacific area that they would
stand together in the face of any armed attack from outside.
Then in September, 1951, the United States and Japan
signed a treaty under which the United States is granted
the right to keep land, sea and air forces in Japan as a
means of contributing to the maintenance of peace and se-
curity in the Far East. 14

'-'Bailey, op. cit., p. 739.

,3 See The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt. (New

York: 1938), II, p. 545.
1A The New York Times, Sunday, July 19, 1953, p. E. 5.

34

The Anzus Pact, a treaty signed in September, 1951,
between the United States, New Zealand and Australia, un-
der which each member-nation acknowledges that an at-
tack in the Pacific area against any of the others will in-
volve all, concluded the pacts of the Truman administra-
tion. 15 This was a new road for the democratic party. It
was also a new foreign policy for the American people.

This new foreign policy although constructed by the
Truman administration, was soon to be enlarged by the
present Eisenhower administration. He promised that aid
to Europe would be continued with the Allies matching
United States contributions, according to their capabilities.
Mr. Eisenhower promised that his "new foreign policy"
would be the true product of bi-partisanship based on co-
operation between the President and Congress. He also
promised that it would be coherent and global. More speci-
fically in January 1953, Mr. Eisenhower said in his State of
of the Union message : "The policy we embrace must be a
coherent global policy. The freedom we cherish and de-
fend in Europe and in the Americas is no different from the
freedom that is imperiled in Asia." 10

After making it clear that our foreign policy must
make the free world secure, Mr. Eisenhower continued :

1. The policy we pursue will recognize the truth that
no single country even one so powerful as ours, can
alone defend the liberty of all nations threatened
by Communist aggression from without or subver-
sion within.

2. Mutual security means effective mutual coopera-
tion. For the United States, this means that as a
matter of common and natural interest, we shall
give help to other nations in the measure they strive
earnestly to do their full share of the common task.
No wealth of aid could compensate for poverty of
spirit. The heart of every free nation must be hon-
estly dedicated to the preserving of its own inde-
pendence and security. 17

The President stressed the hope that our policy would
foster the advent of practical unity in Western Europe. The
fact that Germany and Austria were not united made this
statement very important. He again stated that "only a
more closely integrated economic and political system can
provide the greatly increased economic strength needed to
maintain both necessary military readiness and respectable
living standards." 18 All informed persons can readily see

15 Ibid.

1G The New York Times, February 3, 1953, C, 12.

17 Ibid., p. 14.

ls Loc. d.t.

35

that this was not a "new foreign policy," but merely an ap-
proval of the Democratic policy which would be continued
under the present administration under the label of the
"Republican Party."

This new foreign policy concept was based upon the
idea that the Soviet would reverse her policy by the end of
the war or shortly after. The Orthodox Marxian conviction
that a war such as World War II would lead to a fatal capi-
talistic crisis undoubtedly caused a Soviet shift. Some
writers have advanced the view that the Soviets thought
the United States would return to isolationism and withdraw
from the European Continent. Here the United States did
not take the road she took following the end of World War
I. The power conflict between the United States and Rus-
sia is enhanced by the fact that both of them are economi-
cally fairly self-contained. 19 As a result both nations have
resorted to pacts and treaties within their respective orbits.

By 1948 the United States set as its basic foreign policy
the support of any government that faced Soviet pressure
and communist menace, and Turkey and Greece came with-
in the first line of defense. The embarkation on the Tru-
man Doctrine brought not only an historic and revolution-
ary turn in the United States foreign policy, but served to
halt further Russian encroachment in the West and in the
Near East.

The century-old Straits (Dardanelles) problem was
raised during negotiations with the Allies at Yalta and la-
ter at Potsdam. This new significance in American pres-
ence in the Middle East posed difficult problems, for it
meant that the United States could not play the role of an
"honest broker," a Third Power which in a benevolent and
disinterested way would attempt to mitigate international
rivalries in the area. In 1951 the real problem for the
United States in its Middle Eastern policies was identical
with that of Britain, namely, how to achieve a lasting and
wise Anglo-American cooperation which would secure this
vital area for the free World. The British represent the
power on the ground and the Americans represent the ulti-
mate economic and atomic power.

On September 26, 1953, Spain abandoned her tradi-
tional policy of neutrality, which had kept her outside two
world-wide conflicts in this century by signing a defense
agreement giving the United States the right to use a num-
ber of Spanish air and naval bases for the defense of West-
ern Europe and the Mediterranean. The accord extends
for ten and possibly twenty years. It is understood that the
United States would proceed with the development and

19 Anatole G. Mazour, Russia Past and Present, New York: D. Van Nos-
trand Co., Inc., 1951, p. 716.

36

construction of four major airports, two in Southern, one
in Central and one in Northern Spain, and of naval facilities
in two harbors, Cartagena and Cadiz.

According to the report sent to the New York Times,
the United States Congress has appropriated "a total of
$226,000,000 to implement the agreements which were
signed in Madrid by Alberto Martin Artago, Spanish For-
eign Minister, and James C. Dunn, United States Ambas-
sador to Spain." 20 Of that amount $141,000,000 would be
used for military assistance and $85,000,000 would be used
for economic programs in Spain.

This United States-Spanish pact was long debated and
in the end military necessity triumphed over ideological
factors. Two factors appear to have contributed most to
the decision to sign a pact with Spain: (1) The passage of
time, which allowed wartime convictions against the Fas-
cist nature of Franco Spain to go stale, (2) the mounting
threat of Communist aggression.

Senators Tom Connally, the late Arthur H. Vanden-
berg and Robert A. Taft and Senator Pat McCarran all
worked toward a treaty with Spain. In 1946 Washington
conforming to a United Nations resolution, refused to send
an ambassador to Madrid. However, this policy was seen
to be in error by 1949 when a reapproachment between
Washington and Madrid began to gain force. In January,
1950, Dean Acheson, wrote Senator Connally that the
withdrawal of the United States Ambassador from Spain
"had been a mistaken departure from established diplo-
matic procedure." Even now leading officials point out
that the acceptance of the pact does not imply approval of
further integration of Spain into the fabric of Western de-
fense. 21

The United States-Spanish pact contains a preamble
and five articles. The preamble reads:

Faced with the danger that threatens the western
world, the Governments of the United States and Spain,
desiring to contribute to the maintenance of interna-
tional peace and security through foresighted meas-
ures which will increase their capability and that of
the other nations which dedicate their efforts to the
same high purposes to participate effectively in agree-
ments for self-defense have agreed as follows : . . . 22

By 1956 thoughtful Americans had an answer to the
question: What Spain does with United States dollars? In
Barcelona, Madrid, and a dozen other Spanish cities fa-

20 The New York Times, September 27, 1953, p. 15.
21 The New York Times, September 27, 1953, p. 15.
22 The New York Times, September 27, 1953, p. 16.

37

miliar American signs appear General Electric, Firestone,
Esso, Westinghouse, General Tire, Caltex-Socony, Vacuum,
Armstrong Cork, South American and Spanish-American
names such as Sociedad Espanola de Construccion Babcock
and Wilcox. 23

American businessmen are paged in the leading hotels,
especially the Castellana-Hilton and the Palace in Madrid.
Machinery made in the United States is at work the length
and breadth of the Spanish peninsula in an attempt to
carry out the Spanish-American agreement of September
26, 1953, a joint defense of western Europe against com-
munist aggression. It was estimated that at the peak in
late 1953 and early 1954 at least 1,000 Americans entered
Spain each month. 24 Latest Spanish statistics place the
number of transient Americans at 6,363. This figure did
not include American tourists nor the 1,623 Americans list-
ed as residents.

This new foreign policy has as many obligations as it
has ramifications. It is based on public opinion and each
person in America will share in its application regardless
of his political or economic status. Most Americans are
concerned because it is costly and yet they are told it is
cheaper to arm to prevent war than to wait, save and con-
tribute later in an attempt to win a war.

Mr. Eisenhower speaking at his White House News
Conference on October 8, 1953 acknowledged the fact that
the Russians had developed a highly explosive bomb when
he said:

The development has not come as a surprise. We had
always estimated that it had been within the scientific
and technical capabilities of the Soviet to reach this
point . . . The Soviets now possessed a stockpile of
atomic weapons of conventional types, and we further-
more had to conclude that the powerful explosion of
August 12 last . . . was far in excess of the conven-
tional types. 25

What about the cost of this so-called new foreign pol-
icy? According to a report published in the New York
Times, Monday, October 19, 1953, foreign aid by the United
States was higher than any other year since World War II.
In the 1952 fiscal year gross foreign aid amounted to $5,-
098,000,000 and the net was $4,606,000,000. For the fiscal
year end June 30, 1953 the total cost of foreign aid was $7,-
030,000,000 an increase instead of the promised decrease. 26

- 3 Alden H. Syphen, ed., "What Spain Does With United States Dollar,"

Nations Business, September 1955, Vol. 43 No. 8, p. 28-29.
-*Ibid., p. 30, 70.

25 The New York Times, October 9, 1953, p. 12.
- 6 The New York Times, October 19, 1953.

38

Meanwhile the world was still in a state of disorder.
The foreign ministers of France, the United Kingdom and
the United States met in London, October 16, 17, and 18,
1953. In London they discussed topics which were global.
The agenda included talks on the German Peace Confer-
ence, the Austrian Peace Conference, the problem of Tri-
este, the problem of Israel, problems in the Far East, the
problem of a consolidated truce in Korea and the problem
of unrest in Indo-China. 27 Americans were now learning
world history faster than the history of their own land.

The question now comes to the point when one may
ask, "can we live in our world in peace sharing our econo-
mic goods with each other?" Russia and even France, our
ally in Western Europe, are trying to find a solution to this
question. It is now known that these two countries have an
agreement under which France promised to deliver during
July 1953-1954 period 100,000 tons of rolled steel products;
3,000 tons of lead; 3,000 tons of cork; 200 mechanical
cranes; 25 steam boilers; 800,000 meters of woolen, linens
and artificial silks; 8,000,000 steel cables and numerous
agricultural products. This information was available to
Senator Joseph McCarthy. 28 Completing the other end of
the bargain, the Soviet Union promised to deliver to France
400,000 tons of crude oil; 200,000 tons of enthracite; 6,000
tons of asbestos; 75,000 tons of lumber; 65,000 tons of corn
and various other products including 160,000,000 francs
worth of furs, caviar, canned crabs and salmon. 29 It seems
that France adopted Mr. Eisenhower's slogan, "trade not
aid."

Senator William F. Knowland of California had a partial
solution. He advocated the establishment of an Interna-
tional Council of Free Asia to pool the economic resources
and thus combat Communism. This organization would be
apart from the collective security system in the Pacific. It
must be remembered that the attempt to establish and main-
tain collective security failed after World War I. America
must take the leading role in preventing a recurrence of the
Ethiopian and Manchurian episodes of the 30's. America
was warned that she could not rely solely on her alliances
and a $370,000,000 continental air raid warning system,
which was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology defense laboratory. These will not suffice. Dr. Lloyd
V. Bukner says the project would cost only $100,000,000
annually. These defense projects cost plenty. 30

In 1953 the foreign policy of the United States was not

-Ubid.

28 The New York Times, October 19, 1953.

*-Ibid.

S0 The New York Times, October 20, 1953.

39

new. History tells Americans it was shaped in the 20's and
perfected in the following decade. The 1953 modeled for-
eign policy was only an expanded policy, it was bigger ; time
alone would determine whether it was better.

In the Far East twenty-nine nations met at Ban-dung,
Indonesia in April 1955. This was a significant meeting
because it was perhaps the largest assembly next to the
United Nations. It marked the first time that Asian and Af-
rican nations got together without the participation of any
Western power, and it represented more than half the pop-
ulation of the globe, about 1.3 billion peoples. Although the
American State Department did not give an indorsement
to the Conference, Representative Adam Clayton Powell,
Jr., Democrat of New York, attended as an unofficial ob-
server. This conference served notice to the United States
to develop a more positive attitude toward Asia and the Far
East. Mr. Powell contested Premier Chou En-lai's state-
ment that the United States was attempting to wreck the
Ban-dung meeting. Powell in stating what he hoped would
be the United States policy said :

The United States should radically increase its aid to
Southeast Asian countries with no strings attached.
The United States should start actively resisting colo-
nialism everywhere. 31

At the start of the election year 1956 many events in
addition to the Ban-dung conference were left to Mr. Eisen-
hower for guidance. The President recovering from a col-
lapse of the heart announced his willingness for a draft.
Eisenhower asked for action in the dispute between Afghan-
istan and India, the United States promised to stand behind
Pakistan in her dispute with Afghanistan, an new look at
Western strategy was the issue at a Conference at Ramey
Air Force Base in Puerto Rico, the United States, Britain
and France held discussions in Washington on the prob-
lems of intervention in the Middle East.

In South America the diplomats of the Latin American
Republics complained that they were being neglected. Ko-
rea was unsettled, Germany was unsettled and there was
trouble in South Africa and North Africa. To acid to these
global problems the domestic situation in the United States
was at low ebb. Things were not too bright a decade
after World War II.

One good move had been seen by the beginning of
1956. American Negro musicians, athletic and comedy
teams were being used to help clear the vision. In Moscow,
the Negro opera, Porgy and Bess received thirteen bursts
of applause. It was plain that these Negro teams were ef-
fectively spreading good will for the United States and

31 The New York Times, April 18, 1955.

40

Russia. India enunciated the "Panch Shila" policy. This
policy meant that India intended to maintain mutual respect
for territorial integrity and sovereignty; nonaggression ;
noninterference in internal affairs; equality and mutual
benefit; and peaceful co-existence. 3 -

Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in January 1956
described the Republican foreign policy as a "brink of war"
victory. He credited his victory to America's readiness to
fight with atomic weapons. This strong action ended the
Korean war; prevented the Chinese Reds from openly in-
tervening with their armies in Indo-China ; and finally stop-
ping the Reds' threatened invasion of Formosa. Dulles may
credit his mistakes to having to follow Eisenhower who at
times was not positive. At a press conference on Middle
East problems March 7, 1956 the President started an ex-
planation in this fashion :

As a matter of fact, I think, I am not sure, but I think
there's some of these export licenses that are still ex-
isting, although whether the material has been paid
for, I am not sure. 33

Perhaps the best explanation to the whole concept of
the foreign affair situation is the speech made by Senator
J. William Fulbright, Democrat of Arkansas in the Senate.
Fulbright in assailing Dulles' "brink of war" idea on Feb-
ruary 27, 1956 said:

Some of the problems lie wholly beyond his (Dulles)
control. Some have been gathering force long before
most of us here were born. And no one among us can
dispose of them with a flick of the wrist. We may, in
fact, have to reconcile ourselves to the fact that our
grandchildren may be wrestling with some of these
same problems that tax us here today. 34

In 1956 President Eisenhower would be faced with
many problems he did not have to face in 1952. He would
have to stand on his record, and that record would be found
unexplicit. With the domestic issues crowning out foreign
affairs in an election year, much of what should be debated
would not be undertaken or, if considered, would not be
understood by a majority of Americans.

In 1956 the massive retaliation concept would be a
child of ten years. This policy was of Anglo-American ori-
gin in that it was initiated by former Prime Minister Winston
S. Churchill in Missouri in 1946 in the now famous "iron

"Norman D. Palmer, "India's Outlook on Foreign Affairs," in Current

History, Vol. 30, February, 1956, pp. 65-72.
33 The New York Times, March 8, 1956. (See President Eisenhower's Press

Conference on Foreign and Domestic Affairs).
3i The New York Times, February 28, 1956.

41

curtain" and "cold war" realization. This "new" policy
was made American and positive by Harry S. Truman. It
was adopted by Dwight D. Eisenhower. India and Red
China influenced its development in Asia and the Far East.
Russia's rise as a world power and an economic competitor
forced its development to the 1956 stages of development.

In 1956 there was no question that the new Commun-
ist economic drive in Asia was making headway. The Com-
munist's willingness to relieve Asian countries of their sur-
plus agricultural products in exchange for industrial equip-
ment or to lend them money to buy Soviet equipment was
more appealing than the Western approach. Representative
Edna Kelly, Democrat of Brooklyn, charged on March 10,
1956, that President Eisenhower was asleep at the job of
policy-making in a time of unrivaled crisis. 35

Massive retaliation is based on the assumption that
Russia would attack the United States. The United States
has a tradition of nonaggressiveness. In summary, the ob-
servation of Herodotus, the Greek historian and "Father of
History" is still important, for "where wisdom is called for,
force is of little avail."

'The New York Times, March 11, 1956.

42

Impressions of College Art

By Phillip J. Hampton

Somewhere a wise man once stated that there is noth-
ing new under the sun. To the best of the writer's knowl-
edge, this argument has never been disproved. On the
other hand, perhaps it has never merited proof. However,
for a man to have made a statement of this nature indicated
that he was stimulated by some observation or occurrence
in his environment that these tangible and intangible things
confused men and caused them to think that the last form
taken by these things should be called new. Hence, there is
nothing new just evolution.

The statements that are presented are not intended to
be new ; they are merely a sequence of statements of which
many persons have at one time or another been aware. They
are set down with the purpose to stimulate re-evaluation of
the knowledge we already possess. This humble writer is
concerned with art in a college curriculum.

Most teachers well know art as an integrated feature
in the college curriculum has come a long and laborious
way. Needless to say, its proof as justification for being in
and remaining in the curriculum is still in the process of
prognosis by the floundering (train the mind through exer-
cise) individual.

The minds of these individuals date back to the Latin,
Greek and mathematics schools of the past, where these
subjects were emphasized as calisthenics for the brain. The
basic assumption here was that the brain was like a muscle
and needed strengthening to enable it to absorb other sub-
jects. Art at this time was certainly not considered as a
strengthening exercise. For at this time John Adams as-
serted he would not give a sixpence for a Raphael ; he rejoic-
ed that America had not reached the age of painting and
sculpture which, he thought, would certainly lead to the
corruption of our beloved country. 1

It is, however, ironical that this same sour man could
later state that he enjoyed sitting for the prominent artist,
Gilbert Stuart.

There is something mysterious and powerful about the
medium of art. Art can be soothing and gentle, like a
breeze; or it can be furious, like a storm; it can be convinc-
ing, like a top television commercial. Art lies dormant,

1 Robert Lincoln Kelly, The American College and the Social Order, New
York, 1940, p. 229.

43

amendable and powerful. Its energies need only to be put
to work.

Since the advent of progressive education, art has be-
come more and more a part of our students' lives. In the
clays of John Adams art development was practically non-
existent. However, much has preceded our growing con-
cept of art today. To very rapidly cite a few examples of
unstable occurrence: the French and Spanish contribution
to aesthetic influence in America (Washington, D. C. and
New Orleans Architecture). Barthold's Statue of Liberty;
Franklin and Jefferson sculptured by Houdon, the re-ar-
rangement caused by the civil war, western expansion rail-
roads, gold, etc.

It seems that unrest and calamity immediately stimu-
lates renewed interest in the arts. For an example, it was
not until after the First World War that any great interest
was shown in the teaching of fine arts in college. In the
great depression more art attention was stimulated. And
after the Second World War, art gained more attention.
Now in fear of future rearrangements man is giving great
attention to his soul, his church and his art. D. W. Got-
shalk states, "There is today all over the world a profound
sense of the awful horror and tragedy that will be unlossed
by another war and a yearning for peace rarely, if ever,
equaled in human history." 2

Is there some possibility that thinking men now see in
art a molding character and ethical values that have been,
prior and during the past catastrophies, overlooked?

What would the results have been had more emphasis
been placed upon man and his sensuous ideals, especially at
the time these men who decided our fates attended school?

The development of art has been slow in American
schools. It was not until 233 years after Harvard had been
founded that Charles Eliot Norton had been installed as
professor of art. 3 Moreover, it was not until the early
1930's that 23 percent of 400 institutions offered art studio
courses and 66 percent offered history of art. After this
late beginning Vassar enrolled one-fifth of its students in
art courses and Antioch required every student to take an
introductory course in art. 4

These were perhaps experiments and from all appear-
ances they have proven themselves to be worthy. However,
these subjects did not appear without some overt reson-
ance from the inert thinkers. They felt that such subject
matter was frivolous and merely a fad. But all subjects,

2 D. W. Gotshalk, Art and Social Order, Chicago: 1947, p. 240.
3 Kelley, op. cit., p. 229.
*Ibid., p. 240.

44

even the "three R's," have been criticized. Even English,
something that no contemporary American can feel secure
without, had to fight for its survival in the curriculum one-
half century ago. The architects of the curricula must be
aware that a fad of yesterday may become a need of today.

It is not universally understood that those who make
curricula must be aware of the changes of our time and
therefore re-evaluate their aims from time to time. Ward
G. Reeder states in effect that we must make it clear that
the "central aim of education" is "creative thinking." 5
This is but one of the many philosophies or aims that has
been cited in behalf of sound education.

However, in spite of observations presented there are
some who yet have not perceived beyond their narrow peri-
phery. An example of this is the concept scientists (or some
among their ranks) entertain for art. It is basically this:
there is no sense in art ; it springs from nowhere and results
in nothing the artist is the playboy of the western world.
The scientist feels that anything that cannot be said clearly
is feeling thus feeling is nonsense. However, the antithe-
sis to this is, what human being has clear thoughts only. If
education is to follow this method of thinking there can be
only one way of thinking, other methods must go unguided,
hence the method and approach will be mathematical and
without feeling. James B. Conant finds there is no such
things as the scientific method, for even the scientist has
had to use various methods. Therefore, in the develop-
ment of an art curriculum there is little need for an estab-
lished and precise method ; we need only to be cognizant
of what art is and where it is going.

Many of these goals are now being established in some
of the Humanities courses. We realize we come close to a
satisfactory definition of art when we cite phrases of this
nature: "There are thoughts, . . . too deep or too vague
for words. They may remain buried too far back into con-
sciousness. When they do appear, . . . they may take form
in painting, sculpture, music, or the dance." 7

Moreover, concerning the Humanities program, I feel
they are essential in breaking down the barriers of ignor-
ance and isolation of the arts. Hatstadter and Hardy state
in effect that the Humanities quicken the perception and
sensitiveness of the student, and that educators feel the stu-
dent can best learn by actually participating in the act of
creating. Further "(the Humanities) are essentially the
study of the values man has been able to gain from his ex-

r> Ward G. Reeder, A First Course in Education, New York, 1950.

,; See Richard Hatstadter and C. Dewitt Hardy, The Development and

Scope of Higher Education in the United States. New York, 1952,

p. 201.
'Ibid., p. 220.

45

perience and significance they give to his life." s They
again quote after Suzanne L. Langer 9 that "all sensitivity
bears the stamp of mentality . . . seeing is itself a process of
formulation; our understanding of the visible world being
in the eye." 10

There we may assume that the Humanities program is
the effects of critical scholarship. This type of thinking is
bringing to society a knowledge of what the artist is doing
and what he is trying to express.

Needless to say, it is a common occurrence for the aver-
age person to think that art is a framed oil painting and that
"art is a product of dead men." 11 Moreover, Thomas M.
Fold states, "Faculty, alumni, trustees and parents still
think of art as a highly specialized course in drawing, (and)
painting. . . . " 12

These attitudes and others previously cited are due to
an inadvertent conditioning process existing in our society.
This process is clue, in part, to our educators having elided
art in the curriculum and then having become solicitous
upon its advent. Then on the other hand teachers of art have
been, in some cases, haphazard in their methods. Especially
in the teaching of art appreciation, we have done no more
than to give the student material for "polite tea table chat-
ter." 13

Perhaps it is that the job is too great for a teacher to
try eradicating years of misguided thinking, namely, the
art, or rather, the little undirected art, that students get in
secondary and elementary schools. (There are a few ex-
ceptions here of course.) It is at the tender age of youth
that a well organized art curriculum could prevent the per-
version of art attitudes. As Thomas M. Folds states, "this
age is the age when youth stares out upon a world of com-
mercial ugliness." 14 It is therefore easy to understand how
one can, without proper guidance, misconstrue what he sees.

Therefore, teachers of art should abolish top-heavy
theories in the laboratory and let the child coordinate hand
and eye and become as a whole individual filled with expres-
sion. Teachers must be aware that they are developing for

s Ibid., p. 217-18.

''Suzanne L. Langer, Philosophy In A New Key (Cambridge, Mass.,
1942), p. 90.

10 Hatstadter & Hardy, p. 198.

11 Fred Logan, "Progressive Education, Creative Expression and Art Ap-
preciation" College Art Journal, 11 (Summer 1952), 248.

1 -Thomas M. Folds, "Art Before College", The Magazine of Art, 32 (June
1939) p. 347.

1;; See Fred Logan, pp. 247-48. He further states on this that the term
"art appreciation" should be junked that our art knowledge is being
limited to remote scenes in Europe, etc. We need "strong creative con-
victions."

14 Ibid., p. 343.

46

tomorrow the potential patrons of art; whether they pur-
chase expensive art objects or whether their sensitive per-
ception is a contributing factor to slum clearance, the ef-
fects should be the same a keen desire for quality and
beauty.

The average youth is interested in such art subjects as
commercial art, photography, cartoons and industrial de-
sign. Then these can well be points of departure for the
teacher of art. There is room for much creative activity
and learning by a comparison between a popular cartoon
and a serious painting or between a painting of Piet Mon-
drain's and a magazine, newspaper or billboard advertise-
ment. It should be made clear that in all probability, had
Michaelangelo lived today very likely he would have been
an expert illustrator or advertising designer; and if Jon
Whitcomb had lived during the Renaissance he would have
been a great painter of murals and chapels, instead of a
modern illustrator.

This is not a statement to defend the theories of those
who believe that all art, especially of this age, should be
functional and utilitarian. One must not endeavor to de-
fend either side, nor must one try to work in between, but
one must face facts ; art is being reorganized, as it needs to
be, to fit a changing society. John Dewey somewhere stat-
ed in effect that sometimes neither extreme, nor an amalga-
mation of the two can be the solution to the problem at
hand. He further stated that the decay of art in the Alex-
andrian period was caused principally because art was not
part of society it was not in keeping with the social changes
that were taking place. 15

Today our changes are rapid and prodigious; televi-
sion, atomic energy, jazz, mechanization, organized crime
and speed. These, to be sure, are but a few of the changes
taking place today. But what is important is that Ameri-
can art instructors cannot sit idly by and let true art die out
because they are not alert enough to keep abreast of the re-
arrangements.

Briefly, concerning a brave and very far-sighted ad-
justment is the change in 1921 by Antioch College. Basi-
cally its program is concerned with the development of the
individual through liberal education, work experience, and
group responsibility. It is commonly felt at Antioch that art
should be placed close to the public even in factories.
Concerning work experience or "Field" work, a student
will actually go to an enterprise where his particular type
of activity is carried on.

Another contender for a change might be Worth D.

3 John Dewey, Art As Experience, New York: 1934, p. 328.

47

Griffin in his article "University Art Training For What?" 16
He states, "There has been no agreement as to what should
be taught, how much, how it should be taught, or toward
what art study and teaching should be directed." 17

Moreover, Griffin feels University Art training is fal-
lacious; no emphasis has been placed upon commercial or
industrial art. However, as an antithesis to this thinking
Peter Kahn 18 states in his article that art training on the
college level should not be the teaching of certain techni-
ques but the teaching of values that make life worth liv-
ing. He further states that even Mr. Griffin cannot deny
that drawing, painting, and art history have an important
place.

Griffin condescends a little however in stating that ap-
plied art is a need of our contemporary society but we
must not become so absorbed in function that we lose sight
of the ethic values of art we must stress the development
of creative expression.

Griffin becomes more specific where he points out three
objectives in art training; they are: (1) to emphasize a
broad, general education program, (2) to become devoted
to a basic art program, (3) set up a provision for speciali-
zation in some useful phase of art.

And even more specific, he suggests courses that might
be used for commercial and industrial preparation: adver-
tising production, typography, photo engraving, offset litho-
graphy, interior design, textile design, hook illustration,
cartooning and silk screen. He feels in relation to this that
professional schools have come closer to this ideal than uni-
versities and college departments.

To be sure, this argument is nothing new ; it has been
going on for ages. However, the writer feels that the solu-
tion is not far-fetched.

In light of the fact that the art department has come
a long way from its embryonic beginnings there are never-
theless yet major problems to be solved. One of the most
important needs is a good physical plant, proper lighting,
adequate room and storage space. In addition to this a very
important part of the curriculum or a contributing factor
should be the gallery; a specifically prepared, spacious
place that can be used to exhibit works of art. Needless to
say, this is just as much a part of the students education as
the classroom experience; in fact they should be combined.

10 Worth D. Griffin, "University Art Training For What?" College Art

Journal 11 (Winter 1951-52) pp. 87-92.
1 Ubid., p. 87.
ls Peter Kahn, "The Utilitarian Fallacy in Art Training" College Art

Journal 11 (Summer 1952) pp. 261-65.

48

Marion Cordice Parham 19 states some facts of a sur-
vey dealing with college art gallery programs. Some of his
findings were that there is a developing trend to expand
gallery space. And further, that a large percentage of
students are enrolled in the study of art because of the fol-
lowing as listed :

1. Requirements from other departments for art.

2. Humanities.

3. Students enroll in art as an elective. (About 37 per-
cent.)

Undoubtedly, a venture such as this entails some ex-
pense. Frequently this is met through the budget and special
appropriations. Sometimes a campus community program
can be a great asset with membership fees, financial drives
and admission or patron fees, etc. Also an experiment that
has had quite some success is the picture rental program;
this is often, however, limited to the campus and faculty
members.

In reference to stocking the gallery with works of art,
it is, as we all know, impossible for schools to own a great
number of expensive works. This problem is solved by cir-
culating exhibitions, original prints, donations, excellent
photographic reproductions, students' work and, of course,
slides, photographs and books.

All these things mentioned will need storage. The au-
thor states that it is more important to have good storage
than to have a gallery. He offers a suggestion, however,
that the backs of the gallery walls might be used as storage
spots, providing of course, that the art is protected.

Beyond a doubt, the gallery is emerging as a definite
need to a college art program. It is the very subtle radio
and television commercial ; it is an educating process, not
only for the student but for the student's parent and his
parent's neighbors more so if the work on exhibit belongs
to the student.

The art department has come a long way. It is a re-
flection of change. It did not come an easy way nor did it
come by mere idiosyncratic desire ; it came by force the
force and needs of our times. Art is rapidly becoming an
essential part of the whole man. Art is nothing new it is
evolutionary. As John Dewey once stated, in effect, it is
the celebration of our civilization.

19 Marion Cordice Parham, "College Art Gallery Programs" College Art
Journal. 12 (Spring 1953) pp. 251-56.

49

Student Reading at Savannah State
College Library

By Luella Hawkins, Althea M. Williams,
and Madeline G. Harrison*

Introduction

Circulation figures can never tell the full story of li-
brary usage. As a criterion for evaluation they can be
questioned How many of the books withdrawn were ac-
tually read? How many were withdrawn for the use of
others? Who is a reader? Waples has aptly stated a defi-
nition for a reader as apart from a borrower of books :

"The essence of reading is a synthesis between reader
and book. Reading presupposes one's avidity to listen;
it is the ability to recreate a book in his own mind, the
faculty to discover, to accept, or to reject the personal
message it has for himself . . . Reading is not an end in
itself." 1

Although circulation figures, borrowers, or readers
can be defined or interpreted in a multitude of ways, the
fact still remains that in many instances circulation figures
are the chief means of testing what a library is doing in a
quantitative if not a qualitative way. Various libraries have
a number of ways of recording the use of the library. One
will have all open stacks; consequently, no use is counted
unless the material is taken from the library. Another will
have closed stacks. Yet another will maintain semi-closed
stacks.

Savannah State College Library might be placed in the
latter category. The shelves are semi-open. Any student
may go to the stacks by securing a permit at the desk. If
a person wishes to check a book for use in the reading room
and not just peruse it in the stacks, a slip is made for it and
left at the desk. Reserve books are circulated from the
desk. Virtually all use of material is recorded.

Savannah State College is an undergraduate college
with an enrollment of 839 regular students and 62 night
school students for the spring quarter 1955-1956. The li-
brary has a book collection of 23,043 volumes and sub-
scriptions to 301 magazines and newspapers. It is the pur-
pose of this library to fulfill at least to a degree the objec-

*The writers are indebted to Mrs. Sylvia E. Bowen for assistance in

preparation of this manuscript.
1 Douglas Waples, et al., "What Reading Does to People." (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1940), p. 82.

50

tives recently listed by Arthur T. Hamlin, Executive Secre-
tary of the Association of College and Reference Libraries :

"It should assist classroom instruction by providing
the necessary study and reference materials. It should
provide the means for the teaching staff to keep up
with developments in their fields, etc. Above and be-
yond these important functions it is recognized that,
the library should encourage students to use books in-
dependently as a means to the acquisition of knowledge,
not only during the college years but after, and to co-
operate with the faculty in developing student interests
in general reading." 2

Thus are set the librarian's goals. The instructor, too,
would do well to look toward these goals. He is in a position
of influence and leadership. His recommendations concern-
ing particular books which will make for good reading bear
considerably more weight with students than the same com-
ments from a librarian. The instructor and the librarian
should combine forces to get past the indifference toward
books and reading often shown by many college students.

A. Scott Powell's study, sponsored by the Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, was con-
ducted at eleven Negro college and university libraries in
an effort to ascertain reading interests of 366 students and
the relationship of these interests in developing and stimu-
lating reading. The study was based on questionnaires
sent in equal proportion to students in each of four academic
classifications, academic standing, or intelligence levels and
both sex divisions. No signatures were attached.

"Despite the fact these students obviously held books
in esteem and placed a degree of value on them, com-
petitive activities of a more social and dynamic nature
lead their list of personal preferences. Yet during mo-
ments of stress and personal needs books held a place
among choice resources to which these students would
venture for assistance." 3

All this makes one wonder if the library on the college
campus is a necessity as a service and educational unit. No
one will deny that it should be the heart or the intellectual
center of the campus. The question is, are the students of
the college making use of this center?

; Arthur T. Hamlin, "The Role of the College Library in Adult Read-
ing" in the Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa-
tion. 55th Yearbook, Part II (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1956), p. 141.

; A. Scott Powell, "Reading Interests of 366 College Students", The
Journal of Negro Education, 23, no. 2 (Spring 1954) p. 184.

51

Survey of the Literature

Numerous factual studies have been made of the use
of the library by students. In 1940 Harvie Branscomb re-
leased one of the most significant publications on this sub-
ject. 4 In addition to several studies that were completed
by the writer for the book, there is a collection of data on
all the more important studies of this type that had been
made up until that time. They embrace the publications by
Waples for the North Central Association in which thirty-
five colleges were studied; 5 McDiarmid's study of the read-
ing of undergraduates in seven liberal arts colleges; 6 Harry
L. Johnson's study of five college libraries; 7 Eurich's study
of the use of the library of the University of Minnesota. 8
Ralph A. Parker's study of the general circulation of the
University of Texas library. 9 These several studies were
summarized and compared. Conclusions were drawn from
the 51 institutions and over 20,000 students involved.

Since the appearance of Branscomb's book, no similar
comprehensive studies have been made. However, several
theses have been written on reading in specific colleges.
Janeway's study in 1944 measured undergraduate student
use of the University of Illinois Library. 10 Todd made a
study in 1948 on the non-reserve book reading of under-
graduate students of the University of Missouri; 11 and in
1954 Grovenstein studied the quantity and variety of vol-
untary reading of students at the Georgia State College
for Women. 12

Purpose of The Study

The staff of the Savannah State College Library carries
out a continuous process of evaluating the resources and
services of the library. Since no evaluation of a library is

'Harvie Branscomb, "Teaching With Books" (Chicago: American Li-
brary Association, 1940), 239.

"'Douglas Waples, et al., "The Library", in Evaluation of Higher In-
stitutions, No. 4, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936).

"E. W. McDiarmid, "Conditions Affecting the Use of the College Li-
brary", Library Quarterly, V (1935).

7 Harry L. Johnson, "A Study of the Use of Five College Libraries"
(Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Iowa, 1938).

S A. C. Eurich, "Student Use of the Library", Library Quarterly, III
(1933).

!, Ralph H. Parker, "An Analysis of Circulation at the Main Desk of
the University of Texas Library from October to December, 1934."
(Austin: University of Texas), 19p.
I0 Ray Curtis Janeway, "The Technique of Measuring Student Use of
the University Library Through Circulation Records" (Unpublished
Master's thesis, University of Illinois, 1944.)
1 ' Ann McKinley Todd, "Undergraduate Reading at the University of
Missouri" (Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Chicago,
1948).
'-Catherine Gangwer Grovenstein, "The Influence of Background on
Student Voluntary Reading" (Unpublished Master's thesis, Emory
University, 1954).

complete without a study of the use made of these resources,
limited studies on this phase of the library have also been
made. However, no detailed comparative work on library
usage has been undertaken.

Since the difference between the library that is merely
a little-used service unit and the one that is truly a func-
tional department of a college can often be measured in
the use of the resources, the library staff decided to study
the problem. The several phases of the problem studied
were instructor use of reserve books ; classes of books most
used by the students; materials used for recreational read-
ing; correlation, if any, between scholarship standing and
library usage. In short, who uses what and why? It is
hoped that the information presented will assist instructors
in their preparation of future course work and guide the
librarians in their purchase of materials.

Procedure

During a six week period, April 12 May 23, 1956, a
careful count was recorded of all use of library materials.
This period was selected because it began after the usual
first-of-the-quarter rush before textbooks are available, and
it ended before the last minute dash to complete research
papers. For reserve books, "in library", and 14-day circu-
lation, daily records were kept for each student and each
instructor. For convenience, the "in library" circulation has
been included in the reserve book statistics. Incidentally,
instructors were not informed that such records were being
kept.

The Registrar's Deficiency and Honor Lists were used
to set up the scholarship groups used in this study. All stu-
dents in the Deficiency List whose averages for the Spring
quarter were 1.00 were eliminated from the group. Those
receiving "I" or Incompletes were also thrown out. The
Honor Roll for the spring quarter does not list graduating
seniors, hence the study eliminates the few who would
otherwise be included. Information on class enrollments
was obtained from the Dean of Faculty.

Findings
Circulation

In order to give a full picture of the use of the library
during the stated period, total statistics have been pre-
pared. Table 1 indicates the total book use by class num-
ber. The mean number of books borrowed per student was
3 from the general collection and 3.9 from the reserves.
Equated to a full academic year the figures would be 18

and 23.4 respectively.
I

A wide range of from 10.28 to 21.76 for the general col-

53

TABLE 1

CLASS NUMBER

U-DAY

RESERVE

PERSONAL*

000

48

309

77

100

158

113

11

200

58

53

7

300

1,010

1,663

108

400

38

13

4

500

269

215

20

600

275

441

15

700

170

230

18

800

234

106

29

900

263

421

19

Fie.

262

40

Total 2,785

3,564

348

** Average per Student 3

3.9

0.38

Average per Student

equated to full

academic year 18

23.4

2.28

: Books used for non-class or recreational reading. The total of books
borrowed here not to be considered as additional loans as the circula-
tion has been tabulated under 14-day column.
: Based on enrollment of 901.

lection was found as the average in Branscomb's 13 investi-
gation. He generalized that the average student will with-
draw from the general collection 12 books and from the
reserves 50 to 60 volumes during the academic year. Jane-
way 14 supported these figures in his study.

The Savannah State College average for the general
collection is somewhat above the 12 set by Branscomb, but
considerably below the 50 or 60 volumes set for the reserves.
One factor that should be noted is that since Branscomb's
study was made some years ago, there has been a trend
toward wider use of multiple titles and decreased use of
few titles as represented in th reserve collection.

Although the Savannah student average falls com-
fortably between the extremes 10.28 and 21.76 reported by
Branscomb, concern should be shown. Increased use of
the general collection should be stressed. This is particu-
larly true where non-class or recreational reading is con-
cerned. Table 1 shows that during the school year the
average student at Savannah State College borrowed slight-
ly more than 2 books for unassigned or non-class reading.
These findings are not peculiar to these students; they have
been reported in numerous studies. As far as recreational
reading goes, most college students can find their counter-
parts in those studied by Powell 15 and described earlier in
this paper.

13 Branscomb, op. cit., p. 27.
14 Janeway, op. cit., pp. 13-14.
15 Powell, op. cit., p. 184.

54

Although the reserve collection is not as extensive
or as widely used as it was once, it is interesting to analyze
the departmental use of the books placed there. The re-
sources of the Savannah State College Library are limited ;
consequently, instructors often find it necessary to reserve
books that should be in the general collection. A better
picture of departmental use of library resources can be
drawn at Savannah State than would be possible in a library

TABLE 2

USE OF RESERVED BOOKS BY DEPARTMENTS
APRIL 12 -- MAY 23, 1956

05

t~

DEPARTMENT

"8

2 } W

^, CC

-~ c CC

s-Jfi

2 8

e-^-g

S-^

M <

-W ^

5

o =0

<

Biology

3

128

133

1.03

Business

2

83

11

0.13

Chemistry

1

18

5

0.27

Economics

1

67

156

2.32

Education 1

9

666

881

1.32

Fine Arts

5

236

168

0.71

Home Economics 2

3

101

173

1.71

Languages

and Literature

10

534

393

0.73

Mathematics

and Physics

6

325

58

0.14

Health and Physical

Education 3

5

445

174

0.39

Social Science

9

614

1,227

1.99

Trades and

Industries

3

109

27

0.24

Total

57

3,326

3,406*

1.02 (Average)

1 Personal Orientation classes are included here.

2 Night classes are not included here as they give no college credit.
3 Includes gym classes.

*This figure is 158 less than that reported in Table 1 as the borrowers
did not indicate the names of the instructors for whom the books were
being used.

with extensive holdings. Table 2 shows how each depart-
ment used the reserve books.

It is difficult to say whether few books were used in
some cases because assignments were made but not followed
up, or because very light assignments were made. What-
ever the cause behind the sometimes, low figures, the pic-
ture itself is quite clear. As perhaps would be expected in
a teacher-training institution, the education department has
the largest number in enrollment of the classes which used
reserve books. But its total per student use was only 1.32.
It should be noted that one instructor whose total enroll-

55

34gS<P

ment was 52 used 427 books, making his per student use
8.21. This number of books used by one instructor is equal
to almost 50 per cent of the total number of books used by
nine instructors.

Contrary to what may have been expected, the depart-
ment of Languages and Literature, with the largest num-
ber of instructors using the library, and the third largest
enrollment, actually used only 0.73 books per student. In
this case the humanities failed to live up to the usual expec-
tations. The Social Science department, which covers a
wide range of information and 614 students, used the larg-
est number of books. Here the per student use of 1.99 is
still not too representative for courses which are generally
labeled reading courses. The Economics department used
the largest number of books per student (2.32). Only one
instructor is employed here. The departments making the
least use (per student) include some which have laboratory
courses Business, Mathematics and Physics, Chemistry,
Trades and Industries. Laboratory courses generally use
less library materials than others. Often instructors check
out materials for laboratory libraries. One instructor in
Trades and Industries maintains a rather extensive collec-
tion of reading materials. Most are withdrawn from the
Library for the entire school year.

Broadus reminds us that it is not to be expected that
library objectives in the humanities will be the same as
those in the sciences. However, it is most important that
every department in the college should develop some ob-
jectives with regard to the library experiences of its stu-
dents. 16

Scholarship Standing and Library Usage

Teachers and librarians often suggest the idea that the
grades a student makes are directly influenced by the
amount of reading he does for the course. This may or
may not be a true statement. At any rate, there are so
many immeasurable factors including the actual use made
of the books that the statement is always open to debate.

TABLE 3
USE OF GENERAL AND RESERVE COLLECTIONS BY
HONOR STUDENTS AT SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE,

APRIL 12 - MAY 23, 1956

Number of 11+ day Per student Reserve Per student
Class students books withdrawals books withdrawals

Senior

10

18

1.80

39

3.90

Junior

23

206

8.95

162

7.00

Sophomore

29

132

4.55

180

6.20

Freshman

31

127

4.09

126

4.06

Total

93

483

5.19

507

5.45

1 "Robert N. Broadus, "The College Student and the Library," Peabody
Journal of Education, XXX, No. 4 (January, 1956), 218.

56

Nevertheless, such statistics do lend themselves to compari-
sons and so are analyzed in this study.

Table 3 gives the use of the library by the honor stu-
dents. Although the group of 93 was only 10.4 per cent of
the total enrollment of the College, they used 17.3 per cent
of the general books circulated and 14.2 per cent of the
reserve books withdrawn. The mean number of volumes
borrowed (equated to an academic year) was 31.14 from the
general collection and 32.7 from the reserves. The over-all
totals were 18 and 23.4 respectively.

TABLE 4

STUDENTS MAKING MOST USE AND NO USE OF THE LIBRARY*

GROUPED ACCORDING TO SCHOLARSHIP

(APRIL 12 -- MAY 23, 1956)

Scholarship Group

Number
in Group

Most Use**

No Use

Number

Per Cent

Number \fer Cent

Honor, 3.00 -- 2.00
Average 1.99 - 1.00
Deficient, Below 1.00

93
615
135

34

170
24

36.5
27.6
17.7

8 8.6
60 9.8
51 37.8

*Total Use of Library (Reserve, In-Library, General collection.)
*Most use, 10 or more volumes.

Table 4 analyzes library use and non-use of the three
scholarship groups honor, average, and deficient. The
percentage of honor students making the most use of the
library was more than twice as high as that for the defi-
cient students. Conversely, more than four times as many
deficient students as honor students found no need for the
resources of the library. The average group fell less than
10 points under the honor group in using 10 or more books.
The gap was almost closed between these groups in the
"No-use" column.

Several interesting figures were seen in the process of
gathering the data for the above table. The largest num-
ber of books checked by any one person during the period
of study was 70. These books were withdrawn by a fresh-
man student on the deficiency list. The second largest
number was 62, used by a sophomore, and the third largest
number was 52 withdrawn by a sophomore, also. The aver-
ages of these last two students were 2.00 and 1.44 respec-
tively.

In general, the conclusion can be drawn that there is
an apparent relationship between scholarship expressed by
grade-point averages, and the amount of reading of the
students at Savannah State College. The better students
tend to read more books per capita. The poor students "ap-
peared either to read too much or not to profit from their
reading." These findings are supported by those of Jane-
way 17 and Todd ls .

17 Janeway, op. cit., pp. 13-14.
18 Todd, op. cit., p. 89.

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Pursuing this finding even further, the writers set up
tables to show the extent of "negligible" and "good or most
use" of both the general and reserve collections by honor
and deficient students. These groups were used because
the numbers represented were manageable for this limited
study and because they represented the two extremes all
others are in the middle and can be classed as average.

Since Table 5 and Table 6 are extensions of data pre-
sented in previous tables, they will not be analyzed for
comparisons of books withdrawn by the honor and deficient
students. Instead, the classification of the students in rela-
tion to the books withdrawn will be considered. In Table
5 the senior students counted were not graduating at the
end of the quarter. Several of them were doing practice
teaching or laboratory work during the period of this study ;
consequently, they did not have too much opportunity or
need, perhaps, to use the resources of the library. This fact
should be considered in the analysis.

Table 5 also shows that the percentage of honor stu-
dents making negligible use of the general and reserve col-
lections drops as the student progresses from the freshman
to the junior year. The percentage for the seniors can be
attributed to the factor noted above. Conversely, the per-
centage of students who made most use of the general books
increased as the student moved up The exception, of course,
is the senior class. No set progression pattern can be seen
for these same students where reserve books are concerned.
The peak here is reached in the sophomore year; and the
percentage of freshman borrowers is somewhat higher than
that for the juniors. However, when the whole picture is
studied, the fact becomes clear that as the honor student
at Savannah State College progresses he tends to borrow
more books from the library. Other investigators have
noted the same general trend.

The deficient students represented in Table 6 exhibit
more erratic behavior. The few senior students included
present the same problem as those in Table 5. The percent-
age of juniors making negligible use of general collection
was lower than that for the sophomore or freshman classes.
But the sophomores ran up a higher percentage of negli-
gible use than the freshmen. The only significant fact about
the negligible use of the reserves by the deficient students
is that the junior, sophomore, and freshman classes are
separated by only a small percentage point. The deficient
students fell in the pattern generally followed by the honor
students in only one category "most use" of the reserve
collection. Generally, there was no relationship shown be-
tween classification and number of withdrawals by the de-
ficient students.

60

Summary

The circulation statistics of the Savannah State College
Library have been used to secure data on the total with-
drawals by students, mean average use, departmental use
of reserve books, amount of recreational reading of the
students, and "most use" and "no use". The Honor List
and the Deficiency List issued by the Registrar were used to
study the correlation between scholarship standing and
library usage. From analyses of these several sources of
data the following conclusions were reached.

During the academic year, the average student at Sa-
vannah State College borrows 18 books from the general
collection and 23.4 from the reserve books. The former is
slightly above the average found by other investigators,
but the latter is considerably below.

Students do not spend much time per year in reading
for recreational purposes. Slightly more than 2 books were
withdrawn by the average student for this type of reading.

A few instructors make extensive use of the reserve
book collection. Many make only token use of these vol-
umes. Some of the courses generally labeled reading
courses did not make representative use of the books placed
on reserve.

In general, there is an apparent relationship between
scholarship expressed by grade-point averages and the
amount of reading done by the students at Savannah State
College.

As the honor student at Savannah State College pro-
gresses from the freshman to the junior year he tends to
borrow more books from the library. No such clear picture
could be drawn for the deficient students. The behavior
here was erratic.

The findings support most of the conclusions reached
in previous investigations.

61

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Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137.24

378
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3^834

V. 10

Georgia. State College, Savannah

Faculty research edition of the
Savannah State College Bulletin

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SAVANNAH S ..IBRARJf

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