Science for Georgia schools, 1958-1959

GE
5
VOLUME 2
TERMEDIATE

_'''':':~''''_':-lo:'''.,.~.- . . . " . . . . . " . - - : 1

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

CLAUDE PURCELL, SUPERINTENDENT

~~"":-\'

. '" .:.; ~.;

ATLANTA, GEORGIA

SCIENCE for
GEORGIA SCHOOLS
Volume II
INTERMEDIATE MANUAL
.I .
STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Division of Instruction
Curriculum Development
CLAUDE PURCELL Stete Superintendent of Schools
ATLANTA, GEORGIA 1958

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
GEORGE P. WlllTl\1A , JR., Chairman JAMES S. PETERS, Vice-Chairman CLAUDE PURCELL, Secretary
MEMBERS
FIRST CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, HENRY W. BLOUNT SECOND CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, W. T. BODENHAMER TIllRD CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, CLARKE W. DUNCAN FOURTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, JAMES S. PETERS FIFTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, GEORGE P. WHITMAN, JR. SIXTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, FRANCIS SHURLING SEVENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, HENRY STEWART EIGHTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, LONNIE D. SWEAT NINTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, MRS. BRUCE SCHAEFER TENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT, MRS. JULIUS Y. TALMADGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword

vii

Acknowledgements

viii

Introduction

ix

Philosophy

1

Suggested Principles For Science Curriculum

3&4

General Conceptions Regarding the Interests and Needs of Elementary

Children and the Role of Science in the Overall Elementary

Curriculum _

5

Broad Areas for Basic Understandings in Science

6

Organization of Concepts for a Science Curriculum

7

Steps Used in Solving Problems in Science

8

Cycle of Activities in Problem-Solving

9

Considerations Used in Selections of Problems for Development of

Units

~_ 10

Format for Development of a Teaching Unit

11

The Problem-Solving Method of Teaching Science

13

Introduction to Water

_

17

Why Is the Wise Use of Water Important to Us? Grade 4

18

Why Is the Molecular Behavior of Water Important? Grade 5 __ 25

What Is the Chemical Nature and Behavior of Water? Grade 6 __ 32

How Does Man Use Water to Do Work? Grade 7

38

What Are the Properties and Uses of Water That Make It an

Important Compound? Grade 8

45

Introduction to Nutrition

_

51

How Are Plants and Animals Dependent Upon Photosynthesis?

Grade 4

.

51

What Is a Balanced Diet? Grade 5

56

How Is Food Digested? Grade 6 -'-

..-:___________ 61

What Happens to Food Mter an Organism Digests It? Grade 7

65

What Factors Influence Growth and Well-Being of a Living

Organism? Grade 8

71

Instructions For Getting Records of Food Eaten

74

Introduction to Heat

83

What Are the Effects of Heat? Grade 4

83

What Are the Effects of Heat? Grade 5 _

87

What Are the Effects of Heat? Grade 6

91

What Are the Effects of Heat? Grade 7

96

What Are Some of the Ways We Can Measure and Study the Effects

and Behavior of Heat Energy? Grade 8

101

Introduction to Machines

108

How Do Machines Help us to Use Energy to Do Controlled Work?

Grades 4, 5, 6

_

108

What Are Some of the Ways We Measure the Work Done by

Machines? Grades 7, 8

111

Introduction to Resource Units .

114

How do Living Things Secure Food?

114

How Do Living Things Process Food?

116

How Is Food Used by Living Things?

118

What Foods Are Essential for Living Things?

120

What Is the Nature of Reproduction in Living Things?

122

What Factors Inhibit Unlimited Reproduction?

124

How Are Traits Transmitted Through Succeeding Generations? __ 126

What Problems Arise from Life Which Mfect the Reproduction

Process? ------________________

127

What Are the Simple Behavioral Responses in Living Things?

128

v

What Are the Complex Behavioral Responses Involving an

Organized Nervous System?

129

What Effects Do Physical-Chemical Substance Have on Behavior of

Living Things?

130

What Behavioral Adjustments Do Living Things Make to

~

Their Environment?

131

How Does Man SeeK to Conserve Resources?

132

How Does the Distribution of Living Things in Time Show

Evidence of Continued Change? _

134

How Does the Distribution of Living Things in Space Show

Evidence of Continued Change?

136

What Is the Evidence of Continued Change in Man?

137

What Is the Nature of Matter? __---------

_ 138

What Is the Nature of Energy?

140

What Are Some Evidences of Changes in Matter and Energy? __ 142

How Does Man Use and Control Matter and Energy to

Change His Environment? .

144

How Does Man Use Change in Matter and Energy to

Preserve His Health?

145

How Does Man Use and Control Matter and Energy to

Communicate His Ideas?

140

How Does Man Use and Control Matter and Energy to Transport

Himself and His Goods?

147

How Does Man Use and Control Matter and

Energy in Technology?

148

How Does Man's Knowledge of Natural Resources Help Supply

Him With the Necessities of Life?

149

How Does Man Use Matter and Energy to Keep

Records of the Past?

151

What Are Some Advantages of Problem Solving in

Areas of Living

153

What Are Some Possibilities of Future Benefits from Modern

Scientific Discoveries?

154

What Are Some Effects That Rapid Earth Changes

Have on Man? __ _ __ _ _ _

156

How Do Weather and Chmate Affect Man's Living Conditions? 157

What Are Some Effects That the Structure of Earth

Has on Man? - - _ _ __ _ _ __ __

_

159

How Has the Study of the Earth Revealed Facts about

Early Life?

__

_

160

What is the Nature of Change in Extraterrestrial Matter-Energy _ 161

What Are Some Evidences of Change in the Universe?

162

What is the Relation of the Milky Way to the Outer Galaxies? __ 163

What is the Interrelationship Between Galaxies of Outer Space? _ 164

What Are Some Evidences of Change in Universal

Matter-Energy?

_

165

What Are the Contemporary Concepts of the

Expanding Universe? -

_ __

166

How Does a Modern Study of Universal Phenomena Affect Man's

Concept of His Place in the Universe?

167

Appendix I - - - - - -

168

Suggested Bibliography for the Enrichment of Science Teaching

168

Appendix II

.__ 172

Recommended Standardized Tests for Science Aptitude and

Achievement

172

Appendix III

173

Major Principles Pertaining to Inanimate Phenomena

173

Major Principles Pertaining to Animate Phenomena

184

Major Principles Pertaining to Extraterrestrial Phenomena

188

vi

FOREWORD Our schools today exist in a hightly scientific age. We must have our teachIng and learning abreast of these times. We have strengthened the curriculum of the school especially in science, mathematics and languages. The State Department of Education named a Science Curriculum Committee in 1955 to plan improvement in the science curriculum in the Georgia public schools. The Georgia Science and Mathematics Teachers' Association requested the appointment of this committee. The purpose of the committee's work was to help teachers envision the teaching of science as something that starts in elementary grades and spirials into intensive high school courses that give Georgia students a comprehensive understanding of science as it applies to the world in which they live. School administrators are interested in this idea; teachers are enthusiastic about it. Boys and girls find such science teaching more interesting and challenging. Workshops Were held, with financial aid from the State Board of Education, at Emory and Atlanta universities. Public school teachers, who were brought to these universities, were requested to write a proposed program of science. This manual is the result. It has already been tested in Georgia classrooms. Students have enthusiastically approved it. Teachers have evaluated it, and helped to make it still better. We believe that it will be very useful in Georgia's schools. I think it has real value. I would be interested in knowing how well it serves your need in your own school.
CLAUDE PURCELL State Superintendent of SChools
vii

Acknowledgements
This publication is the result of long-range planning by the Georgia State Depart ment of Education for the improvement of science instruction in the public schools of the state. It involves the active participation of public school teachers at all levels, administrators, superisors, and college personnel. It was made possible by a special grant of the Georgia State Board of Education to the State Department of Education.
Its history dates back to 1950 when a Science and Mathematics Committee was appointed from the Georgia Teachers of Science and Mathematics to study and analyze science and mathematics instruction in the public schools. On the basis of the recom mendations of this committee made in their report of 1951, a State Science Curriculum Committee was appointed in 1955 by the State Department of Education. This committee instituted district meetings of teachers, administrators, and laymen to emphasize the importance of science training, worked with teacher training institutions, held con ferences with teachers, solicited funds to carry out the program, planned production workshop, and screened the participants.
The State Board of Education sponsored the workshops at Atlanta University and Emory University during the summer of 1957 and employed fifty selected teachers to produce a tentative guide for the teaching of science. During the school year 1957-1958, the guides were presented in tenative form to forty-two pilot schools. More than two hundred fifty teachers at all grade levels used the materials and gave an evaluation of the contents. An editing committee used the evaluations to revise the material during the summer of 1958.
Since this manual is the culmination of the vision, the thoughtful consideration, and the active participation of hundreds of Georgians, it would be impossible to make individual acknowledgements to each who has had a part in producing Science For GeollJia School..
THE EDITORS.
viii

Introduction
The State Board of Education adopted a basic program for the public schools of the state and published this program in a bulletin, "Curriculum Framework for Georgia Schools" in 1954. In the introduction to the above-mentioned bulletin the following statement is made, "a series of curriculum bulletins is contemplated over the period of the next few years. These can well include a separate and more detailed !>ulletin on each of the subjects treated in this initial general bulletin. These can then be followed by a large scale production of more specific course guides, resource units, and the like." The bulletin, "School Health Guide" published jointly by the State Department of Education and the State Department of Public Health in 1955 was the first in this series of general guides.
This bulletin on Science will be the second in this series. The science bulletin not only is a general bulletln in the area but also has resource units as well. The science material will be published in three volumes: Volume I for Grades 1 - 3, Volume II fO'r Grades 4 - 8 and Volume ill for Grades 9 - 12. Volumes I and II will be published in 1958 and Volume ill in 1959.
The purpose of this manual is to enable the elementary teachers of Georgia to present with self-assurance a spiraling, sequential program of science to the children of the state. It has been designed by teachers for teachers. It is not intended to be used by the students or to replace a variety of texts and references. It presents a pattern which teachers may follow in developing units of work in any area at any level, and it presents a section of resource materials upon which teachers may draw for ideas.
Recognizing science as a social force in the modern world, the committee emphasized the problem-solving method of investigation to make science realistic, meaningful, and useful in the learner's life. Many concepts may seem too difficult for the maturity level of the child; but as the program expands, a foundation will be laid upon which students and teacher will be able to build. Teachers,. learning with their students, will find a new enrichment in their lives and a new effectiveness in their work.
H. S. SHEAROUSE, Director Division of Instruction
ix

Philosophy
Evel')' phase of the animate, inanimate, and extraterrestrial world is characterized by changes which occur in matter and energy. To live effectively in the modern world, one must understand and use these principles of change. Much truth remains to be discovered, .and new discoveries may be accelerated when science education is general, continuous, and sequential for all children, and when it stresses competence in the use of scientific methods of problem-solving and scientific attitudes.
When children enter school they are characterized by searching, questioning, and investigative behaviors. They tend to react to all aspects of their environment and seek to plan and carl')' out their own activities. These are also the characteristic behaviors of the scientist and should be encouraged throughout the school experience. Children must be given opportunities for the full development of these characteristics.
From kindergarten through the eighth grade, the science program should be organized around integrative themes to include all of general science. Science at the high school level should be organized to meet the general as well as the special needs of the learners in the more advanced and specialized fields.
1

Suggested Principles For Science Curriculum (Grades 1-8)
I. Many principles introduced in the first grade are treated in varying degrees throughout the eight grades or to a culminating point in some subsequent grade. Additional principles are introduced at different grade levels throughout and are expected to be continued from grade to grade or for the length of time required for full development and presentation.
II. Conservation is not treated as a separate column in this chart but is interwoven throughout. Health, safety, and man's use and control of his environment should be likewise interwoven into other frame areas. Often principles introduced under one area are so related to other areas as to require simultaneous teaching or using of one to strengthen or enrich another.
m. Evaluation of every problem-solving experience should be in terms of attitudes and appreciations as well as skills and knowledge. (Refer to Evaluation Chart, Curriculum Framework for Georgia Schools, p. 31)

GRADE

A.

LIVING MATTER

B. ROCKS, SOILS, AND MINERALS

C.

AIR AND WATER

D. UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

E. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

ONE TWO THREE ; ,. FQUR

1. All matter is either living or non-living. 2. All living matter is either plant or animal. 3. There are many kinds of pIa n t s and
animals. 4. Living t h i n g s come from similar living
things. 5. Plants and animals need food, air, water,
and light to maintain life and to grow. 6. Different animals need different kinds of
foods. 7. Some plants and animals are helpful; some
are harmful. 8. Animals move in different ways. 9. Animals are equipped to live and move in . their own environment. 10. Many plants and animals adapt to seasonal
changes.

1. There are many kinds of rocks. 2. Some rocks are harder than others. 3. Rocks have different colors. 4. There are different kinds of soil.

1. Certain conditions of temperature are necessary for life and growth of most living organisms.
2. Animals are equipped to get their food in different ways.
3. Animals depend upon plants and/or other animals for food.
4. Chlorophyll-bearing plants help to provide food for all other living organisms.
5. CWorophyll-bearing plants make their own food.
6. Non-green plants get food from decaying plant and animal matter.
7. Some young animals have little care while others have much.

1. Some rocks are composed of many miner als, some, only one.
2. Soil is made of disintegrating rocks and decaying organisms.
3. Disintegration of l' 0 c k s forming soil is caused by wind, weather, chemical reactions, temperature changes, and friction.
4. Living organisms in the soil play an important part in making it suitable for plants to grow.

1. Green plants use light energy to make food. 2. Plants store f 0 0 d in roots, stems, leaves,
bulbs, and seeds. 3. Plants and animals use food for growth and
release of energy. 4. Animals that grow hair are mammals. 5. Mammals are warm-blooded. 6. Most mammals are born alive and are fed
milk from mammary glands.
7. Animals store food in their bodies and in their special hiding places.
8. Different plants and animals live in diffpr ent geographical regions.
9. Every species of plant or animal has enemies, and a particular species survives whose members are able to escape their enemies or are able to live in spite of them.

1. Some rocks are formed and changed by action of heat and pressure.
2. Rocks are form e d over long periods of time.
3. Minerals that make up rocks are older than the rocks they form.
4. Soils are younger than rocks. 5. Man's welfare depends upon how well he
builds and cares for good soil. 6. The earth is divided into distinct climatic
zones. 7. The material of the earth occurs in three
forms: solids, liquids, and gases. 8. Volcanoes and geysers give evidence of the
earth's internal heat.

1. Air surrounds us at all times. 2. Oxygen is in the air. 3. Most plants and animals need the oxygen
in the air. 4. Warm air is lighter than cool air. 5. Water is necessary for life. 6. Water can be changed from one form to
another. (Solids, liquids, gases.) (Evaporation, condensation, fusion.) 7. Most substances will dissolve in water. 8. Substances may float or sink in water.
1. Air is a mixture of several gases, chiefly: oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.
2. Cold air pushes warmer air upward. 3. Warm air can hold more water vapor than
cool air. 4. Heat causes water to evaporate into the air 5. Water continues to move up and down from
the earth to the c lou d s and back again. (Water cycle.) 6. Water expands upon freezing and becomes less dense. 7. There is water in the makeup of our bodies. 8. Nearly threefourths of the weight of all living bodies is water.
1. During the day air moves from bodies of water to land: during the night air moves from the land to bodies of water.
2. Trapped still air is a good insulator. 3. Water evaporates and con den s e s with
changes in temperature. 4. Water tends to flow downward when left to
itself. 5. Water contains much living and non-living
matter: some harmful; some, useful; and some, neither harmful nor useful. 6. Water sinks into the soil to d iff ere n t depths.

1. The sun gives us heat and light. 2. We live on the planet earth. 3. The planet, earth, is round; it is like a very
big ball. 4. Where we live on the earth, we have four
seasons: fall, winter, spring, and summer. 5. The moon, sun, and stars are far away from
the earth.
1. The earth is one of nine planets traveling in its own path or orbit around the sun.
2. The tilting of the earth's axis causes the seasonal changes.
3. The amount 01 heat and light received by the earth trom the sun varies with its position in its orbit.
4. Heat changes cause weather changes. 5. The rotation of the earth from west to east
on its axis causes day and night. 6. The force of gravity and the speed of the
earth's movement hold the earth in its orbit around the sun. 7. The force of gravity pulls objects toward the earth. 1. Our sun is a star and is the center of our solar system. 2. All stars are suns and are made of hot, glow ing gases and give off radiant energy. 3. Each of the nine planets in our solar system rotates on its own axis and revolves around the sun in its own orbit. 4. Planets shine because they reflect the light of the SUllo 5. Some planets, such as earth, have moons, or satellites moving in fixed orbits. 6. Man has placed satellites into orbits. 7. Individual stars are located in relatively fixed positions forming with others, patterns called constellations. 8. In the universe there are galaxies or systems of stars such as our Milky Way.

1. Electricity can be used to produce heat and light and to do work.
2. Magnets attract some things. 3. Magnetic pull can pass through many sub-
stances. 4. Lightning is a form of static electricity.

1. There is a magnetic field around a magnet. 2. A magnet is strongest at its poles, or ends. 3. Some magnets are stronger than others. 4. Magnetism appears whenever an electric
current flows through a wire. 5. An electric current is the movement of
electrons. 6. There are natural magnets, permanent mag-
nets and electromagnets. Some permanent magnets are the bar magnet and the horseshoe magnet. 7. A freely-swinging magnet serves as a compass.

1. Electricity is a form of energy.

2. Electricity flows only when it has a com plete path. (circuit)

3. Many objects collect static electricity when they are rubbed.

4. There are two kinds of electric charges: positive and negative.

5. Like electrical charges repel; unlike charges attract.

6. The earth appears to act as a huge magnet.

7. Compasses point toward the earth's mag-

netic poles.

.

8. Like magnetic poles repel each other; unlike magnetic poles attract each other.

1. Some plants and animals live in communities and depend upon each other.
2. Plants and animals have lived on the earth for a long time.
3. In the presence of light, chlorophyll-bear ing plants can convert water, carbon dioxide and minerals into food and release oxygen.
4. The plant uses some of the food it makes for immediate growth or energy.
5. Some plants and animals live as parasites. 6. Chlorophyll-bearing plants release oxygen
and provide f 0 0 d and shelter for some animals. 7. Different animals help plants in different

1. Rocks are classified as sedimentary, ig. neous, and metamorphic.
2. Some mixtures of rock material contain useful metals.
3. Soil is one of the most important of our natural resources.
4. When plants die and decay, minerals may return to the soil.
5. Trees and other plants slow-up the work of erosion.
6. The elements found in the materials of the earth are derived from the sun.

1. Air exerts pressure. 2. Air has weight and occupies space. 3. Plants use the carbon dioxide from the air
in the process of photosynthesis. 4. Water constitutes more than half of the
makeup of all living matter. 5. When water is changed to ice it expands
and becomes less dense. 6. Water in nature is seldom pure. 7. Water is a source of electrical and mechani-
cal energy. 8. The source of all food is directly or indi-

1. Daily clock time (24 hours) is determined by

the rotatIon of the earth on its axis.

2. The moon revolves around the earth every

twenty eight days forming the basis for our

lunar month of four weeks of seven days

each.

.

3. Our year (3654) days is determm~d by the

revolution of the earth in its orbIt around

the sun.

4. Since the earth rotates from west to east,

the sun appears to rise in the east and set

in the west.

5. If one could travel around the earth from

west to east in 24 hours the sun would ao-

1. Energy created by water, steam. wind, and

fuel can be used to generate electricity.

2. When an electric current passes through a

wire, a magnetic field is developed around

the wire.

3. The flow of electrons energizes the station-

ary electromagnetic field of electric motors,

causing a push and pull on a movable

magnetic part.

4. Direct current flows in only one direction

through the circuit.

5. Alternating current constantly reverses its

_ direction through the circuit.

"





ft~ ft_M. &1__ ft~ ftlftft

FIVI
', ..
SIX
SEVEN
, EIGHT

E:::Y 8.

living thing dies, but life continues.

1. The cells of all plants and animals are made up of a living substance called protoplasm.
2. Plants and animals are classified on the basis of similarities and differences.
3. Animals fall into two classifications: vertebrates and invertebrates.
4. Plants and anmials are constantly changing.
5 The characteristics shown by different spe. cies of plants and animals are due to inherited particles called genes
6.. 0rganisms grow, develo.p, and pass through life cycles according to the inherited pattern present in their genes.

1. All living things carry 0I! .processes. of. re-
production, growth, nutrlti~n,. re~~lration, and excretion, and possess rrntability.

2. Plants dissolve stored food materials by se-

cretion of enzymes.

.

3. Some animals have more powerful diges-

tive juices than man.

4. The chlorophyll-bearing plant is the first link in every food chain.

5. Changes are constantly occurring in com-

munities of living things.

6. Living t h i n g s compete in a struggle for

existence.

7. Plants and animals that lived long ago are

still useful to man; their energy is stored

in coal and petroleum.

8. The living world maintains a natural balance through cycles. (Life to decay; decay

to life.)

1. Enzymes, vitamins, and h 0 r m 0 !1 e s are
chemical regulators of the reactions that

occur in living organisms. 2. Protoplasm is made up largely. of water,
organic compounds, s~lts, and mmerals. . 3. The primary fun c t Ion of the flower IS

reproduction. 4. Plants must have water to secure minerals

from the soil.

.

5. The energy in foods is made aval1able to

an organism through. the .process C!f ~e!ab

olism, involving digestion, as~imilation,

and oxidation. Was t e s are dISposed of

through the proces.s of excretio~.

.

6 Each species has Its own speCial requlre-

. ments for food essential to .its best ~o~h.

7. Growth is essentially the .1Dcreas~ ~ SIZe

and multiplication and differentIation of

cells.

1. Every living cell depends upon the movement of w ate r and dissolved materials through its membrane and/or cell wall (Osmosis.)
2. Some animals as well as plants have periods of activity and dormancy.
3. Each organism must have certain materials for life and whatever essential ones it cannot build it must acquire.
4. The higher organisms have specialized tissues forming highly developed organs into body systems.
5. Every embryo begins life as a single fertilized egg.
6. Each species of plant and animal tends to extend its range until some impossible bar
rier u. unsurmountable.
7. Each species of living organism is adapted, or is in the process of being adapted, both structurally and functionally, to live where it is found.
8. As long as life continues in an organism, energy is released.

1. The surface of the earth is constantly changing.
2. Water, wind, gravity, chemical reactions, and man cause soil erosion.
3. Erosion takes place more easily in some kinds of soils than in others.
4. Muddy streams e rod e faster than clear streams.
5. The kind of soil in any place depends upon the nature of the rocks from which it is made and on the amount of humus added.
6. Porous soil absorbs water better than non porous and, therefore, slows down erosion.
7. The arrangement of substances on the earth gives a variety of landscapes.
8. Streams, glaciers, waves, wind, and gravity erode the earth's surface into valleys, canyons, and ,plains.
1. Soils vary greatly in chemical composition and in physical properties.
2. Many small animals and plants live in the soil and help to make it fertile.
3. Bacteria on the roots of legumes are import. ant in replenishing the supply of nitrogen in the soil.
4. S,pecial cover crops will protect the soil from erosion and will provide humus which improves the texture of the soil.
5. Original materials for the formation of soils are formed through the disintegration of rocks.
6. Quartz is our commonest mineral. 7. Some minerals are more valuable than others. 8. Some minerals are scarcer than others.
1. Each kind of mineral forms its own type of crystal, and the shapes of the crystals help scientists tell what kinds of minerals are in the rocks.
2. Other qualities or characteristics of min erals used in identifying them are lustre, color, hardness, specific gravity or density, cleavage and taste.
3. Some minerals do not crystalize and are said to be amor,phous minerals.
4. Rocks and soils are moved from one place to another by streams.
5. Rocks and soils are moved in glaciers and are left in deposit:& when the glaciers melt.
1. Wind, water, heat, pressure, and friction are forces which change the formation and shape of rocks.
2. Forces within the earth may cause breaks to
appear on the earth's surface. 3. Volcanoes act as safety valves for extreme-
ly high pressures inside the earth. 4. Earthquakes and volcanoes often occur in
the same general area. 5. Volcanoes build up some mountains, bury
valleys, and build plateaus. 6. Earthquakes often push up the lands; dry
up lakes, springs and wells; change the course of rivers and cause avalanches.

.'

oxide from the aii-.

1. Pressure of the air varies at different altitudes.

2. Moving air exerts less pressure than still

air.

.

3. Air pressure can be measured by special in struments.

4. The amount of nitrogen and oxygen remains constant, pursuing cycles.

5. Clouds may be classified according to their constant in air, pursuing cycles.

6. Water has weight and exerts pressure.

7. The boiling and freezing points of water may change when some substances are dissolved in it.

8. The temperature of the air and the amount of moisture in the air determine the type of precipitation.

1. The earth's atmosphere consists of three distinct regions: the troposphere, the stratosphere and the ionosphere.
2. Oxygen makes u,p about one fifth of the earth's atmosphere.
3. Nitrogen makes up about four fifths of the earth's atmosphere.
4. Living things give off water and carbon dioxide into the air.
5. The availability of water is an important factor in determining the types of plants and animals that will be found in a community.
6. Water is a poor conductor of heat. 7. Temperature in water rises more slowly and
falls more slowly than temperature on land.

1. The atmosphere protects the earth from damage by meteors and electrical particles.
2. The atmosphere becomes thinner the far ther it extends from the earth's surface.
3. The amount of moisture in the air is indio cated as relative humidity.
4. When warm air is suddenly cooled, the vapor in the air condenses.
5. Weight of air is the pull of gravity on the molecules of the air.
6. Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
7. Relative humidity affects the rate of evaporation.
8. Water vapor in clouds can be made to con dense on small solid particles if the particles lower the temperature of the vapor.
1. Oxygen is the most active element in air. 2. Nitrogen is the most abundant element
in air. 3. Water forms the principal part of many
foods, both by weight and volume. 4. Water contracts when coole d until it
reaches 4 degrees centigrade, when it is most dense. As it changes into ice, however, it expands and becomes less dense than it is as a liquid. 5. Convection currents aerate the water of lakes and ponds and thereby replenish the oxygen supply for aquatic organisms. 6. Food must be dissolved in water in order to be used by an organism. 7. Water is our most abundant mineral. 8. Three-fourths of the earth's surface is cov ered by water. 9. Water suitable for use by man and other living organisms is limited in quantity and should be conserved and wisely used. 10. The general use of sea water in the future by man can only be made possible through further scientific research.
,, ". ,r'
.

pear to remaIn In toe same place mroughout the journey.
1. Many forces at work in the universe cause changes in the shape of bodies or in their speed and direction.
2. The most significant forces affecting the movement and behavior of the parts of the solar system are centrifugal force, gravity, friction, and inertia.
3. The planets are held to the sun and the satellites to the planets by the force of gravity. which operates between all bodies in the universe.
4. Centrifugal force keeps the parts of the solar system in their respective orbits.
5. The greater the speed of motion of a body the greater the centrifugal force that it exerts.
6. With enough initial speed large space ships might be placed in orbit around the earth.
1. The solar system is composed of the sun, planets, moo n s, asteroids, meteors, and comets.
2. The heat and light of the sun come from atomic fusion, chiefly hydrogen atoms fusing to form helium, rather than from burning or oxidation.
3. Although the sun is 93,000,000 miles away, it is the source of almost all of the available energy on earth.
4. When the moon passes directly between the sun and the earth, it casts its shadow on the earth and we see an eclipse of the sun.
5. When gases seethe up from the sun's interior, they cool somewhat, forming gigantic, dark looking sun spots on the surface.
6. The number and size of the sun spots seem to vary through cycles of 11 years, and the disturbances which they produce on earth vary with different phases of the cycle.
1. Our natural satellite, the moo n, always keeps the same side turned toward the earth because it rotates on its axis in the same time in which it revolves around the earth.
2. The surface of the moon as determined by use of telescopes shows g rea t mountain ranges and extensive plains but no atmosphere or water, consequently no life as we know it and extreme ranges in temperature.
3. As viewPd from the earth the moon shows various shapes, depending upon the area of its reflecting surface which is visible on earth at a given time.
4. The gravitational pull of the moon and the SlID on large bodies of water of the earth causes the rising and falling of tides.
5. When the earth passes directly between the sun and the moon, the shadow it casts causes the moon to go into eclipse.
1. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains millions of stars, appears to be shaped like a gigantic, flattened pinwheel, and is only one of the millions of galaxies in the universe.
2. Distance in outer space is measured by a unit called a light-year, which is the distance light will travel in a year, going at the speed of 186 284 miles per second.
3. Elements occurring on earth have been identified in other heavenly bodies by use of the spectroscope.
4. Calculations involving the rotation of the earth, the refraction of sunlight by the earth's atmosphere, the parallax shift, the aberration of light, space motion and the Doppler effect enable man to dete~mine the true motion of the stars.
5. By the use of delicate instruments, astronomers are able to receive and interpret radiant energy emitted from heavenly bodies.

tric current are called good conductors. 7. Insulation is necessary to prevent short-cir
cuiting of electrical wires.
1. ~n electron is a tiny negatively charged par tIcle.
2. The flow of electricity is the movement of charged particles (electrons, ion s) from negative to positive.
3. Electrical energy can be produced by chemical change.
4. Radio wav~s are electromagnetic waves. 5. Radar, using frequencies of the micro-
wave length, is a system of radio-detecting and range finding. 6. Electrical power is measured in watts and kilowatts. 7. The ampere is the unit for measuring the rate of flow of electrical charge. 8. Electrical pressure is measured in volts. 9. Electrical resistance is measured in ohms.
1. Electricity may be produced by friction by chemical action, or by the use of magnets.
2. Two theories of magnetism are the molecular theory and the electron theory.
3. Radio waves are formed of electrical radiant energy.

1. Resistance to the flow of an electric current is determined by the kind of material, the size, and the length of the conductor.
2. S~me of the energy used In overcoming reSIStance to the flow of electricity is transformed into heat.
3. The amount of heat generated depends on the resistance of the circuit, the quantity of the current, and the length of time it flows.
4. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge 5. Magnetic fields appear when electrons move: 6. The presence of electrons results in the
establishment of an electric field.

1. Current electricity is the flow of electrons

through a conductor.

2. Static electricity is made up of electrical

charges collected on the surface of an in.

sulator which is not grounded.

3.

tMhaettal'syilwl it~heatoumP.s,,!imtholencourltehs'

or domains poles facing

o.ne dlrectIon exhibIt properties of magnetISm.

4. The flow. of .induced .current is always in

such a dIrection that Its magnetic field op-

poses the action that causes the induced

current. (Lenz's law.)

5. A change in the magnetic field will change

the flow of current.

.

6. When electricity is used as power the elec-

trons rarely ever leave the wires' that con-

duct them.

7. Electrons can be made to leave conductors and. move through vacuums in electronic deVIces.

8. The current produced by a generator may

be .increased by using more magnet.., by

havmg more turns of wire on the coil,

and by moving th~ co~ or the magnets at a

faster sp~ed.

r

~... =. r'C ..........

F

HEAT

IG

LIGHT

IH

SOUND

I I SOME PROPERTIES, STRUCTURES,

I

AND CHANGES IN MATTER

J

HEALTH AND SAFETY

IK

MAN'S USE AND CONTROL

1. We get heat from fuels, electricity, chemical reactions, friction, food, and break down of atoms.
2 Heat travels through many substances. It travels better through solids than
through liquids or gases. 3. Substances are heated by the heat
they absorb. 4. Dark surfaces absorb heat faster than
light-colored ones. 5. Materials which resist heat transfer
act as insulators. 6. Oxygen is necessary for combustion or
burning to take place. 7. Most objects get larger when heated
and smaller when cooled. 8. A thermometer measures the coldness
or hotness of a substance.

1. Light comes from the sun and other hot objects.
2. Light comes from hot objects and atoms under certain conditions.
3. Some objects which are not hot glow with ther own light.

1. There are many different kinds of 1. Solids, liquids, and gases are forms of

sound.

matter.

2. Some sounds are louder than others. 3. Sound travels through liquids, solids_

2. All objects in our environment composed of matter.

are

or gases.

3. All matter is composed of tiny parti-

4. Sound will not travel through a vacu- cles called molecules which, in turn,

um.

are composed of atoms.

4. Atoms are made of particles which

are electrical in nature.

5. There is much energy in atoms caus-

ed by the movement of the electrical

particles.

1. We need res t, exercise, and good diets for healthy bodies.
2. Heat can be dangerous when it is not used in the right way or when it is not controlled.
3. Cleanliness is imp 0 r tan t to good health.
4. Proper light is necessary when we study.
5. Understanding of and respect for correct safety practices in protecting life and limb in home, school, and community is important for all people.

1. Helpful plants and animals should be cared for.
2. Man uses many living things for his purposes.
3. Water is importaut because of its many uses.
4. Man uses rocks and minerals to make things for his use.
5. Machines help us to use energy to do work.
6. Height, length and width are measurements of matter. (Space)
7. The ability to produce sound made it possible for man to develop language, one of his most powerful tools.
8. Man's use and control of heat and light help provide many comforts and necessities.

1. Heat is liberated or absorbed when liquids, solids, or gases are changed from one state to another.
2. Heat energy may be transferred by conduction, radiation, or convection.
3. Heat tends to flow from bodies of high temperatures to bodies of low temperatures.
4. Good absorbers of heat are good radiators of heat.
1. Heat causes molecules to move faster. 2. Evaporation may be speeded up by
applying more heat. 3. Evaporation may be speeded up by
increasing the surface area. . 4. The boiling point can be raIsed by
increasing the pressure on the surface of a liquid. 5 Fuels must be heated to the kindling temperature before they will burn. 6. Combustion takes .place only at ~he surface of fuels where they are m contact with the oxygen of the air. 7 Bundles of heat (heat photons) have less energy than bundles of light (light photons).

1. Some objects let more light through than others.
2. Some objects do not let any light through.
3. Shadows are formed by objects which do not let light through readily.
4. The less light that comes through the darker is the shadow.
1. Light consists of photons (hundles of energy) which t r a vel in straight lines.
2. The color of light is determined by the energy of the photons.
3. Light energy does not depend upon a medium for transmission.

1. Sound is produced when something vibrates.
2. The faster the vibrations the higher is the pitch of the sound.
3. Sound travels in waves, set in motion by vibrating bodies.
1. Sound waves usually spread out in all directions.
2. Sound waves may be directed. 3. When sound strikes our ears, vibra-
tions are set up in our ear drums. 4. An echo is reflected sound.

1. No two objects can occupy the same space at the same time.
2. All matter has mass and occupies space.
3. The weight of an object is due to the force of gravity acting upon it.." mass.
4. When work is done, energy is 'lbsorbed.
5. When living organisms grow, energy is absorbed.
6. Heat causes molecules to move faster. 1. Matter and energy are dtlferent forms
of the same thing. 2. Matter can be converted into energy
and energy into matter, but the total amount of energy and matter in the universe remains constant. 3. The ultimate source of all energy is the changing of matter into energy through atomic processes. 4. A small amount of matter produces a large amount of energy, but a large amount of energy is required to produce a small amount of matter. 5. The energy of the sun is thought to result from the fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium. 6. Modern machines h a v e been built which utilize the energy from atoms, rather than from fuels such as wood, coal, gas, or oil.

1. Foods are classified as carbohydrates, fats, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water.
2. Human bodies need some of all classes of food.
3. Safe use of machines may prevent accidents.
4. Some plants and animals are hazards to health and safety.
5. We should protect our ears and eyes to conserve hearing and sight.
1. Natural water must be p'uified before it is safe to drink.
2. Most harmful bacteria may be killed by heat or made dormant by the lack of heat.
3. There are many safe ways of conserving f 0 0 d s for long periods of time.

1. Man combines substances to make use able materials. (Ex. concrete)
2. Good top soil is valuable and should be conserved.
3. Water, heat, wind, electricity, animals, and machines help us work.
4. Inclined planes, levers, and modifications of these two simple machines make work easier.
5. Man uses plants and animals in many ways.
6. Man is learning to conserve water for many uses.
7. Man has invented machines for travel in air, water, and on land.
8. Man uses a compass to help find directions in travel.
9. Man uses his knowledge of the movement of celestial bodies for telling time.
1. Our forests are useful to us and need protecting.
2. Man preserves food in many ways. 3. Water can be collected and stored. 4. Man has used science in finding ways of
making water flow uphill as well as downhill. 5. Man uses electricity and sound for communication. 6. Man gathers information from all areas of the world to better predict and under~and environme~tal. changes. (CooperatIve work of SClentlSts - Geophysical year.)
7. Sounds can be produced by musical instruments.
8. Man is learning to make many uses of energy from the sun, electricity, water, and other sources.

1. Heat changes in evaporation and c<,m-

densation cause the water cycle With

all its various forms. Winds and clouds

are results of heat changes.

2. Heat causes the molecules of water to

move farther apart or expand.

3. The angle at which the sun's rays

strike a particular part of the earth

determines the amount of heat absorb-

ed by the earth ~nd .its atmospher.e.

4. Fire may be extingulShed by ~utting

off the supply of oxygen, removmg the

fuels or by cooling the fuel below its

kindling temperature.

..

5. Rapid oxidation or com~ustlon gives

off noticeable heat and hght.

6. Slow oxidation (rot~ing, rusting, etc.)

~ives off heat and light so slowly that

It is scarcely noticeable.

1. Visible light is a form of radiant energy.
2. The Speed of radiant energy is approximately 186,000 miles per second in a vacuum.
3. Most of the energy reaching the earth comes as heat and light energy.
4. Light energy may be changed to other forms of energy.

1. ~ound is a form of energy. 2. Sounds are different in pitch, quali-
ty, and intensity. 3. Sound travels only through matter. 4. Sound travels better through some
types of matter than through others (insulators-conductors). 5. Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids or gases, and faster in liquids than in gases.

1. Molecules are in a constant state of motion.
2. The physcal states of inanimate matter can be changed from one form to another by alterng the speed of the molecules and/or by changing their space relationships.
3. Energy acting on matter changes the speed and/or the space relationships of the molecules.

1. Cleanliness is especially important to health.
2. Many diseases are caused by plant and animal organisms.
3. Man is learning to control various disease producing organisms.
4. ~~an's use of natural resources provides him with recreational areas as well as conservation projects.
5. Electricity is a great help to us but we should be very careful in its use.
6. Knowledge of correct first-aid remedies and how to apply them may serve to protect life and health.

1. Water may be filtered and treated with chell?-icals to make it safe for drinking.
2. FOSSIls, dated by rocks in which they are found, reveal portions of the actual story of life's past changes.
3. ~an uses various materials for insulatIon.
4. Man has found ways to make and use substitutes for some natural resources.
5. Man can plan for wise utilization of natural resources to conserve them.
6. Man uses various methods and instruments in his efforts to better understand weather conditions and their effects.
7. Air .is ~n important medium for c~m mumcation and transportation.
8. ~an is constantly improving and learn-

7. The total amount of heat prt:!duced. by a given weight of matter durmg ~Xl~ tion is the same whether the action 15

mg new '."ays to produce, harness and use electrIcal energy. 9. ~usical ~ounds may be produced by

rapid or slow.

wmd, strmj;! and percussion instruments.

1. Heat speeds up chemical action. _ 2. High temperature at the equator ana
low temperature at the poles are the main causes of the ocean currents and prevailing winds over the ocean. (convection) 3. The more exPosed the surface Iof

1. When light strikes an object, light may be absorbed, reflected, transmitted, or refracted.
2. A smooth surface reflects light largely in one direction.
3. A rough sur f ace reflects light in many directions.

1. Sound vibratons are in wave form.

2. Regular vibrations produce musical

tones; irregular vibrations produce

noises.

3. The speed of sound is different in

different materials and at differ-

~!1t ~emperatures...

~.

1. Matter exhibits specific physical properties which are characteristic of each of the three physical states.
2. Matter exists in c e r t a i n physical states due to the cohesive forces between the molecules.
3. of I4nnl'0t4e1'r1 ~ghl..in-~+1.4;~ m.~olecules is influ-

1. Man's die t must include minerals, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, and proteins for good health and growth.
2. Plants and animals used for food can easily have deficiencies and provide little or no food value. The deficiencies of minerals in plants and animals are due to the deficiencies of

1. Minerals taken from the soil by growing

crop.s can b~. replaced by adding com-

merIcal fertIlizers to the soil. Special

cover crops (legumes) will protect soil from ~rosion, add nitrogen from the air

and gIVe humus.

'

2.

In some a storm

weather stations the its nroba'ble sizp ..

nlollciajti,o~n

of
..I i .

I

combustible material, .toe more r"l'lU is the rate of combusbon. 4. Slow oxidation can. be prevented by covering the material to cut off the oxygen supply.

1. Heat may be transferred from one

substance to another.

.

2. H eat is transferred by conductIon

through solids, liquid~ a~d gases; by

convection through lIquids and ga.s-

es; and by radiation which travels m

photons through space.

3. Heat energy may be us~d.to do. work.

4. Nuclear fusion and fisSion libe~ate

large amounts of heat.

1. The heat that ca.uses volcan~es, gey-

sers and hot spnngs may anse from the ~atural heating of rock. This heat-

ing may be due to shrinking and pr!'!s-

sure produced by the force of .grav,lty

or energy released by the radIOactive

materials within the earth.

2. Smooth surfaces and lubrication re-

duce friction. 3. Heat radiates from any warm sub-

stance into the space that surrounds

it.

.

4. Heat energy can be transformed mto

other types of energy.

5. The quantity of heat in an object de-

pends upon its weight, temperature,

and the material of which it is made.

6. Radiant heat energy probably is pro-

duced by the internal vibration of

atoms and molecules of a heat-pro-

ducing body, and appears to travel

through space as photons.

1. The heat of a substance results from molecular motion.
2. Heat can be measured, transmitted, or stored.
3. The specific heat of water is greater than almost all other substances.
4. Heat is liberated when a gas is compressed and a b s 0 r bed when it expands.
5. Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to convert a solid already at its melting temperature to a liquid at the same temperature. Cold is the lack of heat. Absolute zero is that point of which it is believed that no heat or motion exists.
6. Specific heat is the amount of heat gained or lost by a substance in comparison to the heat gained or loat b)' an equal amount of water.

J
1. The light from the sun results from atomic fusion with the release of energy.
2. The color of an opaque object depends upon the energy of the photons it reflects.
3. Light energizes chlorophyll in green plants and releases oxygen from water. This leaves hydrogen which combines with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates.
4. Duration, amount, and quality of light affect living organisms.
5. Flowering in many plants is dependent upon duration of light.
6. Migration of birds and reproductive cycles in many animals are controlled largely by light.
1. Other forms of energy may be converted into light.
2. Photons of light energy which make light rays seem to travel in transverse waves.
3. The intensity of light from a source is measured by use of a photometer.
4. The amount of illumination of an object is measured by foot-candle meters (exposure meters).
5. mumination produced by ali g h t source depends upon the distance from the source and the intensity of the light.
6. Objects can be seen when rays of light reflected from them enter the eye.
1. The speed of light varies with the index of refraction of the m e diu m through which it travels.
2. The angle of refraction depends on the index of refraction of the material and the angle at which the light enters the material.
3. Lenses and prisms are used to reflect light.
4. Images are formed when light rays from an object are brought to a focus by a lens.
5. Simple magnifying lenses produce virtual images of objects.
6. Projection lanterns produce rea I images of objects.

.

w,,:__ "w --_. -

~.,~

'0'

lZed sound waves m regular sequen-

ces.

5. The ear is a com.plicated organ which

transforms vibrations into nerve im-

pulses.

6. The pitch of a sound produced by a

violin s t r i n g may be changed by

changing its length, its tension, or its

weight.

1. Materials absorb some of the sounds and reflect the others. Some materials are better reflectors than others.
2. As a sound producing body moves toward or away from a given point the apparent pitch will be higher or lower, respectively, than the true pitch of the sound emitted. (Doppler effect.)

1. Some sounds are above the range of hearing of the human ear.
2. Some sounds are below the range of hearing of the human ear.
3. Some sounds are within the range of hearing of the human ear.
4. Sound waves are a series of forward and backward movements of the molecules of the air. and hearing devices.
5. Sound w a v e s carry energy, when they 'strike objects, they may cause the 0 b j e c t s to vibrate, these are called sympathetic vibrations.

1. Sound waves are made up of condensations and rarefactions.
2. Sound waves may be bent and concentrated at a point some distance from the source.
3. Two things necessary for the production of sound are (1) a vibrating body, and (2) a medium for transmitting the sound.
4. SONAR makes use of echoes of underwater sound waves in detecting underwater objects, locating submarines, and determining the depth of the ocean bottom.
5. When a moving object approaches the speed of sound (760 miles per hour), it catches up with its own speeding sound waves and plles them up forming a sound barrier.

and their motion. liquids, solids)

(Diffusion-gases,

these mmeraJs m tne so!!.. 3. Different foods have different values.

4. Foods containing vitamins help reg-

ulate body processes and prevent dis-

ease.

5. Most of the body regulators assist

the body in utilizing its food.

6. Food energy is measured in calories.

7. Chemical changes take place in our

bodies.

8. All forms of life are constantly ex-

posed to attacks by micro-organisms.

-9. It is important to seek advice of a

physician when medication is needed

or bodily injury has been sustained.

1. Matter exists in c e r t a i n chemical forms: elements, compounds, mixtures, and colloids.
2. Elements are the simplest chemical forms of matter. (92 in nature)
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of diiferent elements that have been chemically combined.
4. Mixtures are composed of two or more substances between which there has been no chemical reaction.
5. Tiny particles, larger than molecules of one substance may be scattered or dispersed among the particles of another substance and remain suspended to form a colloidal mixture of mass.
6. Colloidal mixtures or suspensions possess peculiar properties which make them very useful in everyday life.
7. Many substances known as SOLUTES, may be mixed with other substances known as SOLVENTS, to form uniform, liquid mixtures knows as solutions.

1. Food must be digested for the body to use it.
2. Emotions affect body functions. 3. A large quantity of blood is needed
by the digestive system.
4. Micro-organisms which cause communicable diseases are often transmitted from person to person through the air.
5. Infection is possible when these conditions exist: (a) There is an appropriate avenue to the host.
. (b) The infecting organism is present in the host in sufficient numbers.
(c) The infecting organism is virulent. (d) The host is receptive.
6. Science has produced devices and machines that are both helpful and harmful to man.
7. Knowledge of the various organs of the body and their functions can result in greater respect for and personal care of the body on the part of individUals.

rectJ?n in which it is traveling are de-

3.

tMearcmh~rnneeds

by means of radar can make work easier

by

in-

creasmg ing the

force and direction of

sfpoerecd~.

or

by

chang-

4. Mathematics is a science and is inter-

related with all other sciences.

5. Man is developing scientific ways of im-

proving plants and animals for his use

6. Na~al resources provide many oppor:

tumtJes for recreation.

1. Man must understand community balance in order to control plant and animal communities.
2. Man protects some plants from sudden drops in temperature by applying heat.
3. Whether water is useful or harmful to man depends on his control of its flow.
4. Ways of using energy direct from the sun are being developed. (Solar battery, etc.)
5. ~an has learned to move energy from Its source to the place where it is to be used.
6. A machine is anything which connects energy with the place where work is to be done.
7. Man combines simple machines to make complex machines.
8. Automation is enabling us to keep up with the increasing demands of our growing population.
9. Man is constantly finding new ways of combining and using elements found in nature to improve his standard of living.

1. Every atom consists of a nucleus containing pro ton s and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Each atom has an equal number of electrons and protons.
2. Electrons can be transferred from one substance to another.
3. Matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but may be chauged from one form to another.
4. All matter occupies space, has mass, and experiences gravitational force.
5. Inertia is the property of matter that makes it hard to start bodies, to stop them, or to change the direction in which they are moving.

1. Some people are sensitive to particu- 1. Men have made many changes in the

lar substances; this sensitivity is call- land cover of the earth.

ed allergy.

2. Man has invented many aids to help

2. Viruses may cause some diseases.

him make changes in temperature for

3. Disease germs may be transmitted his comfort.

through food and water, by contact, 3. Thousands of compounds have been

from insect bites, and by carriers.

produced because chemists have con-

4. The bod y manufactures antibodies tinued to arrange elements in new

which immunize it against specific ways.

diseases.

4. Since man is learning to use natural

5. Knowledge of scientists who have con- resources to improve his ways of living,

tributed to scientific developments he should learn to conserve them.

which have resulted in greater health 5. Noth~g happens without cause. By

and safety for mankind contributes to studymg phenomena we can determine

desirable attitudes and respect for some cause.

scientific research and the individual 6. Man's concept of truth changes.

work of others.

7. Research in a number of geophysical

6. Electrons are used in many ways to sciences has reached a point where

guard health and safety.

intensive world wide effort is neces-

sary for continued progress.

8. Electrons are used in radio, television,

and other media for entertainment and

communication.

9. Electrons may be harnessed and controll-

ed in vacuum tubes.

10. Sound energy may be converted to

electrical energy by using the micro-

phone.

11. Electrical energy may be converted to

sound energy by using the loud speaker.

1. The molecular and atomic structure of matter determines the masses and volume.
2. Energy has the capacity to cause motion of a body against the operation of a force resisting the motion.
3. Mass is the amount of matter a body contains and is the same at any location.
4. Mass is inherent in matter resulting from the number of its protons and neutrons and to a lesser degree its electrons.
5. The atoms of all radioactive elements are constantly disintegrating by giving off various particles and photons of energy.

1. Man has made and continues to make much progress to ward off and control infectious and contagious diseases. eases.
2. Knowledge acquired concerning the conservation and protection of "life and limb" should be evidenced in daily practice.

1. Selection, grafting, and producing hybrids are scientific methods that improve the quality and quantity of plants.
2. Conservation of soil and water is the only hope of survival for agriculture geared to the water cycle.
3. The most widely used systems of measurement are the English and metric systems.
4. Man is constantly seeking ways to use atomic energy.
5. The future of man may depend on his use of energy.
6. Man is constantly improving ways of controlling sound in buildings.
7. The use of electrons in research, investigation, and application is improving man's health, comfort, and standard of living.

General Conceptions Regarding the Interests and Needs of Elementary Children and the Role of Science in the Overall Elementary Curriculum
1. The elementary child is peculiarly interested in and appreciative of the many problems relating to his environment and close to his day-to-day experiences. He does not, however, view his environment in terms of biology, chemistry, geology, physics,. and so forth, but as an entity.
2. Pupils in the elementary grades are capable of handling materials and concepts ordinarily thought to be above their capacity.
3. Learning by children (ages 6-14) is more effective when based on direct experiences with actual objects and phenomena.
4. The problem-solving technique of teaching science appeals to children and develops habits of accurate observations, laboratory skills, and methods of criti cal evaluation of evidence on which conclusions can be based.
5. The elementary teacher teaches the child as a whole and has the unique opportunity of relating all areas of the curriculum-language, arts, mathematics, social studies and science-to the growth and development of the child.
6. The principles and methods of science should be presented informally and in relation to all other subjects in the curriculum as well as in a sequential and expanding manner from grades 1-8.
7. Based on a carefully planned sequential program extending through the elementary grades, the total presentation of subject matter leads the pupil through the experiences now covered in a single course in general science.
8. Pupils who drop out of school before entering high school should have training in science which will prepare them for living in the world of the present and future conditioned by the age of science.
9. By developing the program in science verticall y and expanding it horizontally through the elementary grades, unnecessary duplication is avoided, interest is sustained, content is enlarged, and adequate background is provided for greater enrichment of the various scien tific disciplines in high school and college.
10. The concepts, methods, and principles of scie nce should be grade placed with the mental and physical maturity of the child in mind.
11. The curriculum must be flexible, that is, applicable in all environments. It should also be geared to the future so that it will be suitable for situations which arise as new advances are made in science.
The committee followed the basic pattern as laid down in the Georgia Curriculum Guide.
5

BROAD AREAS FOR BASIC UNDERSTANDINGS IN SCIENCE
L All matter is animate or inanimate and exists in a variety of forms; each form hal characteristic properties. A. There is an interdependence, interrelationship, an d interaction between matter and matter, matter and energy, and energy and energy. B. The sum total of matter and energy in the universe is apparently constant. C. Matter is made up of small particles, most of which are electrical in nature and usually organized into discrete systems called atoms.
n. Energy is manifested in a variety of forms; each form has characteristie properties.
A. Energy can be changed into matter, and matter can be changed into energy. B. Energy can be changed from one form to another. C. Energy may be transferred in a variety of ways. D. The ultimate source of all energy is atomic change. E. All changes in the universe result from changes in energy and matter.
m Life involves an association of coordinated changes in energy and matter within a limited range of environ-
mental conditions A. Living organisms of the present are derived from organisms of the past through long and continuous chan... B. Changes in the earth's surface during geological ages have profoundly affected living organisms. IV. The manner in which man controls and uses his understandings of changes in matter and energy vitally affects him and his environment. A. Many individuals have contributed to scientific understandings of today. B. Continuous research and investigation are necessary to locate, analyze, and solve problems in the future. C. Mathematical formulae are convenient and accurate methods of expressing change in matter and energy.
G

ORGANIZATION OF CONCEPTS FOR A SCIENCE ClffiCULUM
E~VIOONNE~T

MATTER I

I(~NGE I
IN llfillSS MIITTE.R
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STEPS USED IN SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SCIENCE
Regardless of the content of a science program or of a specific course, the method by which it is presented is of paramount importance. The greatest advantage to be obtained through the teaching of science is the training of students in the use of the problem-solving technique. In the final analysis this is training in the research procedures which have always been used by scientists. Ten steps used in problem-solving are as follows:
1. Recognize a problem which is significant in the child's mind. 2. Resolve the problem into its simpler aspects. 3. Formulate hypotheses (intelligent guesses) based on previous knowledge and experience and to explain
the phenomena and give tentative answers to the problem. 4. Withhold judgment as to the best hypothesis until adequate evidence is obtained. 5. Gather pertinent evidence from as many sources as possible. 6. Devise controlled experiments for testing the hypothesis selected. 7. Decide on the most logical hypothesis formulated. 8. Summarize and analyze the data obtained from all possible sources so as to formulate the best conclu-
sions regarding answers to the problem. 9. State generalizations or principles which cover not only the problem under consideration but also include
other problems of a similar nature. 10. Use the conclusions formulated as starting points for investigation of similar or new probleIlUl.
8

CYCLE OF ACTIVITIES IN PROBLEM SOLVING

IV. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS TAUGHT
m THE UNIT
1 .
2.
3. 4.
et cetera

III. FORMULATING CONCLUSIONS
A. Guides to Conclusions
B. Application Questions
C. Projects

CLUES StJGGESTmG

SUBJECT AREA

FURTHER
INVESTIGATION

~

UNIT PROBLEM

II. GATHERING EVIDENCE TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM
1. Demonstration
Experiments
2. Individual
Experiments
3. Field Trip
4. Audio-Visual Aids
5. Textbook Questions
6. Reference Questions
7. Teacher Enrichment

I. RECOGNIZING AND STATING
THE PBOBLEM
A. Introductory Activities B. Introductory Questions C. Hypotheses
'9

CONSIDERATIONS USED IN SELECTION OF PROBLEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF UNITS
Two basic considerations were involved in the selection of the problems to be expanded from grades 1-8, into workable teaching units.
1. The broad areas of science should be represented. 2. The problems selected for study should be those which are of interest to the pupil and should be those
which he feels are of real significance to him. The subject selected from the area of inanimate matter was water. This form of inanimate matter is familiar to all pupils and is one of the most important substances concerned with the changes in both animate and inanimate matter. Teaching units were prepared for each grade, 1-8, and developed in a sequential manner. The subject selected from the broad area of animate matter was Nutrition. The problems arising from this characteristic manifestation of living matter are of significance in the daily life of the child and when expanded stimulate him to raise questions and formulate problems around which the teacher may build other teaching units in science. Heat was selected from the broad area of energy since simple control experiments may be performed to lead the pupil to draw logical conclusions and gain information regarding the changes effected on matter when energy is applied. Machines was the topic selected to illustrate man's control and use of scientific knowledge. These units were developed in outline only since the committee felt that the most effective teaching of science is that which arises in the particular school situation and represents the cooperative effort by both teacher and pupils. The illustrative units are in no sense to be considered complete or exhaustive. Nor are the problems suggested to be considered the only ones pertinent to the area or principles being presented. The teacher ~hould use the units as presented and give them critical evaluation. She should be on the alert for the many questions and problems which arise in the daily experiences of the children and with their cooperation build units according to the format presented in these outlines for problem solving.
10

FORMAT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A TEACHING UNIT

PROBLEM:

.

_

GRADE

_

(BROAD AREA:

)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.

A. Initiate activities to Interest and guide pupils in recognItion of the problem. 1. 2. etc.
B. Introduce quest,ions relatIng to the problem. (Questions should lead from known to unknown to point up the problem.) 1. 2.
C. Formulate Hypotheses

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

I

Suggested Teaching Activities

I

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments. (Childre!l should do the following for each experiment: Observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)
B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experie nees.

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.

F. Refer to these general references for additional In formatIon.
G. Share enriched teacher background. (This is sometimes stated as "direct teaching" as distinguished from the activities in which the pupils and teacher or the pupils alone have participated in gaining information.)

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLIC ATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. C. Do prolects for fun.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings, B. Develop these understandings.

V. EVALUATE WITH THESE CRITERIA.

11.

A. Check pupil attitude, and ,kill.. 1. Have the pupils developed the ability to identify and define a scientific problem? 2. Have the principles set out in the problem been clearly shown? 3. Have the pupils developed habits of critical analysis of the experiments and results? Have they tiesigned other experiments that would lead to the solution of the problem? 4. Have the pupils developed ability to work with each other in planning and carrying out experiments? 5. Have the pupils shown improvement in record ing and reporting observations? 6. Have they developed ability to arrive at gener alizations from several observations and experiences? 7. Do they consider opinions of others in arriving at conclusions? Do they evaluate critically the opinions of others? 8. Do they accept conclusions without adequate evidence? Sl. Have they developed the ability to apply the principles and understandings gained?
10. Have they developed the ability to reason quantitatively and symbolically (math, graphs ,etc.)? B. Check pupil undemanding..
12

THE PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD OF TEACHING SCIENCE
All teaching units should be developed according to the problem-solving technique. Problem-solving through critical thinking and evaluation of evidence is the dyna mic process by which a teacher may present science to students. The method is neither new or original but is r ather the method used by scientists from the beginning of man's first attempts to discover and test the facts re garding himself and his environment.
As John S. Richardson aptly says, "There is no single way to organize a good teaching unit or plan. The forms will vary with the individual teacher and the way he teaches." It should be emphasized, however, that the way science is taught is the most important conside ration in a successful science program.
Explanation of Format Used in Preparation of Teaching Units
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
Whether the problem is pupil or teacher initiated, the class must be involved in creating curiosity, concern, and interest in the study. Cooperatively, throug h teacher-pupil planning, the problem must be identified, clearly and concisely stated, and its significance and meaning to the student should be appreciated by the students.
A. Inltlete ectlvlt.les to Interest end guide pupils in recognition of the problem
These activities may be planned in advance by the teacher. On the other hand, they may arise spontaneously through some immediate experience of the pupil or pupils, and under the direction of an alert and creative teacher they can become the center from which problems meaningful in the life of the pupils can arise for solution. Such problems may arise in the lunchroom and lead to studies in nutrition. They may arise on the playground where the lengths of the shadows of trees or buildings change during the day and the seasons. They may arise through play time at home around the fish bowl They may arise from the desire to beautify the school grounds. A shower of rain or a fall of snow will support problems relating to properties of water as well as to the different states of matter.
B. Introduce questions releting to the problem.
The questions should be based upon the ac tivities which lead to the statement of the problem and should serve as the background that leads from what the child k now s to what he does not know but would like to know.
C. Formulete hypothese..
At this point possible suggestions, "intellige nt guesses," should be made as an attempt to answer or solve the problem raised. These are working hypo theses which are to be tested and evaluated as evidence is gathered. The pupils should be encouraged to state their opinions or "guesses" and give any reasons for them they can. This procedure stimulates interest on their part for active participation in all phases of gathering evidence from which correct answers may be obtained, false hypotheses rejected, and correct ones retained and verified.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBlE M.
From the beginning of his contact with scienc e, the pupil should be drilled in the methods by which scientists gather information in the solution of prob lems. It is not expected that all the areas (A-G) from which evidence may be obtained will be used for every problem nor at every grade level. It is important, however, that as the child progresses he may becom e thoroughly familiar with all the methods of gathering evidence
13

The following list of areas (A-G) from which information may be gained was the basis upon which our sample units were built.
Although the suggested areas are arranged in a definite sequence, it is not intended they be used in that fixed order in all teaching units. Each teacher should feel free to relate suggestions from various parts of each experience to form meaningful concepts fo r her pupils. One or more entire class periods will be used for demonstrations, and the teacher will see th at the pupils observe carefully what was done and that they record accurately what happened. The unique method used by scientists appears to be experiments which are planned to provide observations that help to confirm or to deny an idea. This method should be used again and again accompanied by other ways of securing evidence.
Care should be taken that conclusions are no t accepted as facts on the basis of anyone or a few experiences.
It must be emphasized that in the problem-sol ving method of teaching, the CHILD is to determine the answers to the problem by applying what he has learned. Allow him the privilege of discovery.
Before using a prepared teaching unit, it is essential that the teacher study the guide in its entirety.
The procedure is divided vertically into two parts. The right hand side of the page is entitled Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills. These are the outcomes you may expect your pupils to gain from your teaching activity. This may be a skill, an attitude, or some basic scienWic facts.
After you have decided what you want your pupils to gain from your teaching, then you do what you think will best bring out this skill, or attitude, or knowledge. What you do or what you and your pupils do cooperatively to bring about the desired result is proposed in the outline under the heading Suggested Teaching Activities.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
What is done here either by the teacher or the pupil is determined by the nature of the problem. The suggested demonstrations in the unit are no t the only ones which may be used. The teacher and pupil should consult various reference books and texts for other experiments. However, any experiments selected should be as simple as possible; it should make use of materials available and should bear specifically on the problem under consideration. The pupils may be encouraged to suggest additional experiments but should not at this stage be expected to answer the how and why questions. Excellent training in exact and concise writing can be given to the pupils as they record their observations and the results of an experiment in science.

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
There are times when individuals and small groups assume the responsibility of presenting for the class experiments relating to various aspects of the problem. The teacher lends guidance in the setting up of the experiment and checks with the individ ual or group his or their plan for presentation whether the experiment is carried out at school or at hom e with parent cooperation. There are other times when experiments should be performed by each individual in the class in order to provide opportunities for each person to develop laboratory skills and tech niques plus the "feel" of being an experimenter.
C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experie nces.
Each experience of this type should be well planned in advance by teacher and pupils and with the cooperation of the facility visited. Each trip shou ld bear rather directly on the problem under consideration, and the pupil outcome should be considered as a step in gaining evidence for the solution of the problem. The encouragement of industry, public service, and trained laymen to participate in science education is very necessary. If agencies in a community can be encouraged to assume some responsibility for the science program, the teachers, the pup ils, and the community benefit. The teacher should make contact with all community agencies and resources which might contribute to the overall program.

14

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understanding.
Although audio-visual aids have proved to be an effective means of gathering evidence pertaining to a problem, frequently not enough preliminary planning and previewing is done by the teacher to make sure that the pupils get the information specific ally pointed to the problem under consideration.
The films suggested in the illustrative uni ts have been previewed by the Science Curriculum Conference Committee and have been selected becau se they bear directly on the concepts to be developed. Films are only one type of visual aid to learning. The teacher is encouraged to make full use of all other materials of this nature. Tape recorders may som etimes be used effectively in recording talks and discussions by students as they participate in the activi ties in problem solving. These may be used for future reference in arriving at conclusions or making pI ans for further study or experimentation.
E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. An important phase of the problem-solvin g technique is the gathering of evidence from authori-
tative references. The child should be given the experience of consulting various t ext s for answers to questions by checking key words in an index, citing page references for specific facts, and of writing reports on his findings to be given before the class. In some of the teaching units such specific citations are given. In others, questions are asked, but the teacher is expected to direct the pupil to the proper texts for answers.
F. Refer to these general references for additional in formation. Many children will find pleasure and profi t in consulting books other than the texts. These can
serve to broaden their information and give new concepts related to the problem un d e r consideration. They also reveal the resources in public libraries that are available after students leave school. Magazines frequently have excellent up-to-date article s which deal with cur r e n t scientific problems. The teacher should encourage the pupils to evaluate statements made in their reference readings. The pupil should be taught to cite accurately any specific reference reported as to author, book or journal, and date. The date is particularly important since the rapi d advances in science cause changes in our knowledge, correct errors, and add new facts.
G. Share enriched t.acher background. Here the teacher out of the wealth of her experience and greater knowledge can play the role of
a resource person. She stimulates her pupils' cur iosity, arouses their enthusiasm, and provides them with understandings and relationships which have not developed in the other methods of gathering evidence. She can also lead them to reading materials that will interest especially the brighter students.
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusion..
These are the "what" and "why" questions which were purposefully delayed during the gathering of evidence from several areas. These questions are the most difficult for pupils to formulate and require great care and much study on the part of the teacher. Pupils will frequently ask these types of questions when they occur to them during the gathering of evidence.
In a sense, these questions with their ans wers constitute an evaluation of what has been taught throughout the unit. Through these the teacher can check on the pupils' acquisition of understanding of the principles and generalizations for which the unit was prepared.
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. These are essentially the "why" questions and are important because they tend to give meaning to
the principles presented. Through them the teacher should attempt to help the pupils apply what they have learned in practical everyday usage and in new situations. Through such applications the principles come to have wider usefulness and meaning.
15

c. Do projects for fun.
Projects should be self-initiated and self-pursued activities on the part of pupils who desire to test principles and skills that challenge them during study of the problem. Projects may be suggested any time and a pupil here and there may begin a pro ject before the concluding studies that close the unit.
Many such projects, when completed, may be exhibited in hallways, libraries, classrooms, downtown store windows, or entered in science fairs or congresses. Throughout the development the teacher should serve as guide to pupils in their developing the project and in contact with community resources.
IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
These basic principles of science constitute the objective toward which all the activities in the unit are directed. In making illustrative teaching units, the teacher should have the principles which she seeks to present clearly and concisely stated. It should be recognized that the ways in which pupils and teachers seek these principles are also of major importance because these activities will build the attitudes and skills that determine how principles will be used. An atti tude that science is fun and worthy of a lifetime of devotion is highly to be desired. Try to build such attitudes as you follow ideas in these guides.
A. Expand these understandings. These are understandings that have been taught in previous units in this area.
B. Develop these understandings. These are new understandings that are to be taught in this unit.
C. Teach new words.
Developing a vocabulary is an important part of scientific training. (A scientific principle is defined by Herbert F. A. Smith in terms of four criteria:) 1. To be a principle a statement must be a compreh ensive generalization describing some fundamental pro-
cess, constant mode of behavior, or property rela ting to natural phenomena. 2. It must be true without exception within the limits specifically stated. 3. It must be capable of illustration. 4. It must not be a definition..
V. EVALUATE WITH THESE CRITERIA.
A. Check pupil attitudes and skills.
1. Have the pupils developed the ability to identify and define a scientific problem? 2. Have the principles set out in the problem been clearly shown? 3. Have the pupils developed ability to work with each other in planning and carrying out experiments? 4. Have the pupils developed the habit of critical analysis of the experiments and results? Have they de-
signed other experiments that would lead to the solution of the problem? 5. Have the pupils shown improvement in recording and reporting observations? 6. Have they developed ability to arrive at generalizations from several observations and experiences? 7. Do they consider opinions of others in arriving at conclusions?
Do they critically evaluate opinions of others? 8. Do they accept conclusions ",rithout adequate evidence? 9. Have they developed the ability to apply the principles and understandings gained? 10. Have they developed the ability to reason quan titatively and symbolically? (Math, graphs, etc.)
B. Check pupil understandings.
16

INTRODUCTION TO WATER
The story of water is the story of man. Throughout the ages when supplies of water failed or were made useless by silt or pollution, the causes have lain as much in the acts or failure of men themselves as in the caprices of nature.
So, too, man's endeavors to achieve a m 0 r e desirable relationship with the waters of the earth have helped mold his character and his outlook toward the world around him.
The habits of men and the forms of their social organizations have been in fluenced more by their close association with water than by the land by which they earned their bread.
All life depends on water. Every organic process can occur only in the watery medium.
Modern civilization imposes heavy demands on water. We are now regarding our water supplies with great concern. Many critical local water shortages that have occurred could have been forestalled.
Our water needs are indeed great. Each one of us is affected by the water problems now before us. We have to pool our efforts if we expect to a p ply appropriate and durable prescriptions for our water ills. These excerpts were taken from The Story of Water as the Story of Man by Bernard Frank in the Yearbook of Agriculture for 1955. An analysis of the phenomena of animate and inanimate matter as well as the changes in the two affected by energy leads to the conclusion that WATER is the most important compound relating the concepts of matter, energy, and change. Therefore, the committee working on resource guides dealing with inanimate matter thought it advisable to use WATER u the pervading theme for buildin g a series of guides for grades 1 through 8.
17

PROBLEM: WHY IS THE WISE USE OF WATER IMPORTANT TO US? Grade 4
(Broad Area: Inanimate Matter - Water)

Georgia is a humid state. Her rainfall averages 50 inches a year. Average annual runoff from her rivers and underground watersheds is 17 inches. Yet in 1954, Georgia farmers lost 100 million dollars in drought damages, eighteen Georgia cities lacked water, Georgia industries were handicapped, and thousands of individuals hauled water from the cities to keep their families and their stock alive.
Why with all this rainfall in Georgia should we have droughts?
First, our rainfall is erratic, both in time and place.
Second, we cannot control our rainfall; we can only control and conserve the water after it has reached the land.
Third, the drought problem is our lack of information and education or understanding about usable water resources.
Fourth, is our increasing use of water. Our farmers are turning to diversified crops; thus irrigation is becoming more beneficial. Irrigation requires huge quantities of water that are consumed - that can be used only once.
Georgia is becoming more and more a stock and dairy state requiring more water for herds.
Our growing cities require larger and larger supplies, and g rea t e r attention will have to be paid to the abatement of pollution as a result.
More and larger industries come to Georgia to use the great artesian supplies and the excellent soft water in her rivers, but they add to the supply and pollution problem.
There is no end in sight to the increasing demands upon Georgia's water resources.
We must face our water problems in the light of the facts-that our water resources are erratic, that they have always been erratic, and so far as Nature is concerned they will always be erratic.
Therefore, our statewide problems are divided into those due to natural causes and those due to utilization or control. We cannot do much with the former except adapt our ways to them. We can do much with the latter through better knowledge, wise development, and the recognition of the rights of all our people, for water is a vital resource that affects everyone.

I RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)
1. Display on a bulletin board quotations such as the following:
a. "The Lord God took the man and put him intu the garden .... to dress it and to keep it." (Genesis 2:15)
b. "The throwing out of balance of the resources of nature throws out of balance also the lives of men" -Franklin D. Roosevelt
c. "Forests are diminishing, water resources are dwindling, wildlife is barely holding its own, and the battle to protect soils, though hotly waged, is yet in its early stages and far from being won."-Fairfield Osborn
d. "He is the greatest patriot who stops the most gullies."-Patrick Henry
2. Display on a bulletin board pictures showing a reforestation project such as the Coweta project; farming practices, such as contour plowing, terracing, strip cropping; a big dam, such as Grand Coulee; a burned forest area; a badly eroded farm; and some big Georgia dams.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. When water as rain or snow falls on the earth, 1. It may evaporate; it may soak into the soil; it may

what may happen to it?

run off the soil to lower levels.

2. How do we waste water? 3. What is stream pollution? 4. How can pollution be prevented? 5. What is meant by reforestation? C. Formulate hypotheses.

2. We waste water by letting it run too much when we wash our hands or when we have a leaky faucet.
3. Stream pollution is caused by impurities in the water that make it unfit for use.
4. Stream pollution can be prevented by treating all types of wastes before they are discharged into the streams.
5. Reforestation means replanting of trees to replace those that have been cut.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE RELATING TO THE PROBLEM

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonst.rations and encourage individual and small group experiments.
&
B. (Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Get some samples of fine gravel, sand, clay, top soil, and humus. Shake up a little of each in separate large bottles of water. Compare the speeds with which the particles settle and the appearance of the water in the bottles at the end of ten minutes. Now mix a little of all soil samples and put them into a bottle of water. Shake vigorously and allow to stand.

1. The gravel settled first, then the sand, some of clay, and lastly the top soil and the humus. In fact, a great deal of the humus floated. The water in the bottle containing the gravel almost cleared at the end of ten minutes; so did the one containing the sand. The bottle containing clay was muddy; the ones containing top soil and humus were dark and murky (A-l4).

2. Collect tin cans of equal size. Punch the same size holc with a nail in the bottom of each one. Fill each halfway with a different one of the soil samples collected for Experiment NO.1. Fill the remainder of the can with water. Put an empty glass under each to catch the water that drips. Observe carefully to find how long it takes for the first drop of water to appe.ar. Allow to stand for an hour.

2. The water dripped first through the gravel, then the sand, top soil and humus, and last through the clay (A-10).

3. Prepare a test slope for the next three experiments. The side of a large wooden shipping box will do. Spread soil evenly about three inches deep over the surface.
a. (Gully formation) Use hose or a sprinkler can with a very fine spray nozzle to simulate gentle rainfall. Prop up one end of your test slope so that it is about three inches higher than the other end. Let the fine spray fall on the upper end of your slope. Shut off the water and examine the soil surface. Increase the volume and speed of the falling water and examine again.
b. Increase the slope and try the same procedure with the water spray. Try to keep the amount of water used and the time it is used about the same for each experiment.

3. When the fine spray was used, a great deal of the water went into the soil. When the soil became saturated, the excess water began to run off as the spray of water was increased and gullies began to form (A-12, B-1, A-10).
b. Increasing the slopes caused the gullies to become larger and to form more quickly CA-12, B-l, A-10).

Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

c. Smooth' the soil on your test slope. Lower the end until it is only slightly higher than the other. Repeat with water spray.

c. The more gentile the slope, the less thte erosion (A-12, B-1, A-10).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a big dam to learn what part a dam plays in water conservation (A-12). 2. Visit a farm where contour plowing, strip cropping, and terracing are practiced (B-1, A-10). 3. Visit a nursery where seedlings are grown to be used in reforestation.
4. Visit a reforestation project. 5. Visit an experiment station. Find out what is being done there about conservation. 6. Visit several farms. Notice how each farmer uses his land. Investigate the methods that are used to pre-
vent the soil from washing or blowing away. 7. Visit Callaway Gardens. See what has been done in control of soil erosion, building up lakes, and further
beautiful of landscape.

D. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Soil and Water Conservation," No. 7589 UWFG

1. Soil and water are conserved when we keep trees or grass growing on uncultivated land. They are also consp.rved when we practice contour farming, strip cropping, and terracing of farms (B-1, A10).

2. "The Muddy Raindrops," S. V. E. No. AH30-6 color (filmstrip

2. Raindrops rush down along the surface of the earth, taking soil with them into rivers and into the sea (B-12, A-1).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. How were floods prevented in a certain mountain community?
2. How much water does it take to raise an acre of of corn?
3. How can we raise the water table?
4. How is water wasted?
5. Why is it dangerous to believe that water purifies itself under natural conditons?

1. Floods were prevented by covering the ground with plants, by digging contour trenches on the mountain sides, by preventing overgrazing, and by keeping down fires (A-12, B-1). Craig, Gerald S., et al. Experimenting is Science. Atlanta, Ginn and Company, 1955. pp. 173-175.
2. It requires thousands and thousands of gallons of water to raise an acre of corn. Ibid.
3. The water table can be raised by causing all or nearly all of the rainfall to soak into the soil. This can be done by building dams of brush and other vegetation to stop the flow of water, building terraces, planting grasses that grow rapidly (A-12, 10) Ame:>, M. W., et al. Science in Today's World. New York, Prentice Hall, 1956. pp. 160-162.
4. Water is wasted by using more water than necessary to wash your hands, etc., leaving the water turned on too long when you are watering the lawn, or letting faucets drip continuously. Frasier, George W., et ai. Our Scientific World. Syracuse, L. W. Singer Company, 1956. p. 371.
5. Rivers can purify themselves only if the load of waste is not too great. The action of oxygen and microscopic animals and plants, including decay bacteria, gradually 0 x i d i z e s wastes. When the waste load is too great another kind of bacterium which lives without oxygen takes over. Then the wastes, instead of being oxidized, are merely de-

20

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6. What can you do about conservation if you live in a city?
7. What problems does irrigation raise?
8. How is it possible to make the rain fall? 9. Why is it important to prevent gull i e s from
being formed?

composed. They give off foul odors and produce slimes and poisons. Wastes from industrial plants do not contain bacteria, but they do absorb oxygen as they decay. A heavy load of industrial wastes may make it impossible for a river to purify itself. Smith, Victoria C., and W. E. Jones. Enjoying Modern Science. New York, J. B. Lippin cott Company, 1956. p. 166.
6. The problem of conservation is your problem, too. Perhaps erosion is going on in fields or lots near your home. You can take steps to prevent it. You can do your share by helping to support the conservation plans of your community and state. Most of all you can help by being well informed about the problem. Carpenter, Harry A., et al. Our Environment .Atlanta, Allyn & Bacon, 1954. p. 514.
7. Improper irrigation can make land unsuitable for the production of crops. Too much irrigation dissolves and carries away many of the soluble nutrients. This is known as leaching of soil fertility. Salts and alkalis are sometimes brought to the surface of lower land where they are deposited as the water evaporates. The lower lying land may eventually become so full of alkalis that crops will not grow (A-12, 15). Frasier, George W., et al. Our Scientific Age. S y r a c use, L. W. Singer Company. 1956. p. 269.
8. It is done mainly by seeding clouds with silver iodide separated into molecules is blown from the ground or from an airplane into selected cloud formations. Dry ice is blown into clouds to cool the vapor and condense it to water (1). Ibid.
9. As little rivulets are formed by the rain, particles of soil are carried away. The soil is cut into by this evergrowing stream and in turn gullies are formed. Where such gullies have been allowed to grow unchecked, they have s wallo wed entire farms, houses, and barns. Eby, George S., et al. The Physical Sciences. Atlanta, Ginn and Company, n. d. pp. 68-70.

F. Refer to these general references for additional information. 1. Curtis, Mary I. "What Water Can Do," Water Is Wonderful. Atlanta, Lyons and Carnahan, 1955. 2. Graham, E. H. and Van Dersa!. Water for America. New York, Oxford University Press, 1956. pp. 103105.

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. What is a watershed?
2. What steps can be taken and what kinds of help are available to communities in the developement, better use, management, and conservatif'n of land and water in small watersheds?

1. Watershed now implies a drainage area containing a few thousand acres from which water drains toward a single channel. It is a social and economic unit for community developement and conservation of water, soil, forests, and related resources (A 12).
2. In every county there is a county agent. He will, on request, guide the farmer or rancher to the kind of assistance that meets the needs of each. There are soil conservation districts locally organized and locally managed. Landowners can obtain financial assistance up to 50 per cent of the cost of applying soil and water conservation practices.

21

3. How is water lost to the soil under natural conditions?
4. How is water lost to the soil because of man's misuse of the soil?

3. Some water is lost by evaporation; a great deal is lost by transpiration (loss of water through the leaves of plants); some water drains off to lower levels (A-12, 1).
4. Man's wasteful destruction of the forests caused much of the rain to drain off instead of soaking into the soil. Man's unscientific farming practices caused much of the rain to run off (A-12, 10).

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What causes ground water to be such a vital part of our water supply.
2. What are the chief purposes of conservation?
3. What are the chief types of pollution that damage OLlr waters?
4. Who is responsible for cleaning up these various types of pollution?
5. Why is it important that pollution be controlled?
6. How do soil conservation practices help to control leods?
7. In what way can one use of water interfere with another?
8. When two uses of water conflict, on what basis should the dispute be decided?

1. Ground water is vital because plants use it in their growth, farm wells depend upon it, much of it is used for irrigation, some cities use it to obtain their municipal supplies, and a considerable amount is used by industry.
2. The chief purposes are to take no more of the natural resources than is necessary, to use without waste what is taken, and to restore as much as possible of the diminished resources, in other words to use wisely our natural resources (B-2).
3. City sewage, industrial waste, silt, and mineralization pollute our waters.
4. The cities and industries which create the pollution are responsible for cleaning it up. Farmers, soil conservationists, and others are responsible for solving the silt problem.
5. Pollution spoils water for almost all of our important uses. We must be able to use water over and over if we are to make the best use of water resources. We are using the same water today that floated Noah's Ark.
6. By holding the water (from rainfall) on the land instead of letting it run wild over the surface, floods ar-e controlled.
7. Factory wastes may spoil a river for fishing and recreation; too much diversion for irrigation may cut down a city's or an industry's supply, etc.
8. The use bringing the greatest benefits to the most people should be chosen.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is the establishing of farm ponds important? 2. Why is the maintaining of forests and grass lands encouraged by state and nation?
3. Why is damming of streams a vital part of water management?
4. How can we conserve water in our homes?

1. The establishing of farm ponds is one way of maintaining an adequate water supply.
2. The maintaining of forest and grasslands is a valuable method of conserving soil water and preventing floods.
3. Dams make it possible to store water where it is found for later transportation to areas where it is needed.
4. We can repair all leaking faucets, pipes, and hose. We can develop the habit of letting water run from faucets and garden hose only as long as it is necessary.

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5. How can farmers conserve water?
6. Why is it true that some streams are polluted if streams have the ability to purify themselves?
7. Why does polluted water affect future growth and prosperity?
8. What factors concerning water must an industrialist consider in choosing a site for his new factory?

5. Farmers can plow so as to prevent soil erosion and water run-off. They can practice strip cropping to help maintain the ground water supply.
6. The capacity or ability of the stream to purify itself is llinited. When the amount of waste discharged to the stream is greater than the stream's ability b assimilate, the stream becomes polluted, the biological balance of the stream is upset, the dissolved oxygen is used up, and the normal aquatic life is destroyed. The biological processes start over again with the development of slimes and othcr anaerobic organisms.
7. Polluted water is almost as bad as no water. Polluted water is not suitable for many uses because of the materials it contains. The cost of treating water to remove impurities is sometimes prohibitive.
8. He must determine whether there is an adequate source of water for the factory, whether the water is of sufficiently high quality fOr his needs, and whether there is a body of water large enough to handle the factory's wastes after treatment.

C. Do prolects for fun.

1. Write to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., for pamphlets on the following subjects:
a. The Grand Coulee Dam; b. The Tennessee Valley Authorty; c. The Missouri River Basin; d. The St. Lawrence Seaway. Study pamphlets on one of these subjects and make a report to the class.
2. Inspect all the water faucets in your home. Under each one that you can find leaking, place a quart jar or a milk bottle. Find out how long it takes to fill each bottle with the wasted water. Then calculate how much water is lost in a day by each dripping faucet. From your answer calculate how much water might be wasted in a year. Calculate the cost in dollars and cents.

3. Learn how to repair a leaking faucet.

4. Consult the Forest Service or Soil Conservation Service about pIa n s for your community. Find out where erosion is taking place. Find out what you can do to provent it.

5. Secure three small, empty soup cans, a bucket of water, and a watch with a second hand. Remove the closed end of each can by cutting around the upper rim so that the rim is sharp. Select three different spots for your experiment. One should be where the soil is hard and clayey, another where it is loose and sandy, and a third where it is covered with grass. On the spot to be tested press the sharp rim of the can about an inch into the soil. Then quickly fill the can to the brim with water. Using the watch, record as accurately as possible the time required for all the water in the can to pass into the ground. Now fill the can again, and note the time needed for the water to enter the soil on the second trial spot. Repeat on the third trial spot.

6. If you have a gulley in your yard, build a dam across it by using sticks and rocks. After the gully has been dammed, visit it again after a rainstorm to see how much soil has been held back by the dam. You might plant grass in this soil.

6. This will show that rainwater can be controlled and at the same time prevent the soil from washing away.

7. Make a bulletin board display with pictures showing the great need for the conservation of soil, water, and trees.

7. This type of display will stimulate pupil interest and develop an awareness of the need for conservation.

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IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings. 1. Heat energy causes water to change state. 2. Moving air causes water to change state. 3. Some objects float in water. 4. Some objects sink in water. 5. Some objects float because they are light for their size. 6. Some objects float because of their shape. 7. Some substances dissolve in water. 8. Some substances do not dissolve in water. 9. Living plants need water. 10. Porous substances allow other substances to move into the spaces between their molecules. 11. All living things need water. 12. Water has :I tendency to move from a region of higher ppressure to one of lower pressure. (Water occupies 8pace, has weight. and exerts pressure.) 13. Water mixtures may be composed of any combination of water and solids, water and other liquids, or water and gases. 14. The ingredients of a mixture may be separated from each other by physical means (filtration). 15. Water is almost a universal solvent. 16. The presence of an electrolyte causes a colloid to precipitate. (The electrolyte is the alum used in water purification; the clay suspension is the colloid.) B. Develop these understandings. 1. The inertia of running water is the greatest agent of the earth changes. 2. Conservation is the wise use of resources. C. Teach these new words. 1. Contour 2. Terracing 3. Reforestation 4. Pollution 5. Conservation
24

PROBLEM: WHY IS THE MOLECULAR BEHAVIOR OF WATER IMPORTANT?
Grade 5 (Broad Area: Inanimate Matter - Water)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)
1. Ask pupils to try to pull an ice cube apart and discuss results.
2. Let an ice cube melt. Boil the resulting water until it disappears and discuss what happens.
3. Suspend a few crystals of potassium permanganate in a paper stirrup just below the sur f ace of the water in a glass container. Ask pupils to describe what they see and offer possible explanations of hap penings.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the unknown to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. What happens if a small amount of water is 1. It spreads out in a rather thin layer. poured on a flat surface?

2. What h the difference in the appearance of clear water in a round aquarium and clear water in a rectangular aquarium?

2. The clear water in a round aquarium has a round shape. In a rectangular aquarium it is rectangular in shape.

3. What is the appearance of an ice "cube" when it is in a round container and in a rectangular container?

3. The ice "cube" keeps its own shape.

4. Would you try to pull a block of ice into small 4. Ice is too hard to be pulled apart. It should be

pieces, or would you use some other method?

broken with an ice pick or ice crusher.

5. What will happen to an ice cube if you leave it 5. The ice cube will melt, and the water will spread

on a flat surface in hot weather?

out on the surface.

6. When water is boiling in a glass flask, what can be seen above the water inside the flask? What can be seen just outside the mouth of the flask?

6. Inside the flask nothing can be seen; the space above the water is perfectly clear. Just above the mouth of the flask a cloud can be seen.

7. How could you describe briefly the general appearance and behavior of ice, water, and water vapor?

7. The appearance is different and the behavior is different. Why?

C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstrations and encourage individual and small group experiments.
& B. (Children should do the following for each experiment: observe eccurately what was done and record ex-
actly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Put a tablespoonful of sugar into a drinking glass. Carefully pour in water and stir the con tents of the glass. Look for the sugar; then taste the water.

1. The sugar disappeared. The water tasted sweet (We can taste molecules which are too small to see.) (A-2 B-5)*.

2. With a medicine dropper, place a drop of ink on the surface of one glass of water. In another glass of water, put the tip of the inkfilled stop per near the bottom of the glass and leave it without squeezing. Don't shake or disturb the glasses for several hours. Observe frequently.

2. The ink moved in every direction until all the water was colored evenly (We can't see the sepa rate molecules of ink, but we can see that they move.) lB-2, 5).

-Numbers in parentheses indicate principles listed at the end of this unit.

25

3. On a sheet of wax paper, sprinkle several drops of water. With a small strip of wax paper, push one drop until it to u c h e s another. Observe closely.

3. The two drops suddenly become one large drop. They attracted each other. Water molecules attract each other (B-2, 7).

4. Try the same experiment using two drops of mercury.

4. The same thing happened. The drops attracted each other and formed one drop. (Mercury molecules attract each other.)

5. Shake a few drops of oil in a bottle of water. Let the bottle stand quietly for a few minutes. Observe.

5. Oil droplets formed larger droplets which moved upward in water and spread out, forming a layer of oil on the surface. (Oil molecules attract each other.)

6. Select two squares of glass; dip them in water; fit them together edge to edge; try pulling them apart.

6. The glass squares clung together tightly (B-2).

7. Place a pape:- cup, mouth upward, in a container of water. Press down on the cup with the hand and note the effect.
8. Fill a balloon with air (tie the opening securely), place it in a container of water, try to push it under water, and note the effect.

7. The water pushed on the cup as it was pressed down into the water (B-6, 7, 8).
8. The water pushed up against the balloon (B-6, 7, 8).

9. Place a needle on the surface of water in a glass. After it has lain there for a few minutes, drop a few small particlues of a detergent near the needle and note the results .

9. The needle broke through the surface and sank (The detergent affected the attraction between water molecules.) (B-8).

10. Secure some gum camphor at the drug store. Cut two or three boats from stiff paper, each about 2.5 cm. in length. Cut a notch in the stern large enough to hold a small lump of gum camphor in contact with the water without letting it fall out. Float the boats in a large pan of water. Observe.

10. The boats moved rapidly over the surface of the water (The camphor affected the attraction between water molecules.) (B-6, 8).

11. Float a can in water. Weigh out one pound of sand and put it in the can; mark the water line on the can. Put in another pound of sand and mark the new water line. Pour out all sand and put in enough stones to sink the can to the twopound line. Weigh the stones. Put the can in water. Press down on it until the water level is at the two-pound line. Feel the upward force.

11. The stones weighed two pounds when the can sank to the two-pound line. When the can was pressed down in the water to the two-pound line, my hand was pushing down with a force of two pounds. Water was balancing the push; thus the water was exerting an upward push of two pounds (B-6, 8).

12. Color water with red ink. Draw some of the colored water into a medicine dropper and place it in a container of water. Draw in or force out water until the medicine dropper just floats; then IHt it out c.arefully and drop it into a large glass jug filled with water. Fasten a rubber dam over the mouth of the jug and note the position of the dropper. Now press down hard on rubber and observe dropper. (Rubber dam can be cut dam and look closely at dropper. Pull out cork out from a bathing cap, rubber sheet, etc.)

12. When the cork was pressed hard, a little clear water was forced into the dropper, causing the dropper plus the contents to weigh more. It moved downward in the jug and sank.

13. Place a toy boat (wind-up) with a propeller in a large r.ontainer of water. Let the propeller spin and let a few drops of ink fall behind the propeller. The movement of the ink will help you to see the movement of the water.

13. The ink and water mover backward as the boat moved forward. As the propeller pushed backward on the water, the push sent the boat forward (B-6, 7,8).

"'Numbers in parentheses indicate principles listed at the end of this unit.

2G

14. Cut away one of the sides of a milk carton, make a hole in one of the ends, put in a balloon so that the neck sticks out of the hole, blow up the balloon, place the carton boat in a container of water and note the direction of movement of boat and water.
15. Select two small tin cans of the same size and shape. Make a small hole with the point of a sharp miil in the bottom of each can. Fill one can with ice water and the other with hot water. Place each on top of a drinking glass and watch what happens.
16. Fill a flask about one-third full of water. Heat the water until it boils rapidly. Take the temperature of the boiling water and record it. Insert the thermometer in a cork (Remove the source of heat.) and immediately place the cork in the mouth of the flask. Be sure that the bulb of the thermometer is above the boiling water, not in it. Record the temperature of the steam. (The experiment should be tried out by the teacher before it is used in class.)

14. The air hubbIes from the balloon pushed the water in one direction; the boat moved in the opposite direction (B-7, 8).
15. The hot water flowed into its glass much faster than the cold water (Molecules are moving faster in the hot water than in the cold water.) (B-4).
16. The temperature of the steam above the water and the temperature of the boiling water are the same (B-4, 6).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Plan a trip to a small body of water near the school and tryout model (pupil made) boats.

1. The action of rudder and propellers on water results in change of direction and/or motion. When an object pushes water in one direction, the object is moved in the opposite direction (B-6, 7, 8).

2. Take a trip to a pond or lake and collect fish, water insects, insect larvae, tadpoles, etc. Place the collected animals in an aquarium and observe their methods of moving through water.

2. Each animal has some special structure (adaptation) for pushing water in one direction as one animal moves in the opposite direction (B-6, 7, 8).

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Molecular Theory of Matter," EBF No. 240

1. Molecules of one substance move into the spaces between molecules of other substances. Molecules move rapidly and fly off the surface of a liquid as evaporation takes place (B-4, 5, 7).

2. "Solids, Liquids, Gases," VA - No. 5034

2. Solids, liquids, and gases have different properties, which make possible a wide variety of uses (B-6,7)

3. "Surface Tension," Asco - No. 3620

3. A full glass ,)f water can be made to hold more water. A soap bubble always takes on a round shape. Mystery boats move rapidls over the surface of water (B-7, 8).

4. ''Ice,'' F. S. No. 3526

4. The melting point of ice is affected by salt and by pressure (B-3).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. What du we mean when we say water is made of molecules?
2. H we can't cee molecules, how do we know that water is made of them?

1. We mean that it is made of tiny particles too small to be seen (1). Schneider, Herman and Nina. Science in Our World. Atlanta, D. C. Heath Company, 1955. p. 37.
2. Scientists, with the help of wonderful instruments (electron microscopes) have made pic t u res of molecules and have measured them,(B-1). Ibid.

27

3. Why is water different from other liquids such 3. Water and other liquids are different because they

as gasoline and kerosene?

are made of different kinds of molecules. Ibid.

4. What causes molecules to be different?

4. The tiny molecules are made up of still smaller particles called atoms (B-1). Ibid., p. 38.

5. How do we know that molecules are made of atoms?

5. Scientists, with the help of heat and electricity, have separated molecules into atoms (B-1). Ibid. pp. 37-38.

6. In what ways are ice water and water vapor (or 6. They are all made of exactly the same kind of

steam) alike?

molecule (H20). (B-1). Ibid.

7. Why can we 1;kate on ice and swim in water, and it won't work the other way around?
8. How can the same molecules cause a substance to be hard and solid at one time and soft and liquid at another time?
9. What dfect does the difference in molecular motion have on the solid ice and the liquid water?
10. Why does water vapor have neither size nor shape?
11. Why is water vapor visible?
12. How does boiling water produce a hot gas called steam?
13. Under what conditions will invisible water vapor change back into visible water?
14. What happens to water and to us when we swim?
15. How does a fish swim?

7. Ice is hard and solid. Water is soft and liquid. (B-6, 7). Ibid., p. 58.
8. Scientists have found that the molecules in ice have a strong pull toward each other. Each molecule in a cube of ice is held firmly by the pull of other molecules around it; they jiggle a bit but stay in place. The molecules in water do not pull on each other as strongly because as ice is changed to water (by heat energy) )the molecules jiggle faster, are no longer held firmly in place, and begin to roll and slide over and around each other until they form a floating liquid (B-3, 4, 6, 7). Ibid.
9. Ice has a shape of its own, but liquid water just flows until it fills the shape of the solid that holds it (A bottle, an aquarium, the floor) (B6, 7). Ibid.
10. When water is heated, its mol e cui e s jiggle, bounce, and fly apart as far as there is room for them to go (B-3, 4, 6, 7,). Ibid., p. 66.
11. The molecules are moving so fast, are so scattered, and are so small that we cannot see the substance they form (It is like trying to see a dozen bees buzzing around a baseball field from an airplane ten miles up in the sky.) (B-4, 6, 7). Ibid., p.66.
12. Continued heating causes molecules of water to move so fast that some of them leap out of the liquid. Those that leap out disappear into the air because they have moved far apart leaving lots of space between. These widely separated molecules form the hot gas called steam (B-3, 4, 6, 7). Ibid. p.68.
13. When water vapor and steam are cooled (lose heat energy), the molecules come closer together, move more slowly, attract each other more, and form droplets of liquid water (B-3, 4, 6, 8). Craig, Gerald S., et al. Experimenting in Science. Atlanta, Ginn and Company, 1955. pp. 24, 152-153.
14. We swim by reaching our arms forward and pushing against the water. As we push against it, we move some of the water backward and cause ourselves to move forward (B-6, 7, 8). Schneider, Herman and Nina. Science in Your Life. Atlanta, D. C. Heath and Company, 1955. p. 60.
15. A fish has strong muscles that swing its tail in a curving motion from side to side. This swinging motion sends water swirling backward as it sends the fish forward (B-6, 7, 8). Ibid., p. 61.

28

16. What causes row boa t s to move through the water?
17. How does a boat propeller move the boat?
18. What would happen if water molecules had less attraction for each other or could get out of the way easier than the boat could move?
19. Why does a boat float?
20. What iE the relationship between the load a boat carries and the amount of the boat that is under water?
21. What is a Plimsol line, and why is it important?

16. We push against the water with our paddles, and by pushing against water and moving it backward we move forward (B-6, 7, 8). Ibid.
17. A propeller pushes against water and sends a stream of it backward. The push sends the boat forward (B-6, 7, 8). Ibid., pp. 64-65.
18. The boat would stand still (B-7, 8).
18. A boat floats because the water pushes on it. The more of the boat that is under water the greater the amount of water displaced and the greater the upward push on the boat (B-6, 7, 8).
20. The greater the load the more of the boat is under water (B-8).
21. A Plimsol line is the load line mark on the sides of all British merchant vessels. The line indicates the safety limit of submergence. (A load heavy enough to cause water to move above the load line might sink the boat.)

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. In what ways is water wonderful? 2. How do we know about molecules? 3. How does a person row a boat?

1. Water is wonderful in that it can change its form and shape, can exhibit a wide variety of properties, and can be used in many ways (B-2, 3, 4, 6). Leeming, Joseph. The Real Book of Science Experiments. New York, Garden City Books, 1954. pp.40-49.
2. We see tl!e results of molecules even if we cannot see them (B-1, 5). Myers, Jerome S. Picture Book of Moleucles and Atoms. New York, Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Company, ,Inc., 1947. pp. IH2.
3. A person who rows a boat faces the back of the boat and pulls on the handles of the oars. The oars are levers that push on the water. This push moves the boat ahead. Thurber, Walter A. Exploring Science (Book Five). Atlanta, Allyn and Bacon, 1955. pp. 264-267.

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. When ice changes to water, what energy change takes place?
2. When water changes to ice, what energy change takes place?
.3 When water at 100C. changes into steam (water vapor at 100C.), what energy change takes place?
4. When steam at 100C. changes into water at 100C. what energy change takes place?

1. When ice changes into water, it takes up heat (80 calories per gram). This heat energy becomes the increased molecular motion which is necessary if ice is to become water (B-3, 4).
2. When water changes to ice, it gives up heat (80 calories per gram). This loss of heat is the decrease in molecular movement which is necessary if water is to tecome ice (B-3, 4).
3. When water at 100C. changes into steam, it takes up heat (540 calories per gram). This heat energy becomes the increased molecular energy necessary to move molecules farther apart (B-3, 4).
4. When steam at 100C. changes into water at 100C. the steam gives up heat (540 calories per gram). This loss of heat is the energy given up as steam molecules move close enough together to form water (B-3, 4).

29

"l. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATION OF INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How is the molecular condition of water and ice alike, and how is it different?
2. What is the importance of the "locked" mole cular condition which exists in ice?
3. What effect does molecular behavior have on the appearance of ice, water, and water vapor?
4. Why is the particular type of attraction which exists between water molecules of such great importance?
5. What is the importance of the great distance which exists between the molecules in water vapor?

1. Water and ice have exactly the same kind of molecules (H20), but in ice the pull of molecules toward each other is so strong that they are "locked" together. They jiggle but stay in place. In water the molecules are not locked. They are moving faster than ice molecules and are free to roll and slide around.
2. The "locked" molecular condition of ice mole cules makes it possible to skate on ice, to transport it, and to use it in block form. The molecular con dition causes ice to be less dense than cold water. As a result ice forms on the surface of ponds and lakes and serves as an insulator for water life below.
3. Ice can have a definite size and shape. Water has no shape of its own. It flows until it fits the shape of the conotainer which holds it. Water vapor has no definite size or shape; its molecules move so fast and are so far apart that the v~or is invisible.
4. The attraction between water molecules is at such a fine balance that water, when pushed aside by an object, pushes back on that object. If the mole cules had more attraction for each other, it would be difficult to push water aside. If they had less and could get out of the way easier than the ob ject could move, the object would stand still. The particular type of attraction which exists between water molecules causes water to flow easily from one place to another.
5. Water vapor is so light that it can be moved from one place to another by air currents and winds. As a result water may evaporate in areas where it is abundant and travel hundreds of miles to areas where it is needed before it condenses and returns to the surface of the earth.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do we use soap?
2. Why is it important to have life preservers on all boats?
3. Why does steam exert tremendous ~ressure in pressure cookers and in steam engines?
4. Why do fruit growers sometime place large tubs of water in their groves on cold nights?

1. Soap causes the attractioon between water molecules to become less. As a result soap and water stick to dirt and remove it from hands, clothes, etc.
2. Life preservers are light for their size and can displace enough water to make easy floating possible in case of boat upset or damage.
3. In steam the molecules are moving far apart, and they hit the side of containers often and hard.
4. As water freezes moving molecules slow down and give up some of their energy in the form of heat. The heat warms the air, and the warmed air helps to protect the trees.

30

c. Do proJects for fun.
1. Make and operate a model submarine. Select a bottle, a piece of rubber tubing, a short piece of glass tubing, and a rubber stopper with two holes. Assemble parts as shown in diagram. Place model in large container of water, blow on the tube to make it rise; let water in to make it sink.
2. Make picture chart of ani m a I s that travel through water. Choose pictures that show tails, fins, flippers, legs, web bed feet, and other structures that the animals use in moving through water.
3. Make a motorboat model and explain its operation. (Directions found in Parker, Bertha M. Sci e nee Experien es - Elementary School. Evanston, TIlinois, Row, Peterson and Company, 1952.)
4. Make posters which illustrate the reasons why a boat floats. (Thurber, Walter A. Exploring Science, Book Five. Atlanta, Allyn and Bacon, 1955. pp. 254-257.)
5. Make class mural called "Water Travel from Euglena to Man". Life magazines have illustrations of water organisms.

1. When the submarine floats, it is light for its szie; the amount of water it displaces pushes on the bot tle with a force greater than the weight of the bottle and its contents. When the submarine sinks, it is heavy for its size, and the water it displaces pushes on the bottle with a force which is less than the weight of the bottle and its contents.
2. Each animal has some adaptation for pushing against wt'ter. As the water is pushed in one direction, the animal is moved in the opposite direction.
3. As the ;,ubber band untwists, it turns the propeller. The propeller pushes against the water as it turns. Thp. repeated pushes against the water send the boat forward. If the water molecules had less attraction for each other and could get out of the way of the propeller more easily than the boat could move forward, it would stand still.
4. Objects float because water pushes up on them. A boat floats if water pushes up on it as much as the earth pulls down on the boat and its load.
5. Each organism has some adaptation for pushing on water or for producing a stream of ejected water.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these principles. 1. Energy acting on water causes it to change its state. 2. Porous substances will allow other substances to move into the spaces between their molecules. 3. Water is almost a universal solvent

B. Develop these principles.
1. Matter (water) is composed of molecules which in turn are composed of atoms. 2. Matter (water) exists in certain physical states (i. e., the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous
state) because of the cohesive forces between the molecules. 3. Matter (water) can be changed from one state to another by altering the speed of the molecules and/ or
by changing their space relationships. 4. Energy acting on matter (water) changes the speed and/or the space relationship of its molecules. 5. Intermingling of water molecules with other molecules is possible because of their space relationship
and their motion. 6. Matter (water) in each of its three physical sta tes exhibits properties which are characteristic of that
particular state. 7. The arrangement and behavior of dipole lPO molecules determine the characteristics of ice, water,
and steam. 8. The arrangement and behavior of water molecules result in special phenomena such as surface tension,
buoyancy, and reactive force when molecules are displaced.

31

PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE CHEMICAL NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF WATER
Grade 6 (Broad Area: Inanimate Matter-Water)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Inanimate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)
1. Arrange a display consisting of elements, compounds, and mixtures. Label each, but do not at this point indicate any differences. Two of the elements included could be used later to form a compound, e. g., sulphur and iron filings.
2. Use some mercuric oxide as an example of a compound that can be easily separated into its elements. Allow children to examine it closely; then heat the mercuric oxide (use alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner.), about 1/4 test tube full, in a Pyrex test tube. (Note to teacher: Test the gas given off by thrusting a glowing splint into the tube. If the splint bursts into flames, oxygen is given off. Mercury will collect in the upper part of the test tube.)
3. Have two beakers or glasses of water on the table. One contains a small amount of salt. Both are perferctly clear and transparent. Have children discuss ways of determining which is which.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. What is the difference between mercuric oxide 1. Mercuric oxide is a red powder, a solid. Mercury

and the substance produced when it is heated?

is a silvery liquid, and oxygen is an invisible gas.

2. What does the formula for water indicate about the composition of water?
3. How do we know that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen?
4. What can we do to find out whether or not some perfectly clear water has salt in it?
5. What can we do to get salt from salt water?

2. The formula H20 indicates that water is made up of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen, both of which are elements.
3. (The pupils may not know the answer to this question. Their response may be in the form of a problem question which will lead to experimentation, e. g., can we break it down as we did mercuric oxide?)
4. We can taste it.
5. (pupil's responses may be in the form of a problem question, c. g., can we evaporate the water and get salt?)

C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstrations and encourage individual and small group experiments. (Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Put a bit of cooked egg yolk in a small dish. Place the tip of a shiny, silver spoon on the egg. Leave it for about an hour.

1. The sulfur in the egg combined with the silver in the spoon had formed a dark substance, viz., silvel' sulfide (B-1, 2, 3).

2. Place fome moistened steel wool in a dish. Let it stay for several hours.

2. The steel wool turned reddish-brown. Steel is mostly iron. The iron combined with the oxygen in the air to form iron oxide or iron rust. The water hastened the reaction (B-1, 2, 3).

-Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

32

3. Heat small shavings of wood in a Pyrex test tube.

3. Water drops collected at the top of the test tube. Charcoal, or carbon, was left at the bottom (A-1, B-5).

4. Prepare oxygen by heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide. (Get directions from a high school chemistry teacher or high school chemistry books.)

4. The oxygen came off as a gas. We caught the gas by displacing water in a bottle. If the gas is given off too rapidly, it may be cloudy due to the presence of KCL (B-5).

5. Prepare hydrogen by putting dilute sulfuric acid on zinc. (Consult high school chemistry book or high school chemistry teacher.) (Caution: Do not have open flame near the generator. Hydrogen is very inflammable. If you have not done this experiment, ask the high s c h 0 0 I chemistry teacher to show you how.)

5. Hydrogen was given off as a gas (B-1, 2, 5).

6. Separate water into its parts, hydrogen and oxygen, by use of an electrolysis apparatus. (Consult high school chemistry teacher.)

6. Hydrogen gas was liberated at the negative electrode (B-1, 2, 3, 5).

7. Find the boiling point of some distilled water. Add some salt to the water and again find the boiling point. Repeat the experiment, using sugar instead of salt.

7. The boiling point of the distilled water was lower than that of the salt solution or the sugar solution (B-6, 9).

8. Dissolve a few crystals of photographer's hypo in a small amount of water (about 1/4 test tube). Warm the water gently. Add carefully crystals of hypo until no more will dissolve. Again warm the solution. Do not boil. If all of the crystals dissolve, allow the solution to cool without distul"bing it in any way. After the solution has cooled to room temperature, tap the test tube gently with a pencil. If nothing happens, add one crystal of hypo to the solution. Immeriately crystals separate from the solution.

8. When the first few crystals were added, the solution was unsaturated. When the water had dissolved all of the hypo it could hold at that particular t e m per a t u re, the solution was saturated. When the saturated solution was warmed and more hypo dissolved in it, the solution was supersaturated (B-6, 8, 10)

9. Dissolve salt in water. Heat the solution until the water evaporates. (Caution: the salt will spatter when the water is almost gone. Heat gently). Identify the solvent, the solute, and the solution.

9. The salt disappeared as it went into the solution. When the water evaporated, the salt was left. The water was the solvent, the salt was the SOlute, and salt water was the solution.

10. Put some hard water in one bottle and some ram water in another bottle. Add the same amount of liquid soap to each bottle. Shake well.

10. The bottle containing hard water had few suds, and they did not last. Little curdy particles could be seen throughout the water. The soft water formed a great many suds that lasted a while (B-6).

11. Dissolve limestone or marble chips in dilute acid (e. g., dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute carbonic acid). If carbonic acid is used, the action is slower. Filter and save the filtrate. (The filtrate is the sol uti 0 n that goes through the filter paper.) Now pass C02 gas through the filtrate until it becomes cloudy. Continue to pass the gas into the solutiton until it is clear again. (This experiment combined with the textbook questions and direct teaching will show how limestone caves are formed. C02 gas can be obtained by putting vinegar on baking soda. You will need a bottle fitted with a stopper and a delivery tube.)

11. The acid dissolved the limestone. The dissolved material passed through the filter paper. The C02 gas combined with the dissolved material, Ca(HC03)2 and formed insoluble calcium carbonate, CaC03, C02 and water dissolved the CaC03 and formed Ca(HC03)2 (B-ll).

33

12. Put two inches of water in a test tube. Mark a medicine dropper with a strip of gummed tape so that you can easily measure out the same quantity of solution. Add one measure of soap solution to the test tube of water and shake. If a lather forms easily, the water is soft. If the water becomes cloudy and a curd of soap forms, the water is hard. Add a measure of soap solution to two inches of distilled water in a test tube. Shake and compare the results with your first test tube. Use this test tube as a control. Place an inch of hard water in a test tube. Add measure after measure of soap solution, shaking after each addition until lather is formed. Compare the amount of soap used with that used in the distilled water.
In another test tube place an inch of hard water. Add a measure of washing soda solution. Then add soap solution as you did to the hard water above.

12. The distilled water is soft water and forms a lather easily. When the washing soda was added to the hard water, less soap was needed to form lather than when the soap alone was used in the hard water.

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. If a limestone cave is nearby, a trip there to see the cave with its stalactites lq1d stalagmites might be profitable.
2. Visit a sulfur or an iron water spring. Note the taste and odor.

D. Use audio-visual a~ds to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Crystal Gazing," No. 4067 MIS (Color)

1. Spelunking is exploring underground caves (B11). Salt, sugar, and alum will make beautiful crystals (B-I0, 11).

2. "Crystals," {Under the Microscope) No. 3451 2. Snowflake crystals, six-sides or six-pointed, and

Almanac

crystals of frost are shown (B-12).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. What are elements?
2. Where are elements found? 3. How do scientists distinguish one element from
another?
4. How do compounds differ from elements?
5. How do scientists distinguish compounds from each other?
6. What does water have to do with the formation of rocks?

1. Elements are the building blocks of which all substances are mllde (B-1). Schneider, Herman and Nina. Science for Today and Tomorrow. Atlanta, D. C. Heath and Company, 1955.
2. Everywhere in the world. As far as we know, everything is made up of elements (B-1). Ibid.
3. Every element is different from every other element in color, or hardness, or some other property. The scientists have named the elements and given them "initials" or symbols (B-1). Ibid.
4. Compounds are made up of different elements. For example, water is a compound made up of hydrogen and oxygen which are elements (B-2, 3). Ibid.
5. Compounds have particular properties. They have names that indicate the elements that compose them. The scientists also use a shorthand method for the names of the compounds, e. g., H20 is the formula for water (B-2, 3). Ibid.
6. Water carries material in suspension. When the flow of the water slows down, some of this material is dropped by water. This is called sediment. Deep layers of this sediment pile up in the deltas

34

7. What makes water hard?

at the mouth of the rivers. These layers harden under pressurE' into rocks, called sedimentary rocks (B-ll). Craig, Gerald S. and ohn Urban. Facing Tomorrow with Science. Atlanta, Ginn and Company, 1956. pp. 212, 213.
7. Certain minerals dissolved in water make water hard (B-ll). T h u r be r, Walter A. Exploring Science. Atlanta, Allyn and Bacon, 1955. pp. 291298.

8. Why is soft water better for washing than hard water?
9. How are limestone caves formed?
10. How can you change hard water to soft water?

8. Clothes become cleaner if washed in soft water. It takes less soap to wash clothes in soft water (B11). Ibid.
9. Ground water has weak acids in it. These acids dissolve the limestone and make cracks in it. Thousands of years later the cracks are much larger and have become caves (B-ll). Ibid.
10. One kind of hard water can be softened by boiling. This is temporary hard water. Permanent hard water can be softened by adding chemicals. Borax and washing soda are two cheap chemicals that can be used to soften water (B-8, 11).

F. Refer to these general references for additional Information.

1. How is it possible for rocks to contain sea shells, if the rocks were picked up on a hill 1,000 feet above sea level?

1. That part of the land was once under the sea. The rock that contains the shells must have been formed under water (Bll). Irving, Robert. Rocks and Minerals. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. pp.17-19.

2. How are stalactites and stalagmites formed?

2. Sometimes water containing dissolved minerals seeps slowly into underground limestone caves. Each drop as it seeps down the roof hangs there for a while. As it does, the water evaporates leaving the minerals behind. The next drop does the same and bit by bit the minerals build down into beautiful icicles of stone, called stalactites. Some times the mineral-laden water drops to the floor of the cave. Here the water evaporates, leaving the minl.'rals behind. Bit by bit, these minerals build up into upward-pointing shapes called stalagmites (B-ll). Shuttleworth, Dorothy. The Story of Rocks. New York, Garden City Books, 1956. pp. 32-33. Schneider, Herman and Nina. Rocks, Rivers, and the Changing Earth. New York, William R. Scott, Inc., 1952. pp. 52--55.

G. Shere enriched teacher background. 1. How are symbols and formulas helpful?
2. Discuss the solvent action of ground water in the formation of limestone caves.

1. Symbols and formulas are the chemist's shorthand for writing elements and compounds. Using them saves time and effort. Since the symbols and formulas arc the same in all languages, the chemists have little difficulty communicating with each other.
2. Ground water contains dissolved carbon dioxide. The resulting carbonic acid dissolves the limestone and carries it away.

35

3. Why is sea water salty?

3. Water dissolves salts from the soil. These dissolved salts get into the rivers, etc. and eventually reach the ocean.

Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A._Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. Which of these listed materials are elements, compounds, or mixtures? Give reason for your choice. a. Baking powder b. Baking soda
c. Table salt
d. A brass vase
e. Sugar

1. a. Baking powder is a mixture. It is made of a compound NaHC03 (sodium bicarbonate) and starch.
b. Baking soda is a compound. It is one substance, NaHC03, sodium biocarbonate.
c. Table Ralt is a compound. It is one substance, sodium chloride (NaCl).
d. A brass vase is a mixture, an alloy. It is made of two elements, copper and zinc.
e. Sugar is a compound. Cane sugar is C12H22 0 11

f. Coffee
g. Charcoal b l' i que t s used in out-of-doors cooking.
2. How does the number of elements compare with the number of compounds?
3. What happens to water when a solution is boiled?
4. What is probably the most important compound?
5. What is the chemical composition of water?
6. What is the chemist's abbreviation for elements called?
7. What is the name of the chemists' abbreviation for a compound?
8. How are solutions classed as chemical substances?
9. How do dissolved solids affect the boiling point of solutions?

f. Coffee is a mixture. It is made of several different kinds of substances. They can be separated by physical means.
g. Charcoal is an element. It is a pure form of carbon.
2. There are only a few elements - probably less than 100 natural substances. There are many thousands of compounds.
3. The water goes off as steam. The steam has the same formula as water. Boiling does not decompose watel'.
4. Water, which is necessary to every form of life, is one of the most useful and important compounds in the world.
5. Water is made of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
6. Chemists' abbreviations for elements are called symbols.
7. The chemists' abbreviations for compounds are called formulas.
8. Solutions are examples of mixtures.
9. Dissolved solids raise the boiling point of solutions.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think.
1. Why are there many more compounds than elements?
2. When you stir sand and salt together, do you form a mixture or a compound? How can you tell? How would you use water to separate the salt from the sand?

1. Just as an alphabet of 26 letters can be used to make hundreds of words, so can 100 or so elements combine to make thousands of compounds.
2. Sand and salt stirred together form a mixture. Water will dissolve the salt but not the sand. Then the sand can be filtered out.

36

3. Why does the addition of salt to water speed up the process of cooking vegetables?
4. How might sea water be purified for drinking? 5. Why do some people sweeten tea while it is
hot? 6. Why is it necessary to use soft water in boilers?

3. The salt raises the boiling point of the water and the higher temperature breaks down the celluose structure more quickly.
4. Boil the water and condense the steam.
5. Sugar dissolves more easily in hot tea than in cold.
6. Hard water contains minerals in solution which ruin the boiler tubes.

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Make a chart of pictures of elements.
2. Make a chart of pictures of compounds.
3. Find out how many different kinds of elements and compounds you have at home. Make a list and put in the symbols and formulas.
4. Prepare crystals from saturated solutions.
a. Dissolve sugar in a glass about 1/4 full of hot water until the wa tel' is saturated. Tie a piece of clean string to a pencil. Put the pencil across the top of the glass and push the string down into the sugar solution. Put aside in a still place until crystals form. This may take two or three weeks. If the solution is undisturbed, large sugar crystals will "climb" the string.
b. Other crystals may be formed in the same way. Try salt, copper sulfate, alum, photographer's hypo.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings.
1. The ingredients of a mixture may be separated from each other by physical means. 2. Water is almost a universal solvent.

B. Develop these understandings. 1. The simplest substance obtainable through ordinary chemical change is an element. 2. Compounds are composed of atoms of different elements that have been chemically combined. 3. All pure chemical compounds have definite properties that are quite different from the properties of the elements comprising the compound. 4. There is an energy relationship in the formation and decomposition of compounds. 5. Mixtures are composed of two or more substances that have not undergone any energy change. 6. The ingredients of a mixture may be separated from each other by physical means. 7. A solution is a permanent, uniform mixture. 8. Dissolved solids increase the boiling point of a solution. 9. A saturated solution is one that contains all the dissolved solute it can hold at that particular temperature. 10. Water is almost a universal solvent.
11. Energy acting on a liquid has a tendency to change its state of matter.

C. Teach these new words. 1. Element 2. Compound 3. Mixture 4. Distilled 5. Solute 6. Solution 7. Solvent 8. Stalactites

9. Stalagmites 10. Spelunking 11. Symbol 12. Formula 13. Temporary 14. Permanent 15. Saturated 16. Supersaturated

37

PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE WATER TO DO WORK?
Grade 7 (Broad Area: Inanimate Matter-Water)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.) 1. Display pictures of several of the large dams in the United States, including some in Georgia.
2. Make a blackboard diagram of Hero's engine.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem.

(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. How did the early settlers in our country get 1. They took the grain to a mill. There it was ground

their grain ground into meal or flour?

into meal or flour between huge stones.

2. What was used to move the stones?

2. Running water turned a Wheel, and the wheel moved the stones.

3. Why did these water wheels fall into disuse?

3. None of the old-fashioned wheels are able to deliver enough power or speed to operate modern machinery.

4. What happens when you try to push your finger on the surface of water in a drinking glass?

4. The water moves out from under your finger, and you cannot exert much force on the water.

5. If you place a stopper in a bottle that has been completely filled with water and push on the stopper, what happens? (Be very careful with this experiment. Put the bottle in a ring stand and hit the stopper gently with a hammer.)

5. The water may come out around the stopper. If a greater pressure is applied, the bottle may break.

6. What change in volume takes place when water 6. The steam occupies more space than the water

is changed into steam?

from which it came.

7. What is used to drive the "Nautilus"?

7. The Fission of U-235 generates heat which converts water to steam. The steam is used to operate steam turbines.

C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.

(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and reo cord exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Connect two 15 em. lengths of glass tubing or two transparent plastic soda straws with a short length of rubber tubing and attach them to an upright board. Put some colored water in the tubes to a depth of about 6 or 8 em. This is your pressure gauge. Cover a small funnel with thin rubber stretched tightly and tie it securely with thread or string. Attach the funnel to the gauge with a 30 em. length of rubber tubing. Push the funnel into a pail of water and watch the gauge (or manometer).

1. The colored liquid in the gauge rose when the funnel was pushed into the pail of water (B-1).

Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

38

2. Construct a simple hydraulic press. Half fill a cylindrical jar with water. Pour melted paraffin wax on the surface to form a piston, holding a piece of glass tubing in the wax as it cools. When the wax is solidified, it forms a water tight piston. Gently blow down the tube.
3. Secure a hot water bottle. Put a small amount of glycerin on a glass tube and work the tube carefully into a one-hole rubber stopper. Fit the stopper tightly into the mouth of the hot water bottle. Punch a hole in the bottom of a tin can and make it large enough to take a one-hole stopper. Put a short length glass tube through another one-hole stopper (use glycerin) and fit the stopper into the opening in the can. Connect t.he water bottle and the can with a length of rubber tube about 1.5 yards long. It will be wise to wind wire around the connection at the bottle. Fill the bottle, tube, and can with water. Place the bottle on the floor and put a piece of board on it. Place books or other heavy objects on the board. Now raise the can above the level of the floor and observe the weights. See how heavy a weight you can lift by raising the can as high above the floor as possible.

2. The wax piston rose when the water exerted force against it (B-5).
3. We learned to put a glass tube into a one-hole rubber stopper easily by using a small amount of glycerin. When the tin was was raised above the floor level, the water flowed into the hot water bottle and raised the books (B-5).

B. Encourage individual and small group experimentL
I. Use the funnel and manometer which you made in the first demonstration of this unit. Fill a tall glass jar or pail with water. Measure the pressure just below the surface with your man ometer. Measure the pressure at the bottom.
2. Secure a tall tin can. Punch holes up the side of the can about 3cm. apart. Put a strip of adhesive tape over the row of holes and fill the can with water above the top hole. Hold the can over a sink and strip the tape from. over the holes beginning at the bottom. Observe the distance the streams from holes shoot outward from the can.
3. Put a stopper in one end of a metal pipe (iron, aluminum, or copper) and completely fill the pipe with water. Insert a stopper in the opposite end of the pipe and press firmly on the stopper.
4. Fill a battery jar or any large glass container about three-fourths full of water. Put a jelly glass lid on the surface of the water. Hold a straight glass lamp chimney so that the rim at one end touches the lid all the way around. Push the lamp chimney down slowly. Observe carefully what happens inside the chimney and what happens to the lid.
5. Put a small amount of water in a pyrex test tube. Fit a cork stopper lightly in the tube. Boil the water.

I. The pressure was greater at the bottom than it was near the surface (B-1).
2. The water shot out farther from the bottom hole and went the least distance from the top hole (B-1).
3. As the second stopper was pushed into the open end of the pipes, the first stopper was pushed out (B-1. 5).
4. The jelly glass lid stayed in place against the chimney for a while as the chimney was pushed into the water. Water continued to enter the chimney. and the lid dropped off when the level of the water inside was the same as that of the water in the jar (B-1).
5. The steam from the boiling water shot the stopper out of the test tube (A-I. B-4).

39

6. Water Wheel: Saw 4 to 6 slits the full length of a spool and insert pieces of tin in the slits. These pieces of tin should be the same size. Put a round stick or piece of glass tubing through the spool. This should be tight enough so, that the spool and stick will turn together. Make a loop of stiff wire to hold the wheel. Put small washers on both sides of the spool. Make a bed out of a piece of tin and connect it to a faucet. Hold the water wheel so it is turned by water flowing over the top of it. Notice the speed and force with which the wheel turns. Hold the wheel so that it is turned by water flowing underneath it. Compare its speed and force with the first trial.

6. The water wheel turned faster as the speed and force of the water increased. The wheel did not turn as fast when water flowed underneaths it, except when the speed of the water was gently increased (B-1, 6).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. If a dam is being built in your community, take a trip to see it. Ask one of the engineers to explain the steps involved in building the dam (B-1).
2. Visit your electric power plant, Find out what is being used to turn the generator. If a waterfall is used to turn a turbine, visit the water fall. See if you can locate pipes or penstocks that carry the water from the lake behind the dam to the power house (B-1, 6). If a steam turbine or a steam engine is used to turn the armature of the generator, ask the engineer in charge to explain to you how it works (A-2, B-2, 4).
3. Visit a garage and see the hydraulic car lift. Find out how it works <B-1, 5).
4. Visit a barber shop. Find out what raises and lowers the barber chair (B-1, 5).
5. If a hydraulic press is used in your community, go to see it and find out how it is used (B-1, 5).

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. ''Water Power," No. 151 EBF

1. Water power ;s used very much in the same way today that it was in Colonial times. The chief difference is in the type of water wheel used. This film also includes pictures of power plants at Niagara, Hoover Dam, and the Tennessee Valley (B-1).

2. ''Water Works for Us," No. 5068 YA

2. Water pressure is dependent upon its depth (B-1).

3. "Steam Turbine," No. 5104 YA

3. Steam turbines are used to produce electricity in many places (A-I, 2, B-1, 3, 4).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.

1. Why is it possible for water to exert pressure Ion objects?

1. Water has weight and takes up space. A diver feels water pre s sur e when he dives deep into water because the large volume of water above him has great wei g h t (B-1). Ames, M. W., et al. Science in Today's World. New York, PrenticeHall, Inc., 1956. p. 154.

2. What is the weight on one cubin foot of water at 4C. when the barometer reads 30 inches?
3. What would happen to a diver if he were to dive beyond 60 feet without a pressurized diving outfit?

2. One cubic foot of water at 4C. and 30 inches of mercury weighs 62.4 pounds (B-1). Ibid.
3. Water pressure would crush the diver's body. Sixty feel below the surface each square foot of the man's body must withstand approximately
3,744 pounds of pressure (62.4 x 60 = 3,744.0)
(B-1, 6). Ibid.

40

4. In what way is water pressure helpful?
5. How can the energy of moving water be put to
work? 6. What is responsible for turning each of the
early type water wheels?
7. What is a Pelton Wheel and under what conditions does it operate best?
8. What are the two main differences between the Pelton Wheel and the undershot wheel?
9. What modification of the Pelton is used in some mountain localities where water pressure is high?
10. What type water wheel is used most extensively in the United States at the present time?
11. How does water operate the water turbine?
12. Why is a water turbine important?
13. How does the steam engine work?

4. Water pressure causes water to move from standpipe to faucets which are located on the top floor of tall buildings. Water pressure behind dams sends water through penstocks with great speed (B-1, 6). Ibid.
5. The energy of moving water can be put to work by means of water wheels or turbines (B-1, 6). Ibid., pp. 156-157.
6. The weight of water turns the overshot wheel. The force exerted by moving water turns the undershot wheeL Both the weight and force cause the breast type to turn (B-1, 6). Davis, Ira C., et al. Science Discovery and Progress. New York, Henry Holt & Company, Inc., p. 185 (see fig 7-4).
7. The Pelton is a water wheel which operates somewhat like the undershot water wheel. It is most efficient in places where a small amount of water under a very high pressure is available (B-1, 6).
8. Instead of paddles the Pelton Wheel has (at each paddle position) two shallow cups set side by side on the rim of the wheel. Water is directed into these cups by a nozzle. These two features cause the Pelton Wheel to run at a higher speed and have a higher efficiency than the old undershot wheel (B-1, 6).
9. The water motor (a small Pelton) is sometimes attached to water faucets in mountain areas and used to operate washing machines (B-1, 6).
10. The water wheel used most extensively is the water turbine. It is in reality a compound Pelton Wheel (B-1, 6).
11. The water turbine is operated by means of a stream of water which is diverted into a large pipe called a penstock. The penstock carries water to a case in the center of which is the water wheel itself. The paddles on the wheel are shaped so that nearly all the force of the water coming between the fixed paddles is transferred to the water wheel. The water has two chances to push on a blade. The first push results from the pressure of water striking the blades horizontally; then the water gives an additional push as it falls against the curved portion of the blades (B-1, 6).
12. As the water pours through the turbine, its kinetic energy is changed into the kinetic energy of the turbine wheels. This in turm may be transformed into electrical energy by an electric generator driven by the turbine (B-1, 6).
13. When a certain volume of water is changed to steam, it expands tremendously (about 1,700 times the volume of water used). H the steam is con fined, it will exert pressure in all directions. The force acting on a movable piston causes movement. The steam under great pressure passes from a boiler through a throttle valve into the steam chest on top of the cylinder. From here it enters the cylinders through one of the two openings (called

41

ports), one on each side of the piston. The steam expands in the cylinder and pushes the piston to the other end of the cylinder. A slide valve controls the steam ports so that steam is admitted alternately to each end of the cylinder (A-1, 2, B-1, 2, 4). Carpenter, Harry A., et al. Our Environ ment-How We Use and Control It. Atlanta, Allyn and Bacon, 1956. pp. 353-354.

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. Who solved the problem of using a steam turbine? When was it solved?

1. Around 1885 an Englishman named Parsons worked out a way to use high-pressure steam and make it move slowly without losing power.

2. How was the problem of the relation between steam speed and turbine speed solved?

2. For a steam turbine to work efficiently it must spin as fast as the steam turns it. This fact presented a problem because steam cannot be slowed down without lowering the pressure and low-pressure steam does little work. On the other hand if the turbine were speeded up enough to work well with high-pressure steam, it would fly to bits. Parsons did this by hooking up many turbine wheels right next to each other. Between each two turbine wheels there were nozzles that took the steam leaving one turbine and turned it back so that it pushed against the next one. All the turbine wheels were on the same shaft. H there are 20 turbine wheels on the same shaft with 20 nozzles between them, the steam loses only part of its pressure at each wheel. Since it drops just a little in pressure each time, it is not moving nearly as fast as if it dropped all its pressure at anyone wheel.

Since the steam is moving more slowly, the turbine can be efficient at lower speeds. Actually the steam is still moving very fast, and turbines are very high-speed machines (A-1, 2, B-l, 2, 3, 4, 6). Stoddard, Edward. The Story of Power. New York, Garden City Books, 1956.

G. Share enriched teacher background.
1. Why did the barrel burst when three centuries ago a French physicist named Pascal performed this demonstration? He took a barrel, filled it with water, and fitted the barrel with a tightfitting tube about 10 feet long. He placed a fun nell over the end of the tube and poured water into the funnel.
2. What does the term hydraulic mean?
3. Why do many of the devices that are called hydraulic use oil instead of water?
4. How does an atomic-powered engine differ from our present steam turbines?

1. When more water was added to the barrel of water, the pressure of the added water was transmitted in all directions. The barrel was not strong enough to withstand this pressure (B-1, 5).
2. The term hydraulic is derived from the Latin word hydraulicus which means a water organ.
3. Oils, like water, are almost incompressible; therefore they obey Pascal's law. Water freezes at too high a temperature (A-1, B-5).
4. There is nothing new about the engine part of an atomic energy machine. It is just a steam turbine like any of the others we have discussed. The big difference is in the fuel that heats the water and changes it to steam. Instead of using coal, or oil, an atomic fuel is used to heat the water (A-1).

42

5. How does man use the steam turbine to do work?

5. Steam turbines are used to turn a ship's propeller and also to drive electric generators which supply electrical energy to electric motors which turn the propellers (B-1).

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow 'hesa guides to conclusions.

1. How is the force of running water used?

1. The force of runnng water is used to turn water wheels.

2. How do we make use of the fact that water and and other liquids are only slightly compressible?

2. We are able to build and operate the hydraulic press, the hydraulic car hoist, the hydraulic brake, etc.

3. How is water which is stored behind big dams made to produce electricity?

3. The water impounded by the dam has enough force as it goes through penstocks to turn water turbines. The tU!'bines arc attached to the armatures of generators which produce electricity.

4. Why is steam one of man's most useful servants?

4. Steam expands to fill all available space and in expanding it exerts pressure which can drive pistons of steam engines, turn turbines at a very rapid rate, and increase th~ boiling point of liquids in pressure cookers.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are dams made thicker at the bottom than at the top? 2. Why is it possible to use hydraulic brakes ef fectively in our cars?
3. Why is it not a good idea to fill a thermos bottle completely full of a liquid and then put the stopper in tightly?
4. Why are steam turbines replacing many steam engines?

1. The water pressure increases as the depth of the water increases.
2. The force applied to the brake pedals acts upon a piston in the master cylinder; this pressure is transmitted undiminished through oil in strong tubes to each brake cylinder, and the pressure of the liquid in the brake cylinder pushes two pistons outward. These pistons are attached to the brake shoes and push the shoes against the brake drum.
3. The pressure will be transmitted throughout the bottle and the bottle may burst.
4. Steam turbines are relatively small and light in weight as well as efficient in operation. They have fewer moving parts than the steam engine which results in less friction.

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Suggest that a member of the class write to the General Electric Company2, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation3, and the AllisChalmers Manufacturing Company4, requesting them to send pictures of the water and steam turbines that they manufacture. Make a bulletin board display of the pictures.
2. Suggest that the class select one of its members to write to one of the major automobile manufacturers and ask for & chart of the hydraulic braking system of an automobile. Post the chart on the bulletin board. This chart can be studied and explained to the class. (Consult textbooks of physics.)
-Address: 570 Lexington Avenue, New York 22, New York
-Address: 360 Fourth Avenue, Pittsburgh 30, Pennsylvania
'Address: 1126 - 70th Street West, Allis 14, Wisconsin
3. Cut out ar.icles in newspapers and news magagines that discuss any use of water in doing work. They should provide material not only for reports in science classes, but also for reports in your socialscience and English classes.

43

4. Make a model of Hero's Engine. Secure a tin can with a friction top (syrup can) which holds about a pint. Put two holes in the can on opposite sides, large enough to carry small one-hole stoppers. Bend two glass tubes as shown in the diagram. The tubes should be drawn to jets on the end. Insert the tubes in the stoppers so that the jets point in opposite directions. Fasten cord to the stoppers, suspend by a swivel or chain. Put water in the can to a depth of 1 1/2 inches or 3 cm; put the cover on tightly and place over a flame.
5. Write a report on the development of the steam engine from the time of Hero to the present day. Include something about the men who have made contributions to its development.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings. 1. Energy acting on matter (water) changes the speed and/or speed relationship of its molecules. 2. Matter (water) in each of its three physical states exhibits properties which are characteristic of that particular state.
B. Develop these understandings. 1. All matter (water) occupies space, has weight ,an dexerts pressure. 2. The kinetic molecular theory of matter assumes that the molecules of matter are in constant motion. 3. The molecules of gases (steam) are darting about at high speed. 4. A gas (steam) always tends to expand throughout all the space available. 5. All liquids (water) are compressible only to a slight degree. 6. Inerth is the property of matter (water) that makes it hard to start bodies or to stop them, or to change the direction in which they are moving.

C Teach these new words. 1. Turbines 2. Hydraulic 3. Piston 4. Cylindrical 5. Solidified 6. Manometer

7. Penstocks 8. Armature 9. Barometer 10. Pelton Wheel 11. Undershot water wheel 12. Overshot water wheel

44

/

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES AND USES OF WATER THAT

MAKE IT AN IMPORTANT COMPOUND?

Grade 8

(Broad Area: Inanimate Matter - Water)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.) 1. Set up on the demonstration desk without any explanation a piece of celery in colored water. 2. Place a live plant (weed )in salt water and a similar plant in fresh water.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem.

(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. How does water get from the soil to the leaves 1. The water goes in the roots and rises in the roots

of plants?

and stems to the leaves.

2. How does the plant get from the soil the miner- 2. The minerals are dissolved in the soil water and

al matter it needs?

go into the roots with the water.

2. Why does ice float?

3. Ice float.> because it is lighter than the water it displaces.

C. Formulate hypotheses.

Do GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBlE

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstrations and encourage individual and small group experiments. (Children should do the & following for each experiment:) observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do B. not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.

1. Collect the following materials: several glass tubes or plastic tubes about 10 inches long and and of different inside diameters, the largest about 1/4 inch; a drinking glass; red coloring; two rubber bands. Fill the glass 3/4 full of colored water. Fasten the tubes together in a bundle with the rub b e r bands. Stand them straight up in the tumbler of colored water.

1. The water rose to different heights in the different tubes (B-1)-.

2. Put an equal volume of water, antifreeze solution (ethylene glycol), and glycerin into 3 separate test tubes. Take the temperature of each. Find out how long it takes the temperature of each liquid to rise 10. Find out how long it takes the temperature of each liquid to drop 10".

2. The water took a longer time for its temperature to rise 10 and also to fall 10 (B-3).

3. Put some dried peas (or beans) into small water glass. Cover the peas with water and allow them to stand until a noticeable change occurs. Put some fresh peas (or beans) into a small water glass. Cover with a saturated salt solution. Put a fresh slice of lemon on a saucer. Cover with dry sugar.

3. The peas swell. The fresh peas become wrinkled (B-2). The sugar soon becomes wet and may dissolve.

-Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

45

4. Collect 3 quart jars or quart milk bottles. Fill each with water. Into the first one put about a tablespoon of sand, into the second a tablespoon of clay and into the third, a tablespoon each of sand, clay, and alum. Shake vigorously and allow to stand. (Add enough alum to clear up the solution.)
5. Put some dry gelatin in a bowl on the desk. Into another bowl (at least 1 1/2 pt. capacity) put an envelope (1 tb.) of dry gelatin. Cover gelatin with cold water and let it stand about 5 minutes. Observe any changes in the gelatin. Heat to boiling 2 cups of water and pour over the softened gelatin. Stir till all the gelatin is dissolved. Set aside in a cool place until the gelatin is firm.
6. Pour a tablespoonful of oil into a bottle of water. Shake vigorously. Set it on the desk and observe. Add a small amount of soap solution. Again shake vigorously.
7. Place a small amount of dry table salt on a piece of filter paper on the desk. On another piece of filter paper put a few crystals of silver nitrate. Now mix the dry table salt and the dry silver nitrate on the filter paper (Do not touch the silver nitrate with your hands). Observe. Put a small amount of table salt into a glass of water. Into another glass of water put a few crystals of silver nitrate. Mix the two clear solutions.
8. Set up an apparatus like that shown in the figure. Collect 3 water glasses or beakers. Into No. 1 put distilled water, into No. 2 perfectly dry salt and into No. 3 a solution of distilled water and salt. Put the clean electrodes into glass No. 1. Close the switch. Watch the light bulb. Wash the electrodes, dry them and put them into No. 2. Repeat the experiment. Again wash the electrodes, dry them, and put into No.3. Repeat the experiment.

4. The sand began to settle immediately and after a short time the water above the sand became almost clear. In the second bottle some of the clay settled to the bottom, and some remained suspended in the water. In the third botttle the sand sank to the bottom, and the clay and alum mixture settled on top of the sand. The water above the clay was clear (B-5a, 5d).
5. No changes seemed to have occurred in the dry gelatin. The cold water caused the dry gelatin to swell and get sticky. The boiling water dissolved the gelatin. After being left in a cool place for several hours, the gelatin Lecame firm (B-5d).
6. The oil broke up into small drops and as soon as the bottle was placed on the desk, the drops started rising to the top. As they rose, the drops joined other drops, and in a short time all the oil was (n top of the water. When soap was added to the oil and water and the mixture was shaken, the oil remained ctattered throughout the solution of soap and water
(B-6).
7. Nothing happened when the dry salt and the cry tals of silver nitrate were mixed (B-5c).
When the solutions of salt and silver nitrate were mixed a white, curdy solid (a precipitate) appeared (B-5c).
8. When the electrodes were put into glass No. 1 (distilled water) and the switch was closed, the bulb did not light. When the electrodes were put into the dry salt, nothing happened. When the electrodes were put into the solution of distilled water and salt, the bulb glowed (B-ID.

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a drug store. Ask the druggist to tell you how he uses distilled water. 2. If it is springtime and large trees are being cut in the neighborhood, observe the pouring of the sap.

D_Use audio-visual aids to add Interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Colloids," No. 201 EBF

1. Explanations of collodial properties are given in terms of experimental illustrations and animated drawings. This film could be used as a review on colloids, but it "tells" too much to be used otherwise (B5).

46

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.
(No textbook assignments are suggested in this unit. This material is not included in the present eighth grade books, July, 1957).

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. What causes water to rise in the soil against the force of gravity?
2. What causes soil water to move into the roots?
3. What is an ion? 4. What role does water play in ionization?
5. What is meant by specific heat?

1. The process by which water rises in the soil is called capillarity. This is due to fine, tubelike spaces in the soil and the fact that water wets the soil (B-1). Smith, Victor C. and W. E. Jones. Enjoying Modern Science. New York, J. B. Lippincott Company, 1956. pp. 432-433.
2. When two liquids of unequal concentration are separated by a thin substance such as a plant membrane (for example, a cell wall), the liquids will try to move toward each other. The inside of the cell is filled with a solution of water and dissolved materials that the cell uses. This solution has fewer molecules of water striking against the cell walls than does the soil water. Therefore, the water in the soil moves into the root (B-2). Frasier, George W., et al. Our Scientific Needs. Syracuse, L. W. Singer Company, 1956. pp. 192-193.
3. An ion is a charged particle (B-7).
4. Water molecules dissociate into positively charged hydrogen ions and negatively charged hydroxyl ions. These exert enough influence on certain water sol ubI e substances (e. g., acids, salts, or bases) to cause the moleucles of these substances to dissociate into positive and negative ions (B8). Ibid.
5. Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of any substance 1C.

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. Of what value to man is the high specific heat of water?
2. Of what value to living organisms is the expansion of water as it cools from 4C. to OC. and become ice?

1. The high specific heat of water makes it slow to get hot and slow to cool off. Therefore, water is a remarkable insulator against temperature changes. Large bodies of water exert a profund influence on the land nearby. Some island temperatures remain about the same the year round. Protoplasm is so largely water that its temperature and hence its rates of chemical action changes much less rapidly than the surrounding land or air. Death from f r e e z i n g or overheating is delayed long enough in many instances for a mobile organism to seek shelter and safety (B-3).
2. When a pond or lake chills in the autumn, the surface water becomes colder and denser and sinks to the bottom, pushing deeper water to the top, until the whole body of water is 4C. As the cooling continues, ice forms and floats on top of the water. Water is a poor conductor of heat so the water under the ice remains at 4C. The semi dormant plants and animals are able to survive in this temperature until spring. The autumnal overturn and spring overturn of the water bring surface liquid-rich in dissolved oxygen-to the bottom where there would be little oxygen (B-4).

47

3. How do true solutions, true suspensions, and collodial dispersions differ from one another?

3. In a true solution the particles of the solute are scattered uniformly throughout the solvent; the solution is clear and transparent; the particles do not settle out upon standing; the particles are small enough to pass through filter paper. In a suspension the particles are large enough to be seen; the particles will not pass through filter paper; the particles settle out upon standing. In a colloidal dispersion, the particles are too small to be seen but are too large to pass through filter paper. A strong beam of light will show up the particles in a colloidal dispersion because the particles are large enough to reflect the light. (This is the Tyndall effect). (B-g).

4. What are some other properties peculiar to colloids?

4. A particle in the colloidal state is a group of molecules that is electrically charged. Some colloidal particles are charged positively (e. g., albumen and hemoglobin); other colloidal particles are charged negatively (e. g., clay and oil emulsions) (B-5a). Colloids show the property of adsorption to a great degree. The very small size of the colloidal particle results in an extremely large total surface area. Fine particles tend to coat their surfaces with layers of the substance to which they are exposed (B-Sb).

5. Why is protoplasm classed as a colloid?

5. The particles in protoplasm are arranged in molecular sizes and distributed so as to form a colloidal dispersion. Protoplasm shows many of the same properties that other colloids exhibit (B-S, 9).

6. How can water be termed a source of energy?

6. Biochemists of today believe that water as a molecule participates in many of the chemical reactions in protoplasm. It combines with starches as these are converted into sugars. It unites with fats when these split into fatty acids and glycerol. The starches, the sugars, and the fats are the socalled energy foods. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. It is an important source of these two elements. Hydrogen is believed to be the means by which the energy in living organisms is transferred (B-9).

7. What is the behavior of water during osmosis?

7. In osmosis, the random movement of water molecules makes it possible for them to diffuse through differentially permeable membrane from an area where there are many water molecules to an area where there are proportionally fewer (B12).

m FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions.
1. How does the height to which water rises in capillary tubes compare with the diameter of the tubes?
2. Why does it take a body of water longer to get hot and longer to cool off than it does the body of land nearb1?

1. The smaller the diameter of the tube, the higher the water will rise in it.
2. Water has a higher specific heat than land. It requires more heat to raise the temperature of water one degree; therefore, water is slow to get hot and slow to cool off.

3. Why would a bottle filled with dried beans burst if the beans are covered with water and the bottle is then tightly capped?
4. What caused the clay and water suspension to clear up when the alum was added?
5. How is it possible to make a pint of jello dessert from a small package of dry jello?
6. Why did the dry table salt and silver nitrate show no ervidence of reacting, but reacted quickly when water was present?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is it important that farmers continue surface cultivation of their crops during dry weather?
2. Why does strong salt water from an ice cream freezer harm your grass or other plants?
3. If you live in a house that does not have central heating, how could you keep your potted plants from freezing in the winter, using the knowledge you have gained about the nature of water?
4. Why do you keep home-made mayonnaise in the refrigerator, but not in the coldest part of the refrigerator?
5. Why are plants and animals able to survive in ponds and streams that freeze over in the winter?
6. Why do shipwrecked sailors sometimes die of thirst?

3. The water enters the beans by osmosis. The beans swell and exert pressure on the bottle.
4. The clay particles and the water formed a colcoidal dispersion. The clay particles are negatively charged. When the alum was added to the solution, some p 0 sit i vel y charged aluminum ions appeared. These reacted with the clay particles to produce large enough particles to drop out of the solution.
5. The jello and water form a colloidal dispersion. The absorbing property of colloids enables the dry particles to collect and hold great quantities of water.
6. This is evidently an ionic reaction. No ions were present until the water caused the ionization of each compound.
1. Shallow surface cultivation of the soil breaks the tops of the capillary tubes. The fine soil particles resulting from the cultivation fill in the tops of the tubes and slow down the evaporation of water.
2. Strong salt solutions will kill grass and most other plants because of osmosis. The number of water molecules in proportion to salt molecules in the salt solution is less than the number of water molecules in proportion to the molecules of dissolved substances in the plants. As a result, water leaves the plants and the plants die.
3. Put the plants on stands or tables around a room and place a large tub of water in the middle of the room. The water, because of its high specific heat, is slow to freeze and as it cools it gives off heat. This heat will keep the plants from freezing if the temperature does not drop too low.
4. Mayonnaise is a colloidal dispersion. This dispersion can be broken down by temperatures that are too high or too low.
5. When water freezes it expands, and the ice formed floats on the surface, forming a protective insulating layer which keeps the temperature of the water from going below 4C.
6. The salt water of the sea is denser than the water in the body; therefore, water is withdrawn from the cells of the body by osmosis.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings. 1. Matter (water) in each of its three physical states exhibits properties which are characteristic of that particular state. 2. All matter (water) occupies space, has weight, and exerts pressure.
B. Develop these understandings. 1. Liquids, largely because of cohesion and adhesion, exhibit special phenomena, e. g., capillarity.

49

2. Within the bodies of plants and animals, water and substances in solution pass by 0 s m 0 sis through membranes.
3. The specific heat of water is greater than that of almost all other substances.
4. Energy acting on a liquid has a tendency to change the speed and relationship of its molecules, thereby changing its volume and density.
5. Colloidal mixtures are composed of two substances, one of which is called the dispersing medium and the other the dispersed medium. a. Colloidal particles may carry electrical charges. b. Colloids have the property of absorption to an unusual degree. c. Colloidal substances show greater chemical activity than the solid substances in mass. d. Temperature changes, pressure changes, the presence of electrolytes or the presence of oppositely charged particles may cause colloids to precipitate.
6. The presence of a third substance in a mixture of two immiscible liquids will produce a colloidal dispersion known as emulsion, provided that each of the immiscible liquids is soluble in that substance.
7. Atoms or groups of atoms that gain or lose electrons form charged particles called ions.
8. Water molecules dissociate slightly into positively charged hydrogen ions and negatively charged hydroxyl ions.
9. Inanimate matter exists in certain chemical forms; elements, compounds, mixtures, and colloids, each having characteristic properties.

C. Teach these new words.
1. Dispersion 2. Colloid 3. Ion 4. Ionization

5. Capillarity 6. Emulsion 7. Supersaturated 8. Osmosis

50

Introduction To Nutrition
Animate matter has a number of unique characteristics including the ability to grow, to move, to reproduce, and to metabolize food. A principle which is found in each of these characteristics is summed up in the single word nutrition. The committee found this a logical principle to develop vertically from grades on through eight and to expand horizontally at each level. The guides which have been developed are not presented as the final draft for expert teaching; rather it is hoped that teachers will present suggestions and comments about each unit.

PROBLEM: HOW ARE PLANTS AND ANIMALS DEPENDENT UPON PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
Grade 4 (Broad Area: Animate Matter - Nutrition)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)
1. Arrange a table display of edible plants and plant parts, some bleached and some green, such as cauliflower, celery, cabbage and Irish potato.
2. Discuss the plants growing in the classroom and talk about what each needs to grow.
3. Grow some plants in the room from vegetable tops such as carrots, beets, or radishes.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem. Following is an example based on activity 1, above, arranging a table display.)

Suggested Lead Questions 1. What kinds of plants are on the table?

Possible Pupil Responses 1. They are vegetables.

2. What do you notice about the color of the plants 2. Some plants are green, and some have little or

on the table?

no green coloring.

3. What is the color of most plants that you have 2. Most of the plants that we have seen are green. seen?

4. Why are cabbage leaves greener on the outside than on the inside?

4. Let's find out. (The children are led to recognize and tate a problem, such as "How are plants and animals dependent upon photosynthesis?")

C. Formulate hypotheses.

IT. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggf:lsted Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
(Children should do the following for each experiment observe accurately what was done and record ex actly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Place a small amount of corn starch in a container of water. Add a drop of iodine solution and shake.

1. The cornstarch changed from white to purple when iodine solution was added (B-1).

2. Heat to boiling a green leaf from a geranium plant which has been growing in the sun. Let it remain for two or three minutes; transfer the leaf to cold alcohol. When the leaf has lost its color, dip it in cool water to rinse. Place iodine solution on the leaf.

1. The corn starch changed from white to purple from the leaf. When iodine solution was placed on the leaf, it turned dark blue or purple (B-1).

-Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

51

3. Place one pot containing bean seedlings in a dark place, and leave one pot containing bean seedlings in a sunny location. Compare after a week.
4. Select a large geranium leaf and enclose it securely in a bag of aluminum foil. Leave the plant in the light. After several days, test the leaf which have been covered for the presence of starch as in demonstration experiment 2, above. At the same time test another leaf from tills geranium plant in the same manner. Be certain you have a separate set of dishes for boiling and alcohol.
5. Water a potted plant thoroughly. Place a layer of dry sand over the soil. Cover the pot and the soil with aluminum foil, leaving only the plant uncovered. Place a jar over the plant and observe.

3. The seedlings which had been in the dark had a yellow, unhealthy appearance; those in the sun remained green (B-1).
4. That leaf protected from light did not change color when covered with iodine solution. The leaf exposed to light turned dark blue (B-1).
5. Beads of water formed inside the jar (B-1).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.

1. Sow radish seeds in regular potting soil in a cheese box. Cover the seeds lightly with soil. When the tiny plants show above the ground, thin them out so that there is an inch between each plant. Pull up one plant every week.

1. The underground roots grew larger and larger until the radishes were ready to eat (B-1).

2. Dissolve cobalt chloride crystals in water and place pieces of filter paper in the solution. Remove the paper and allow it to dry until it turns blue. Store in a closed mayonnaise jar. Place a drop of water on a piece of blue cobalt chloride paper. Fold a piece of cobalt chloride paper and place a leaf in the fold. Hold in place with a paper clip. Examine the paper after a few minutes.

2. We learned how to prepare a material for use in our science class (B-1).
The blue paper turned pink when water touched it.
The blue cobalt chloride paper was dotted with pink spots, indicating the presence of water (B-t).

3. Measure a young bamboo shoot at dusk and again 3. The bamboo shoot grew during the night. the next morning.

4. Take three seedlings of the same size. Remove the leaves from one, remove half the leaves from another, and leave the third unharmed. Compare growth in each after a few days.

4. The seedling with no leaves grew the least. The undisturbed seedling grew the best (B-t).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Visit a thickly wooded area and notice the absence of lower branches and undergrowth.

1. Lower branches and undergrowth cannot get sunlight and make food, and at last they die. Trees in the forest receive the light only from the top, and they grow tall and straight. Trees in a field receive light from all directions and grow thick and bushy as well as tall (B-1).

2. Make a field trip to observe mistletoe, Spanish moss, and vines.
3. Collect lichens to bring back to class for microscopic observation. Place a small piece of lichen on a glass slide. Tease it apart with a needle and examine it under a microscope or magni fying glass.

2. Some plants depend on others for food, support, or shelter (B-2).
3. A lichen is formed by an intimate association between a fungus and an alga (B-2).

52

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Photosynthesis," No. 4214-A
2. "How a Plant Makes Food," Young America Filmstrips
3. "Balance Among Living Things," Popular Science Filmstrips

1. We saw that there must be chlorophyll, raw materials, and sunlight in order for a plant to carry on the process of photosynthesis (B-1).
2. We saw that energy is used in plants for move ment, growth, and the manufacture of food. This filmstrip shows several scenes relating to photosynthesis (B-1).
3. This filmstrip shows the interdependence of plants and animals on land (B-2).

E. ~Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. What causes green leaves on some trees to change color and fall from the trees in autumn?
2. Do evergreen trees ever lose their leaves?
3. What happens to much of the water that goes into plants?
4. What materials are necessary for plant growth?

1. Food manufacturing and growth slow up with the shorter days, cool nights, and dry weather of autumn. The green cWorophyli gradually fades and other color pigments - yellow, orange, or redstand out. Changes in the cells at the base of the leaf cause the leaf to fall from the tree (B-1).
2. All trees lose leaves, but some shed them in the fall, others in the spring. Most evergreen trees keep their leaves for several years and shed old leaves gradually (B-1).
3. Much of the water that goes into plants passes out of the plants as water vapor.
4. Water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, and traces of other minerals are necessary for plant growth (B-1).

F._Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. Dickenson, Alice. The First Book of Plants. New York, Franklin Watts, Inc., 1953.

1. CWorelia can be grown quickly to produce large amounts of food which may be needed to supply the earth's increasing population (B-1).

2. Freeman, Ira M. All About the Wonders of Chemistry. New York, Random .House, 1954.

2. Photosynthesis is the process by which light activates cWorophyli to combine water with carbon dioxide in the formation of starches, sugars, and other important plant foods (B-1).

3. Huntington, Harriet E. Let's Go to the Desert. 3. We get foods, medicines, spices, fuel, lumber,

Garden City, New York, Doubleday, 1949.

clothing, naval stores, paper, etc. (B-1).

4. Lane, Ferdinand C. All About the Flowering World. New York, E. M. Hale and Company, 1956.

5. Podendorf, IDa. The True Book of Trees. Chicago, Children's Press, 1954.

6. Zim, Herbert S. What's Inside of Plants? New York, William Morrow and Company, 1952.

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. How does the plant use light?
2. How does carbon dioxide enter the plant?

1. CWorophyli bearing portions are usually located at the surface of the leaves. Light passes through, furnishing power for the process of photosynthesis (B-1).
2. In the leaves are many tiny openings called stomata. Through these openings the carbon dioxide enters the leaf.

53

3. How do plants and animals differ in their ability to make food?
4. What are parasitic plants?
5. What is a mushroom? 6. In what ways do animals help plants?

3. Most plants carry on photosynthesis and thus make their own food. Plants with no chlorophyll and most animals are dependent on other plants for food (B-I, 2).
4. Some plants live at the expense of their hosts. Love vine (dodder) is an example of such a plant. Certain of the fungi, like ringworm and athlete's foot, live at the expense of humans (B-2).
5. Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of certain fungi which feed on decaying organic matter
(B-2).
6. Man helps plants through selective breeding and cultivation. Many insects aid in pollination; birds and mammals distribute seeds; and birds destroy insect pests. Decaying animal bodies and waste products return to the soil mineral salts needed by plants (B-I, 2).

ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions.

1. Where do green plants make their food? 2. How do green plants make their food?
3. How do green plants use their food? 4. How do green plants help other plants?
5. How do green plants help animals? 6. How do animals help plants?
7. How do we use green plants?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do some farmers place beehives in their orchards? 2. Why do we put water plants in the aquarium?

1. Green plants make their food in their leaves and stems.
2. In the presence of chlorophyll, light energy combines water and carbon dioxide into usable food in the green plant. This process is called photosynthesis.
3. The plant uses some of the food it makes for immediate growth and energy. The remainder is stored in the plant for future use.
4. Green plants act as living hosts to plants such as mistletoe. Non-green plants may get food from decaying green plants. Some green plants furnish shade, protection, and support for other plants.
5. Green plants release oxygen into the air and water, providing food and shelter for some animals.
6. Different animals help plants in different ways; i. e., bees carry pollen, birds eat insects that are destructive to plants, earthworms keep the soil aerated, animals scatter seeds, and decayed organic matter provides food for plants.
7. Green plants help conserve water and soil. In addition, they furnish our food directly or indirectly, lumber for implements and shelter, fibers for clothing, medicines, perfumes, fuel, rubber, naval stores, and many other products.
1. Bees pollinate the fruit trees as they search for nectar.
2. Oxygen is released as a by-product of photosynthesis. Fish need the oxygen to live.

3. Where would we expect to find mushrooms?
4. Why do we need to keep the dust off the leaves of the plants in the room?
5. Why might we say that milk is a product of photosynthesis?
.6. Why is the air in a forest fresher than in the city?
7. How can we take grass stain out of clothes?
8. How does the potato beetle which eats leaves prevent good potatoes from being produced?
c.. Do projects for fun.
1. Study a balanced aquarium. Excellent direction for a balanced aquarium may be found in Blough and Campbell, Making and Using Classroom Materials in the Elementary School, and in Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher.
2. Make a balanced terrarium.

3. Mushrooms form on dead trees or where there is decaying organic matter.
4. Dust may clog the pores and interfere with respiration and transpiration.
5. Cows eat green plants and produce milk.
6. The trees give off moisture and more oxygen than is used by plants and animals in the forest.
7. Place stained part in alcohol for two or three minutes.
8. The leaves of the plant make the food that is used by the plant and stored in the potato.
1. Keep a notebook and make notes of the changes observed in the aquarium.
2. Observe the cycle of moisture.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings.
1. All living things need food, air, water, and light in order to grow.
2. Some animals have the ability to utilize plants as a primary source of their food; some utilize other animals; and some utilize both plants and animals.
..3. -:A;U living things need carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, water, and vitamins in order to live.
4. Living organisms build up reserves of food in specialized tissues of their bodies. 5. Man and some other animals use a variety of methods ,external to the body ,of storing food for future
use.

B .Develop these understandings. 1. Chlorophyll-containing organisms can manufacture their own food. 2. Organisms which lack chlorophyll depend upon organic matter for food.

35

PROBLEM: WHAT IS A BALANCED DIET?
Grade 5 (Broad Area: Animate Matter - Nutrition)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.) 1. Arrange a bulletin board display of charts of foods or menus for a day.
2. Take a trip to a dairy, food-processing plant, grocery store, or farm.

3. Have a discussion of lunchroom participation.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem.

(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem. The following is an example based on activity 3, above.)

1. What foods do you like best?

1. !'- variety of responses will be made.

2. What other foods do you like?

2. Foods may be listed on board in the basic seven groups as pupils name them. To obtain a chart of the basic seven foods, see reference listed under
n, D.

3. How are the foods in each group alike?

3. Lead the children to see the groupings as natural groups, such as sugar and starches are carbohydrates.

4. Why is it important to eat some foods from 4. Answers to this can lead to an understanding of

each group every day?

a problem such as, "What is a balanced diet?"

C.,Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Place a small piece of apple in a test tube and heat. Water will form near the mouth of the tube. Use this as a control. Place dry foods, such as grain, shelled nuts, and dry cereal in test tubes and heat.
2. As a control, place a small bit of butter on a piece of paper. Test other materials, such as peanut butter, white flour, bacon, and sugar.

1. Dry foods contain water. Drops of water formed inside the mouth of the tube when the apple was heated. The same thing hapened when the dry foods were heated (B-1).
2. There are ways to recognize fats. The butter made a greasy spot of the paper. Peanut butter and bacon made greasy spots, teo, but the flour and sugar did not (B-1).

3. Burn a piece of known protein, such as feathers, hair ,or wool, as a control. Note the odor. Burn different foods like meat, cheese, bread, and sugar. Note the odor. (A hot plate may be used to burn the dillerent materials.)

3. There are ways to recognize proteins. The burning feathers gave off a peculiar odor. The meat and cheese gave off the same odor, but the burning bread and sugar gave a different one (B-l).

4. Burn a piece of charcoal to ashes. The ashes are minerals. Heat a piece of apple, potato chip, sugar, and s i mil a r foods until completely burned.

4. We can show that minerals are present in foods. The charcoal burned to ashes. After the foods burned, ashes were left (B-1).

Numbers in parenthese refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

56

5. Put a drop of iodine solution on some laundry starch. Note the color. In the same way, test bread, cookies, Irish potato, and a slice of apple.
6. Add Benedict's solution to sugar and heat it.

5. We saw that iodine solution turned starch blue or purple. The bread, cookies, and potato turned dark where iodine solution touched them. The apple did not change (B-1).
6. We saw that sugar turned the Benedict's solution an orange-red color (B-1).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
1. Take the cream of a bottle of milk. Put it in a glass jar and shake it until butter forms.
2. Let the milk sour and heat it a little. White fluffy curds appear. Strain and salt it, and you have cottage cheese.
3. The whey tasted sweet (B1).
4. Evaporate the whey.
5. Test the products formed in 1 4 and identify the foods.

1. We made butter from cream.
2. We made cottage cheese (B-1).
3. They whey tasted sweet (B-1). 4. A sticky material was left (B-1). 5. We proved that butter was a fat, cottage cheese
was a protein, and whey contained sugar and some minerals. We decided that milk is a complete food.

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Bring in the school nurse or dietitian to talk about a balanced diet.

1. We learned how to compute the number of calories we need, and we learned which foods are the nutritious ones (B-3).

2. Have a hospital dietitian tell about special diets needed by certain patients.

2. We learned such facts as these: why post-operative patients need high protein diet; why diabetic patients need a low carbohydrate diet (B-1, 3).

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Foods That Build Good Health," No. 2263 - 1 reel

1. The relationship between good health and the foods eaten was shown (B3).

2. "Fundamentals of Diet" No. 127 - 1 reel

2. A classification of foods was shown. We saw a controlled nutrition experiment in this film (B-3).

3. "Understanding Vitamins," No. 1911 - 2 reels 3. This film showed how vitamin C was discovered; we also learned how vitamins affect us (Bl).

4. "How to Grow Well and Strong," Poplar Science Filmstrips

4. Some rules for growing up well and strong were demonstrated (B-3).

5. ''You and Your Food," Young America Films (Filmstrip)
vi
6. "The Wheel of Good Eating," (chart) American
Institute of Baking, 1135 W. Fullerton Avenue,
Chicago 14, lllinois

5. The importance of the right kind of food for good health was emphasized (B3).
6. We saw which foods were placed in the seven segments of the wheel (Bl, 3).

7. Charts showing the basic daily food require- 7. We observed what our basic daily food require-

ments.

ments are (B-3).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. What is enriched bread?
2. What is irradiated milk?

1. Enriched bread is that made from flour to which vitamins have been added (B-1).
2. Irradiated milk bas been exposed to ultra-violet rays or has had itamin D added to it (B-1).

57

3. How can you replace water that is lost from the body each day?
4. Why is it necessary for you to eat some foods containing fat?
5. Why must you eat some protein every day?
6. Why should your diet contain carbohydrates?
7. Why is water classified as a food?

3. Water that is lost from the body each day is replaced by the foods we eat and the liquids we drink (B-1).
4. Fat is a source of energy as well as of fat-soluble vitamins (B-1).
5. Proteins are the only foods which can build and repair tissues (cells) in my body (B-I).
6. Carbohydrates are the chief source of energy. They may be changed into fat in the body (B-I).
7. About 75 per cent of all protoplasm is water. Water is one of the six nutrients of the body
(E-l).

F. Refer to these general references for additional in.formation.

1. Why do biochemists usually use rats in experimenting with diets?
2. Why is carotene so important in the diet? 3. What is the purpose of roughage in the human
diet?

1. The rat is easy to handle; it breeds quickly so that there is always a good supply; it does not eat much; and, like man, it eats almost anything (B-1). Asimov, Issac. The Chemicals of Life. New York, Albelard-Shuman, 1954.
2. Carotene is a good source of Vitamin A (B-I). Ibid.
3. Roughage assists in the process of elimination (B-1). Cosgrove, Margaret. The Wonders Inside You. New York, Dodd, Mead and Company, 1955.

4. What elements combine to make sugar and starch?
5. What is the relation between deficiency in certain vitamins and such diseases as pellagra, scurvy, beriberi, night blindness, and rickets?
G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. How do we measure food energy?
2. Do all foods have the same caloric value? 3. What are the sources of minerals?
4. What are some of the important minerals, and how are they used by the body?

4. starch and sugar are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (B-I). Asimov, op. cit.
5. Most of the body regulators like the vitamins assist the body in utilizing its food. When specific vitamins are lac kin g, some foods cannot be metabolized by the body, and dis e a s e results (B-1). Callahan, Dorothy and Alma Smith Payne. The Great Nutrition Puzzle. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1956.
1. Food energy is measured in calories. A nutrition Calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise 1000 cc. of water one degree centigrade (B-2).
2. Fats have a higher caloric value than proteins or carbohydrates (B-2).
3. Minerals come from the ground. Some are stored in various plant parts. We get some minerals by eating plants or by eating animals which have used plants for foods (Bl).
4. Calcium and phosphorus are needed for building strong bones and teeth. Muscle activity and some of the other body functions, particularly energy release, depend on calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. Iodine in small amounts is needed for the production of thyroid hormone. Iron is important in the formation of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells. Nutritional anemia may result from a diet inadequate in iron.

li8

Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATON GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What foods give us energy?
2. What are the foods which build and repair body structure?
3. Which foods help regulate body processes and prevent diseases?
4. What is the function of water in the body?
5. What foods are predominantly carbohydrate? 6. What foods contain protein? 7. What foods contain fats? 8. What are the sources of minerals?
9. How can we measure food energy?

1. Fats provide the greatest amount of energy per

unit. Carbohydrates also furnish energy and are

our main source of energy.

.

2. Foods rich in protein and minerals build and re-

pair the body.

3. Foods containing vitamins help regulate body processes and prevent disease. Fruits, whole grain cereals and bread, milk, eggs, liver, butter, peas, greens, and carrots are some vitamin-rich foods.

4. Water helps to keep the body cool, digest and transport food, carry away waste materials, release energy, and keep the body supplied with its normal amount of fluid.

5. Potatoes, bread, corn, cereals, and fruit are predominantly carbohydrate.

6. Protein is found in lean meat, milk, eggs, fish, peas, beans, and soybeans.

7. Large amounts of fat are present in butter, cream, bacon, and nuts.

8. All soils contain minerals, but these minerals are present in different amounts in different soils. The soil water dissolves some of the minerals present in the soil. Plants grown in these soils use the water to make up a part of their structure; at the same time they absorb the minerals. Animals usually obtain minerals from plants; man's sources of minerals are both animals and plants.

9. We measure food energy in Calories.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why does soil erosion present a nutritional problem?
2. Why do Eskimos need much fat in their diet?
3. Why should night fliers include carrots in their diet?
4. Why is whole wheat or enriched bread better for you than white bread?
5. What are some evidences that a stray pet, such as a dog, has not been receiving the proper diet?
6. Who ate the best balanced meal ~ the following lunches which were eaten by Tom, Dick, and
Harry?
a. Tom-a package of doughnuts, a soft drink, aIid a candy bar.

1. Minerals are picked up by plants and passed on to animals. Soil erosion removes these vital minerals before plants can utilize them. When our only source of minerals is these mineral-deficient plants, a nutritional problem may result.
2. Fats provide more energy per unit of weight than any other food materials.
3. Carrots are rich in carotene which our bodies can convert into Vitamin A. Vitamin A, in turn, helps to prevent night blindness.
4. The processing of wheat into white flour removes most of the vitamins. Using enriched or whole wheat flour provides vitamins.
5. The stray dog is thin, his coat is dull, he may have sores around his mouth or eyes, and he may be listless or drag his hind quarters.
6. Tom and Harry included large amounts of carbohydrates in their lunches. Dick's diet included vegetables, milk, meat, and bread.

51l

b. Dick-a bowl of vegetable soup, a lettuce and ham sandwich, and a glass of milk.
c. Harry-a dish of macaroni and cheese, a baked sweet potato, a piece of cake, and a glass of milk.
C. Do projects for fun.
1. Suggest to the Student Council or similar organization a school-wide effort to eat the balanced lunches served in the school lunchroom. Posters may be displayed throughout the s c h 0 0 1, and children may visit other classrooms as resource persons to talk about the value of a balanced diet.
2. Plan menus for two days to be used at a weekend camp-out. Children may check each other's menus to determine if all basic foods are included.
3. Write a play to which parents may be invited. The play may be a creative interpretation of the concepts learned in this unit.
4. Plan an original program patterned after the television program, "You Were There," to portray the circumstances involved in the discovery of the significance of Vitamin C or one of the other vitamins.
5. List the foods you eat in a day. Which of these are your b est source of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, and water?
6. Make charts of foods which contain Vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, and Vitamin D, and show what each vitamin does.

(Foods Containing Vitamin A)

(What Vitamin A Does)

Whole milk Carrots Apricots Tomatoes Greens Butter Cheese

Protects eyes from some diseases and night blindness. Protects ears, nose, throat, and lungs from some diseases.

7. Cut out pictures of muscle-building foods, energy-producing foods, and the like, and paste on a chart.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings. 1. All living things need food, air, water, and light in order to grow. 2. All living things need carbohydrates, fats, proteins, .minerals, water, and vitamins in order to live. 3. Living organisms build up reserves of food in specialized tissues of their bodies.
B. Develop these understandings. 1. Living organisms need a variety of substances called food to produce energy, to build and repair tissue, and to regulate body processes. 2. Different foods have different energy values. 3. For normal growth and development, not only a given quantity of food is necessary but also a variety which will provide the material that the body needs.

60

--
(PROBLEM: HOW IS FOOD DIGESTED?)
Grade 6 (Broad Area: Animate Matter-Nutrition)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.) 1. Have a discussion about favorite foods. 2. Cut and squeeze some saliva-stimulating food, such as a lemon. 3. Show a film or filmstrip on digestion. 4. Have a discussion about selfcontrol and the reasons for it, including the effect on digestion.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem. The following is an
example based on experience 2, above.) 1. What happened in your mouth when I cut and squeezed the lemon? 2. What happened when you placed a drop of lemon juice on your tongue? 3. How does this flowing of saliva aid in digestion? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.

(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Plan an experiment such as the following on two pieces of white bread of the same size. Chew 'one piece until it is softened to a semi liquid mass. Place the mass in a test tube. Moisten the second piece of bread with water and mash with a spoon until it is approximately the same consistency as the chewed bread. Place this mass in a second test tube. To both tubes add iodine solution.

1. Iodine turned the bread purple. Little or no starch reaction was noted on the chewed bread (B-1, 2)*.

2. Into one cup of lukewarm milk, stir a crushed rennin or Junket tablet and pour it into a small bowl or dish. Pour a second cup of lukewarm milk into a similar bowl. Allow the two bowls to stand undisturbed for 1/2 to 3/4 of an hour. Examine the consistency of each at this time. (Rennin is produced in the stomach of animals.)

2. The bowl containing milk and rennin was in a gel state. This would be the effects on milk in the stomach.

3. Place a few pieces of cooked egg white in each of three test tubes. Into tube 1 add water and dilute hydrochloric acid. To test tube 2 add water and pepsin; and to tube 3 add the hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Set the tubes aside overnight. Examine.

3. There seemed to be no change in the egg white in tubes 1 and 2. In tube 3 the egg white changed in these ways: the opaque quality had altered somewhat, and the firmness of the egg white was less (Bl, 2). Egg whites and other protein would be affected in the stomach as it was in tube 3.

*Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

61

4. Crush corn, bean, pea or wheat seeds and test for glucose with Benedict's Solution. Germinate
similar seeds; crush and test for starch and glucose. (It is desirable to begin the experiment of the germination of the bean seed approximately two or three days prior to the experiment.)

4. Ungerminated seeds reacted with iodine to give a positive starch test, and they gave a negative. test
with the Benedict's solution. Germinated seeds gave a positive Benedict's test as well as a positive iodine test for starch (B-3).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
(Experiments 1-4 under Demonstration Experiments may be planned as individual or demonstration experiments.)

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Visit a meat market and have the manager show various types of digestive organs used for food.
3. Visit a slaughter house and obtain a stomach to explain the coordination between the muscular and digestive system.

1. We found livers, pancreases, tongue, and gizzard on sale in the market (B-4).
2. This could be used as an individual project.

D. Us audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Digestion of Foods," No. 266
2. Use a chart showing the parts of the digestive system.
3. "Your Food and Digestion," (Filmstrip) The Jam Handy Organization

1. (B-1, 4) 3. (B-4)

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. Where is food digested in humans?
2. Why must food be digested before it can get into the bloodstream?
3. How do muscles help digest food?

1. Digestion'in humans begins in the mouth, continues in the stomach, and is completed in the upper part of the small intestine.
2. The different foods must be broken into their simpliest diffusible molecules before they can pass through the membranes of the intestines into the tiny blood and lymph vessels (B-1).
3. The muscles of the stomach and intestines help churn and mix food. The muscles of the esophagus move the food downward to the stomach (B-4).

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. What moves the food through the digestive tract?
2. What are the organs of digestion involved in humans?
3. What is in my stomach that aids digestion?

1. Food is moved by a directional muscular response known as peristalsis (B-4). Cosgrove, Margaret. The Wonders Inside You. New York, Dodd, Mead and Company, 1955.
2. The mouth, the esophagus, the stomach and the intestines (large and small) with their glands are the organs involved in digestion; the liver and the pancreas are the accessory glands of digestion (B-4). Ravielli, Anthony. Wonders of the Human Body. New York, The Viking Press, 1954.
3. There are glands in the lining of my stomach which produce digestive juice. This secretion is called gastric juice (B1, 2) Ibid.; Zim, Herbert S. What's Inside of Me? New York, William Morrow & Company, 1952.

62

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. What are the products of carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion?
2. How are enzymes named? 3. In what glands are the digestive enzymes of the
human secreted?
4. What is the function of the large intestine?
5. Is all sugar the same?
6. How do plants digest food?
7. Where do plants get their enzymes for aiding in the digestion of food?

1. Carbohydrates are converted into simple sugar the most common of which is glucose. Proteins are digested into amino acids. Fats are changed into fatty acids and glycerin.
2. Enzymes are named by adding the ending -ase to the name of the food which may help digest (B-2).
3. Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, gastric juice by the gastric glands of the stomach, bile by the liver,- pancreatic juice by the pancreas, and intestinal fluids by the small intestines (B-4).
4. The large intestine absorbs water from the waste material and holds solid wastes until enough have accumulated to be evacuated (B-4).
5. When carbohydrates are ijigested, they are broken down into progressively smaller units: starches become double sugars (cane, beet, or corn sugar); double sugars become simple sugars (glucose or grape sugar is the most common.) (B-1).
6. Digestion by plants occurs in two ways: (a) by enzymatic action within the cell where the food is stored (as in sprouting seeds); (b) by enzymatic action on food outside the body of the plant (as in bread molds) (B-4).
7. Plants manufacture specific enzymes for the type of food they store (B-3).

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. Where does the process of digestion begin in our bodies? 2. What happens to food in our stomach?
3. What happens to food in the intestinal tract of the human?
4. How do emotions affect digestion of food in our bodies?
5. How do plants use their stored food?

1. In some animals the process of digestion starts in the mouth where tearing apart and liquidizing of food begins.
2. Motions of the stomach mix the food with the gastric juices. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and two enzymes: rennin, and pepsin.
3. Digestive juices in the upper portion of the small intestine continue and complete the digestion of food so that it can pass through the membranes of the small intestines and blood vessels into the blood stream.
4. Emotions cause changes in the functioning of the digestive tract. By actual observation of the stomach, it has been noted that sadness and fright slowed down the action of the stomach, and anger and excitement caused activity of the stomach. These reactions are the results of the amount of of the flow of the gastric juice.
5. By secreting enzymes near the celIs where the food is stored, plants are able to dissolve the stored material and make it available for use

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is it important to chew food well?

1. Chewing breaks food into small particles which may then be digested more easily. Also saliva CODtains the enzyme ptyalin which chemically begins to change starch to simple sugar.

63

2. How are some animals that swallow their food whole able to digest food in such large pieces?
3. Why is it important to have quietness and pleasantness at mealtime?
4. Why do athletes not eat a heavy meal immediately before a contest?

2. Animals such as dogs and s n a k e s have more powerful digestive juices than man and can digest large pieces of food.
3. Excess emotions can stop the digestive movement in the stomach from several minutes to several hours.
4. A large quantity of blood is needed by the digestive system immediately after a meal. Muscular activity also requires large quantities of blood.

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Make clay models of different digestive organs.
2. Make a chart showing the process of digestion, using such divisions as these: organ, gland, digestive secretion, enzymes, function.
3. Carve a set of baby teeth. Carve a set of permanent teeth and label the different types of teeth.
4. Design a project to show plants using stored food, such as germinating seeds, sprouting potatoes, continuing growth of calTot, beet, or turnip top.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these under~tandings. 1. Living organisms need a variety of substances ,called food to produce energy, to build and repair tissue, and to regulate body processes. 2. Different foods have different energy values.
3. For normal growth and development, not only a given quantity of food is necessary but also a variety which will provide the material that the body needs.
B. Develop these understandings
1. Digestion converts, by hydrolysis, large particles of food into smaller ones which can diffuse through living membranes.
2. Enzymes speed the process of digestion by catalysis.
3. Organisms manufacture the specific enzymes necessary to aid the digestion of the type of food they store.
4. Living organisms digest food outside the body or within cells or in specialized systems of organs

PROBLEM: WHAT HAPPENS TO FOOD AFTER AN ORGANISM DIGESTS IT?
Grade 1 (Broad Area: Animate Matter-Nutrition)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following activities may be used.) 1. Show a film on digestion and metabolism. 2. Have a discussion about why some people fail to grow even though they eat what appears to be wellbalanced meals. 3. Set up pictures, models, or an actual basal metabolism machine on the interest table. Some students may know what the machine is; others can be led to ask questions about it and what it does.
B. Int,roduce questions relating to the problem.
(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.) Questions based on an introductory activity should lead to a recognition of a relationship between digestion and metabolism. Such an exercise could lead to the statement of a problem such as "What hap pens to food after an organism digests it?"
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and reo cord exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Put a spoonful of Dyno (glucose) on a dry filter paper. Dissolve another spoonful of Dyno in a glass half full of water. Pour the dissolved sugar on another piece of filter paper. Taste the filtrate.

1. Nothing happened to the sugar on the dry filter paper. The solution passed freely through the filter. The filtrate tasted sweet (A-I)*.

2. Place some Benedict's solution in a test tube half filled with water. Heat to boiling. Observe the color before and after heating. Use this as a control. Prepare a bag out of cellophane or a sausage casing. Partly fill with glucose solution or syrup and suspend in a container of wa.ter. Mter several hours or overnight, add a little Benedict's solution to some of the water in the container and boil it.

2. The Benedict's solution in the control experiment did not change in color when it was boiled. In the experiment, the Benedict's solution changed from blue to green to orange. This is the specific test for glucose (A-I).

3. Place an egg in weak hydrochloric acid or vinegar until the shell is dissolved (overnight). Drain off the acid, rinse, and fill the jar with water. Place another egg with the shell intact in another jar filled with water.

3. The egg from which the shell was removed soon swelled to a larger size. No change was detected in the egg which was placed in tap water (A-I).

*Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

65

4. Make a carbon dioxide generator by dropping some dilute hydrochloric acid on some limestone or marble chips in a flask. Attach a stopper and tube to the flask, and bubble the gas through fresWy filtered limewater and through water. The chemical reaction which occurs in the flask results in the formation of unstable carbonic acid, which rapidly decomposes into

4. The limewater turned milky when it came in contact with carbon dioxide. No change showed in the vessel of water (B-5).

carbon dioxide and water:

Calcium

hydrochloric

calcium

carbonate and

acid

yield

CaC03 -I- 2JICI ~ CaCI2 -I- H2C03

cWoride and

Carbonic acid yields water and carbon dioxide.
lPC03 ~ H20 -I- C02

carbonic acid

(The above is an example where direct teaching occurs.)

Take a tube or soda straw and blow through some limewater.

The limewater turned milky when we bubbled through it.

5. Mold two soft butter candles around pipe cleaners that have been saturated in melted butter. Twist the pipe cleaners to fit snugly in metal bottle tops (as an olive bottle top) and stand upright as the wick of the candle. Harden these in the refrigerator. Burn the candles in glass covered Mason jars. In one jar have about 1/4 inch of water in the bottom. In the other jar have 1/4 inch of filtered limewater. When the candles go out, look through the glass top for any deposits that might be present. Shake both jars gently and note changes in the liquids.

5. A few drops of water had collected on the jar top. The limewater turned milky (B-5).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
1. Hold a cold mirror near the radiator where steam is escaping. Observe. Hold another mirror close to your mouth and breath on it. Observe.
2. Make a body temperature chart. Take your temperature before you eat or drink in the morning, in the afternoon, and before bedtime for a week.

1. The mirror became fogged in steam. When I breathed on the mirror, it became fogged (B-5).
2. The body temperature registered slightly lower in some cases in the early morning.

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Visit a poultry farm and livestock farm to observe techniques for fat te n in g animals for market.

1. We observed the ways chickens, hogs, and cattle are fattened through the use of special diets. These special diets include vitamins and minerals, as well as high protein and carbohydrate foods (B-3).

2. Invite the school nurse to talk to the class about 2. (B-7). the basal metabolism test.

3. Ask a doctor, health nurse, or laboratory technician to show the class how a urine analysis is made and how the blood is tested for sugar.

3. The doctor showed us how to detect sugar and other materials in the urine and in the blood (A-I, B-5).

D. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Endocrine Gland," No. 242

1. The nature and function of the thyroids, parathyroids .and pituitary glands and the pancreas were explained.

2. "Respiration," No. 3533

2. The respiratory system furnishes the cells with the oxygen needed for metabolism and removes the carbon dioxide (B-4).

66

3. "Foods and Nutrition," No. 218

3. Food is stored and released from storage in the body. Sugar is converted into glycogen. Glycogen may be changed into fat. Sugar is released easily from glycogen in the muscles or liver (B-4).

4. "Obesity," No. 686

4. We saw how overweight in the human body caused overwork for the heart, often resulted in poor posture, and often presented a social problem for the individual (B-3).

5. "Elimination," No. 4207

5. We saw that the routes of elimination in the human body are through the skin, kidneys, and lungs (B-5).

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.

1. When is heat released from the food you have eaten?

1. Heat is released when the oxygen you have inhaled combines with chemical substances in the cell
(B-4).

2. What happens to the processes of metabolism when your temperature goes up or down?

2. All process of metabolism are disturbed when one's temperature is higher or lower than normal (B-4).

3. What endocrine glands are concerned with regulating metabolism in our bodies?

3. The pituitary gland is the key to the action of all the endocrine glands; the thyroid influences the rate of oxidation; the pancreas influences carbohydrate metabolism (B-6).

4. What two waste products are produced when carbohydrates and fats are oxidized?

4. The waste products produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats are carbon dioxide and water (B-5).

5. What are three waste products produced when proteins are oxidized?

5. Carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, etc.) are formed when proteins are oxidized (B-5).

6. What happens to the wastes which are formed as a result of metabolism in our bodies?

6. The blood carries the accumulated wastes to several parts of the body which serve as excretory organs. Carbon dioxide and some water are excreted by the lungs, water and some salts collect in the sweat glands, and urea, uric acid, and other wastes are removed by the kidneys (B-1, 5).

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. How does the body use the energy that is produced through metabolism?

1. The energy produced through metabolism enables the body to carryon all of its activities. The energy which the body does not harness is lost as heat (B-4). Callahan, Dorothy and Alma Smith Payne. The Great Nutrition Punle. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1956.

2. What is the important function of the thyroid gland in the human body?
G. Share enriched teacher background.

2. The thyroid gland produces a hormone which contains iodine. This hormone governs the rate at which the body produces energy. This rate can be measured and is called the metabolic rate (B-6). Asimov, Isaac. The Chemicals of Life. New York, Abelard-Schuman, 1954.

1. In what form is food absorbed?
2. How is digested food carried to all parts of the organism?

1. Carbohydrates are absorbed as simple sugars, proteins as amino acids, fats as glycerin and fatty acids; water, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed unchanged (B-2, 4).
2. Digested food is carried to all parts of the organism in a water medium.

67

3. What happens to food in the cell?
4. What are the chemical coordinators of metabolism?
5. Where are the hormones formed in the human body?
6. What is basal metabolism? 7. How is a metabolic rate measured in the human?

3. Several things may happen to food in the cell. (d) Food may be oxidized by a complex process into carbon dioxide and water with a release of energy. This breakdown is called catabolism. (b) A process called anabolism involves the use of food to build new protoplasm for replacement of old cells or development of new ones. (c) Excess food may be stored as fat or glycogen( animal starch). An intermediate product in the metabolism of all food is called pyruvic acid (B-2, 3, 4).
4. Hormones are chemical coordinators of metabolism.
5. The hormones are formed in small masses of tissue called the endocrine glands. These glands have no outlet, and the materials made there are picked up and distributed by the blood directly (B-6, 1).
6. Basal metabolism is the amount of energy needed just to maintain life (B-4).
7. There are two ways to measure metabolic rates: (a) the direct method by which the amount of heat produced by the body in a given situation is measured, and (b) the indirect method by which the amount of exygen used in a definite period of time is caluclated (B-4).

lli. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. In what form can food pass through living membranes?
2. What happens to food after it is absorbed into the blood and lymph systems in the human body?
3. How do cells use food?
4. How are waste products of metabolism eliminated from the human body?
5. How do the secretions of the endocrine glands affect metabolism in the human body?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why did the doctor prescribe, immediately following Martha's operation, an intravenous feeding of glucose?

1. Food is absorbed as simple sugars, amino acids, glycerin, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and water.
2. Blood and lymph transport absorbed food to cells throughout the body where it is used directly or stored.
3. Gradual oxidation of foods in cells results in the release of energy and the formation of wastes, such as carbon dioxide, water, urea, etc. By a complex process, certain food materials are built into living protoplasm. Amino acids combine to form proteins, glucose molecules combine to form complex carbohydrates, and glycerin and fatty acids combine to form body fat.
4. The lungs eliminate carbon dioxide and water, the skin eliminates water and some salts and urea, and the kidneys eliminate some water, most of the ureau and uric acid, and excess salt and sugar.
5. The endocrine glands initiate, regulate, stimulate, and coordinate the metabolic processes.
1. Glucose can be introduced directly into the bloodstream. In this way, Martha's weakened system was spared the work of digesting food.

68

2. During Martha's recovery, why was she given a high protein diet?
3. Why is a dietitian so important to a hospital?
4. Why is obesity often a problem?
5. Why does the doctor take your temperature?
6. Why can you starve on a diet which contains adequate calories for your energy requirement?
C. Do projects for fun. 1. Make a list of the endocrine glands which relate to metabolism and tell what each does.

2. Protein builds and repairs body tissues.
3. A dietitian prepares the menus for all of the patients in a hospital. Proper foods are very necessary for the most rapid recovery following an operation or illness.
4. The overweight person may experience social as well as physical difficulties. Size alone may be a problem, and the heart has to work more to pump blood through all the fat.
5. Certain abnormal conditions lower or raise your temperature. The doctor checks this physical reaction as evidence to help him in making a diagnosis.
6. Yoy may have enough calories but not have a proper distribution of food classes. In this way, you could starve for lack of essential amino acids, vitamins, or minerals.

1.

_

Endocrine Glands and Metabolism

Gland

Relation to Metabolism

Thyroid Regulates metabolic rate. Parathyroid Regulates body's use of calcium and
phosphorus. Adrenals Adjusts increase of sugar in the
blood. Pancreas Regulates metabolism of carbohy-
drates. Pituitary Influences other endocrine glands.

2. Keep a record of all the food you eat for three days. Refer to a chart and calculate the number of calories eaten each day. Also keep a record of your activities for these three days. Then consult the following outline to discover approximately how many calories you need per day according to your activities. How close do the two tabulations tally?

Sleeping or lying down

1/2 C. per pound per hour

Sitting, reading, studying Standing Walking Active exercise

2/3 C. per pound per hour 3/4 C. per pound per hour 1-1/2 C. per pound per hour 2 C. per pound per hour

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings.
1. Digestion converts, by hydrolysis, large particles of food into smaller ones which can diffuse through living membranes.
2. Enzymes speed the process of digestion by catalysis. 3. Organisms manufacture the specific enzymes necessary to aid the digestion of the t y p e of food they
store. 4. Living organisms digest food outside the body or within cells or in specialized systems of organs.

69

B. Develop these understandings. 1. Water is a medium for transporting the products of digestion to all body cells. 2. The amino acids of digested proteins are bullt into new proteins characteristic of the organism. 3. Glucose, fatty acids, and glycerin in excess of body needs are recombined to form new fats and complex carbohydrates for storage. 4. The release of energy from the sugars and fats proceeds gradually through many steps. This gradUal release of energy is accomplished by two phosphorus compounds (referred to as ADP and ATP). 5. Waste products of metabolism are excreted as carbon dioxide, water, and urea. 6. The many separate activities carried on in metabolism in higher animals are coordinated by special secretions called hormones. 7. The vitamins, as well as the enzymes, make possible many of the changes in food material during metabolism.
70

PROBLEM: WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE GROWTH AND WELLBEING OF A LIVING ORGANISM? Grade 8
(Broad Area: Animate Matter - Nutrition)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)
1. Arrange a bulletin board of the class pictures of the current eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade groups.
2. Weigh and measure the students. Compare the current findings with those already recorded on cumulative records.
3. Have a discussion about favorite eating places, bringing out reasons why eating is an enjoyable experience in such a place.
4. After a visit to a well-regulated kennel, dairy, or well-kept stock farm, compare the appearance of those animals with the appearance of stray or ill-kept animals.
5. Arrange a bulletin board of several pictures of two or three class members of differeng body build. These pictures should include a baby picture as well as pictures of early, mid dIe, and late childhood. Full length photographs for this display are more desirable.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem.

(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. What has happened to you since you were last 1. I weigh

measured?

in height.

more, and I have grown

_

2. How do your measurements compare with the other boys' and girls' (as the case may be) measurements?

2. There will be a variety of responses; comparison such as John's gain of 3 inches and 15 pounds and Jack's gain of 1/2 inch and 4 pounds will surely be made.

3. Can you explain the difference between John's and Jack's attendance? As we look at John's and Jack's attendance records, John has been absent 8 days in the past year; Jack has a perfect attendance record.

3. John's recall of several colds during the year, and Jack's response that he had had no cold in the last year will stimulate the discussion toward a meaning of "well-being."

4. With a line graph show the average growth curve of the boys. Compare this with the average growth curve of the girls.

4. The increase in the height of the girls is greater on the average than that of the boys. Why is this true? At this point a discussion by the students and the teacher may lead to the recognition and statement of this or a similar problem: what factors influence growth and well-being of living orgainsms.

C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLE

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

71

1. Plant dwarf and normal ageratum, marigold, or pea seeds in two seed flats which have been prepared identically with a rich loamy soil. It is advisable that this planting be made three to five weeks prior to the beginning of the unit.
2. Plan an experiment in which you will test your garden or lawn soil's fertility when appropriate amounts of the fertilizers available at your seed store are added. This experiment might be conducted by testing grass seed planted in garden soil enriched with 68-6, in garden soil enriched with nitrates only, in garden soil enriched with phosphorus only, in garden soil enriched with potash only, and in garden soil without any fertilizer added. This would require five seed flats.

1. By the time the seedlings were a few inches high, differneces in height had become apparent. Dwarf variety plants developed from seed labeled as dwarf variety; normal variety plants developed from seed labeled as normal in height. We learned to care for these plants and to keen an accurate record of their growth. Height is to an extent an inherited factor (B-2, 3)*.
2. We found that the grass in the seed flat containing lawn soil and 6-8-6 grew to be greener, larger, and thicker than the grass in the other flats
(B-1).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.

1. Demonstrate body utilization of food intake. (Refer to Wheat Flour Institute Publication, "How to Conduct a Rat Feeding Experiment.") Plan a rat experiment which will be run on litter mates of the same sex and approximately twenty-one days old. Make arrangements for one animal to be active and the other one inactive. Keep graphs of weights of animals and weights of eaten and uneaten food. Record observations of activity and appearance.

1. The rat that was given the opportunity and space to exercise actively ate more and grew more than the rat that was kept in a very small cage. In each of these animal experiments, we learned to care for laboratory animals, to weigh and prepare their food, to weigh and record the animals' gains and losses of weight, to record our observations of their coat condition and other physical characteristics (B-1).

2. Plan a rat experiment which will be run on litter mates approximately 21 days old and of the same sex. From the slaughter house obtain cattle pituitary glands. Make a water extract and inject subcutaneously in the young experimental rat. Inject only water into the control rat. Agriculture teachers and physicians in the community may be able to help in the planning of this experiment and in providing some of the equipment.

2. Growth stimulated by the pituitary gland was demonstrated. Under this treatment the experimental rat grew into a much larger rat though the two rats were fed the same amounts of food
(B-3).

3. Demonstrate growth caused by adequate intake of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Plan an experiment run on litter mates of the same sex and approximately 21 days old which will be similar to the following one designed by Mr. Winfrey Wynn of Emory University.

3. The rat on the third diet grew bigger than the others; his coat was shiny and smooth; the color of his eyes, tail, ,ears, and feet was pinker than in the other rats (B-1).

Diets for Nutrition Experiments Using Albino Rats

1. Poor Diet White bread (not enriched)

Contains Carbohydrates Protein

Lard Sugar Water

Fat Carbohydrates

-Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

Leks Vitamins Minerals Protein

72

2. Slightly Better diet White Bread (enriched)
Lard Sugar Salt Water

Contains
Protein Carbohydrates Fat CarbohYdrate Minerals

Lacks
Vitamins Protein

3. Balanced Diet White bread (enriched)
Sugar Lard Salt Carrots
Milk

Carbohydrates Protein Vitamins Minerals Carbohydrates Fat Minerals Vitamins Minerals Protein Fat Carbohydrate Minerals Vitamins

Nothing for rat; Vitamin C is needed by man.

(These diets are simple to prepare. The lard, sugar, and salt may be spread on the bread and fed to the animals. A small piece of carrot twice a week is sufficient. In the balanced diet give about one ounce of milk each day.

It is suggested that the lard be spread in a manner similar to the spreading of butter on bread, the sugar then may be spread on top of the lard and then the whole sprinkled with salt from a salt shaker. Onefourth slice of bread should be sufficient for the animals daily consumption at first. The quantity may be increased as the animals grow larger. Food should be given fresh each day.

Graphs of the rate of growth, observations of the activity, physical characteristics, and amounts of food not eaten are recorded.)

4. Check dietary intake to see whether it provides for growth and protection. Keep a three-day record of your food intake. Evaluate your dietary record. The following forms for the record and its evaluation were obtained from the Nutrition Division of the State Health Department. Apply at you rlocal County Health Center to request the services of the Nutritional Consultant in the Region Office to help the teacher and class with an evaluation of these dietary records. This state official is glad to come to an individual school situation and give one or more teachers help in this specific problem.

4. Each one of us in the class learned to evaluate our own food intake. We learned how our class evidences similarities and differences in eating habits. We made bar graphs to illustrate more meaningfully our personal findings and our class findings. In interpreting the data on the charts, we learned there were similarities in the boys' habits of eat ing and that the girls had similarities in their eating habits.

73

INSTRUCTIONS FOR GETTING RECORDS OF FOOD EATEN
1. Be sure the child understands this record is part of the entire health program and is not to be critical of any child. It is a record of what boys and girls eat and drink. Such records have been taken in other parts of Georgia and are needed here. The records must be honest and show everything eaten or drunk during the time. This study is to help the child, not hurt him, and is to be kept confidential.
2. Write name, age, school, and grade across the top of the daily record sheet. 3. A three-day diet record is to be kept. This should come on two school days and one day at home. This gives
a more complete picture of what the child has eaten. 4. The best time to fill out the record is as soon as possible after the food has been eaten. A short period of
class time in the early morning would be advisable for recording all food eaten from the time the child left school until he returned in the morning. Another recording would be necessary after lunch or after the afternoon recess if food was eaten at this time. 5. Impress on the child the importance of recording all food eaten and drunk. They are especially apt to forget to list such foods as grits, gravy, bread, butter, beverages, syrup and sugar and cream or milk added to tea, coffee, and on cereal.
It is necessary that the amount of food eaten be given. The child will need help from you in estimating the amount of food eaten. In keeping this record be specific about names of food such as oatmeal rather than just cereal, and corn bread or biscuit rather than just bread.
It is important to tell whether the foods eaten were raw or cooked. a. Form for food intake record.
74

a. Form for food intake record

Name

Age

School

Grade

THESE ARE THE FOODS I ATE AND DRANK ON

_

1. Be sure to give correct amount of all foods eaten.

2. Tell whether food was raw or cooked, and tell how, as raw apple or baked apple, or raw cabbage or cooked cabbage.

3. Tell whether bread was made of corn, rye, whole wheat, or white flour.

AT BREAKFAST (name foods and give amounts, such as: Egg, one.):

Food

Amount

Food

1.

_

4.

Amount

2.

5.

3.

_

6.

_

BETWEEN BREAKFAST AND NOON (name foods and give amounts.):

1.

_

3.

_

2.

_

4.

_

AT NOON (name foods and give amounts, such as green peas, one-half cup):

1.

_

5.

_

a.

_

6.

_

3.

_

7.

_

4.

_

8.

_

BETWEEN NOON AND THE EVENING MEAL (name foods and give amounts, such as ice cream, one dip.)~

1.

_

3.

.

a.

_

4.

_

AT THE EVENING MEAL (name foods and give amounts, such as fruit salad, salad of oranges, apples, raisins, three-fourth cup):

1.

_

5.

_

2.

_

6.

_

3.

_

7.

_

4.

_

8.

BETWEEN THE EVENING MEAL AND GOING TO BED (name foods and give amounts, such as milk, one cup.):

1.

_

2.

_

75

INSTRUCTORS TO USE WITH EVALUATION SHEET FOR DIET RECORDS

1. Checking the record:

Check the foods listed on the daily record in the proper place on the Evaluation Sheet. Add the number of servings for each food for the three days and place total under column designated "Total Servings." Multiply total for each food by Credit Value and place this figure under the heading "Score."

For example, if the diets show turnip greens once, yellow squash once and carrots once, the evaluation sheet would be checked this way:

Food Group

Food Check Col.

Total Servo

Credit Val.

Score

Green & Yellow Veg.

ill

3

X-2

6

(The credit value was determined by the importance of the food in the diet. Those foods most valuable are multiplied by 2, less valuable by 1 and those of little or no value by zero which gives no score.)

2. The score for the necessary foods must not exceed the desirable score listed in the last column on the right hand side of the Summary Sheet.

3. Add all of the figures appearing under "Score" and place by "Total".

4. To rate the child check the "Dietary Rating" group that corresponds to his total score.

5. Check number of meals eaten and number of in-between-meals snacks.

6. The score on each food group should meet at least two-thirds of the corresponding score. It would not be objectionable if small amounts of non-essential foods are eaten; however, if these foods are eaten in excess or are crowding out the essential foods, it must be pointed out that they are being eaten in too large amounts.

Size of Average Servings:

1. Fruits, cooked or juice-l/2 cup Fresh-1/2 grapefruit 1 medium orange or tomato Apple or tomato

2. Vegetables-l/2 cup

3. Milk-8 oz. glass Ice cream-l large dip 1/2 serving milk

4. Lean Meat-l/2 cup or 3/4 oz.

5. Eggs-l whole

6. Other Proteins Dried beans or peas-l12 cup Cheese-l slice (3 1/4 x 1/8'') or 1/2 cup

7. Peanut butter-4 Tablespoons Peanuts-2 oz.

8. Table Fats Butter or oleomargarine-l tsp.

9. Whole Grain or Enriched Cereals and Bread 1 slice bread 1/2 cup cooked cereal 3/4 cup prepared cereal 1 pancake 1 roll or biscuit

76

b. Form for evaluation.

Name FOOD GROUP

.. .. . ..

Green & Yellow Vegetables Vitamin C. Foods Potatoes Other Vegetables & Fruit Milk
Lean Meat Eggs Other Proteins
Table Fats Whole Grain or Enriched Cereal and Bread
--::rr

EVALUATION SHEET FOR CHILD FOR THREE-DAY RECORD

Age

School _.

.

Food Check Column

Total Servings

Credit Value

Child's Score

Desirable Scores

X2

6

X2

6

Xl

3

Xl

6

X2

18

X2

6

X2

6

X2

6

Xl

9

Xl

9

Grade

.

.. _

Top Score Food Group

Child's Top Score

18 18
9 9

~=============================================================================================-

Food

Total

Credit

Child's

Desirable

Top

Child's

Check

Serv-

Value

Score

Scores

Score

Top

Column

1np

Food

Score

Group

Syrup, Jam Jellies

Pies, Cake, Cookies

Candy

Soft Drinks

Gravy

Fat Meat

Tea

Coffee

Potato Chips & Other Snacks

DIETARY RATING

_

Number meals eaten:

Breakfast

Lunches

Suppers

Between Meal Snacks

_

XO -

XO -

XO
-

XO -

XO
-

XO
-

XO
-

XO
-

XO
--

TOTAL

75

Good-67 & over rair-56 -66 Poor-Under 56 Making rating on child's top score. A rating of 75 is 100%

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experience..

1. Visit a fair, a farm, or a kennel. Observe dwarf- 1. We learned that the same breed may exist in alter-

ed and normal animals of the same breed.

nate forms such as tall and short (B2).

2. Make a pedigree chart of the Chihuahua strain or of any other breed of toy dog.
3. Visit a nursery. Observe dwarfed and normal varieties of plants. Check to see if environmental factors are controlled.

2. We learned how to make a pedigree chart; and the ones we made demonstrated that controlled breeding of this small animal resulted in small animals (B-2).
3. We observed that some plant varieties appear in alternate forms. We learned, however, that we must always look for other factors existing. The nursery-man called this to our attention when he led us into an experimental greenhouse where he showed us some dwarfed and normal petunia plants that he had treated with gibberellin. We could not pick out the original dwarfed plants from the original normal ones (B-2).

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Heredity and Environment," No. 2274.

1. Heredity gives us certain basic capabilities and environment helps to determine the extent and direction of our use of these capabilities (B-2)

2. ''Your Body During Adolescence" No. 3583. (The teacher's attention is called to the fact that the development of the secondary sex characteristics as well as the development and function of the sex organs are explained in this film. Preliminary preparation of the class by the teacher for the showing of this film is necessary.)
3. ''Your Health at Home", No. 2420

2. Young people from 13 to 15 years of age vary in size and shape as they change from childhood to adulthood. Puberty is the stage during which the changes occur. Human life and growth are regulated by the work of seven glands (B-2).
3. Cheerful and friendly attitudes contribute to a spirit of cooperativeness necessary for a family to maintain a home where individual health and development can be protected (B-3).

4. "Sleep for Health," No. 480 E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.

4. We learned that regular sleeping habits help an individual attain his personal goals; insufficient sleep causes irritability and inefficiency in both work and play (B-3).

1. How may diets lacking in the essential food elements affect individuals?
2. How does the farmer keep the soil fertile so that the vegetables and fruits contain optimum nutrients?

1. When shortages have been great as in wartorn countries, malnutrition is obvious, especially in children. Diseases such as rickets are readily identified. Dietary disturbances may occur, however, even in times of plenty, because of improper food selection. Such deficiencies we call hidden hunger (B-1).
2. We have learned that the farmer may do a combination of things in order to keep the soil fertile so that the vegetables and fruit from harvest to harvest may have optimum nutritional value: (a) the return to the soil of the portions of the plants not harvested by plowing these under; (b) the rotation of harvest crops with an entire crop of enrichment plant such as clover, soybeans, or rye which are plowed under; (c) the rotation of harvest crops requiring certain minerals with harvest crops requiring different minerals; (d) the addition of manure from animals to the soil; (e) the correction of the acidity of the soil by adding lime; (f) the retention of the top soil on the field in certain areas by terracing, contour plowing, strip plowing, and the use of cover crops (B-1).

79

3. How is the selection of food for domestic animals made?

3. Food selection for domestic animals is made on requirements of each animal: (a) each animal should be fed foods it can eat and digest; (b) food should have proper amount of bulky foods to con centrated foods; (c) food should provide energy and also supply materials for the animal to grow, repair itself, and keep working properly; (d) enough special materials should be supplied to make the product we expect from the domestic animal (B-1).

F. Refer to these general references for additional information.

1. Callahan, Dorothy and A. S. Payne. The Great Nutrition Puzzle. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1956.

1. Standards for food advertising have been set by the Pure Food Law and the American Medical Association's Council on Foods and Nutrition (B-3).

2. Grant, Madeline P. Biology and World Health. New York, Abelard-Shuman, Inc., 1955.

2. The F. A. O. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) works not only to increase the world's supply of food, but also to improve its distribution (B-3). Many hereditary traits are ours, but they develop according to the influences from the environment; materials for growth are found in food as well as the security that comes from working, loving, and leisure-time playing (B-2).

3. Lockwood, Elizabeth A. Activities in Nutrition Education. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Department of Nutrition, Harvard University, 1950. Order from Nutrition Foundation, Inc., Chrysler Building, New York, 17, New York, price $1.00.

4. Pope, Elizabeth. "Why Fad Diets Fail," reprinted from McCall's Magazine, November, 1956.
5. Todhunder, Neige. Teaching Nutrition. Bulletin M-12, School of Home Economics, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, price $0.60.

6. Whitehead, Eugenia. "How to Conduct. a Rat-Feeding Experiment," Department R F, Wheat Flour Institute, 309 W. Jackson Boulevard, Chicago 6, illinois, 1952.

7.

. Sleep and Children. Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, N. E. A.

and A. M. A., 1956. Order from National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washing-

ton 6, D.C.

G. Share enriched teacher background.

(Throughout the period of gathering evidence relating to the problem, the teacher is engaging in direct teaching by enriching the materials covered in experiments, field trips, vis u a 1 aids, etc. from the wealth of her own experiences and storehouse of knowledge. Many problems arise where correlation of information demands immediate explanation and discussion by the teacher. Several of such instances will occur in each class meeting. They should be inclu ded in timing each day's agenda.)

1. Explanation of graphs: linear, bar, etc.

2. Explanation of the use of the gram as the unit of weight in the metric system.
3. Explanation of the use and care of the balances for food and animal weighing.
4. Explanation of the preparation of the pituitary extract under aseptic conditions; the demonstration and explanation of the sterile precautions observed in subcutaneous injections.
5. Explanation of the keeping of a three-day dietary record and its evaluation. 6. Pre-preparation of the class for the showing of the film "Your Body During Adolescence." 7. Explanation and demonstration of term soluble as applied to water-soluble vitamins. 8. Explanation of trace elements, how infinitesimal the a m 0 un t, and where these are found in nature.
Interpretation of experiments such as in Beauchamp, Book 2, Scott-Foresman General Science Series, with the gimmick to remember elements necessary for life: "C. Hopk(i)ns Cafe Mighty Good. Cooled Nightly by Moonlight Intermittent Sylphian Zephrys." (Elements necessary: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, magnesium; trace elements necessary: cobalt, nickel, boron, manganese, iodine, sodium, zinc.) 9. Explanation of the pedigree chart.

80

Dl. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How is my growth affected by inheritance?

1. Growth of all living things is affected by their inheritance. The interaction of genes with each other and their environment will produce changes in growth.

2. How do hormones affect my growth now?

2. The way in which foods are metabolized by the body may be affected by hormones. Certain hormones speed up, slow down, or stop growth in various parts of the body or the body as a whole.

3. How do the foods I eat affect my well-being?
4. What social factors in my environment affect my nutrition?
5. How do my activities affect my well-being?

3. The requirements of food for my well-being depend on my growth and my activities. It is necessary that a balance be maintained by the bodybuilding foods and their regulators( vitamins, minerals and hormones) and the energy-releasing foods.
4. My nutrition is influenced by my home conditions and family traditions as well as the conditions and traditions of my community.
5. The types of activities in which I engage affect the choice and quantity of the food I eat. Vigorous exercise under healthful conditions will stimulate the appetite.

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think.. 1. Why does the average boy of fourteen require more food than the average man of fifty?
2. Why is a self-applied diet dangerous?
3. Why are milk, meat, eggs, fresh vegetables, and fruits called protective foods?
4. Why should I eat breakfast?
5. Why must I have complete proteins at each meal?
6. Why do most people enjoy refreshment time?

1. The boy has need of more food for two reasons: he is growing rapidly, and his activities are largely ones expending much more energy than the man's activities.
2. A self-applied diet may overlook basic causes of obesity. A self-applied diet might not furnish adequate amounts of the body-building foods or nutrients necessary for building the regulators. You may lose weight on a fad diet, but as soon as you return to anything that resembles normal eating you promptly gain back your weight.
3. These foods are the ones in which minerals and vitamins are present. These food nutrients are necessary for optimum well-being.
4. After the body has been without food for twelve to fourteen how's, it requires fresh fuel. Particularly is this true during the "teen growth spurt," which I am just entering.
5. It has been proved that repair of tissue takes place only if all eight or ten of the amino acids are present at the same time. I eat complete proteins to get these amino acids.
6. Soft drinks and snacks are made for our pleasure when we are together. They do not take the place of meat, vegetables, milk, fruit and cereals; they are the extra bonuses which we share and enjoy with our friends.

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Look up and report for class the research findings in relation to nutrients of men like Eijkman, the Dutch biologist in the 1800's; J. G. Goldberger; C. A. Elvehjem; F. G. Hopkins; Casimer Funk; C. H. King; Dr. Thomas Spies; and Dr. Frederick J. Stare.

81

2. Use the library to report on Captain Cook's voyage in 1776 when his men were dubbed "limies."

3. Look up and report to the class the recommended amounts of diet intake for different age groups and different activities:

1 _ 10

3 1 _ 40

11_20

40 _ 60

4. Make a day's menu for a family of five: mother and father, ages between 31 and 40; grandmother, age 59; son, age 14; daughter, age 8.

5. Write to Georgia Extension Service or to Experiment Station within the area and inquire about the work being done there on plant hormones.

6. Compile a list of lunch suggestions for a picnic or a school lunch box.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings.
1. Digestion converts, by hydrolysis, large particles of food into smaller ones which can diffuse through living membranes.
2. Water is a medium for transporting the products of digestion to all body cells.
3. The amino-acids of digested proteins are built into new proteins characteristic of the organism.
4. Glucose, fatty acids, and glycerin in excess of body needs are recombined to form new fats and complex carbohydrates for storage.
5. The release of energy from the sugars and fats proceeds gradually through many steps. This gradual release of energy is accomplished by two phosphorus compounds (referred to as ADP and ATP).
6. Waste products of metabolism are excreted as carbon dioxide, water, and urea.
7. The many separate activities carried on in metabolism in higher animals are coordinated by special secretions called hormones.
8. The vitamins, as well as the enzymes, make possible many of the changes in food mat e rial during metabolism.
B. Develop these understandings.
1. The kind, as well as the amount of food a living organism eats, affects his growth and health.
2. Each individual organism inherits a definite type build and proceeds along a growth curve at an individual pace monitored by internal and external environment.
3. Activities in which an individual participates affect his well-being.

82

Introduction To Heat
Heat was selected from the broad concept of energy as the topic for developing the following sample units because:
(1) Most children are familiar with this form of energy; therefore, this unit leads easily from the known to the unknown.
(2) Man's use and control of heat energy has been a major factor in making our present civilization possible.
(3) Heat causes an increase in molecular motion and is responsible for most of the changes which take place in animate and inanimate matter.
When early man learned to use fire, he was able to keep himself warm during cold weather and to cook his food. Fire enabled him to extract metals from their ores and to fuse them into alloys. With an increased understanding of the nature and behavior of heat energy, he was able to use metals and fuels to develop heat engines.
Today, research into very high and very low temperatures is a new and significant field. In this field, scintists may make contributions as valuable to the future of man as did the first man who learned to use fire.

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF HEAT? Grade 4
(Broad Area: Energy-Heat)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. In/tiate activitJe. to Interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.) 1. Display a chart of different types of fuels. 2. Have the class draw a diagram of the water cycle. 3. Show an introductory movie on the weather.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. How do you use insulation in your home? In the school?

1. We use insulation on the handles of cooking utensils, on electric wires, surrounding cooling and heating devices, in the construction of our homes, etc. (A-3)-.

2. What is meant by the term burning?

2. Burning is the rapid oxidation of materials. Those having been heated to the kindling point burn rapidly (combustion), while some materials oxidize so slowly that no noticeable heat is given off. Some materials may spontaneously go into combustions when enough heat is accumulated (Bo1, 2).

c. Formulate hypoth....

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities
J'""'-----~

Anticipated Pupil Observations Understandings, and Skilla

A. Perform demonstration experiments.

(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and .... cord exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

-Numbers in parentheses indicate the basie understandings found at the end of thia unit

83

1. Fill a paper cup (not waxed) with water and put on a hot plate. Bring the water to a boil.
2 Put a spoonful of baking soda into a pint jar and slowly add a few spoonfuls of vinegar. After carbon dioxide is formed, hold a lighted stick down into the gas.
3. Try to build a fire with coal or large pieces of wood.
4. Hold a nail and a glass rod in a flame for the same length of time.

1. The water boiled and the paper cup did not burn (A-2).
2. When the vinegar was added to the baking soda a chemical change took place. Heat and carbon dioxide gas were given off, and the lighted stick went out (B-3, 7).
3. We found that different materials burned faster than others. Is was easier to build a fire when we started with paper, then used small pieces of wood, large pieces of wood, and coal (A-5, B-8).
4. The nail became hot much faster than the glass and also cooled off faster (A-3, 6).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments
1. Make a list of ways to regulate heat in the home and school.

1. We learned how to regulate the heat in our home by adjusting fuel burned, opening windOWS, regulating thermostats, air conditioning, insulating, etc. (A-3, 5, 1, 4).

2. Dampen a small piece of steel wool or Brillo-Pad and place it in a lid with a little water to keep it damp.

2. The steel wool will take oxygen from the air (slow oxidation) and will form a new substance rust (iron oxide) (B-2).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.

1. Take a trip to a house that is under construction to observe the types of insulation used.

1. Many types of insulations were used such as aluminum paper, fibres, building paper, asbestos, weather stripping, etc. (A-3, B-4).

2. Visit a dealer in insulation supplies. Ask him to 2. We found many types of insulation for sale. explain types of insulation.

D. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Fire," No. 369

1. This film points out the things needed for a fire and the ways to extinguish it.

2. "What Makes Rain," No. 5020

2. This film tells about the water cycle, how clothes dry and the different forms of precipitation.

3. "Heat Conduction," No. 3600 4. "Our Common Fuels," No. 2075

3. This film demonstrates how heat travels in solids. It is good as a review.
4. This film makes a display of fuels and shows some of the refined products.

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks.

1. What are the different types of winds?
2. How does friction help us? How does it harm us?
3. How does water get into the air? In what forms do we get water back from the air? (water cycle)
4. How do hot water heating systems work?

1. The different types of winds are gentle breezes, gales, and windstorms. Heat changes cause these winds (B-5).
2. Friction enables movement, stops movement, and causes heat formation (A-7).
3. Water is evaporated into the air by heat. It loses its heat, condenses, and returns as rain, snow, sleet hail, dew, or frost (A-8).
4. The water is heated by convection currents and carries the heat to the radiators. Here the heat is absorbed by conduction and is given off into the room by radiation. The heat circulates around the room by convention currents in the air (A-I).

F. Refer to these general references for additional Information.

1. Zim, Herbert S. The Sun. New York, William 1. This book tells about radiant heat, formation of

Morrow & Company, 1953.

fuels, and the water cycle.

84

2. Schneider, Herman and Nina. More Power to You. New York, William R. Scott, Inc., 1953.
G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. What is the difference between r a i n i n g and snowiDi?
2. What is the difference between dew and frost?
3. How do you account for the heat found in decaying leaf piles, damp hay stacks, etc.?

2. This book discusses atomic energy, fuels, and steam turbines.
1. Water vapor is cooled and collects as rain in the clouds and falls as a liquid. The snow freezes directly from the water vapor to a solid in the clouds as heavy flakes and falls (B-5, 6).
2. Water collects from the air on the cool blades of grass to form dew. When the moisture from the air collects on the grass at temperatures below the freezing point, it settles in the form of frost (B-5, 6).
3. Decaying is a form of slow oxidation. Heat is given off but is not noticeable. The heat accumu lates because it cannot escape to the air (B-2).

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions.

1. Does heat cause different types of burning?

1. The different types of burning are slow oxidation as in rotting and decaying, and rapid oxidation as in ordinary burning and spontaneous combustions (B-1,2).

2. How does heat cause weather changes? 3. What causes air to expand ?

2. Heat changes in evaporation and condensation cause the water cycle with all of its various forms. Winds and clouds are results of heat changes (B-5).
3. Heat causes the molecules of air to move faster and farther apart causing expansion (A-9).

4. How does water act when it becomes a solid?

5. Why do some materials get hotter in the sun

than others?

.

6. Why do we insulate our buildings?

4. Water expands instead of contracting when changed to a solid. Ice is lighter than an equal volume of water (A-lO).
5. Some materials absorb heat faster than others and cool off faster. Good absorbers are good radiators (A-2).
6. We insulate our buildings with various materials to take care of heat loss from the buildings and heat gain to the buildings from the sun. Insulations help us to keep our buildings warm in winter and cool in summer (A-3, B-4).

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think.

1. Why are clouds larger in the summer time?
2. Why do you use less air in your tires in the summer than in winter?
3. Why do icebergs float?
4. Why do some fires start by themselves?
5. Why are electric wires covered with insulation?

1. Clouds are larger in the summer because hot air holds up the clouds longer so that more water may collect in them (A-ll).
2. The hot air causes the air in the tires to expand in summer (A-4).
3. Water expands when it freezes and becomes less dense (A-lO).
4. The materials are undergoing slow oxidation. Heat accumulates until the burning or kindling point of the material is reached and combustion occurs (B-1, 2).
5. Electricity can produce heat. A wire carrying electricity gets warm and the ins u I a t ion protects against burning (A-3, 7).

85

6. How could Bill and Jim get one quart of water if the only container they could find was a pint jar?
C. Do proJects for fun.
1. Make a chart to show the different ways water comes out of the air in our weather changes.
2. Using cotton and blue paper, make different shapes of clouds and place on a piece of poster paper to represent the sky.
3. C~llect samples of various insulation materials.

6. The pint jar had to be filled twice to get a quart of water.
1. The chart will show rain, sleet, snow, hall. frost,
and dew (B-5).
2. The chart will show cumulus clouds as fluffy balls, stratus clouds as thin layers, cirrus clouds as feather-like bits of cotton, and nimbus clouds as dirty massive bits of cotton (B-5, 6).
3. Collection will include many materials such as building papers, asbestos, cork, etc.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand the.. understandings. 1. Heat travels by conduction, convection, and radiation. 2. Some substances absorb heat faster than others and radiate this heat faster. 3. Some materials act as insulators.
4. Heat causes metals, liquids, and gases to expand; lack of heat causes them to contract. I. Three thinp neceaaaIT for burniq are fueJa, heat to kindling temperatures, and oX)'gen from the air. G. Some thinp conduct heat futer than others. 7. Sources of heat are burning fuels, friction, electricity, food and atomic change. 8. An increase in heat and/or exposed surface area increases the rate of evaporation. 9. Heat causes molecalar motion. 10. Water expands upon freezing and becomes less dense. 11. Warm air fa lighter than colder air and can hold more water vapor.
B. Develop these understandings. 1. Rapid oxidation or combustion gives off noticeable heat and light. 2. Slow oxidation (rotting, rusting, ect.) eives off heat and light so slowly that it is not noticeable. 3. Three major ways to extinguish a fire are cutting off the oxygen supply, removing the fuel, and/or cooling below the kindling point. 4. Some materials are better insulators than others. 5. Heat changes cause changes in the weather. 6. Under certain conditions some gases may go directl7 to the solid state when enough heat is removed. 7. All chemical changes involve heat.
8. Some materials burn more easl17 than others: the)' have lower kindl.inl points.

86

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF HEAT? Grade 5
(Broad Area: Energy. Heat)

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.

A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be llS{,(~ )
1. Have an oral discussion of what has been learned in the lower grades on heat.
2. Display a bulletin board on Fire Prevention.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem.
(Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. What is the point at which substances will start
to burn?

1. The kindling temperature is the temperature at which substances have received enough heat to start to burn (A-6).

2. What is the purpose of the electric foses In :your home?

2. The purpose of electric fuses in our homes is to cut off the current when the wires becomes too hot (B-1, 4).

3. Why is it dangerous to smoke around a flour 3. There is danger of a dust explosion (B-2). mill?

4. What make an automatic heater or refrigerator 4. The thermostat turns the automatic heater or re-

go on or off by itself?

frigerator off and on (B-3).

5. Why will the handle of a spoon feel hot after the spoon has been in a cup of hot coffee?
6. What is the reason for mixing alcohol with water in the car radiator during cold weather?
C. Formulate hypotheses.

5. The heat from the coffee is transmitted to the spoon by conduction and travels from molecule to molecule up the handle of the spoon (A-l).
6. The reason for mixing alcohol with water in the car radiator is that alcohol lowers the freezing point of the water (B-5).

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstratlon experiments.

(Children should do the following for each experiment: observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tell children what to expect or what should have happened.)

1. Put a piece of dry ice in a jar lid. Let it stand for about 30 minutes.

1. The dry ice changed to a gas. We learned never to handle dry ice without some protection for our hands. Dry ice injures the skin (B-10).

2. Secure a one gallon can with a push-on top. Cut a hole on one side near the bottom of the can and insert a long piece of rubber tubing in the hole. Connect it to a funnel inside the can. Attach a small candle to the bottom on the inside of the can. Put a small amount of powdered starch or flour into the funnel, light the candle, and push in the lid snugly but not too tightly. Blow the flour quickly from the funnel by using a rubber bulb or a bicycle pump attached to the other end of the tube.

2. The powdered starch or flour exploded and blew the top off the can. We learned that we should not stand too close to an experiment which is likely to cause an explosion. The explosion gave off much heat and light (A-5, B-2).

*The numbers in parentheses indic;tte the basic understandings found at the end of this unit.

87

~. Cut into two pieces a co p per wire 18" long. Scrape the insulation from the ends. Fasten a short piece of iron wire between these two pieces of copper wire. Wrap the connection with friction tape. Fasten one end to a pole of a battery and the other end to a switch which is connected to the other pole of the bat tel' y. Throw the switch. Do not keep connected long.
4. Examine the compound bar furnished with your equipment. Heat the bar with a burner, candle, or alcohol lamp.
5. Place small pieces of wood, paper, sulphur, coal, and a matchhead on a piepan or sheet of metal about 4" square. Heat the square over a burner or hot plate.
6. Using three new nails, rob one thoroughly with grease or oil; paint one and then wet each one and allow them to stand for several days.

3. The iron wire became hot from the electricity. We learned how to connect a battery to form a circuit. We learned how to insulate electrical wire (B-4).
4. The copper or brass side expanded more rapidly than the iron side and the bar bent (B-3).
5. We found that kindling temperatures of different materials vary (A-6).
6. The nail that had not been treated with grease or paint rusted. We learned that the nail which was not treated with anything would serve as a control. Controls are used in many experiments (B-B).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
1. Plate a nail by using a battery and copper sulphate solution. Instructions for this are given in many of our references.
2. Place a wooden, plastic, and silver spoon of approximately the same sue in a container of hot water.
3. Wrap the bulb of a themometer with a piece of cloth that has been dipped in alcohol. Fan the bulb.

1. The nail became covered with copper. The copper would not rub off. We learned how to set up a plating apparatus (B-6).
2. The handle of the silver spoon became warm before that of the plastic, and the plastic before the wooden (A-8).
3. The t e m per a t u r e of the thermometer dropped rapidly (B-7).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Have the janitor show and explain to the class how he operates the thermostat. 2. Visit the furnace and examine the method of heating.

D. Use audio-visull lalds to ad. interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Things Expand When Heated," No. 5063

1. This film explains the v a c u u m bottle. (coffeemaker).

2. "Energy," (FS) No. 3529

2. This film tells what heat is and illustrates expansion, contraction, insulation, and heat transfers.

E. Find answer. to these questions in textbook

1. What does heat do to molecules?

1. Heat makes molecules move faster (A-9).

2. (We obtain gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils and many other products from crude oil.) How are these products separated from the oil?

2. These products are separated by distillation (B-8).

3. What do we mean by the cracking process in crude oil?

3. By cracking we mean the breaking of heavier molecules into lighter ones. These lighter molecules can be distilled into gasoline (B-9).

F. Refer to these general references for additional Information.

1. Meyers, Jerome S. Picture Book of Melocule 1. This book discusses the effect of heat molecules. New York, Lathrop, Lee & Sheperd, 1957.

2. Stoddard, Edward. The Story of Power. New 2. This book discusses solar energy, heat of fusion,

York, Garden City Books, 1956.

and combustion.

88

2. With a moist sponge make two spots of equal size several inches apart on each of three pieces of smooth cardboard or on the blackboard. Fan one spot on the first piece of cardboard. Gently heat one spot on the second piece of cardboard. Hold a piece of moist paper toweling over one spot on the third piece' of cardboard.
3. Fill a shiny can about 2/3 full of water. Put a thermometer into the water and record the temperature. Carefully drop ice into the water until a slight dew forms on the outside of the can. Note the te.mperature.
4. Place a centigrade and a Fahrenheit thermometer in a container of ice. Record the readings of both. Take both thermometers out of the ice and place them in a container of boiling water and record the readings of both. Find the difference between freezing and boiling points of each thermometer. Make these differences into a fraction and reduce to lowest terms.
5. Heat a flask 1/4 full of watoc until the steam is flowing freely out of the flask. Remove from the heat and insert a stopper tightly in the flask. Set aside and let cool. Turn the flask upside down and place ice cubes on the bottom.

2. Fanning and heating the spots caused them to evaporate rapidly. The moist paper caused the spot to remain longer (A-2).
3. When moisture began to form on the outside of the can, the temperature reading was the approximate temperature at which dew formed under existing conditions (dew point) (A1, B-4).
4. The freezing point of the centigrade was about 0 and the boiling point about 100. On the Fahrenheit the freezing point was about 32 and the boiling point about 212. The fraction 5/9 will show the relationship between the two types of thermometer scales used (A-13, 3).
5. The water in the flask began to boil again. We learned never to try to boil anything in a tightly closed container (B-6).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
1. Into each of two containers put 1/4 cup of water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to one of the containers and heat both containers until each starts to boil.

1. The water without the salt boiled first (A-5).

C. Take field trips and utilize other I.amlng experience

1. Go to the local garage and ask about and oblerve the different types of eniines.
2. Visit a steam power plant

1. We gained information on gasoline and Diesel

engines, We also learned about pulleys, screws,

hydraulic hoists, etc., which helped us in our

study of mecbanics (A-6, B-7).

;
2. We learned how heat energy is transformed into

electric energy.

.

D._Use audio-visual ald. to add Interest and deepen understandings.

1. "Our Mister Sun," (Bell Telephone Company)

1. The sun is the source of all energy. Atomic energy and future applications are well covered.

2. "Energy From the Sun," No. 877

2. Radiant energy is discussed.

E. Find answers to these questions in tutbooks. 1. What are the advantages of using gas as a fuel? 2. How does the solar battery use sun energy?
3. How do rainmakers tr1 to produce uin?
4. How doesa vacuum coffee pot work?
...

1. Gas is economical, easy to control, and clean to use since no ash is left. Gas gives off much heat (A7).
2. The solar battery transforms the heat energy from the sun into electrical energy (B-7).
3. Low clouds may be sprinkled with silver iodide or witli other particles which lower the temperature of the cloud and cause condensation (B-2).
.. The steam from the boiling water in the bottom container expands and pushes the water into the top container. As the coffee pot cools, the steam in the bottom container condenses creating a partial vacuum and the water flows back into the bottom container (AlO).
97

F. Refer to these general references for additional Information.

1. Grouse, W. H. Understand~'ng Science. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1956.

1. Learn about the nature of heat, the steam turbine, the heat barrier, and the solar battery.

2. Haber, Heinz. Our Friend the Atom. New York, 2. Find out about man's contribution to our knowl-

Simon & Schuster, 1956.

edge of heat.

3. Lewellen, John.The Boy Scientist. New York, 3. Learn about heat and temperature (Count Rum

Simon & Schuster, 1955.

ford and Charles' Law).

G. Share enriched teacher background. 1. What effect does temperature have on a barometer?
2. What is meant by warm and cold fronts?
3. How does heat cause mountains to wear away?

1. As the temperature 'increases, the air expands and has less pressure. The mercury in tl1e barometer will fall, giving a lower reading. As the temper ature decreases, the air will contract, and the mer cury will rise because of the increase in air pressure, and the reading will be higher. These conditions are found in high and low pre:ssure areas reo ported by the weather stations (B-3).
2. Cold fronts are the edges of masses of cold air moving in to push up and outward the warm air. Warm fronts are the edges of masses of warm air moving in with less force following a cold front. When a warm and cold front meet, violent storms usually occur. When a warm front moves over a cold front, rain usually results (A-I, B3, A17).
3. The outer surfaces of ro'cks absorb more heat than the inner surfaces causing unequal expan sion, thus breaking off particles of rock. The crevices of the rocks fill with rain water which may freeze, causing pressure that breaks rocks. Winds, rains, and g 1a cia 1 movements caused by heat changes are erosive agents (A-12).

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions.

1. What effect does heat have on the amount of water vapor found in the air?

1. An increase in temperature causes the air to take up more water vapor until a saturation point is reached. At or near this point the air becomes un comfortable and sticky. A decrease in temperature under saturated conditions causes condensation of water in the air and thus precipitation (A-I, B-1).

2. What two types of thermometers are generally found in daily use?
3. How does heat work?
4. What effect do changes in pressure have on the boiling point of water? What effect does the addition of some substances to water have on its boiling point?
5. What factors affect the rate. of evaporation?

2. Fahrenheit thermometers. are usually used in the home and in buisnesses and centigrade thermometers are usually used in scientific laboratories in the United States (A13).
3. In internal combustion engines, the burning of the fuels causes the pistons to move, thus doing work. Heat energy is changed into mechanical energy (A-6).
4. Changing tlJe pressure has a direct effect on the boiling point of water; increasing pressure raises the boiling point; decreasing pressure lowers the boiling' point; adding substances to water raises the boiling point (A-5, 4, B-6).
5. Wind mo,vements, humidity, temperature, surface area, and pressure affect the rate of evaporation (A-2, B-1, 5).

98

6. How is heat an erosive factor?

6. Heat is a very important factor in the weathering of rocks (A12).

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think.
1. Why is the grass wet on cool fall mornings. when it has not been raining?

1. The warm air surrounding the cool blades of grass cools, and the moisture in it condenses, forming dew. If the air around the grass is below freezing, the moisture in the air and will not form dew but will go into crystalline formation and form frost (B-4).

2. Why is it necessary to add water to canned milk?

2. Some of the water from the milk has been evaporated under reduced pressure. Using this type of evaporation, the flavor of the milk is not changed as much as it would be if it were boiled under normal conditions (B-6).

3. Why do thick water glasses break more often in hot water than thin glasses?

3. Glass is a poor conductor of heat, and thus the outside of the glass will expand faster than the inside and breakage will occur (A-lO).

4. Why is the adding of salt necessary in freezing ice cream?

4. Adding salt to the ice lowers the freezing point of the ice, and thus the heat given off by the milk mixture will not cause the ice to melt as fast. The temperature of the water in the ice cream mixture is lowered below the freezing point, and the mixture freezes (A-S).

S. How do you think a fish scale type of covering might help to solve the metal expansion problem of space ships which must be able to withstand very high temperatures?

S. Fish-scale like covering of space ships might help solve the expansion of the covering because fish scales are attached at only one end and are free to expand in other directions. This would help prevent buckling, etc. when the surface of the ship is subjected to unequal heating (A-I0).

6. What facts does the following table tell us 6. The table tells us ~e melting and boiling points

about the metals?

of the metals (B-8).

Substance Aluminum

Melti"9 Point (C) 658

Boiling Point (C) 1,800

Copper

1,083

2,300

Iron

1,l530

3,000

Lead

327

1,620

Tin

232

2,260

Zinc

419

907

7. What temperature scale is used in the chart? 7. The chart uses the centigrade scale (B-8).

8. What material in the chart has the highest 8. Iron has the highest melting point of the materials

melting point?

in the chart (B-8).

9. What material in the chart has the lowest melt- 9. Tin has the lowest melting point of the materials

ing point?

in the chart (B-8).

10. What is the difference between the boiling 10. The difference between the boiling point of zinc

point of zinc and the boiling point of copper?

and the boiling point of copper is 1,393C. (B-8) ,

11. What is the per cent of humidity in the air if the dry bulb reading of a thermometer is 8SF. and the wet bulb reading is 7S'F? (Use a relative humidity chart which may be found in most high school texts.)

11. The answer should be 63 per cent.

99

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Make a drawing of cross-sections of different jet engines and show where combustion takes place.
2. Build a model house showing how it can be heated by solar heating.

1. Four different types of jet engines will be shown
(A-6).
2. The house will have a glass enclosed heating unit on the roof with either water pipes or air ducts convecting the heat throughout the house (A-7).

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings.
1. Warm air is lighter than colder air and can hold more water vapor. 2. Temperature, circulation, and surface area have an effect on the rate of evaporation. 3. The boiling point of water under standard conditions is 212F./100C.; the freezing point of water under
standard conditions is 32F./OC. 4. The boiling point can be increased by increasing pressure. 5. Some substances when added to water change the boiling and freezing points of the water. 6. Heat energy can be used to do work. 7. Sources of heat are burning fuels, friction, electricity, oxidation of food and other chemical changes,
and atomic change. 8. Most of our radiant energy comes from the sun. 9. A change of' state of matter involves heat exchange. 10. Most materials expand on being heated and contract on being cooled. 11. Heat changes cause weather changes. 12. Some geological changes are brought about by heat. 13. Thermometers are used to measure temperature. 14. Some substances absorb, conduct, and radiate heat faster than others.
B...Develop these understandings. 1. Relative humidity affects the rate of evaporation. 2. Water vapor in clouds can be made to condense on small solid particles if the particles lower the tem perature of the vapor. 3. An increase in temperature decreases atmospheric pressure; a decrease in temperature increases at mospheric pressure. 4. When warm air is suddenly cooled, the vapor in the air condenses. 5. Reduced pressure increases the rate of evaporation. 6. Reduced pressure reduced or lowers the boiling point. 7. Heat energy can be transformed into other types of energy. 8. Mathematics is a science and is interrelated with all other sciences.

100

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME OF THE WAYS WE CAN MEASURE AND STUDY THE EFFECTS AND BEHAVIOR OF HEAT ENERGY?
Grade 8
(Broad Area: Energy-Heat)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. (One or more of the following or other activities may be used.)

1. Have pupils make out a list of questions on what they have already learned about heat for a quiz show. The teacher should check the questions and guide the pupils so that the major con c e p t s covered in grades 1-7 will be included. The class may be divided into teams and the entire team may participate or a panel could be elected to represent the teams. Have one pupil act as moderator. The teacher should serve as adviser.

2. Exhibit thermometers, both Fahrenheit and centigrade, on a table with posters demonstrating Heat of Fusion, a British Thermal Unit, and Specific Heat.

B._Introduce questions relating to the problem. (Questions should lead from the known to the unknown to point up the problem.)

1. What would happen if you boiled water in a tightly closed can?

1. When water is boiled in a tightly closed can, the steam in the can might cause the can to explode
(A-I)*-.

2. What happens to heat?

2. Heat is a form of energy. Energy can be changed from one form to another, or into matter, but it is never completely lost. This is called conservation of energy (A-2).

3. What causes a rock which is placed on top of a block of ice to melt into the ice even if the rock and the room are at a temperature below freezing?

3. The rock exerts pressure on the ice, and the pressure melts the ice beneath the rock. As soon as the water gets out from under the rock, the pressure is released and the water will again freeze
(B-1).

4. What causes power lines and telephone lines to sag in summer?

4. The summer heat causes the molecules in the power lines to move faster and take up more space. Tbis makes the line expand and sag. In winter the reverse effect would be true; the lines would contract and might even part (A-3, ~).

C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations,' Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
(Children should do the following for ~ach experiment~ observe accurately what was done and record exactly what happened. Do not tel.l children what to expect or what should have happened.)

*Numbers in parentheses refer to the basic understandings found at the end of this unit.

1. Carefully insert a piece of glass tubing about two feet long in a one hole rubber stopper and fit it into the mouth of a round bottom flask. Invert the flask and place the end of the glass tube about an inch beneath the surface in a beaker of colored water. Heat the flask gently until a few bubbles of air emerge from the tube. Allow it to cool. Let the pupils "test their temperature" by holding their hands around the flask. For contrast, place a cold, damp cloth over the flask. (Note: Applying grease or glass wax to tubing aids in inserting in rubber stoppers. (Hold the glass near the stopper.
2. Measure out one pint (approximately one pound) of water and pour it into a pan or large beaker. Take the temperature with a Fahrenheit thermometer and record the temperature. Heat the water for five minutes and again take and record the temperature. Calculate the number of B.T.U.'s gained by the water. Measure out 500 ml. of water (approximately 500 grams). Proceed as in part "a", using a centigrade thermometer. Calculate the calories absorbed by the water.
3. Tie strings to each of four different pieces of
metals of approximately the same weight, and
drop each piece of metal into boiling water.
While the metals are being heated, place five
funnels of the same size in five glass containers
of the same size. Fill the funnels with finely
chipped ice. Let them chill and pour out the
water that dripped into the containers. Put one
of the pieces of hot metal in each of four fun-
nels, leaving the fifth as a control. As soon as
the melting slows down, measure the amount of
water melted in each container.
4. Cover the entire unit of your hot plate with a pan filled with crushed ice and suspend a thermometer so that the bulb is well submerged in the center of the pan. Be sure it does not touch the bottom of the pan. Take the temperature. Heat the pan and watch the temperature while the ice is melting. Continue heating until the water boils. Increase the heat under the boiling water.
5. Fill a bottle with cold water and another of the same size with warm colored water. Place a card over the one containing the cold water and turn it upside down exactly over. the other jar so that the tops fit together. Carefully remove the card. (This experment can also be used to determine the density of different liquids.)
6. In three containers of the same size put an equal amount of hot; cold, and lukewarm water. Put one hand in the cold water,' the other hand in the hot water. Then place both hands in the lukewarm water at the same time.

1. When the flask became cool, some of the colored water rose in the tube. When it was warmed by the heat from the hands, the water went down the tube. It went down more for some of the pupils than for others. When a damp cloth was placed over the flask, the water rose in the tube (A-4).
2. The weight of the water (l pound) times the temperature change (second temperature-first ternperatUTe) gave the number of B.T.U.'s gained. We kept a record of our data and used our data to calculate the heat gained by the water (B-2, 4). The weight of the water (500 grams) multiplied by the temperature change (second temperaturefirst temperature) gave the number of calories gained or absorbed by the water (B:2, 3).
3. Different kinds of metal of the same weight and temperature melted the ice at different rates. We used a control in this experiment to see how much ice would melt without the addition of heated metals (BlO, 14).
. The temperature in the mixtUTe of ice and water did not change until all the ice was melted. The temperature then rose until the water boiled. Increasing the heat under the boiling water did not change iti temperature (B-6, 11).
5. The water in both jars became colored (A-6).
6. The lukewarm water felt cold to the hand that had been in the hot water and hot to the hand that had been in the cold water (B-7).

102

-

7. Place some wet steel wool in a thermos bottle. Let it stand for 10 or 15 minutes. Put a thermometer in a one hole stopper and insert in the bottle. Watch t~e temperature shown by the thermometer for 15 minutes. Open the bottle, let in fresh air and repeat with the thermometer readings.
8. Heat a .heavy metal bar which is clamped at one end and :rests on a nail near the head. Attach a pointer to the head of the nail. Place a semicircular scale behind the pointer. The pointer will indicate what happens when the bar changes temperature. Heat the bar. Cool the bar.

7. The temperature first rose, remained constant, and then fell a few degrees. When fresh air was let into the bottle, the temperature again rose for a few degrees (A-7).
8. The pointer showed the bar had become longer when heated. The pointer: showed the bar became shorter when cooled. The amount the bar expanded per inch or centimeter is called the coefficient of lin ear expansion for that particular metal (A-4).

B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.
1. Place a small bolt or stone on an ice cube in the freezer compartment of your refrigerator and let stand for several days.
2. Read a thermometer. Then place it in hot water and note what happens to the column of mercury immediately after it is placed in the water.

1. The stone melted into the ice cube and was soon covered with ice (B-1).
2. The mercury fell a little when it was first placed in the hot water. Then it rose and indicated the temperature of the water (A-4, 5).

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit the high school physics laboratory and examine their equipment used in the study of heat. 2. Ask the high school science club to put on some demonstration experiments in heat for the class. 3. Visit a machine shop and watch welding being done. Take precautions to protect the eyes.

D. Use audio-visual aids. 1. "Our MJr. Sun," Bell Telephone Company
2. "A is for Atom," General Electric 3. "Atomic Energy," No. 370 4. "The Nature of Heat," No. 2360 5. "What Comes Out of a Blast Furnace?it No. 3634 6. "Film Strip Kit op steel maJdng," .U. S. Steel
Company

1. This film shows that the sun is the source of all energy. It explains atomic energy and its future applications.
2. This film explains the release of energy from the atom and chain reactions of the atoms.
3. This film shows nuclear synthesis, radiant energy, chain :reaction, and release of heat energy.
4. This film shows heat transfer, molecular heat, and conductivity of heat.
5. This film tells how slag, gas, and iron come out of a blast furnace.
6. These strips explain the production of steel.

E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. 1. Why is everything on earth warmer than abso lute zero?
2. How have scientists been able to reach temperatures approaching absolute zero?
3. Why do we add heat to our food?
4. How does' heat determine where life can exist?

1. Everything on earth contains some heat. Absolute zero is tJtat point at which it is. believed that no heat e~sts (B-8).
2. 'Scientists have reached very low temperatures by liquefying gases, particularly helium-, (A-13).
3. Adding heat to some foods breaks ~6WIi cellulose,
causing it to become 'dige'stible. Heat often improves the flavor. Heat kills undesirable organisms (A-8, 9).
4. Most life as we know it can be found in rather narrow ranges of temperature. In order to exist in very cold or very hot 'legions, plants and animals must have special ways of adapting themselves to their environment (B-l3).

103

5. How is the heat of our body produced?
F. General references. 1. Ross, Frank. Superpower: The Story of Atomic Energy. New York, Lathrop, Lee & Shepard Company, Inc., 1955. 2. Yates, Raymond F. Atomic Experiments for Boys. New York, Harper Brothers, 1952. 3. Mann, Martin. Peacetime Uses of Atomic Ener gy. New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1957. 4. Lapp, Ralph. Atoms and People. New York, Harper Brothers, 1956. 5. Beiser, Germaine. Physics for Everybody. New York, E. P. Dutton & Company, Inc., 1956.
G. Share enriched teacher background.
1. What is a calorie?
2. What is a B.T.U.?
3. What effect does an increase in temperature have on a gas?
4. What is meant by specific heat?
5. What is the difference between the temperature of a body and the amount of heat it contains?
6. How many calories of heat would be necessary to raise the temperature of 5 grams of water 10'c?
7. When water changes from 15C. to 30C., how many degrees did its temperature change? How many calories would be needed to change the temperature of 10 grams of water from lSC. to 30C.?
8. What is meant by nuclear fission?
9. What is meant by nuclear fusion?

5. The heat of our body is produced by the oxidation of food in the body (A-lO).
1. This is a story about atomic energy.
2. This is a collection of easy experiments for the study of atomic energy.
3. This discusses how atomic energy can be put to work for mankind.
4. This discusses atomic power in transportation and industry.
5. This explains atomic reactions and uses in agriculture, medicine, A and H bombs, radioactive fall-out, heat and sun energy.
1. A calorie is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of one gram of water one degree C. (B-3).
2. A B.T.U. is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit - (B-4).
3. An increase in temperature will cause a gas to expand. When heat is added to a confined gas. the pressure increases (A-I, 4).
4. By specific heat we mean the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of one pound lone gram of a substance one degree centigrade/ Fahrenheit as compared with an equal amount of water (B-10).
5. The temperature of a body is the degree of how much heat the body is giving off or gaining. The quantity of heat in a body d e pen d s upon its weight, temperatme, and the material of which it is made (specific heat) and is the actual amount of heat in the body (A-5, B-15).
6. Weight of water x degrees change in temperature
= calories.
5 x 10 = 50 calories. (B-3, A-14).
7. 30' - 15' = 15' change in temperature (A-14).
Weight x temperature change = calories (A-14.
B-3). 10 grams x 15' change = 150 calories.
8. Nuclear fission means splitting of the nucleus of a heavy atom to form nuclei of lighter atoms. When this happens, some of the matter of the heavy nucleus is changed into energy (A-ll).
9. By nuclear fusion we mean .where the nuclei of light atoms join together to form a heavier atom... Some of the matter of these light atoms is con- . verted into energy (A-ll).

104

10. How do we use' Einstein's equation E MC-2-?

10. This equation is used to calculate the amount of energy released by fusion or fission.
E = energy
M = mass C-2 = the square of the speed of light
1116,000 miles per second (AH, 14).

Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions.

1. In what units do we measure the amount of heat in a body?

1. We measure the amount of heat in a body in calories and British thermal units (B-2).

2. What do mean by linear expansion? 3. What is absolute temperature?

2. 13y linear expansion we mean the change in the length of a body with a change in temperature
(A-4).
3. Absolute temperature is the temperature at which molecules cease motiun. It is 273 degrees below OC. (B-8).

4. How do we know that slow oxidation gives off '1. When food is used in the body, heat is given off

heat?

(A-lO, 7, B-9).

5. How does the volume and pressure on a gas depend on the temperature?

5. The volume of a gas increases with an increase ill temperature. If the gas cannot expand when the temperature increases, its pressure will increase
(Al).

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do bottles of soda pop sometimes explode when they have been standing in a very warm plaee for a long period of time? 2. Why do aluminum pots and pans heat up and cool off more slowly than iron ones of the same size? 3. Why does the mercury in a thermometer suddenly drop when first placed in hot water?
4. Why do we use liquids other than water in a thermometer?
5. Why do the fusion or fission of the nuclei of atoms produce heat?
6. Why can we change Fahrenheit temperature readings to centigrade temperature readings by using the formula 5/9 C.? F. - 32
What does C. represent in the formula? What does F. represent in the formula? Why is 32 subtracted from the Fahrenheit reading?

1. Heat increases the pressure of the gas in the pop bottle. Sometimes enough pressure may be built up to break the bottle (A-I).
2. It takes more heat to change the temperature of the aluminum. The specific heat of the aluminum is higher than that of iron (A-5).
3. The mercury in a thermometer drops when sud denly placed in hot water because of the expan sion of the glass of the thermometer tube. The mercury then rises swiftly (A-5).
4. We use liquids other than water in thermometers because there is not a wide enough range between the freezing and boiling points of water (A-12, 5).
5. When the nuclei of atoms split or fuse, some of the weight (mass) of the nuclei is changed into energy. This amount of energy can be calculated by Einstein's equation E = MC-2 (A-H, 14).
6. The 5/9 shows the relation of the numbers of degrees between freezing and boiling on the centi grade scale to the number of degrees between freezing and boiling on the Fahrenheit. 100 = 5/9
180
C. represents centigrade reading degrees.
F. represents the .Fahrenheit reading in degrees. 32 is ~ubstracted from the F reading because the freezing point on the F scale is 32 degrees above zero, the freezing point on the C scale.

If you are given a problem which states the centigrade reading in degrees, where would you put it in the formula?
Where would a Fahrenheit reading be placed in the formula?
What would be the reading of a centigrade thermometer if the temperature of the air of a room is found to be 68F?
7. Specific Heat Graph (A-14).

The centigrade reading would be substituted for the C. in the formula.
The Fahrenheit reading would be substituten for F. in the formula.
Solution of the problem:
Problem = to change 68F to C 5 = c. "9 F-32
Substituting 68 for F. we get
5 = C. 5 = c.
9' 68-32 "9 36
9 x C. = 5 x 36
9C. = 180 C. = 20 (A-14).

CopperLeadIronAluminumZincAlcoholWaterli:ther-

.0

.1

.2

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7

.8

.9

1.0

a. Which of the substances in the chart has the highest specific heat?
b. Which of the substances in the chart has the lowest specific heat?
c. What is the estimated difference between the specific heat of aluminum and copper'!
d. Which of the metals on the chart would be the easiest to melt? Why?

a. Water has the highest specific heat of the substances in the chart.
b. Lead has the lowest specific heat of the substances in the chart.
c. .22 - .09 = .13.
d. Lead has the lowest specific heat and would be the easiest to melt.

C. Do projects for fun.
1. Make a scrap book of newspaper clippings about atomic energy. 2. Obtain the booklets Adventures Inside the Atom from General Electric; have the class read them and
make out questions on them. Divide the class into teams and play a game to see which side can answer the most questions. 3. Make a study of ice crystal formation. 4. Present reports to the class on welding. 5. Obtain resource materials from steel companies and work up a file on the iron and steel industry. 6. Make a study of all the scientists who have contributed to our knowledge of heat.

IV. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPL ES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings. 1. The volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with the temperature and inversely with the pressure. 2. Heat energy can be transformed into other types of energy.

106

3. Heat causes molecular motion. 4. Most materials expand on being heated and contract on being cooled. 5. Some substances absorb, conduct, and radiate heat faster than others. 6. Heat travels by conduction, convection, and radiation. 7. Slow oxidation gives off heat so slowly that it is not noticeable. 8. Heat can change molecular structure. 9. Harmful bacteria may be killed by heat or made dormant by the lack of heal 10. Sources of heat are burning fuels, friction, electricity, oxidation of food and other chemical changes,
and atomic change. 11. Nuclear fusion and fission liberate large amounts of heat. 12. Water freezes at 32F./OC. and boils at 212F./100C. 13. A change of state of matter involves heat exchange. 14. Math is a science and is interrelated with all other sciences. B. Develop these understandings.
1. Increased pressure on ice lowers the melting point of the ice. 2. Heat is measured in calories or British Thermal Units (BTU). 3. A calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of w ate r one degree
centigrade. 4. A BTU is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fah
renheit. 5. Heat gained is equal to heat loss. 6. Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to convert a solid already at its melting temperature to
a liquid at the same temperature. 7. Man's ability to distinguish with his senses between small changes in temperature is limited. 8. Cold is the lack of heal Absolute zero is that point at whi ch it is believed that no heat exists. 9. Heat energy is nceessary for life to exist. 10. Specific heat is the amount of heat gained or lost by a substance in comparison to the heat gained or
lost by an equal amount of water. 11. A liquid will not get any hotter at normal atmospheric pressure than its boiling point no matter how
much heat is added. 12. Heat may be used to fuse metals. 13. Life can exist within a limited range of temperature. 14. Two bodies the same size made of different materials heat at different rates. 15. The quantity of heat in an object depends upon its weight, temperature, and the material of which it is
made.
107

Introduction To Machines
A unit on Machines was selected for partial development because of six factors: 1. Machines play a very vital part in our changing world. 2. Children are familiar with many types of machines and how they are used. 3. Simple machines can be easily demonstrated and explained by using materials found around the school
and home. 4. Machines clearly illustrate the interdependence, interrelation, and interaction between mat tel' and
energy. 5. Principles of work, efficiency, power, and the basic laws governing the operation of simple machines can
be proved both experimentally and mathematically in the elementary grades. 6. Machines are man's devices for harnessing and utilizing energy.
This unit was divided into three sections: 1. Lower elementary, grades 1, 2, and 3, "What helps us to use energy to do controlled work?" 2. Middle elementary, grades 4, 5, and 6. "How do machines help us to use energy to do controlled work'!" 3. Upper elementary, grades 7 and 8, "What are some of the ways that we mea sur e the work done by machines?" When we think of machines, many of us visualize very complicated devices which require trained people
for their operation. We fail to recognize the fact that such simple things as shovels, scissors, knives, and wheels are machines, and that all complicated machines are combinations and modifications of such s imp I e machines. When we realize that a machine is a device which helps man do work, we begin to understand how much we depend upon machines. Machines enable man to better meet his basic needs-food, clothing, and shelter. The use of machines provides employment, and improvements in machines have shortened the work week, thereby giving man more leisure time. Today's methods of transportation and communication have brought the peoples of the world so closely together that the problems of one nation are not isolated but become of world significance.
Pictures of Stone Age Man often depict him holding a crude, stone axe. This simple machine enabled him to provide food and clothing for his family and afforded protection from enemies. Today, as in early times, it is necessary for man to protect himself from aggression by using machines of destruction. Our machines of war have become so powerful that, if used unwisely, they could destroy man and all the progress he has made. On the other hand, by the development and wise utilization of our supply of energy available, together with the new ,ource of energy from nuclear reactions, man can explore his horizons, enrich his knowledge, and develop a civilization of unm-eamed of perfection.
PROBLEM: HOW DO MACHINES HELP US TO USE ENERGY? TO CONTROLLED WORK? Grades 4, 5, 6
(Broad Area: Energy-Machines)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Use a chart showing many types of machines. Have pupils identify as many of the machines as they can. 2. Have the pupils make a list of the words they have learned which relate to machines, Compile, place on the blackboard, and add new words as they are studied throughout this unit. 3. Make pictures showing transportation on and in water, on land, and in the air. 4. Give a student one pecan or similar hard nut. Have him attempt to crack it using one hand and on other object. Then let him crack it with a nutcracker or hammer.
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B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What things did you see on the way to school that have been moved? 2. What materials were used to build our school? How did these materials get here? 3. What are some ways used to keep cars from skidding on slick roads? 4. Why are people likely to slip in a bathtub? 5. What are some of tlie ways that friction helps us? 6. What are some sources of power used for operating our machines?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. Gather evidence pertinent to the problem.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.

1. Make a sailboat from a small flat piece of wood. Glue match sticks to it and use a small piece of paper attached to the match sticks as a sail. Sail the boat in a pan of water or on a small pond. Blow gently on the sail. Blow hard on the sail. Remove the sail and blow on the boat. Place a larger sail on the boat and blow on it.

1. The boat moved when we blew on the sail. It moved faster as we blew harder. When the sail was removed, the boat moved very little. The boat moved faster when a larger sail was used. We learned that wind can help us by moving things (AI, 2).

2. Tape a light stick to the cover of a teakettle with friction tape. Tie a little bell to the other end of the stick. Put a potato over the spout of the kettle and heat the water in the kettle.

2. When the water boils, the kettle top bounces up and down and rings the bell. We learned that steam did work by moving the kettle lid. We saw that when water changed into steam it exerts pressure AI).

3. Try writing on the blackboard with a piece of chalk. Try writing on the window pane or any smooth surface with chalk.

3. The chalk wrote better and wore away faster when used on the blackboard (A-6).

4. Put two matches into a small glass medicine bottle or test tube. Stopper the bottle (not too tightly). Place it in bright sunlight and focus the sun's heat on the match heads with a hand lens.

4. The matches caught on fire and blew the stopper from the bottle. We saw how expanding gases in a cylinder could drive a piston (A-I, 2).

5. Blow up a balloon. Turn it loose.

5. The air rushed from the balloon, causing it to fly about the room. The principle of rocket propulsion was learned. The pressure exerted against the inside of the nose of the rocket is greater than the pressure being released in the tail (A-I, 2).

6. Remove the handle from a water faucet (or similar valve). Try to turn the valve with your fingers. Replace the handle and try again.

6. The valve was much easier to open with the handle acting as a type of lever (A-2, 4).

7. Place several books in a shovel and try to pick the handle. Try again using one hand near the end of the handle and one hand as a pivot or fulcrum near the shovel blade.

7. The shovel was easier to lift when one hand was used as a fulcrum (A-I, 2, 4).

8. Try hitting a ball holding the bat in the middle Of the handle. Now try hitting the ball holding the bat near the end of the handle.

8. The ball would be hit harder when the bat was held near the end of the handle (A-3, 4).

9. Pull some books with a spring balance up a steep inclined plane. Record the reading of the scale after the books are in motion. Repeat the experiment with a low inclined plane.

9. The reading of the scale was higher when the books were pulled on the steep inclined plane (A3, 4, 6).

Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

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B.Encourage individual and small group experiments.

1. Make a windmill (water wheel, turbine) and demonstrate its operation.
2. Build and demonstrate a simple electric motor.

1. The windmill, etc. could be moved by forms of energy (A-I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
2. The motor turned when connected to a dry cell (Al, 2, 3, 6, 7).

3. If possible, obtain one of the toy rockets which operate by pumping air into the hull after fill ing it about half full of water. Release the trigger.

3. When the trigger was released, the rocket was shot forward (A-l, 2, 6).

4. Count the teeth on both sprocket wheels of your bicycle. How many times does the rear wheel turn for each turn of the pedal wheel?

4. The rear sprocket wheel turned more times than the pedal sprocket (A-I, 2, 3, 4).

5. Drive one nail in a board and another in a block of soap or butter. Remove the nails.

5. The nail was very easily driven into and removed from the soap or butter. We had to use a hammer to drive the nail into the wood, and we had to use a hammer as a lever to remove it from the wood (A-4, 6).

(The teacher can use the following outline to further develop this unit on machines. As the unit develops, there will probably be other basic understandings to be added to the list f 0 un d at the end of the guide. Practical use of mathematical applications should be kept constantly in mind.)

C. Take field trips and utlllze other learning experiences.

D. Use audio-visual aids to add Interest and deepen understandings. E. Find answers to these questionl In textbooks. F. Refer to these general references for additional Information. G. Share enriched teacher background.

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. C. Do projects for fun.

IV. Evaluate with these criteria. A. Check pupil attitudes and skills. B. Check pupil understandings.

V. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT. A. Expand these understandings.
1. All work involves the use of some form of energy. 2. Man develops machines in order to utilize energy to do controlled work. 3. Machines enable man to do work more easily or to do work in less time.
4. The two simple machines upon which all machines are based are the lever and the inclined plane. The simpliest modifications of the lever are the wheel and axle and the pulley. The simplest modifications of the inclined plane are the screw and the wedge.
5. The safe use of machines prevents accidents.
6. Friction, inertia, and gravity are forces that may oppose the work of machines or may help in the work of machines.
7. Some machines can change energy from one form to another.
B. Develop these understandings.

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PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME OF THE WAYS WE MEASURE THE WORK DONE BY MACHINES? Grades 7 and 8 (Broad Area: Energy-Machines

L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to Interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem.
1. Have the pupils bring to class many types of simple machines found in the home. Let each pupil discuss and explain his machines.
2. Have the pupils draw and label the six types of simple machines in everyday use, and make a list of examples that could be placed under each type.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. A garage man who weighs 145 pounds lifts a car that weighs 3,500 pounds. 2. We often talk about work, studying our lessons, cleaning our rooms, mowing the lawn, etc. In science the word "work" has a special meaning. Can you tell me what it is? 3. There is enough energy in a gallon of gasoline to take a car about 80 miles, but we are very pleased if we get 20 miles to a gallon. What happens to the other energy in the fuel?
C. Formulate hypotheses.

II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

Suggested Teaching Activities

Anticipated Pupil Observations, Understandings, and Skills

A. Perform demonstration experiments.
1. Weigh an object such as a book or block. Place it on the edge of a desk. Measure the distance from the desk to the floor. Push the object from the desk.

1. The object fell

feet to the floor. The ob-

ject weighed

pounds. The work done by

the object was the weight of the object x the dist-

ance it fell. Work is measured in foot-pounds or

gram-centimeters (B-1)*.

2. Tie a string around a yardstick or meter stick and hang it so that it will balance. Weigh a small object and hang it near ohe end of the stick. Hang a heavier object on the other side of the stick so that it will balance the lighter object. Measure the distance of the light object from the string that is supporting the stick. (This point is the turning poin.t, or fulcrum of the lever. Record the weight and distance from the fulcrum of the light object. Now weigh the heavy object, and measure its distance from the fulcrum. Record. Multiply the weight of the light object times its distance fro mthe fulcrum. Multiply the weight of the heavy object times its distance from the fulcrum.

2. We found that the weight of the light object times its distance to the fulcrum was equal to the weight of the heavy object times its distance to the fulcrum. We saw that a light object can balance a heavy object on a lever if the light object is far enough from the fulcrum..
We made a chart and recorded our data. We used our data to prove that the effort times the effort distance is equal to the resistance times the resistance distance if the lever is in balance (A4,
B-3).

-Numbers in parentheses refer to principles listed at the end of this unit.

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3. Attach a spring balance to a book and lift It from the floor to a desk. Record the weight of the object. Measure the vertical distance from the desk to the floor and record. Lean a board which is several times longer than the height of the desk on the edge of the desk. Pull the book up the board with the balance. Record the average reading of the balance and the length of the board. Place a roller under the book and repeat. Divide the length of the board by the vertical distance to the desk. This is the mech!l.nical advantage of the plane.
4. Examine the working end of a screw driver. Describe it. Use the screw driver to remov~ boards from an apple or orange crate.
5. Weigh an object by using a spring balance. Record. Suspend a pulley from a support. Attach a string to the object, thread the string over the pulley, and attach the other end of the string to the spring balance. Lift the object by pulling down on the balance. Record the effort.
6. Hang a small object on a pulley and weigh the pulley and the object. Record. Attach one end of n string to a support, run the string through the pulley (with the weight attached), and tie the other end of the string to a spring balance. LiIt the pulley and weight with the spring balance. Record the balance reading when the object is being lifted. Repeat the above experiment using a combination of fixed and movable pulleys. (Diagrams of such arrangements can be found in text and reference books.)
7. Examine a laboratory model of a wheel and axle. Weigh an object. Attach the object with a string to the axle and lift it by pulling on a string attached to the wheel. Use a spring balance to measure this effort. Repeat with the object attached to the wheel and the effort acting on the axle. Determine the mechanical advantage of the wheel by dividing the diamet'r of the wheel by the diameter of the axle.

3. We found that it did not take as much effort to pull the book up the board at it did to lift it to the desk. We kept a data chart and found that the weight of the book times the height of the desk (vertical distance it moved) about equaled the length of the board times the effort it took to pull it up the board. Some effort was wasted in overcoming the friction of the board.

When a roller was used under the book, it did not take as much effort to move it and our results effort and resistance times distances moved) were more nearly equal. We used an inclined plane and a wheel (roller) to help us do work (A-I, 2, 3, 4, 6, B-1, 2, 3).

We found the mechanical advantage of the plane

to be

(B-4).

4. A screw driver is to inclined planes placed back to back. The screw driver acted as a wedge to separate the board from the crate. The boards separated easier when we pulled against the handle of the screw driver using it as a lever. We userl a wedge and lever to make our work easier (A-3,
4).

5. The balance read the same when the object was weighed as when it was lifted by the pulley. The object seemed easier to lift by using the pulley because we were pulling down instead of up. The only advantage we get from a single fixed pulley is a change in direction. The mechanical advantage of a single fixed pulley is 1 (A-3, 4, B-1, 4).

6. When we used a movable pulley to lift the load, it required only 1/2 the effort. We found that the balance used to lift the object with a pulley moved twice as far as the 0 b j e ct. We found that the weight of the object times the distance it was lifted was equal to the reading of the balance times the distance it moved in lifting the object (A-3, 4, B-1, 4).

Answers will depend on the ways the pulleys are set up. Show that the mechanical advantage of a system of pulleys is equal to the number of cords supporting the load (A-3, 4, B-1, 4).
7. We found the object quite easy to lift when it was attached to the axle, but it was hard to lift when it was attached to the wheel. We measured the diameter of the wheel and of the axle and determined the mechanical advantage. We saw that the weight of the object times the distance it moved was equal to the effort times the distance it moved (A-3, 4, B-1, 4).

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B. Encourage individual and small group experiments.

1. Devise methods of illustrating second and third class levers.

1. The second class lever will have the resistance between the fulcrum and the force. !!'he third class level will have the force between the resistance and the fulcrum (A-4).

2. Demonstrate the use of an automobile jack.

2. This demonstrates the screw (A-4).

3. Make a teeterboard.

3. Demonstrates first class lever (A-4).

(The teacher can use the following outline to further develop this unit on machines. As the unit develops, there will probably be other basic understandings to be added to the list at the end of the guide. Practical use of mathematical applications should be kept constantly in mind.)

C. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. D. Use audiovisual aids to add interest. E. Find answers to these questions in textbooks. F. Refer to these general references for additional information. G. Share enriched teacher background.

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. C. Do projects for fun.

IV. Evaluate with these criteria. A. Check pupil attitudes and skills. B. Check pupil understandings.

V. DEVELOP AND EXPAND THESE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND UNDERSTANDINGS IN THIS UNIT.
A. Expand these understandings.
1. All work involves the use of some form of energy.
2. Man develops machines in order to utilize energy to do controlled work.
3. Machines enable man to do work more easily or to do work in less time.
4. The two simple machines upon which all machines are based are the lever and the inclined plane: The simpliest modifications of the lever are the wheel and axle and the pulley. The simpliest modifications of the inclined plane are the screw and the wedge.
5. The safe use of machines prevents accidents.
6. Friction, inertia, and gravity are forces that may oppose the work of machines or may help in the work of machines.
7. Some machines can change energy from one form to another.
B. Develop these understandings. 1. When work is done, a force must have been moved through a distance. This work is measured in footpounds or gram-centimeters. When the time rate of doing work is considered, it 'is measured,in power units. 2. The energy put into a machine is always more than the useful work done by the machine since some of the energy is dissipated into other forms of energy that is not useful in doing the work-. 3. When the resultant of all forces acting on a body is zero, the body will stay at rest if at rest, or it will keep in uniform motion in a straight line if it is in motion. 4. The number of times a machine multiplies the effort or energy input is the mechanical advantage of the machines.
'.

Introduction To Resource Units
The materials included in this section are offered as additional suggestions of pro b 1 ems that may be solved. They include ideas for correlation of science with language arts, arithmetic, social science, speech, and art. They suggest activities that can be valuable and meaningful to a child.
It is understood that each teacher will list the principles of science which are to be developed in solving each problem. She will, also, allow the pupils the privilege of discovering the principles for themselves.
It is recognized by the editors that there is some repetition in the resource units of the materials in the sample units, but it is believed that some repetition cannot be eliminated without loss of continuity within the individual problems. The response from the teachers who used the material in its tentative form proved its value and the necessity for its inclusion in the manual.
PROBLEM: HOW DO LIVING THINGS SECURE FOOD? (Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Arrange an exhibit of packaged foods which come from various countries and states. 2. Lead children to discuss ways in which animals secure food. 3. Read a story about planting, marketing, or harvesting food.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What basic foods are required for living thingss 2. How do plants get their foods?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Place a stalk of celery in colored water. Observe the movements of water in the plant. 2. Cut off the roots of a growing plant and notice how quickly it wilts. Allow children to discuss what hap pens. Show that plants get food through their roots.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit an ant hill. Sprinkle sugar nearby. Observe the ants. 2. Visit a bee keeper. Find out how bees get their food. 3. Visit a grocery store. Note the names of the countries and states from which the food came. Mark state or country on a map. 4. Visit a farmer's market. Observe the number and kind of foods grown locally. 5. Have pupils write a story about gardens or farm activities. 6. Have pupils make oral reports on animal trapping or herding.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Foods," No. 5082 2. "Foods That Build Good Health," No. 680 3. "Food and Nutrition," No. 218 4. "Digestion of Foods," No. 266 5. "Eat for Health," No. 801 6. "Fundamentals of Diet," No. 206
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. How is food grown and distributed to different sections of the country? 2. How do plants and animals feed on each other? 3. How is commercial fishing done?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATION BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What would happen to animals if all the green plants in the world were killed by disease? 2. How is food secured in a rural farming area? 3. How would you secure food if you were cast on an uninhabited isle?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why did the celery change color when placed in colored water? 2. Why do green plants turn yellow when deprived of sunlight? 3. Why do you become ill when deprived of a balanced diet?
..,
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PROBLEM: HOW DO LIVING THINGS PROCESS THEIR FOODS? (Broad Area: Animate Matter)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit canned, frozen, salted, dehydrated, and pasteurized food. 2. Lead pupils to discuss how food is preserved in their homes. 3. Read a story about animals storing food. 4. Read a story about preparation and freezing of foods, pasteurization of milk, or man's role in processing food.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Why do we preserve foods? 2. What are some methods of food preservation that have been learned in recent years? 3. How does cooking change food?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Have pupils masticate several different foods and time the test to estimate the time required for masti cation. 2. Use chemicals on masticated foods to test changes in the food. 3. Examine labels on canned and bottled foods and note whether artificial preservations have been used. 4. String slices of apples or peaches or hang peppers in a warm, dry place or in the sun. Place a whole fruit in the room at room temperature. Leave them for awhile. At i n t e r val s of several days observe changes. 5. Demonstrate osmosis. Follow textbook instructions.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a food processing center. Observe methods of food preservation. 2. Make charts illustrating methods of preserving food. 3. Collect attractive advertisements of foods preserved by different methods. Arrange them into a scrapbook grouped according to the basic food groups. 4. Write letters to food preservation companies for information on food preservation. 5. Have pupils check Consumer's Guide to note plentiful and outof-season foods listed. 6. Have pupils make oral reports on canning, freezing, salting, dehydrating, and pasteurizing foods.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "The Chain of Life," No. 3372 2. "Food," No. 5082 YA 3. "Cheese and Cheese Making," No. 3270 4. "Community Canning," No. 7785 5. "Curing Pork Country Style," No. 7913 6. "Freezing Fruits and Vegetables," No. 7746 7. "Food in Your Future," No. 15 (tape) 8. ''The Story of Louis Pasteur," No. 1163 (tape)
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What do bacteria need in order to grow? 2. What are some microscopic plants and animals that live in food? 3. Do all organisms masticate their food? 4. Is it possible to preserve all types of food?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What could you do to secure food during a disaster, such as a flood or a hurricane? 2. How would meal-planning be affected if drying were the only means of food preservation? 3. Can you maintain a balanced diet throughout the year with modern methods of food preservation?
B. Ask application quest,ions to help pupils think. 1. Why must labels on canned or bottled food show what kind and how much artificial preservative it contains? 2. Why does bread mold? 3. Why does salting preserve meat? 4. Why will food remain fresh for long periods in a cold place?
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PROBLEM: HOW IS FOOD USED BY LIVING THINGS? (Broad Area: Animate Matter
I ..RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A Jnitiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit charts, models, or pictures showing the structures of plant and animal cells. 2. Show slides of digestive tissues of lower forms of plants and animals (bioicope). 3. Arrange a bulletin board display of newspaper, magazine, and other advertisements of medicine. 4. Lead pupils to discuss their school lunches as balanced meals which are important to nutrition. 5. Have pupils count their heart beats for a minute. Make a chart to show the heart beats of boys and girls. 6. Weigh and chart the weight of all pupils. Compare this with norms for the age group. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is digestion? 2. How do plants digest food? 3. What is a cell? 4. Why is the selling of medicines big business? 5. How does chewing help us to digest food? 6. What is a balanced diet? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Allow a pupil to place a piece of bread in his mouth. Ask what happened. Show that the wetting (saliva) of the bread made it easier to swallow. 2. Place a few drops of nitric acid on a piece of meat. Observe and discuss what happens. Show how this is comparable to digestion. 3. Demonstrate how green plants need light. 4. Make tests for protein, starch, and sugar in foods. 5. Allow pupils to do calisthenics. Observe rate of breathing after exercise.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Invite the school nurse or dietitian to discuss food, rest, exercise, and posture. 2. Invite a representative from the Red Cross to talk about the Blood Bank Program and blood transfusion '. 3. Invite a representative from the Red Cross, local nurse, life-guard, or fireman to discuss asphyxiation. 4. Invite a botanist to discuss plants and how they produce their own food. 5. Tell the story of Dr. Beaumont's study of the stomach. 6. Tell the story of William Harvey and his discovery of blood circulation. 7. Plan a meal for the entire family. Show that it is a balanced meal for growth, repair, energy, and protec tion.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Digestion of Foods," No. 4204 2. "Heart and Circulation," No. 265 3. "Heart Disease: Its Major Cause," No. 871
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4. "Digestion," No. 4205 5. "Circulation," No. 4203 6. "Body Fights Bacteria," No. 4091 7. "Control of Body Temperature," No. 228 8. "Elimination," No. 4207 9. "Exercise for Happy Living," No. 486 10. "Respiration," No. 3533 11. "Rest and Health," No. 2128 12. "Cell, Structural Unit of Life," No. 2220 13. "The Story of the Blood," No. 1075 (tape) 14. "The Skin has Several Jobs," No. 1071 (tape) D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. Does the nervous system play any part in our ability to digest foods? 2. How are body waste discharged? 3. What are body systems? 4. How do plants use their food?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How are food and oxygen carried to all parts of the body? 2. How is food liquified so that it can be assimilated by the body? 3. How does the heart keep the blood moving? 4. What happens to foods not used by the body? 5. What would happen if the body could not eliminate its wastes?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think.. 1. Why do we chew food? 2. Why do you need plenty of fresh air? 3. Why do you need to bathe every day? 4. Why do you breathe faster after exercise? 5. Why should you never swim immediately after a meal? 6. Why do you need a balanced diet?
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PROBLEM: WHAT FOODS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR LIVING THINGS? (Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition, of the problem. 1. Exhibit charts on the food value of one quart of milk and on the Basic Seven Food Group. 2. Lead pupils to discuss height, age, and weight of all children in their family.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What foods contain vitamins? 2. Is food essential to all living things? 3. What are the three nutrients? 4. Why do you suppose some of your brothers and sisters are so very different in height and weight from you?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Conduct a rat-feeding experiment. 2. Demonstrate that a plant needs light, water, and minerals in order to grow.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiments. 1. Visit a drugstore. Observe the variety of vitamin and body regulators on the shelves. Ask the druggist how many kinds he has in stock. 2. Visit the bakery. Learn how bread is enriched. 3. Visit a dairy. Find how milk is processed. 4. Find as many people as possible who contributed to one meal you had today. 5. Arrange food models into well-balanced meals. Explain what each food supplies. 6. Make posters on the importance of breakfast. 7. Make a vitamin chart showing the function and source of the important vitamins.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Foods From Our Garden." No. 329 2. "Food That Builds Good Health," No. 2263 3. "Foods and Nutrition," No. 218 4. "An Apple A Day," No. 778 5. "Eat for Health," No. 809 6. "Our Daily Bread," No. 5594 (tape) 7. "None of Us Lives To Himself," No. 1087 (tape) 8. "We Have Many Persons to Thank for Our Good Health," No. 1066 (tape) 9. "What Is the Most Nearly Perfect Food? No. 1065 (tape)
10. "Good Nutrition and Good Health," No. 1063 (tape) 11. "Chemical Regulators," No. 1171 (tape)
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D. Find answers to these quest,ions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are enriched foods? 2. What are building foods? 3. What do vitamins do? 4. What is the food value of milk? 5. What are the essential foods for lower animals? 6. What are the essential foods for plants?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What are the functions of food in the body? 2. What methods of preparation may be used to preserve food value? 3. How valuable are vitamin pills?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do we eat? 2. Why is milk pasteurized? 3. Why do we need different kinds of foods? 4. Why were seamen of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries often ill at the end of a long voyage?

PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF RE~RODUCTION IN LIVING THINGS?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter)
Y. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupil, in recognition of the problem. 1. Read a story about identical, fraternal, and Siamese twins. 2. Read a story about Luther Burbank. 3. Discuss oviparous and viviparous animals. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Do all plants reproduce themselves? 2. Do all animals give birth to living young? 3. Why isn't the world overpopulated with animals? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Bring a sitting hen into the classroom and place fertilized eggs under her. Not the tim e required for
hatcbin~.
2. Set up an aquarium. Put in it a male and female fish. Let pupils discuss differences in sex, color, size, and shape.
3. Examine peas, beans, and onions. Show that these contain a little plant. Set up a box of sand and show vegetative propagation from stems, leaves, and roots.
4. Examine a culture of paramecia. Isolate one and allow it to remain overnight. Note what occurs. 5. Examine the parts of a flower. Show that the ovule must be fertilized to produce a seed. 6. Use yeast to show reproduction by budding. 7. Use green algae to show reproduction by conjugation. 8. Show how reproduction occurs in the earthworm. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a pond where frogs live and look for eggs. Note the large number of eggs laid and the jelly sub-
stance around the e~gs. 2. Visit a fish hatchery to see fish eggs and the young fish. 3. Visit a stock or pet show, or a state or county fair. Observe the blue ribbon or best breed winners. ote
their characteristics. 4. Visit a hospital to see how premature babies are cared for in incubators 5. Invite a botanist or gardener to talk about cross pollination. 6. Invite a doctor to talk about reproduction in man. 7. Write about your observations on a visit to a florist. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Plant Life at Work," No. 3190 2. "Plant Growth," No. 283 3. "Animal Breeding," No. 1889
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4. "Asexual Reproduction," No. 3588 5. "Development of a Chick," No. 3215 6. "In the Beginning," No. 7850 7. "Life Cycle of a Fly," No. 3126 8. "Miracle of Life," No. 3156 9. "Flowers at Work," No. 284 10. "Life Cycle of a Plant," No. 3528 D. Find answers to t,hese questions In textbooks .nd general references. 1. What is fertilization? 2. What stages do most insects go through to become adult? 3. What is the reproductive cycle of seedbearing plants?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What would a chart of the individual characteristics of members of a class show? 2. What would happen if some living things were not cared for from birth?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is pollination necessary for reproduction in some plants? 2. Why are many animals cross-bred? 3. Why don't brothers and sisters marry each other?
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PROBLEM: WHAT FACTORS INHIBIT UNLIMITED REPRODUCTION IN LIVING THINGS? .'
(Broad Area: Animate Matter)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.

,r ,

A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem.

1. Exhibit pictures of animals feeding on seeds, eggs, or larvae of other animals

2. Exhibit a balanced aquarium stocked with plants and animals.

3. Observe how guppies eat their young.

4. Invite a teacher, minister, or social worker to discuss marital customs, "broken homes," or social customs of courtship.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What are the effects of disease and germs on plant and animal reproduction?

2. What are the effects of climate on reproduction?

3. What are the effects of overpopulation of animals on plant life?

C. Formulate hypotheses.

II, GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Place a toad in an aquarium. Let pupils be responsible for feeding. 2. Place a grasshopper in a terrarium. Note his feeding habits. 3. Observe a need for a balance of living things in the aquarium. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a pond where mosquitoes breed. Show that oil on top of the water kills the eggs by cutting off air. 2, Observe a caterpillar eating the leaves of a plant. 3. Take a walk and observe the plants in a well-tended garden and in a garden over populated with weeds. 4. Read a book on courtship. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Plant Oddities," No. 3468 2. "Farm Babies and Their Mothers," No. 3269 3. "Life in a Pond," No. 2221 4. "Life in an Aquarium," No. 5089 5. "Beginning to Date," No. 774 6. "Meaning of Adolescence," No. 4404 D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. How are plants and animals dependent on each other? 2. What is the life cycle of the frog? 3. What parts of the flower are necessary in the production of seed?

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m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions: 1. What would happen to our civilization if there were no sunlight? 2. How would our lives be affected if all the seeds produced were to develop? 3. How would our lives be affected if all the animal eggs produced were to develop?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why does an aquarium need both plants and animals? 2. Why does some young animals need their mother's care? 3. Why are there more adult women than men? 4. Why are many animals that once lives extinct today?
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PROBLEM: HOW ARE TRAITS TRANSMITTED THROUGH SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS? (Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognitJon of the problem. 1. Exhibit a colorful poster or chart illustrating Mendel's Law. 2. Exhibit pictures of hybrid garden flowers. 3. Exhibit pictures of pedigreed animals. 4. Lead pupils to discuss characteristics of certain plants and animals. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What are traits? 2. What is heredity? 3. What is germination? 4. What is fertilization? C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBl.EM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Bring blooming plants into the classroom. Note that roses do not produce gardenias. 2. Plant several kinds of seeds. Note the plants reproduced, their size, color, and other characteristics. 3. Make a cutting from a geranium and watch it grow. 4. Watch hen eggs hatch. 5. Get some frog eggs from a pond. Keep them in pond water in the school room and watch them hatch.
B. Take field trips and enjoy other learning experiences. 1. Visit a flower garden. Note the perennials. Show that they reproduce their kind. 2. Make a special report on inheritance in plant:-. 3. Look through a seed catalogue and make a list of hybrid plants that are named.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deppen understandings. 1. "Pig and Its Relatives," No. 2024 2. "Heredity in Animals," No. 3532 3. "Heredity and Environment," No. 2274 4. "Look Alikes," No. 2110 (tape)
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are genes? Chromosomes? 2. What traits can be inherited? 3. Are diseases inherited? 4. What are hybrids? 5. What is regeneration?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What might be the explanation for the birth of an albino to perfectly normal parents? 2. What would happen if we could decide before hand how our offspring would look?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why did the frog eggs fare better in pond wnter than they would have in other water? 2. Why might your dog have puppies of different colors?
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PROBLEM: WHAT PROBLEMS ARISE FROM LIFE WHICH AFFECT REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS? (Broad Area: Animate MaHer)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Lead children to discuss the likenesses and differences of children in the same family. 2. Read a book or story about the influence of religion on family life.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Does the educational level of people influence the size of the family? 2. Is it true that people in the low-income brackets have the largest families?
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit the library to find statistics on the average age of marriage and the increase in divorce rate. 2. Have pupils write compositions on "Qualities I Most Admire in the Opposite Sex." 3. Invite a social worker or counselor to speak on the problems of family living. 4. Exhibit charts showing the reproductive organs properly labeled. Learn the scientific names for each part.
C. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Appreciating Our Parents," No. 2146 2. "How Do We Know It's Love," No. 2973 3. "Family Life," No. 2148 4. "Your Earning Power," No. 2?28 5. "Gossip," No. 3440 6. "Jealousy," No. 4411 7. "Sharing Work at Home," No. 2150 8. "Who's Boss?" No. 4180 9. "Are You Ready for Marriage?" No. 2987
10. "Getting Along With Others," No. 1016 (tape) 11. "Your Personality and Health," o. 1006 (tape) 12. "Let's Face It," No. 1015 (tape) 13. "What's On Your Mind?" No. 1014 (tape) 14. "Some Sweet Home," No. 1025 (tape)
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are the legal requirements for marriage? 2. What are the causes of divorce? 3. What are the effects of divorce on children of the "broken home"?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What is the only sound basis for marriage? 2. What would happen to our society if the situations were reversed and the best educated people had the most children? 3. What changes would take place in our society if all dates were chaperoned?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is the divorce rate very high among young married people? 2. Why does religion influence the kind of home life a family has?
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PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE SIMPLE BEHAVORIAL RESPONSES IN LIVING THINGS?
-<Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils In recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit pictures showing how different animals move through the air, on the ground, and in the water. 2. Read a story about an animal's reaction to danger. 3. Lead children to discuss why ants crawl and birds fly. 4. Read about Pavlov's experiment on dogs. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is behavior? 2. What causes the mouth of a dog to water when he sees a steak? 3. Why does your mouth feel wrinkled when you think about eating a lemon? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBlE
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Place a plant near a window. Turn it every two or three days. Observe what happens. 2. Plant seed in two boxes. Place one box in a dark corner and the other in sunlight. Water them both. Observe color, height and size of plants. 3. Fill a paper bag with air and burst it to produce a louid noise. Note the reactions of pupils. 4. Tap a child on the kneecap with the side of lhe hand. Note reaction.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Take a walk around the campus. Note the reactions of birds to noise. 2. Visit a zoo. Observe the simple reflexes of a snake, giraffe, tiger, or other animas. 3. Have pupils relate their experiences in an electrical storm, a ride on the roller coaster, or at a fire. 4. Have reports on how plants respond to climate and how animals respond to instantaneous stimuli in their environment.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Plant Oddities," No. 3468 2. "Reactions in Plants and Animals," No. 189 3. "Human Telegraph," No. 2405 (tape)
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What is a tropism? 2. What are some of our involuntary reactions? 3. What are some reactions of plants and animals to climatic conditions? 4. What are the ways we learn-conditioning, imitation, trial and error?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND. MAKE APPLICATION BASED ON INFORMATION GAIN.ED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions.. 1. What is the best way to break a habit? 2. What happens when someone steps on your toe?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do plants turn toward the light? 2. Why do we jump when we hear loud noises? 3. Why do children cry? 4. Why do plants stand up after a storm?
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PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE COMPLEX BEHAVORIAL RESPONSES INVOLVING AN ORGANIZED NERVOUS SYSTEM? (Broad Area: Animat. Matter)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit a chart showing the nervous system. 2. Read a story illustrating that nerve impulses may keep us safe from harm. 3. Lead pupils to discuss and recognize individual habits-desirable and undesirable.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is a response?
2. What is a habit?
3. What happens when one thinks? 4. How do animals learn through experience?

C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments.
1. Take the hand of a person. Draw its outline on a sheet of paper. Have the person look away. Gently touch the back of his hand in several places with the point of a pin. Ask him if he feels heat, cold, or pain. Mark the places on the outline where he feels each sensation. Try the experiment on yourself.
2. Clean the backbone of a chicken. Show the vertebrae and the spinal cord. 3. Blindfold a pupil and give him an object to describe by feel alone. 4. Snap your finger before someone's eyes. Observe response. 5. Give a pupil who is holding his nose an aromatic food, such as onion, and tell him to describe the
taste. Note that taste is a combination of smell and taste. 6. Use pans of warm and cold water. Ask a pupil to place his hands in each pan and describe what he
feels. Reverse the hands. Note the reaction to change in temperature.

B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Invite the school nurse to come in and speak on the ways in which the nervous system controls our behavior
2. Invite a doctor to speak and show slides on the nervous system, and to explain how injury or disease may affect it.
3. Examine pictures of nervous systems in other animals. Observe how they are similar or different from humans.
4. Assign each pupil to write a descriptive paragraph which includes an appeal to every sense.

C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen undeerstandings.

i

1. "How to Concentrate," No. 2279

2. "Mental Health," No. 690

D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. Do plants have nervous systems? 2. How does learning take place? 3. What is cerebral palsy?

Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What causes the greater number of nervous disorders today as compared to former times? 2. What might be the result if the entire population in America used tranquilizers indiscriminately?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why would a person of ordinary strength be able to lift or move a heavy object during a time of stress? 2. Why can you feel pain when a pin is stuck in your finger? 3. Why has Communist China encouraged the sale and export of opium? 4. Why do we have laws prohibiting one from driving a car while under the influence of intoxicating beverages?

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PROBLEM: WHAT AFFECTS DO PHYSICALCHEMICAL SUBSTANCES HAVE ON THE BEHAVIOR OF LIVING THINGS?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter) L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in re cognition of the problem. 1. Read a story about the fat lady and the midget in the circus. 2. Arrange an exhibit of patented medicines. Note the claims for each product on the labels. 3. Lead pupils to discuss the reasons that people u se aspirin, buffering, insulin, and narcotics.
B._Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Why do changes in appearance occur in boys and girls from 9-12? 2. What causes some people to be giants and others dwarfs?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Set up an experiment to show the effect of throxin on the development of the tad pole. Use thy r 0 i d extract. 2. Use pituitin to show its effects on growth in tad poles.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Investigate laws regarding control of narcotics. 2. Have pupils report on the effects of coffee, alcohol, and tobacco on the body. 3. Observe a person taking insulin. 4. Invite a biology or health teacher to discuss the functions of the endocrine glands.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Endocrine Glands," No. 242 2. "Growing Girls," No. 1953
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What effects do tranquilizing drugs have on us? 2. What are the endocrine glands? How do they function?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How does the economic level of an individual affect his behavior? 2. How does your nervous system help determine your behavior? 3. What would happen if you lost the sense of smell and taste?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are narcotics so widely used today? 2. Why is the body build of boys and girls different?
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PROBLEM: WHAT BEHAVORIAL ADJUSTMENTS DO LIVING THINGS MAKE TO THEIR ENVIRO MENT? (Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Lead pupils to discuss how recreation influences our lives. 2. Arrange an exhibit of modes of dress of different age levels or social groups for a given period. 3. Have someone in to speak on "Teen-Agers and Rock and Roll." 4. Exhibit pictures of unusual plant and animal adaptations to environment.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How does dress influence behavior? 2. How do plants and animals adjust to their environment? 3. How does where one lives influence one's behavior?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Demonstrate the fact that potato eyes are buds from which the young plant develops. 2. Plant a seed on a blotter between two pieces of glass. Note growth. 3. Observe cats and dogs at play. Note behavioral patterns.
B. Take field trips and enjoy other learning experiences. 1. Visit a zoo and observe the thick wooly fur on fur-bearing animals in winter. Observe the thinner fur on the same animals in spring and summer. 2. Have pupils make oral reports on unusual adaptations of plants and animals. 3. Have pupils write report on field trips they have taken. 4. Have pupils to observe trees in winter, and butterfly pupa' and birds migrating south in fall. 5. Have a report on the book, Animal Weapolls, by George F. Mason.
C. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Kangaroos," No. 734 2. "Action and Reaction," No. 3602 3. "Animal Life," No. 239 4. "Field Trip to a Fish Hatchery," No. 2353 5. "Pond Life," No. 512 6. "Choosing Clothes for Health," No. 2033
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are some environmental factors which influence personality? 2. What are some of the methods being used in soil conservation in the state?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What part do modern conveniences play in influencing the behavior of the individual? 2. Is the electricity used in the community made by water power? How far away is the dam? Is the dam used for irrigation?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why would plants growing in the desert die if planted in a wet environment? 2. Why can animals adjust to living in a zoo which is unnatural to his natural way. of living"? 3. Why is the economic life of the community determined by environment?
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PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN SEEK TO CONSERVE RESOURCES?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit pictures of new varieties of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. 2. Tell a story of Luther Burbank and his work in developing new plant varieties. 3. Display a poster showing the increase in man's life span. 4. Read an account of the work of Alexander Fleming and Jonas Salk. 5. Lead pupils to discuss methods of soil and water conservation which they have observed.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is the purpose of terracing land? 2. How do plants prevent erosion? 3. What is water conservation?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Build a model dam. Observe effect on soil when the flow is regulated and when it is allowed to over flow. 2. Put a cupful of topsoil in a quart jar. Put a cupful of subsoil in another jar. Add water and shake the jars. Note which jar has more material floating on top. 3. Place some soil in a jar. Use a tin can with holes pierced in the bottom to form a sprinkler. Sprinkle the soil; hold the can about two feet above the soil. Note rate of absorption.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a state park or animal preserve. 2. Tour the school campus, lawns, and gardens for examples of conservation needs. 3. Visit a fish hatchery. 4. Visit a dam. Learn how it is a water and soil conservation measure. 5. Visit a forest ranger station. 6. Invite a soil conservationist, forest ranger, civil defense worker, or game warden to visit the class. 7. Have a panel discussion on conservation of all natural resources.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Animals in Modern Life," No. 177 2. "Conservation of Natural Resources," No. 142 3. "Conservation Road," No. 4191 4. "The Living Earth," No. 286 (tape) 5. "As the Twig Is Bent," No. 292 (tape) 6. "White Trails," No. 293 (tape) 7. "Watershed," No. 300 (tape)
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are some ways that man has improved soil? 2. What plants and animals were found in America by white men? 3. What plant and animals provide us with clothing? 4. What plants are used for medicinal purposes? 5. What effect do plants have on the water table?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. Is there a relationship to conservation in building a dam? 2. How has man used a knowledge of science to improve his way of living? 3. Is it practical to burn leaves or burn off forest land? 4. How do we conserve human resources?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do we can and freeze fruits and vegetables? 2. Why are some wild animals disappearing? 3. Why has water conservation become of major importance today?
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PROBLEM: HOW DOES THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIVING THINGS IN TIME SHOW EVIDENCE OF CONTINUED CHANGE?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit a collection of Indian relics. 2. Exhibit a collection of rocks containing fossils. 3. Exhibit pictures showing soil changes. 4. Read a story about the development of the butterfly. 5. Display pictures, charts, and books about early plants and animals. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What do plants need to grow? 2. What kind of living things first inhabited the earth? 3. How do living things change? C. Formulate hypotheses.
IT. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiment,s. 1. Place a cocoon in the classroom. Observe it emerge as an adult in late March or Aprl1. 2. Place a seed in oil. Note the change after a few days. 3. Bring a mother hen and her chicks to class. Note the differences. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a zoo. Observe the various kinds of animals. Compare mothers with their babies. 2. Visit a slaughterhouse. Try to find what happens to the hair and hide of slaughtered animals. 3. Visit a nursery. Observe young and matured plants. 4. Have pupils make drawings to show changes in plants and animals. 5. Visit a place where there may be fossil remains. 6. Study the geological time table and discuss the large divisions of time. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Mother Hen's Family," No. 2381 2. "Growth of Flowers," No. 2015 3. "Animals Growing Up," No. 407 4. "Moths," No. 279 5. "Growing Girls," No. 1953 6. "Life Through the Ages," No. 2392 (tape) 7. "How You've Changed," No. 2393 (tape) 8. "Mr. Tadpole," No. 2118 (tape) 9. "Making Things Better," No. 2394 (tape) 10. "Into the Past-Fossils and Pottery," No. 1988 (tape) 11. "Insects and World History," No. 1178 (tape)
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What evidence do we have of early life? 2. What is the carbon 14 test? 3. What living things change during growth? 4. How were wild animals domesticated?
ID. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions.
1. What lessons can be learned from the fact that the giant dinosaurs became extinct? 2. Which of the changes in man do you think is most important to you in everyday life? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do some birds fly south for the winter? 2. Why do we have seasons? 3. Why do we find fossils of tropical plants in Arctic regions?
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,PROBLEM: HOW DOES THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIVING THINGS IN SPACE SHOW EVIDENCE OF CONTINUED CHANGE?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Read a story about migration of animals. 2. Discuss geographical barriers as they affect distribution of living things. 3. Exhibit charts showing the land bridges that are believed to have connect continents in the past. 4. Lead pupils to discuss plants and animals of the community. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is a habitat? 2. How are mountains made? 3. What are some theories about the migration of Indians? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Show what happens when an organism is put into a habitat not suited to it's life processes. 2. Observe the habitat of several plants and animals.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Have pupils read and make oral reports explaining how freezing and thawing in winter can form new soil? 2. Lead pupils to discuss the shifting of animals for water and food to a suitable habitat. 3. Encourage pupils to make a rock collection. 4. Arrange a bulletin board display of pre-historic animals.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Animals Unlimited," No. 4420 2. "Plant Survival," No. 3531
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. How does man control the distribution of animals? 2. What is the difference between geographical and biological barriers? 3. How is seed dispersal accomplished in nature?
TIL FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What things can man do to control insects and animals? 2. What special problem on the evidence of constant change in organisms could you express in a frieze or mural? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why was the seed placed in the oil affected? 2. Why do animals migrate?
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PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES OF CONTINUED CHANG IN MAN?
(Broad Area: Animate Matter) I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest. and guide pupils in. recognition of the problem. 1. Read some Greek and Norse myths to find some explanations of early man's beliefs. 2. Read tales of King Arthur's Court. 3. Display pictures of early dwellings of men, their monuments, tools, and weapons.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How do we know what existed on earth before our time? 2. How did early man look? 3. How did early man live?
C. Formulate hypotheses. II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Visit a museum to see pictures and relics of early man. 2. Visit a mine or quarry to collect fossils. Observe rock formations. 3. Have pupils give oral reports on scientific beliefs versus traditional beliefs. 4. Have pupils view the film "Prehistoric Man," No. 2377 C. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are some traditional beliefs about man's history? 2. What kinds of tools and weapons did early man use? 3. How did early man try to explain natural phenomena ?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How would you have looked if you had lived 5,000 years ago? 2. How would you have dressed if you had lived 5,000 years ago?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are modern weapons and tools different from early ones? 2. Why has man had to change his way of living since early times?
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PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF MATTER?
(Broad Area: Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display on the bulletin board pictures showing the three forms of matter. 2. Display objects in their original state; then show products from the original.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. In what forms does matter exist? 2. How do these forms differ? 3. How is matter measured?
IT. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Place a piece of dry ice in a pan. Observe and record what happens. 2. Put a pitcher of ice cubes in a warm room. Observe and record what happens. (Note drops of water on the outside of the container.) 3. Bring a block of ice, wood, and stone to class. Let children weigh and discuss weight of each according to size. 4. Have pupils bring a variety of materials. Lead them to observe that a solid object has a definite size and shape. 5. Pour water into a container. Lead pupils to observe that a liquid has definite size and that it takes the shape of its container. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Take a field trip over the building. Make a list of solids, liquids, or known gases present. 2. Take a field trip over the school grounds. Note the materials used to construct the building. List various kinds of materials used. 3. List all the forms in which water is found. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Liquid Air," No. 3168 2. "Solids, Liquids and Gases," No. 5034 3. "Birth of Soil," No. 415 4. "Ice," No. 3526 5. ''Water,'' No. 3458 6. "Properties of Liquids," No. 3527
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. How do we know there is air around us? 2. What is wind, and what does it do? 3. Is there water in the air? 4. How may water change its form? 5. What makes water move from place to place? 6. How are liquids, solids, and gases measured? 7. What are elements? compounds? mixtures?
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Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. In what forms does matter exist? 2. What are the properties of matter? 3. How may matter be changed from one form to another? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do drops of water form on the outside of a pitcher filled with ice cubes? , 2. Why do some things dissolve in water?
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PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF ENERGY?
Broad Area: Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Arrange a bulletin board display showing various ways of heating homes. 2. Display books about Robert Fulton or the Wright Brothers.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What helps man to pull wagons uphill? 2. What foods should be eaten for energy? 3. Why does the human organism need rest and exercise? 4. What happens when two sticks are rubbed together? 5. What is used to furnish fuel in an airplane?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Hold different kinds of wire over a lighted candle. (Does he a t travel along the wire?) Use a piece of wood and glass in the same manner. (Does heat travel along the wood? Does heat travel better through some materials than through others?) 2. Hold pinwheels before an electric fan to show the work of wind. 3. Fasten a rubber balloon over the opening of a bottle. Place the bottle in hot water. What happens? Why? 4. Melt some butter. Let the butter cooL Why did the form change? 5. Make an electromagnet. 6. illustrate fields of force. 7. Have a Boy Scout demonstrate fire by friction.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a dairy to find out how they use ultraviolet rays. 2. Visit an airport to observe planes refueling and taking off. 3. Visit an antique shop and study types of lamps used in earlier times. 4. Visit a railroad station to observe the "fire box" of the engine. Show how coal or oil is transformed into energy. 5. Make a list of as many sources of heat as possible. Tell how heat from each source is valuable. 6. Dramatize Benjamin Franklin's discovery of electricity, or a similar incident in the life of Robert Fulton.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.
D..Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. How do sails help move a boat?
2. How does man use natural forces to make work easier? 3. How does heat change things?
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III. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What is our chief source of energy? 2. In what different ways is energy obtained? 3. How is electricity used as a source of power? B._Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are scientists devoting much time to the study of atomic energy for peacetime use? 2. Why should one consider the type of work he is doing when he chooses the kind and amount of food to eat?
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PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME EVIDENCES OF CHANGES IN MATTER AND ENERGY?
(Broad Area: Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM, A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures showing ways atomic energy is being used to aid man. 2. Inflate a balloon with air and tie it tightly. Hang it up for a few days. Encourage chi I d r e n to watch changes taking place and speculate about reasons.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How do plants manufacture their food? 2. What happens in the body during the process of digestion? 3. What produces ashes?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Boil water. Observe and record the changes which take place. 2. Freeze water. Observe and record the changes which take place. 3. Place water and salt solution in a small dish and leave it for several days. Observe and record what takes place. 4. Burn a substance. Observe and record what happens. 5. Place some vinegar on limestone. Observe and record what happens. 6. Pour vinegar on soda. Observe and record what happens. 7. Place iron filings in water. Observe and record what happens. 8. Heat some water in a kettle. Place a pinwheel before the spout. Observe and record what happens.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a food packing company. Observe ways foods are processed. 2. Invite the homemaking teacher to speak on food preservation and preparation. 3. Visit the waterworks. Observe water purification. 4. Visit an electric station. Observe how electricity is produced. 5. Visit a swift running stream. Note size and shape of stones in the water. (How will they become part of the soil? How does water move large rocks?) 6. Write a list of materials that are not made from plant or animal matter. 7. Write your experiences of being in a wind storm.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Energy from the Sun," No. 877 2. "Energy in our Rivers," No. 2122 3. "Forces and Motion," No. 2222 4. "Solids, Liquids, and Gases," No. 5034 5. "Water," No. 3458
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. How do green plants get their food? 2. How does chewing help to digest food? 3. How does each part of the body get its share of food?
Ill. FIRMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What changes take place in food as it goes through the body? 2. What happens to coal when it is burned? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why should food be chewed thoroughly? 2. Why is transportation important in securing foods? 3. Why may eating certain foods cause discomfomfort or illness ?
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PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE AND CONTROL MATTER AND ENERGY TO CHANGE HIS ENVIRONMENT?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide p pils in recognition of the problertr. 1. Display pictures that show methods of soil conservation. 2. Display a picture of a bag of fertilizer. From numbers on bag, such as 4-8-4 or 5105, run colored threads to question, "What do these numbers mean?"
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How has man utilized barren land? 2. How does man utilize water in dry areas? 3. What is done to keep the soil from washing away? 4. Why are dams built?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Set up two sloping boards, each packed with a layer of sand or soil. Plow the two fields, using a pencil as your plow. Plow one field down hill, the other across the hill. Sprinkle each field with the same amount of water. Observe and record what happens. 2. Set up two sloping boards as above. On one pack a layer of sand or soil. On the other place a layer of grassy turf. Sprinkle each field with the same amount of water. Observe and record what happens.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a farm. Note types of soil and how they are being used. 2. Visit the waterworks. Note how water is conserved. 3. Visit a forest. Note conservation practices. 4. Invite the forest ranger, county farm agent, or soil conservation technician to tell the class of conservation practices. 5. List natural resources of your community. 6. List ways that a forest helps preserve other natural resources.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest, and deepen understandings.
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What are natural resources? 2. How does a dam change the land? 3. What is a levee? 4. How does strip cropping protect the soil?
m FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What are the chief 'Yays in which soil is carried away? 2. What are the best ways of conserving the soil? 3. How does conservation of all natural resources help to conserve human life?
B. Ask application questions to ~elp pupils think. 1. Why does a good farmer practice "contour" plowing? 2. Why do forest fires cause floods? 3. Why are dikes important. to the people of Holland? 4. Why does Georgia have "red old hills"?
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PROBL~M: HOW DOES MAN USE CHANGE IN MATTER AND ENERGY TO ,PRESERVE HIS HEALTH?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Chang.. In Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate act.ivities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Ask pupils to list modern conveniences used in their homes. 2. Display pictures of many -different kinds of hot! ses.
3. Read to the class a very interesting part of a beok about Louis Pasteur. Encourage them to re~d ~urther.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Does refrigeration help protect your life? 2. Why is penicillin considered a "wonder drug"? 3. How does the sun help make Vitamin D in our bodies?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit the county health center to learn of the various vaccines given. 2. Invite a contractor to speak on modern housing trends. 3. Invite a heating and lighting specialist to speak on adequate heating and lighting in the home. 4. List foods which protect our bodies. 5. Dramatize an outstanding event in the life of Jonas Salk or Crawford W. Long.
C. Uus audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Home Electrical Appliances," No. 150 2. "Fire Prevention in the Home," No. 1962 3. "Building America's Houses," No. 360 4. "Body Defenses Against Disease," No. 232 5. "Essentials of First Aid," No. 7799 6. "Choosing Clothes for Health," No. 2033 7. "Food and Nutrition," No. 218 8. "Rest and Health," No. 2128
ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How does man use scientific knowledge in order to make houses more comfortable 2. How is the sun important to man in the preservation of his health? 3. For what types of diseases has man developed effective vaccines?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is the average life span of man increasing? 2. Why should "wonder-drugs" be taken only upon a doctor's prescription?
3. Why does the government spend money to eliminate alum areas?

PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE AND CONTROL MATTER AND ENERGY TO COMMUNICATE HIS IDEAS?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest, and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Collect and display pictures of ways to communicate. 2. Have on bulletin board or chalkboard this question, "Do we always see what we think we see?" B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What are some ways of communication? 2. How did man communicate during the days of Paul Revere? 3. Why is it so important for man to communicate? 4. Is sight the most used sense? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Encourage individual and small group experiments. 1. Have pupils construct a telegraph. 2. Have pupils construct a telephone receiver.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a telegraph office. 2. Visit the telephone company. 3. Have pupils organize and write a class newspaper. 4. Have pupils copy, learn, and use the Morse Code. 5. Have each pupil listen to a recording of his voice. 6. Have pupils draw a mural showing communica1." on from cave writing to television.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen undnerstandings. 1. "Development of Communications," No. 135 2. "History of Writing," No. 1973 3. "How to Read Newspapers," No. 2126 4. "Printing Through the Ages," No. 1974
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. Who are some of our leading inventors of mass communications? 2. Who invented the camera? motion pictures? 3. How does television work? 4. What problems were faced in laying the Atlantic cable for sending telegrams across the ocean? 5. What is the importance of radar and air travel?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. In what ways are the telephone and telegraph alike in principle? 2. What causes an echo? 3. Does sound have speed? 4. How does the nervous system and brain serve as the body's internal line of communication?
B. Ask application, questions to help pupils think. 1. Why has modern communication created problems for man? 2. Why is it so important that we protect our eyes and ears?
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PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE MATTER AND ENERGY TO TRANSPORT HIMSELF AND HIS GOODS?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display a frieze depicting transportation on land, sea, and air. 2. Display model planes, cars, or boats.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is transportation? 2. Who are some inventors of motor machines? 3. How have inventors used facts of science to develop power to run engines? 4. Why was it hard to invent an engine to lift an airplane from the ground.
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstrat,ion experiments. 1. Use an ordinary spool, a stiff card, and a pin the length of the spool. Place the pin through the card; place the spool over the pin. Hold the card against the spool by putting a finger on the head of the pin. Blow as hard as you can through the spool. Then take your finger away as you continue to blow. Note what happens and why. 2. Secure a glass of water. Drop several objects into the water and point out the fact that some float and others sink.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Take a trip to an airport, railroad, and bus station. 2. Visit a factory. Note the ways goods are carried from place to place. 3. Make some models showing the development of transportation. 4. Make a list of the kinds of vehicles used in transportation. 5. Give an oral report on the use of wheels. 6. Prepare a written report on fuels used in machines. 7. Tell the story of the modern crossing of the Mayflower.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references.
1. How does man use energy from fuels to operate various machines? 2. What important contributions did each of the following make to the development of transportation: Wil
bur and Orville Wright? Robert Fulton? Henry Ford? Timothy Hackworth? Diesel? Lindberg?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What is force? 2. How does man use friction force, and gravity in moving about? 3. How are coal, gas, and electricity changed into mechanical' energy? 4. What is the role of science in transportation safety?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are there highways and railroads everywhere in the United States? 2. Why are some materials used in building highways better than others?
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-

,PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE AND CONTROL MATTER AND ENERGY IN TECHNOLOGY?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate act.ivities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit many types of building materials. 2. Arrange a bulletin board with pictures of house s of many different types and materials.

B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What problems does man face in building a house? 2. How can scientific knowledge help him in knowing where a building should be located?

C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.

A. Perform demonstration experiments.

1. Take clay found in the community and shape it into bricks. Let it dry.

2. Make or build a house from commercial clay.

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I" ~; .Coll~ct stones or rocks from the community. Demonstrate how these are used in construction.

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B'. TaRe field'trips and utilize other learning experiences.

Ii I, .t-, Visj,~ and .!?pserve ~ home under construction. ote the materials used.

2. Visit a building under construction. Note the materials and how they are being used. 3. Observe the foundations being laid for a church, for a home with a basement, for a home without a
basement. 4. Invite an engineer from the city planning board to discuss zoning laws. 5. Invite an architect to speak on home building. 6. Invite a brick maker to speak on kinds and uses of bricks. 7. Write stories on the construction of an igloo, a bridge, an airplane. 8. Make a survey of the different occupations in your community.

C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What kinds of materials are found in certain geographical regions? 2. What types of workers are needed in specific construction? 3. What types of machines are needed in such construction?

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAIN-D.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How are bricks made? 2. How are marble, granite, and lumber made? 3. What scientific knowledge should be used in planning a building? 4. How is technology displacing man?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why has the use of plastics in some cases lowered the cost of homes and school buildings? 2. Why should one always consult engineers and architects in planning to build? 3. Why are there laws requiring building permits in cities?

148

PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN'S KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES HELP SU.PPLY HIM WITH THE NECESSITIES OF LIFE?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit products from wood. 2. Exhibit products from the peanut.
3. Exhibit products from flax, cotton, and man-made fibers..
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is the source of water supply here? 2. How is water made safe for body consumption? 3. What materials are used in constructing buildings?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Examine under a microscope a drop of water taken from a creek or pond. 2. Add a drop of water containing chlorine to the drop of pond water and examine under the microscope again. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit the city water supply system. 2. Visit a dairy. 3. Visit a rock quarry. 4. Visit a jewelry store to note the kinds of stones used in settings. 5. Invite a dairyman to spealt on milk products. 6. Invite a person from a lumber company to speak on how trees are transformed into various wood products. 7. List names of fabrics. Classify them as animal, plant, or synthetic. 8. Set up a miniature reservoir and filter bed. C. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Plastics," No. 3257 2. "Glass," No. 3304 3. "Making Glass for Houses," No. 399 4. "Making Shoes," No. 368 5. "Paper and Pulp Making," No. 2456 6. "Soap," No. 397 7. "Steel," No. 3159 8. "Copper Mining and Smelting," No. 440 9. "City Water Supply," No. 159
149

D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. How is water purified? 2. What materials are used in building homes? 3. How is water used to furnish power? 4. How are artificial fibers made?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How is water necessary to man? 2. What natural resources does man use for shelter, fuels, and clothing? 3. What is the importance of synthetic products to man?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is flouridation of water desirable? 2. Why is hard water undesirable? 3. Why can your mother take a more active part in community affairs than your grandmother could?
150

PROBLEM: HOW DOES MAN USE MATTER AND ENERGY TO KEEP RECORDS OF THE PAST?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes In Matter and Energy)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display an old photograph or "tin type" and a modern colored photograph. 2. Show pictures of an oldfashioned phonograph and a modern record player. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How were records kept in the past? 2. Who invented the phonograph?
3. What instruments are being used today to record history?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experience..
1. Visit a photographer's studio. 2. Visit a printing shop. Note the variety of prints, equipment, and kinds of paper used. 3. Visit a typing class. 4. Write a script for a skit to be recorded and played back. 5. Invite a consultant from an audio-visual company to speak about recordings and give demonstrations. 6. Invite a printer to speak on printing processes. 7. Make a movie of class activities. 8. Print a class newspaper.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add Interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Modem Lithograph," No. 230 2. "City Desk Items," No. 3297 3. "Printing Through the Ages," No. 1974 4. "Sound Recordings-Reproductions," No. 202 5. "Making Films That Teach," No. 1874 6. "Magnetic Tape Recorder," No. 4444 7. "Making Books," No. 378 8. "Story of the Phonograph," No. 3210 (tape) 9. "Transcriptions," No. 3211 (tape) 10. ''Television,'' No. 3212 (tape) 11. "The Electronic Tube," No. 3169 (tape) 12. "Lights, Camera, Action - Motion Picture," No. 2069 (tape)
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D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What led Ediston to invent the phonograph? 2. What is the history of the printing press? 3. What principles are used in color photography? 4. How are recordings produced? 5. How have records been preserved from earliest times?

ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.

A. Follow these guides to conclusions: .

1. How were records kept in earliest times?

2. How is history being recorded now?

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3. What materials and machines are being used to preserve records?

B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. < , '" {J '. ' 1. Why are accurate records important? 2. Why should man wish to keep records of the past?

151

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME ADVANTAGES OF PROBLEM SOLVING IN AREAS OF LIVING?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures of a balanced meal and a poor meal with this question, "Which Do You Choose?" 2. Display pictures of neatly dressed and carelessly dressed pupils with the caption, "Which One Is You?" B. Int,roduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Does the scientist have a planned way of working? 2. Should one budget his money? 3. Should one budget time? 4. How should one solve school and personal problems? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Have a small committee visit a meeting of the city council to see how business is conducted. 2. Study parliamentary procedures. 3. Discuss qualifications for class officers. 4. Hold an election. 5. Install officers. 6. Make a time budget for a school day, for a week. 7. Budget your allowance for a week, for a month. 8. Write an agenda for a club meeting. 9. Write minutes of a club meeting.
C. Use audiovisual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Problem Method," (two parts) No. 4448 - 4449 2. "Early Social Behavior," No. 4319 3. "Principles of Development," No. 421~ 4. "Broader Concept of Methods, Parts I & IT," No. 4061
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What are the characteristics of the scientific method of problem solving? 2. What are the advantages of the problem-solving method?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do some people seem to have more time than others? 2. Why is the number of deaths on Georgia roads high?
153

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME POSSIBILITIES OF FUTURE BENEFITS FROM MODERN SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES?
(Broad Area: Man's Use and Control of Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures of atomic explosions. 2. Exhibit charts showing peaceful uses of atomic energy. 3. Show pictures of atomic submarines.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How is atomic energy being harnessed for peaceful use by man? 2. Is the sun likely to replace furnaces as a means of heating buildings in winter?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration E'xperiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Visit Oak Ridge, Tennessee, or invite a resource person from Oak Ridge to give lectures and demonstrations.
2. Write a report from a newspaper or magazine articles about the work at Oak Ridge. 3. Make a display of clippings which deal with atomic research.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Atom," No. 3298 2. "Atom and Industry," No 656 3. "Atomic Energy," No. 370 4. "Atomic Power," No. 4044 5. "The Invisible Giant," No. 3569 (tape) 6. "Brain-Times Strength, Times Energy," No. 3565 (tape) 7. "What Will They Think of Next?" No. 3576 (tape) 8. "Food in Your Future," No. 3574 (tape) 9. "Mr. Atom," No. 2073 (tape) 10. "Atoms for Peace," No. 2074 (tape) 11. "New Uses of Coal," No. 3233 (tape)
C. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What is atomic energy? 2. What is solar energy? 3. Who was Madame Curie? 4. How did Henri Becquerel discover x-rays? 5. Who is Albert Schweitzer?
154

ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What peaceful uses are being made of atomic energy? 2. What hinders progress in this area? 3. What uses are being made of solar energy? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why will the future provide even more leisure time than the present? 2. Why are good international relationships increasingly important in the atomic age?
155

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME EFFECTS THAT RAPID EARTH CHANGES HAVE ON MAN?
(Broad Area: Coordinated Changes in Matter and Energy)
L RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils In recognition of the problem. 1. Display a collection of rocks found in the community. 2. Exhibit a clay model of a volcano. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Have volcanoes had anything to do with types of land found in the United States? 2. What is the difference between a volcano and an earthquake? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. With a pin, make a hole near the cap end of a toothpaste tube. Press the other end of the tube. Observe and record what happens. 2. Fill a small jar with water. Set it in the refrigerator's freezing unit. 3. Place your bands lightly together and rub one over the other. Now press them tightly together; rub them again. (Do you feel more heat?)
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit the state museum and observe types of rocks found in Georgia. 2. Visit a mountain, a lake, a river, or an ocean. 3. Visit a stone quarry. 4. Invite a geologist to speak on rock formations and their origin. 5. Invite the soil conservation technician to speak on flood control and its effect on farms. 6. Invite a person who has lived in the community a long time to speak about the changes he has observed in the earth nearby.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest, and deepen understandings. 1. "Plants, Animals and Rocks," No. 2002 (tape) 2. "Old Faithful," No. 2097 (tape) 3. "It Blows Its Top," No. 2095 (tape)
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What legends are there about how the earth was made? 2. What causes volcanoes? 3. What are geysers? Glaciers?
Ill. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED. A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How do changes in the earth after a volcanic eruption affect man's use of land? 2. What flood control measures should be taken? 3. How is soil formed? B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why are earthquakes few in number in Georgia? 2. Why do farmers find it more difficult to keep soil fertile on a hill than in a valley?
156

PROBLEM: HOW DO WEATHER AND CLIMATE AFFECT MAN'S LIVING CONDITIONS?
(Broad Area: Coordinated Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activit,ies to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit weather instruments. 2. Display pictures of different types of clouds. 3. Display daily weather map. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How has man been able to condition his weather? 2. Of what value is a weather bureau? 3. How can one look at clouds and determine the weather to expect? 4. How is a weather map read? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Perform an experiment to find out if an inch of snow contains the same amount of water as an inch of rain. 2. Construct a weather vane. 3. Make a rain gauge.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit an air-conditioned building. 2. Visit buildings heated by steam, gas, and oil. 3. Visit the weather bureau. 4. Visit the airport to find out how pilots use weather information in plotting their flights. 5. Invite pupils from other rooms to hear reports on the study of weather. 6. Invite a person from the weather bureau to sp eak on forecasting and the use of instruments. 7. Listen to the weather forecaster on radio or television. 8. Write to the weather bureau for materials. 9. Keep a scrapbook on weather.
10. Keep a record of wind direction for two weeks. 11. Keep a record of outdoor and indoor temperatu re in your home for two weeks. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.
1. "One Rainy Day." No. 2380 2. "Our Weather," No. 883 3. "Clouds," No. 3416 4. "Blow Wind Blow," No. 2020 5. "Seasons of the Year," No. 2320 6. "Tornado Warning," No. 7526 7. "Work of the Atmosphere," No. 257
157

8. "What Do We Believe," No. 1961 (tape) 9. "Flying Weather," No. 1968 (tape) 10. "Weather Teller," No. 2016 (tape) 11. "Weather Man," No. 2109 (tape) D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. How are clouds formed? 2. What kind of weather is indicated by cirrus clouds? nimbus? stratus? cumulus? 3. How has man tried to make rain? 4. How do forecasters all over the world help each other predict weather? 5. What occupations are affected by weather?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How does water get into the air? 2. What scientific knowledge enables man to forecast weather? 3. What weather factors influence man's selection of clothing? 4. What weather factors affect the types of buildings in a community?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is Georgia a good state for farming?
2. Wb1 is housing different in Alaska, Africa, and England?
158

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME EFFECTS THAT THE STRUCTURE OF EARTH HAS ON MAN?
(Broad Area: Coordinated Changes in Matter and Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit collections of seashells. 2. Exhibit collections of rocks. 3. Display pictures of oil wells. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Are there any natural barriers in this community? city? state? 2. Were there ever glaciers in Georgia? C. Formulate hypotheses.
ll. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. Perform experiments to show that air takes up space. 2. Perform experiments to show that air exerts pressure. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a nearby dried up swamp or brook. Observe the changes. 2. Visit a farm in the valley and one on a hill. Note the types of soil found and the kinds of crops grown. 3. Invite a geologist to speak on rocks. 4. Invite the county agent to speak on the kinds of soil and their uses. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks and general references. 1. What are some factors involved in the changing of the earth's surface? 2. What effect do rivers have on man? 3. How do good farming practices differ in lowlands and uplands?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How does the structure of the earth affect climate? 2. How does the structure of the earth affect the way man lives? 3. How does man change the structure of the earth to make living easier?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is Stone Mountain unique? 2. Why are there different types of soil?
159

PROBLEM: HOW HAS THE STUDY OF THE EARTH REVEALED FACTS ABOUT EARLY LIFE?
(Broad Area: Coordinated Changes in Matter and Energy)
1. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guid.e pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures of extinct plants and animals. 2. Exhibit a rock collection. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Why did the huge animals like dinosaurs become extinct? 2. What minerals are found in this community? 3. How does man know about life many years ago?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Visit the seashore. 2. Visit a coal mine, a quarry, or a cave. 3. Visit the top of a high mountain or hill. Go down in the valley. Observe how the body responds
differently. 4. Invite an engineer to discuss the building of highways, bridges, or tunnels. 5. Invite a geologist to discuss fossils. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "The Drawbridge," No. 3476 2. "Golden Gate," No. 3578 3. "The River," No. 7908 4. "Irrigation," No. 295 5. "Wearing Away of Lands," No. 181 6. "Prehistoric Times: World Before Man," No. 2387 D. Find answers to these questions In textbooks or general references. 1. What was life on the earth like many years ago? 2. How were coal and oil deposits formed? 3. What causes earth movements?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How does man know that life has existed for at least 50,000 years? 2. What stories do melted rocks tell? 3. How has the disappearance of water bodies caused man to irrigate his land? 4. How has pushing back the sea provided land space for over-populated countries? 5. How have tunnels, bridges, and dams helped man to overcome natural barriers?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do highways have so many curves in them? 2. Why is tobacco grown more in South Georgia than in North Georgia? 3. Why are there few or many industries in this community?
160

PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF CHANGE IN EXTRATERRESTRIAL MATTER ENERGY?
(Broad Area: Matter Energy)
1. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit pictures and cutouts of the phases of the moon. Show the quarters. 2. Display pictures showing solar eclipses.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Are there living things on other planets? 2. Do all of the planets move? 3. Are all of the heavenly bodies made of the same substances? 4. Do they ever strike each other?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a planetarium or observatory. 2. Observe the sun through smoked glass. Repeat observations at intervals for a month, noting position. 3. Observe the position of the moon for a month, noting shape, size, and color. 4. Make a model of the solar system. 5. Make a simple telescope.
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "This Is the Moon," No. 3485 2. "Eclipse," No. 3169 3. "Sun, Earth, and Moon," No. 3167
D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What is meant by extraterrestrial? 2. What materials are found on the sun? 3. What are some interesting myths about the origin of extraterrestrial matter-energy?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. In what ways do extraterrestrial phenomena differ from terrestrial phenomena? 2. In what ways are they similar? 3. How does the organization of a galaxy differ from the organization of an atom?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is there much misconception about the effect of heavenly bodies upon man? 2. Why are tides formed on the earth?
161

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME EVIDENCES OF CHANGE IN THE UNIVERSE?
(Broad Area: Matter Energy)
I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures from Life magazine of the universe. 2. Display pictures of the world's largest telescope. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Do the sun and other bodies of the universe move as they seem? 2. Are the minds of people controlled by the moon? by the tides? 3. Are the "animal stars" signs for health? C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. 1. To show how light and thin particles might be the result of an explosion, strike a match, explode a firecracker, or put a little flour in a paper bag, blow the bag up, and burst it. 2. To show how heat may be produced by compreEsion, use a compression pump to force air into a metal container. Feel the container before and after the compressed air enters. Feel the sides of the pump during the activity.
B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Plan a debate on some subject involving creation of the universe such as "Resolved that the universe was spontaneously created by the explosion of a unit mass," or "Resolved that the universe was a gradual formation from the expansion of compressed matter." 2. Invite a lecturer to talk on the universe. 3. Listen to poems and songs about creation, such as "The Spacious Firmament on High".
C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "How Many Stars," No. 3295 2. "Exploring the Universe," No. 161 3. "Exploring Space," No. 5603
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. How do people know how the universe was formed? 2. Is there scientific evidence to support stories about the universe?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do people say that the universe is expandini-' 2. Why is I G Y important?
162

PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE RELATIO OF THE MILKY WAY TO THE OUTER GALAXIES?
(Broad Area: Matter - Energy)

I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures or drawings of the Milky Way. 2. Display a paper-mache meteor. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is the Milky Way? 2. Is the earth the center of the Milky Way? 3. Are there galaxies of stars other than those in our Milky Way? 4. How are distances in the sky measured? C. Formulate hypotheses.

n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments.

1. Show that the sun is necessary for plant life by taking two plants of the same kind and size, keeping one in a dark place, the other in sunlight, and observing at intervals.
2. Make models of construction paper and show on a flannel board the relation of our solar system to the Milky Way.

B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit a planetarium or observatory.

2. Visit a skyscraper and observe cars and people below.

.J

3. Invite an astronomer to talk on planets.

4. Listen to tape recordings on the Milky Way.

5. Give oral reports on famous astronomers.

6. Study the night sky for galaxies, changes in stars, and meteors.

C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings.

D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. How did astronomers learn about the Milky Way?

2. What is an eclipse? 3. What is the Big Dipper? Little Dipper?

m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. Of what is the Milky Way composed? 2. What are some differences in the way man measures space on earth and space in the extraterrestrial universe?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why is the launching of a rocket to the moon important? 2. Why does the evening star disappear from sight?

163

PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GALAXIES OF OUTER SPACE?
(Broad Area: Matter Energy) I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures of an earth satellite. 2. Exhibit diagrams of the galaxies.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. What is a shooting star? 2. How do astronomers determine the nature of the outer galaxies?
C. Formulate hypotheses. II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Take a field trip to study stars. 2. Make from cardboard and clay the different shapes of galaxies. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen, understandings. D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What important contributiton did Ptolemy make? 2. What are famous myths about the stars? 3. What types of rocks are now being developed?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides, to conclusions. 1. What science principles are involved in jet propulsion? 2. How old are the galaxies? 3. How were the galaxies formed?
B. Ask application questiol\S to help pupils think. 1. Why is the light from outer galaxies so dim? 2. Why are galaxies shaped as they are? 3. Why was the invention of the telescope so important?
164

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE SOME EVIDENCES OF CHANGE IN UNIVERSAL MATTER- ENERGY?
(Broad Area: Matter Energy) I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Init,iate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display picutres of meteorites. 2. Display pictures of comets.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How do stars differ from one another? 2. Do stars ever stop glowing?
C. Formulate hypotheses.
n. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstntion experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Visit a museum to see meteorites. 2. Plan quizzes, puzzles, and games. 3. Watch for pertinent television programs. 4. Make charts of the sky showing positions of the stars during different seasons. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. Why are some stars believed to be more than five billion years old? 2. How can gaseous expansion be explained?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. What are evidences that the size of the universe is changing? 2. What causes astronomers to think that stars developed from other bodies? 3. What evidence is there that new galaxies are developing all the time?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why do the stars seem to change positions? 2. Why are some stars brighter than others?
1'35

PROBLEM: WHAT ARE THE CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTS OF THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE?
(Broad Area: Matter Energy)
1. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM. A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Exhibit photographs of the heavens on a starry night. 2. Display pictures of violent storms. 3, Display pictures of atomic explosions. B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. How high is up? 2. Are we standing up or hanging down? 3. How do astronomers know that the earth is not the center of the universe? C. Formulate hypotheses.
II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM. A. Perform demonstration experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences. 1. Visit an ideal location for viewing the sky, such as an open field, a hill, or atop a tall buildini:. 2. Read newspaper and magazine accounts of cele stial discoveries. 3. Investigate new discoveries dealing with space travel. 4. Constrllct charts for observing meteors. C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Infinite Universe," No. 3250 2. "How Many Stars," No. 3295 D. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. What superstitions did people of ancient times have about the universe? 2. What did Galileo believe about the universe? 3. How was the calendar invented?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conciusiol\Sl, 1. In what direction does the universe seem to be spreading? 2. How rapidly does the universe seem to be spreading? 3. How will the expansion of the universe affect life on the earth?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why does the sun appear so much brighter than the other stars? 2. Why do objects fall to the floor of moving elevators when dropped?
166

!PROBLEM: HOW DOES A MODERN STUDY OF UNIVERSAL PHENOM ENA AFFECT MAN'S CONCEPT OF HIS ,PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE?
(Broad Area: Matter . Energy) I. RECOGNIZE AND STATE THE PROBLEM.
A. Initiate activities to interest and guide pupils in recognition of the problem. 1. Display pictures of Dr. Albert Einstein. 2. Display a drawing showing the chemical content of the human body as compared to that of the atmosphere and extraterrestrial matter - energy.
B. Introduce questions relating to the problem. 1. Are the same elements found in the materials of the universe as are found in man? 2. Can man be separated from the universe?
C. Formulate hypotheses. II. GATHER EVIDENCE PERTINENT TO THE PROBLEM.
A. Perform demonstntion experiments. B. Take field trips and utilize other learning experiences.
1. Invite a resource person from Oak Ridge to speak to group. 2. Write a composition on "Change in Man-a Sign of Progress". C. Use audio-visual aids to add interest and deepen understandings. 1. "Public Opinion in Our Democracy," No. 2298 2. "Man in the Twentieth Century," No. 4213 3. "Science and Superstition," No. 2051 C. Find answers to these questions in textbooks or general references. 1. How does man's present knowledge of the universe compare with the knowledge of the ancient wise men? 2. What is Dr. Einstein's theory of relativity?
m. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE APPLICATIONS BASED ON INFORMATION GAINED.
A. Follow these guides to conclusions. 1. Is there any form of change in the universe similar to growth in man? 2. How has man adapted his living to the orderly arrangement of the universe?
B. Ask application questions to help pupils think. 1. Why should man's increased knowledge of the universe improve his relationships with other people? 2. Why should man study natural phenomena?
167

APPENDIX I
Suggested Bibliography For Enrichment Of Science Teaching
Books
Arey, Charles K. Science Experiences for Elementary Schools. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1942. 98 pp.
Asimov, Isaac. Inside the Atom. New York, Abelard-Schuman, 1956. 170 pp. Blough, Glenn O. Making and Using Classroom Science Materials in t,he Elementary School. New York, The Dry-
den Press, 1954. 229 pp. *Blough, Glenn 0., et al. Elementary School Science and How to Teach It- Revised Edition. New York, The Dry-
den Press, 1958. 608 pp. Burnett, R. Will. Teaching Science in the Elementary School. New York, Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1957. 542
pp. *Craig, Gerald S. Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Boston, Ginn and Company, 1958. 894 pp.
Crouse, William Harry. Understanding Science. Revised Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1956. 192 pp.
Croxton, W. C. Science in the Elementary School. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1937. 454 pp.
Curtis, Francis D. A Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science in the Elementary and Secondary Schools. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son and Company, Inc., 1926. 341 pp. (To be re-published by the Scarecrow Press, Washington, D. C.)
Curtis, Frances D. Second Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son and Company, Inc., 1931. 424 pp. (To be re-published by the Scarecrow Press, Washington, D. C.)
Curtis, Francis D. Third Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son and Company, Inc., 1939. 419 pp. (To be re-published by the Scarecrow Press, Washington, D. C.)
Freeman, Kenneth, et al. Helping Children Understand Science. Philadelphia, Winston Press, 1954. 314 pp.
Freeman, Mac, and Ira M. Freeman. Fun With Chemistry. New York, Random House, 1944. 48 pp.
Freeman, Mac, and Ira M. Freeman. Fun With Science. New York, Random House, 1956. 64 pp.
Heiss, E. D., eli al. Modern Science Teaching. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1950. 462 pp.
Hill, Katherine E. Children's Contributions in Science Discussions. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1946.
Hubler, Clark. Working with Children in Science. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957. 425 pp. Hudspeth, Jack. Handbook for Teachers of Elementary Science. Austin, Texas, The Steck Company, 1949. Nelson, Leslie W., and George C. Lorbeer. Science Activities for Elementary Children. Dubuque, Iowa, William
C. Brown Company Publishers, 1955. 153 pp. Lynde, Carlton J. Science Experiences with Home Equipment. New York, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1955.
244 pp. Lynde, Carlton J. Science Experiments with Inexpensive Equipment. New York, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Company, Inc., 1955. 28 pp. Lynde, Carlton J. Science Experiments with Ten-Cent Store Equipment- New York, D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., 1955. 276 pp. Parker, Bertha M. Science Experiences: Elementary Sch:>ol. Evanston, Illinois, Row, Peterson and Company, 1952.
272 pp. Science Education in American Schools. Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,
Part I. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1947. 296 pp.
*The teacher with limited funds for books will find the starred books to be her wisest choices.
168

Science for T"day's Children. Thirty-8econd Yearbook Number, Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1953. 311 pp.
Science in the Elementary School. The National Elementary Principal, Volume 29, No.4, February, 1950, Washington, D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1950.
Shuttlesworth, Dorothy E. Exploring Nature with Your Child. New York, The Greystone Press, 1952. 448 pp. Underhill, Orra E. The Origins and Development of ElementarySchool Science. Chicago, Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1941. 347 pp. UNESCO Source Book of Science Teaching. New York, UNESCO, 1956. 220 pp.
Wells, Harrington. Elementary Science Education. New York, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., 1951. 333 pp.
Zim, Herbert S. Science for Children and Teachers. Washington, D. C., Association for Childhood Education International, 1953. 55 pp.
(Subiect-Matfer Books)
Astronomy Faith, Edward Arthur. The Elements of Astronomy. Fifth Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1956. 369 pp. Hoyle, Fred. Frontiers of Astronomy. New York, Harpers and Brothers, Publishers, 1955. 360 pp.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia. Introduction to Astronomy. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954. 508 pp.
Biology Milne, Lorus Johnson, and M. J. G. Milne. Biotic World and Man. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952. 588 pp.
Odum, Eugene P. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Company, 1953. 384 pp. Pauli, Wolfgang F. The World of Life. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1949. 653 pp. Sinnott, Edumund, W., and Katherine S. Wilson. Fifth Edition. Botany: Principles and Problems. New York, Mo-
GrawHill Book Company, Inc., 1955. 528 pp. Smith, Ella Thea. Exploring Biology. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc., 1954. 579 pp. Tiffany, Lewis Hanford. Study of Plants. New York, Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1946. 237 pp. Weisz, Paul B. Biology. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954. 679 pp.
Young, Clarence W., and G. Ledyard Stebbins. Revised Edition. The Human Organism and the World of Life. New York, Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1951. 897 pp.
Chemistry Barker, John W., and Paul K. Glasoe. First Year College Chemistry. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company., 1951.
501 pp. Deming, Horace G. General Chemistry. New York, John Wiley and Sons., Inc., 1952. 656 pp. Latimer, Wendell M., and Joel H. Hildebrand. Reference Book of Inorganic Chemistry. New York, The Macmillan
Company, 1951. 625 pp. Sisler, Harry H., et al. College Chemistry: A Systematic Approach. New York, The Mac mill a n Company, 1953.
623 pp.
Gaology Croneis, Carey, and William C. Krumbein. Down to Earth, An Introduction to Geology. Chicago, The University
of Chicago Press, 1936. 501 pp. Leet, L. Don, and Sheldon Judson. Physical Geology. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954. 466 pp.
Health Diehl, Harold S. Textbook of Healthful Living. Fifth Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
802 pp. Schifferes, Justus J. Healthful Living. New York, John Wiley and Sons., 1954. 928 pp. The teacher with limited funds for books will find the starred books to be her wisest choices.
189

Meteorology
Miller, Denning. Wind, Storm and Rain. New York, Coward-McCann, Inc., 1952. 177 pp. Neuberger, Hans H., and F. Briscoe Stephens. Weather and Man. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1948. 272 pp.
Taylor, George F. Elementary Meteorology. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954. 364 pp.
Physical Science
Bawden, Arthur Talbot. Man's Physical Universe. Fourth edition. New York, The Macmillan Com pan y, 1957. 822 pp.
Bonner, Frances T., and Melba Phillips. Principles of Physical Science. Reading, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1957. 736 pp.
Gamow, George. Matter, Earth, and Sky. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersery, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. 593 pp. Gray, Dwight E., and John W. Coutts. Man and His Phy slcal World. Third Edition. Princeton, New Jersey, D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., 1958. 682 pp. Jean, Frank Covert, et al. Man and His Physical Universe. Revised Edition. Boston, Ginn and Company, 1949. 643
pp. Slabaugh, Wendell H., and Alfred B. Butler. College Physical Science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1958. 496 pp. Wistar, Richard. Man and His Physical Universe. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1953. 488 pp.
Physics
Freeman, Ira M. Modern Introductory Physics. Second Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Boo k Company, Inc., 1957. 497 pp.
Knauss, Harold P. Discovering Physics. Cambridge 42, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley Press, Inc., 1951. 443 pp. Lemon, Harvey Brace. From Galileo to Cosmic Rays. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1934. 450 pp. White, Marsh W., et al. Practical Physics. Second Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955. 484
pp.
Periodicals
American Biology Teacher, The. National Association of Biology Teachers, 110 Hines Street, Midland, Michigan. American Journal of Physics. American Association of Physics Teachers, 57 East Fifty-fifth Street, New York, New
York.
"Audubon Magazine. National Audubon Society, 1000 Fifth Street, New York 28, New York. Chemistry. Science Service, 1719 North Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Cornell Rural School Leaflet. Department of Rural Education, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Current Science and Aviation. American Education Publications, 1250 Fairwood, ColumbUS, Ohio. Elementary School Science Bulletin. 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C. "Journal of Chemi al Education. Division of Chemical Education, American Chemical Society, 1155 Sixteenth Street,
N. W., Wa hingfon 6. D. C. Junior Natural History. American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at Seventy-ninth Street, New
York 24, New York. Metropolitan Detroit Sci nee Review. Metropolitan Detroit Science Teachers Club, 3437 Oakman Boulevard, De-
troit 4, Michigan.
Natural History. American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at Seventy-ninth Street, New York 24, New York.
"Nature Magazine. American Nature Association, 1212 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington 6. D. C. Outdoors Illustrated. 'ational Audubon ocicty, 1000 Fifth Street, ew York 28, New York. Physics Today. American Association of Physics Teachers, 57 East Fifty-fifth Street, New York, New York.
, 170

Popular Science Monthly. Popular Science Publishing Company, 353 Fourth Avenue, New York, New York. Review of Modern Physics. American Institute of Physics, 57 East Fifty-fifth Street, New York 22, New York. Review of Scientific Instruments. American Institute of Physics, 57 East Fifty-fifth Street, New York 22, New
York. School Science and Mathematics. Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers, P. O. Box 408, Oak
Park, illinois. Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1515 Massachusetts Avenue, Washington 5, D. C. Science Digest. Science Digest Magazine, Inc., 200 East Ontario Street, Chicago 11, illinois. Science Education. National Association for Research in Science Teaching, University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida. Science News Letter. Science Service, 1719 N. Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Science Teacher, The. National Science Teachers Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Science World. Street and Smith Publications, Inc., 304 East Forty-fifth Street, New York 17, New York. Scientific American. Scientific American, 2 West Forty-fifth Street, New Yerk, New York. Scientific Monthly, The. American Association for the Advancement of Sci e n c e, 1515 Massachusetts Avenue,
Washington 5, D. C. Tomorrow's Scientist. National Science Teacher's Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C. UNESCO Courier, The. UNESCO Publications Center 152 West Forty-second Street, New York 36, New York. Weatherwise. American Meterological Society, 3 Joy Street, Boston 8, Massachusetts. These periodicals may be obtained through the State Matching Fund. Others may be added to the State Library
List upon the request of teachers.
171

APPENDIX II
Recommended Standardized Tests For Science Aptitude And Achievement

Science Tests On Approved Multiple List Of State Department Of Education

Iowa Tests of Educational Development
Science Research Associates Test 2-General Background-Natural Sciences Test 6-Interpretation-Natural Sciences (Grade 9-12)

Sequential Tests of Educational Progress Educational Testing Service
Science (Grade 4-12)

Stanford Achievement Test World Book Company
Science (Grade 5-9)

Essential High School Content Battery World Book Company
Science-part of a battery of tests (Grade 5-81h)

Cooperative Achievement Tests
Educational Testing Service
Cooperative High School Science Tests, (Separate tests) General Science Biology Chemistry Physics (Grades 7, 8, 9)

Evaluation and Adjustment Series

World Book Company

Anderson Chemistry Test

Dunning Physics Test

Kilander Health Knowledge Test

(High school)

Nelson Biology Test

Read General Science Test

Interest Tests

(May help to discover scientific interest)

Kuder Preference Record Science Research Associates

(High school level)

Occupational Interest Inventory

California Test Bureau

(High school level)

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APPENDIX III
Major Principles Pertaining To Inanimate Phenomena
L MATTER HAS MASS AND WEIGHT AND EXHIBITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.
A. The mass and weight of matter and the space that matter occupies can be tested and measured.
1. Substances are measured and weighed by arbitrary standards, and the two most widely used standards of measurement are the English System and the Metric System.
2. Mass is the amount of matter a body contains and is a measure of its inertia or its resistance to 1teing set in motion. a. The mass of a body results essentially from the number of its protons and neutrons and to a lesser degree the number of its electrons. b. A body at rest will remain at rest or if in motion will continue in motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some external force. c. The mass of a body is the same at any location.
3. Everything on or near the surface of the earth is attracted toward the earth with a force that is called weight.
s. The weight of a body on the earth is a measure of the gravitational force between that body and the earth and is, therefore, dependent on the mass of the body and its distance from the earth. (1) The weight of a body at any point on the earth's surface is directly proportional to the product of its mass and the acceleration of gravity at that point.
(a) The force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the pro due t of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass.
(b) The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the direction of that force.
(c) At any point on the earth's surface, all bodies fall with a constant acceleration which fa independent of the mass or size of the body, if air resistance is neglected.
(d) The acceleration of gravity at different locations on the earth's surface varies in accordance with the distance of the location from the center of the earth.
(2) The weight of a body varies in accordance with the variations in the acceleration of gravity at dif ferent locations. (a) At higher elevations a body weighs less than at the poles (when weighed with a spring balance). (b) A body weighs less at the earth's equator than at the poles (when weighed with a spring balance).
(3) The ratio of the weight of an object to its mass is constant at anyone location and is a measure of the acceleration of gravity at that loea tion.
b. Although the weight of a body varies from place to place its mass (inertial mass) remains always the same.
B. Matter exists in three physical states: solids, liquids, and gases.
1. All matter is composed of molecules that are in constant motion, and differences in the physical states of matter are due to differences in the space relationship of the molecules composing them.
a. The molecules of a solid are held in a relatively fixed position and resist being pulled apart except by the application of considerable force or heat. (1) Most bodies expand on heating and contract on cooling; the amount of change depends upon the change in temperature. (2) Substances which expand upon solidifying have their melting points lowered by pressure; those which contract upon solidifying have the ir melting points raised by pressure . (3) Orderly arrangements of molecules, atoms, or ions in crystals give crystals regular form. (4) The distortion of an elastic body is proportional to the force applied, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.
(5) Solids have special properties because of intermolecular forces: such properties are ductility, elasticity, hardness, malleability, and tenacity.
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b. The molecules of fluids (liquids and gases) are not held in a fixed position and, therefore, are free to flow and move about.
(1) Fluids have no elastic limit for compression.
(a) The pressure in a fluid in the open is equal to the weight of the fluid above a unit area including the point at which the pressure is taken; it, therefore, varies with the depth and average density of the fluid.
(b) The pressure at a point in any fluid is the same in all directions. (c) When pressure is applied to any area of a fluid in a closed container, it is transmitted in exactly
the same intensity to every area of the container in contact with the fluid. (d) A body immersed or floating in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. (1) A body sinks in a fluid if the weig ht of the v 0 I u m e of fluid it displaces is less than the
weight of the body. (2) A body floats in a fluid if the weight of the volume of fluid it displaces is more than the
weight of the body. (e) A fluid has a tendency to move from a region of higher pressure to one of lower pressure; the
greater the difference, the faster is the movement.
(2) The molecules of a liquid are held together in a definite mass and v 0 I u me; yet, its shape may change. (a) Every pure liquid has its own specific boiling and freezing point. (b) The boiling point of any solution becomes lower as the pressure is decreased and higher as the pressure is increased. (c) All liquids ax:e compressible but only to a slight degree. (d) The free surface of a liquid contracts to the smallest possible area due to surface tension. (e) The height to which a liquid rises in a capillary tube is directly proportional to the surface tension of the liquid and inversely proportional to the density of the liquid and to the radius of the tube. () The rate of evaporation of a liquid varies with temperature, area of exposed surface, nature of the liquid itself, and saturation and circulation of the gas in contact with the liquid. (g) The rate of vaporization decreases with an increase of concentration of the vapor in the gas in contact with the liquid, the temperature remaining constant. (h) The internal resistance, or viscosity, of a liquid tends to prevent it from flowing.
(3) The distance between the molecules of a gas is large compared with the size of the molecules themselves. (a) A gas always tends to expand throughout the whole space available. (b) A gas is compressible to a marked degree. (c) Heat is liberated when a gas is compressed and is absorbed when a gas expands. (d) When a gas expands, heat energy is converted into mechanical energy.
2. A change in state of a substance from gas to liquid, liquid to solid, or vice versa, or from solid to gas or vice versa is usually accompanied by a change in volume. a. The average speed of molecules increases with the temperature and pressure. b. Gases may be converted into liquids and liquids into solids by reducing the speed of their molecules or removing the faster molecules. c. Solids may be converted into liquids and liquids into gases by increasing the speed of their molecules. d. Solids are liquified and liquids are vaporized by heat; the amount of heat used in this process, for a given mass and a given substance, is specific and equals that given off in the reverse process.
3. Intermingling of molecules is possible because of their space relationships and their motion; thus, dif fusible substances tend to scatter from the point of greatest concentration until all points are at equal concentration.
C. All matter is composed of single elements or combinations of several elements. 1. All substances are made up of small particles called molecules which are alike in the same substance (except for variations in molecular weight due to isotopes) but different in different substances.
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a. Elements are made up of small particles of matter called atoms which are alike in the same element (except for occasional differences in atomic weight due to isotopes) but different in different substances.)
(1) Atoms of all elements are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, and differences between atoms of different elements are due to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and to the configuration of electrons surrounding the nucleus.
(a) Protons and neutrons only are found in the nucleus of an atom.
(1) The mass of an atom is concentrated almost entirely in the nucleus. (2) Some elements have more than one atomic weight due to differences in the number of neu-
trons in their nuclei. (3) Atoms may be broken down by bombarding the nucleus with high-speed particles such as
protons, alpha particles, or neutrons.
(b) The electrons within an atom form shells or are in energy levels about the nucleus; each shell contains a definite number of electrons.
(c) In an uncharged body there are as many protons as electrons, and the charges neutralize each other; while a deficiency of electrons produces a positive charge on a body, and an excess of electrons produces a negative charge.
(d) The atoms of all radioactive elements are constantly disintegrating by giving off various rays (alpha, beta, and gamma) and forming helium and other elements. (1) Radioactive emission involves nuclear changes. (2) Radioactivity is independent of all physical conditions such as heat, cold, pressure, and chemical state.
(2) There are ninety-two elements which occur in nature; others result from transmutation.
o. The simpliest substance obtainable through ordinary chemical change is an element.
(1) The properties of elements show periodic variations with their atomic numbers. (2) Metals comprise a group of elements (other than hydrogen) whose atoms have a tendency to lose
electrons readily and whose compounds when dissolved in polar solvents are capable of forming positive ions. (3) Metals may be arranged in an activity series according to their tendency to pass into ionic form by losing electrons.
(4) Non-metals comprise a group of elements whose atoms tend to gain or share electrons and whose compounds when dissolved in polar solvents are capable of forming negative ions.
(5) Non-metals may be arranged in an activity series according to their tendency to pass into ionic form by gaining electrons.
(6) A few elements are inert or chemically inactive because their atoms are so constructed as to be complete in themselves; i.e. ,their outer electron orbits have no tendency to gain or lose electrons.
(7) A few elements are constantly undergoing transmutation (changing into other elements) by giving off particles and radiant energy.
(8) Every chemical element when heated to incandesence in gaseous state has a characteristic glow and a characteristic spectrum, which can be used to identify very small quantities of the element and which is related to the molecular and atomic structure of the element.
c. Atoms of clements may combine to form compounds.
(1) In every sample of any compound substance formed, the proportion by weight of the constituent elements present is always the same as long as the isotopic composition of each element is constant.
(2) The gravimetric composition of a compound may be found by multiplying the atomic weights of the elements by their subscripts in the formula of the compound.
(3) Every pure sample of any substance, whether simple or compound, under the same conditions will show the same physical properties and the same chemical behavior.
(4) When chemical change takes place without the addition of heat from an external source, that substance which has the greatest heat of formation will tend to form.
(5) A pure chemical substance may be prepared from raw materials through utilization of their physical and chemical properties.
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2. Matter exists in the form of mixtures.
a. Mixtures may be composed of two or more elements, two or more compounds, or both elements and compounds.
b. The composition of a mixture may vary widely. c. The ingredients of a mixture may be separated from each other by physical means. d. Mixtures may be composed of any combination of solids, liquids, or gases. e. The ingredients of a solution are homogeneously distributed through each other.
(1) The presence of a non-volatile substance will cause the resulting solution to boil at a higher temperature and to freeze at a lower temperature than pure water.
(2) Freezing point depression and boiling point elevation are proportional to the concentration of the solution.
(3) Mixtures may be ionic or non-ionic.
3. Colloidal mixtures are composed of two substances, one of which is called the dispersing medium and the other the dispersed medium.
a. Collodial particles may carry electrical charges. b. Colloids have the property of absorption to an unusual degree. c. Collodial substances show greater chemical activity than the solid substances in mass. d. Suspended particles of colloids have a continuous, erratic movement due to collodial, molecular, or
ionic impacts. e. Temperature changes, pressure changes, the presence of electrolytes or the pre sen c e of oppositely
charged particles may cause colloids to precipitate. f. In the Tyndall Effect, the color and the intensity of the light scattered by particles of smoke, dust or
collodial suspensions depends on the size of the particles.
n. Energy can never be created or destroyed; it exists in many forms and can be changed from one form to an-
other only with exact equivalence.
A. Energy may be manifested in the form of electricity, both static and current, with magnetism associated with it.
1. Static electricity can be produced on the surface of a conductor which is not grounded.
a. Electrical charges are produced only in pairs of equally strong positive and negative charges. b. Like electrical charges repel and unlike electrical charges attract. c. In an uncharged body there are as many protons as electrons, and the charges neutralize each other;
whereas a deficiency of electrons produces a positive charge on the body, and an excess of electrons produces a negative charge. d. The force of attraction or repulsion between two small charged bodies varies directly as the product of the two charges and inversely as the square of the distance between the charges. e. Charges on a conductor tend to stay on the outside surface and to be greatest on the sharp edges and points. f. The charges on a conductor may be separated through the influence of a neighboring charge.
2. Magnetism may be temporary or permanent in nature.
a. A magnet always has at least two poles and is surrounded by a field of force. b. Like magnetic poles always repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles always attract each other. c. Pieces of iron, steel, cobalt, or nickel may become magnetized by induction when placed within a
magnetic field.
d. The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles varies directly as the product of the pole strengths and inversely as the square of the distance between the poles.
e. Magnets depend for their properties upon the arrangement of the met a 11 i c ions of which they are made.
f. The earth acts as a huge magnet.
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3. Electrons may flow along a conductor and, thereby, produce 2n electric current.
a. An electric current may be produced in three ways: by rubbing or friction, chemical action, and by using a magnetic field.
b. In alternating current, the direction of flow is reversed at regular intervals; while in direct current, the direction of flow is not reversed.
c. An electromotive force is induced in a circuit whenever there is a change in the number of lines of magnetic force passing through the circuit.
d. A current carrying wire is surrounded by a magnetic field. e. The electrical current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference and
inversely proportional to the resistance. f. An electrical current will flow in the external circuit when two metals of unlike chemical activity, the
more active metal being charged negatively, are acted upon by a conducting solution. g. The resistance of a metallic conductor depends on the kind of material from which the conductor is
made, varies directly with the length, inversely with the cross-sectional area, and increases as the temperature increase~ h. In a parallel circuit, the total current is the sum of the separate currents, the voltage loss is the same for each branch and the total resistance is less than the resistance of anyone branch. i. In a series circuit, the current is the same in all parts; the resistance of the whole is the sum of the ~esistance of the parts, and the voltage loss of the whole is the sum of the voltage losses of the parts. j. The mass of any substance set free by electrolysis is proportional to the current flowing and the time of flow; if the quantity of electricity is kept constant, the masses of the various substances set free are proportional to their electro-chemical equivalents. k. Electrical power is directly proportional to the product of the potential difference and the current. 1 Energy in kilowatt hours is equal to the product of amperes, volts, and time (in hours) divided by one thousand. m. The amount of heat produced by an electric current is proportional to the resistance, the square of the current, and the time of flow. B. Radiant energy is transmitted and identified by varying wave lengths.
1. Electrons do not need a wire on which to travel but can jump from one conductor to another across an evacuated space.
a. Electromagnetic waves may produce electrical oscillations in a condenser circuit which is so adjusted as to oscillate naturally with the same frequency as that of the incoming waves.
b. Condenser capacitance varies directly with the area of the plates and inversely as the thickness of the insulation between them.
c. By means of high frequency generators or vacuum-tube oscillators, sustained or continuous oscillations can be produced in a condenser circuit. The intensity of the oscillations is made to vary with audio-frequency currents in a transmitter circuit to produce radio waves.
d. Whenever a high-frequency oscillating current produces in the field around it oscillating electric and magnetic fields, energy in the form of an electro-magnetic wave is transmitted through space.
e. In a tube which contains gas at low pressure subject to an intense electric field, cathode rays, streams of electrons, move away from the negatively charged terminal at high speed.
f. A number of substances will emit electrons and become positively charged when illuminated by light. g. Electrons are emitted from any sufficiently hot body.
2. Heat is manifested in the energy of motion of the molecules of which a substance is composed.
a. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. b. Most bodies expand on heating and contact on cooling; the amount of change depends upon the change
in temperature. c. The amount of heat which a constant mass of liquid or solid acquires when its temperature rises a given
amount is identical with the amount it gives off when its temperature falls by that amount.
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d. Solids are liquidified and liquids are vaporized by heat; the amount of heat used in this process, for a given mass and a given substance, is specific and equals that given off in the reverse process.
e. When two bodies of different temperature are in contact, there is a continuous transference of heat energy from the body of higher temperature; the rate of transferrance is directly proportional to the difference of temperature.
f. The boiling point of a liquid becomes lower as the pressure is decreased and higher as the pressure is increased.
3. Light travels in straight lines in a medium of uniform optical density. a. Light may be transmitted as waves or particles. b. When light waves strike an object, they may be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected. c. When light is reflected, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. d. When light rays pass obliquely from a rare to a more dense medium, they are bent or refracted toward the normal; and when they pass obliquely frum a dense to a rarer medium, they are bent away from the normal. e. The colors of objects depend upon the wave lengths of the light rays they transmit, absorb, or reflect. f. The dispersion of white light into a spectrum by a prism is caused by unequal refraction of the different waves lengths of light. g. Light energy is necessary for the process of photosynthesis.
C. Energy is released when the nucleus of an atom of a heavy element splits or when two nuclei of light atoms join to form a heavier nucleus.
1. Atoms have great sub-atomic energy.
2. Radioactive emission involves nuclear changes.
3. Nuclear energy may be released by the bombardment of a nucleus with atomic or sub-atomic particles or very high energy radiation.
4. Atoms may be converted into radioactive isotopes by bombarding them with neutrons.
5. The effects of nuclear radiations on life processes are still uncertain although some facts are evident.
D. Energy may be manifested in other forms such as sound, mechanical energy, and chemical energy.
1. Sound is produced by vibrating matter and is transmitted by matter.
a. Sound waves can be reflected, partially reflected, or absorbed. b. Two sound waves having the same frequency and amplitude and traveling in nearly the same direc-
tion will interfere constructively or destructively dependiJlg upon whether they are in phase or out of phase. c. The velocity of a wave is equal to the product of its frequency and wave length.
d. Sound waves are reflected in a direction so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
e. The chief characteristics of sound are pitch. amplitude, and quality.
(1) The higher the pitch of a note, the more rapid is the vibrations of the producing body and vice versa.
(2) The loudness of sound depends upon the energy of the sound waves, and, if propagated in all directions, decreases inversely as the square of the distance from the source.
(3) The quality of a musical tone is determined by the pitch and intensity of the different simple tones or harmonics into which it may be resolved.
f. Musical tones are produced when a vibrating body sends out regular vibrations to the ear; while only noises are produced when the vibrating body sends out irregular vibrations to the ear.
g. There are upper and lower limits of frequencies that are audible to the human ear; ultra-sonic vibrations, frequencies above the range audible to the human ear, have applications in industry, medicine, and navigation.
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2. Energy is manifested in the form of potential energy and kinetic energy.
a. When the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero, the body will stay at rest if at rest, or it will keep in uniform motion in a straight line if it is in motion.
b. The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the
direction of that force.
c. When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
d. Any two bodies attract one another with a force which is directly proportional to the attracting masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass.
e. At any point on the earth's surface all bodies fall with a constant acceleration which is independent of the mass or size of the body if air resistance be neglected.
f. The work obtained from a simple machine is always equal to the work put into it less the work ex-
pended in overcoming friction.
g. The volume of an ideal gas varies inversely with the pressure and directly with the absolute temperature.
h. Liquids tend to seek their own level.
i. The pressure in a fluid in the open is equal to the weight of the fluid above a unit area including the point at which the pressure is taken; it, therefore, varies with the depth and average density of the fluid.
j. The pressure at a point in any fluid is the same in all directions.
k. When pressure is applied to any area of a liquid in a closed container, it is transmitted in exactly the same intensity to every area of the container in contact with the liquid.
1. As the velocity of flow through a constricted area increases, the pressure diminishes.
m. A body immersed or floating in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
n. The rate of osmosis is directly proportional to the difference in concentration on opposite sides of the membrane.
o. When a gas expands, heat energy is converted to mechanical energy.

3. No chemical change occurs without an accompan;ing energy change.

a. The energy shown by atoms in completing their outer shell by adding, losing ,or sharing electrons determines their chemical activity.
b. The rates of many reactions are affected by heat, pressure, concentration of the reacting substances, the presence of substances which do not enter into the completed chemical reaction, and the condition of the subdivision of reacting substanc s.

c. The materials forming one or more substances without ceasing to exist may be changed into one or more new and measurably different substances.

d. All chemical reactions which start with the same quantities of original substances liberate the same amounts of energy in reaching a given final s~te, irrespective of the process by which the final state is reached.
e. Chemical reaction may be carried more nearly to completion by any condition that establishes an unusually low concentration of one of the products.

f. Reactions occuring at ordinary temperatures are predominately exothermic.

g. When a chemical change takes place without the addition of heat from an external source that sub-

stance which has the greatest heat of formation will tend to form.

'

h. The heat of formation of any chemical compoun1 equals its heat of decomposition.

L Oxidation always involves the removal or sharing of electrons from the element oxidized, while the reduction always adds or shares with the element reduced.

j. Oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and are quantitatively equal.

to The solubility of solutes is affected by heat, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent.

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m The internal forces of the earth lift, lower, and/or distort the earth's crustal rocks while e r 0 s ion a I and
depositional agents work to offset the effects of these diastrophic changes.
A. The earth's surface may be elevated or lowered by interior forces.
1. Under the high pressures which occur in the earth's interior, materials that usually are solid have the capacity to flow slowly and thus bring about equalization of pressure differences on the surface.
2. Mountains are formed by such natural processes as igneous uplift, folding, and faulting of strata, and erosional remnants, with each process giving a different topographic result.
3. Earthquakes are produced by the sudden slipping of earth materials along faults. Forces within the earth may cause breaks to appear in the earth's crust.
4. Sea coasts have shifted because of the action of erosional and depositional agents, because of diastrophic forces, and/or because of changes of sea-level.
B. When elevations or depressions are created upon the surface of the earth, the elevations are usually at tacked by the agents of erosion, and the materials are carried to the depressions.
1. Streams generally are lowering the surface land in some places and building it up in other places.
&. The sediments, carried by running water, furnish the tools for erosion. b. Topsoil is eroded when it is exposed to the agents of erosion on unprotected sloping surfacea. c. The amount and nature of surface-water runoff determine the initial phase of soil erosion.
(1) Surface-water runoff is most complete where the soil is eroded and the slopes are numerous. (2) Raindrops have a compacting effect upon the soil's texture; this results in more surface-water
runoff and a higher rate of sheet erosion. (3) Water from sheet erosion aggregates to form gullies, gullies aggregate to form streams, and
streams gather into large rivers to erode as they flow to the ocean. (4) Sheet-erosion control results from good land-use soil conservation p r act ice s, which diminish
water runoff at the natural source and lessen flood control needs in the larger drainage channels. (5) The manner in which surface water may escape from soil surfaces depends upon the rainfall type,
soil type, amount of surface slope, nature of vegetal cover, and the nature of the winds. d. Running water wears away the surface of the land in amounts greater than the total erosional ef-
fects of all other erosional agents. e. The oceans influence the erosion of the land in such ways as wave erosion of shores, contributing
the original water from the water cycle, determining the mean sea level, and influencing the direction and velocity of the winds. f. Falls or rapids tend to develop in a stream bed where the stream flows over a hard stratum to a soft one. g. Subsurface rock structures influence the eroding topography with the resistant dipping rock strata composing the ridge, and the less resistant strata composing the valleys. h. Streams, potentially, have a regular cycle: youtb, maturity, and old age.
2. Glacial abrasion occurs in proportion to the weight of the ice and the velocity of its movement.
a. Glacial conditions are as a rule approached by increasing latitudes or altitudes. b. The rock fragments plucked, suspended, or shoved by a glacier, serve as the tools of abrasion for
further rock weathering and erosion by ice action. c. Glacial activities of the present time are the indicators of glacial activities of the past in respect
to origin, erosion, and depositional forms.
3. In moving air, wind pressure increases as the square of the velocity.
a. Topsoil is eroded when it is exposed to the agents of erosion or unprotected sloping surfaces. b. Winds, blowing over the earth's water surface, causes water waves to form and erode shorelines. c. Soils under clean-til crops and over-grazed grasslands are unprotected against the erosional action
of wind and running water.
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d. The oceans influence the erosion of the land in such ways as contributing the original water for the water cycle, determining the mean sea level and wave erosion of the shore, and influencing the direction and velocity of the winds.
4. Continual erosion results in decreasing the average density of continental masses and continual deposition in increasing the average density of rocks under the sea.
C. The earth's surface has been undergoing constant graC:ual changes of building up by deposition and internal forces, of tearing down by weathering erosion, and of depression by internal forces.
D. The rate of soil erosion is determined by the nature of the weather, the vegetal cover, the soil texture, the organic content of the soil, the amount of slope, and the care of the soil.
1. Soil erosion may be controlled by a proper balance of good land-use practices, which may be determined by the land class, the kind of climate, and the type of topography.
2. The erosion of farmlands can be largely prevented by using crop rotation, contour cropping, strip cropping, and/or terracing as the land, depending upon its land class, topography, and its climatic condition, may require.
3. Eroded soils lose their mineral, water, and humus content, resulting in an ever-increasing soil susceptability to erosion.
4. Soil erosion destroys soil, animals, mineral content, organic matter, and texture, resulting in a more rapid rate of erosion.
5. Productive land is scarce since the erosion of good soil takes place more rapidly than nature reforms new soil.
6. The rate of erosion is inversely proportional to the resistance of rocks to decomposition and disintegration.
E. The area distribution of rocks at the earth's surface depends upon the effects of erosional agents, of rising magma, of sediments deposited, and of rock structure formed.
1. Sedimentary rock strata are formed as horizontal deposits of sediments in shallow seas by the agents of erosion and deposition. a. Strata of rock occur in the earth's crust in the order in which they were deposited except in the case of the overthrust faull b. Sedimentary rock strata contain structures, textures, and space relations which reveal the conditions of deposition, the nature of erosional and depositional agents, and the composition of the sediments. c. The succession of rising and eroding continents is r e cor d e d in the succession of deposited rock strata around the margins of past and present land masses. d. Rocks may be formed by compacting and cementing sediments. e. The age of rock strata can be determined by comparing the nature and rate of present natural processes of erosion, deposition, and consolidation with the evidences of these pro c e sse s in ancient strata. f. A sequence of function on the earth's surface such as deposition, uplift, erosion depression, and renewed deposition are recorded in an unconformity. g. Water waves and their resultant water currents erode and build shores on a mean sea-level which determines the horizontal and stratified nature of rock strata.
2. Rocks may be metamorphosed or changed by heat, pressure, and flexion.
3. Rocks may be formed by the cooling and solidifying of molten material; igneous rocks may be formed from extruded magma and material intruded into other rocks.
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F. Parent material for tha development of solla fa formed through the physical disintetgration and chemical decomposition of rock particles and organic matter.
1. Rocks weather mechanically by differential expansion and contractions, frost actions, stress forces, the wedging of plant roots, and the burrowing of animals; the degree of exposure of the earth's surface to the sun largely determines the surface temperatures since rocks are good absorbers of sunlight.
2. Chemical weathering is accom,plished largely by water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide (hydration, oxidation, and carbonation). a. The minerals in the solution state in ocean water represent the accumulation of the chemical weathering in the past. b. High temperatures increase the solubility of minerals in water and the speed with which dissolved chemical agents will weather minerals while lower temperatures have the reverse effects.
3. Soils vary in kind and quality because of factors such as parent-rock material, climate, vegetation cover, topography, and the use of the land.
a. Soil-type areas are determined by the nature of parent-rock materials, type of climate, and past vegetal cover.
b. Land classes are determined by the texture and fertility of the soil, and by the past utilization of the soil.
4. Topsoil supports plant growth and insures the continual support of animal life by plants, which makes its conservation essential.
a. Native vegetation is a reflection of the nature of the soil, water, climatic conditions of the past and the present, as well as reflecting the nature of land-use by animals and man.
b. The character of soils on the earth determines the nature and growth of most plants and animals when other factors are equal.
c. A continuous supply of water from the soil is needed by plants during their growing cycle. d. Soil supports the growth of land plants, and these plants furnish food, directly or indirectly, to ani-
mals and humans. e. Animals and plants respond in accordance with the nature of the topography, with the fertility of the
soil, with the amount and quality of the water supply, and with the type of climate.
5. Soil ferility differs as organic matter, mineral foods, capillary water, bacterial population, and soil air vary.
a. Organic and mineral matter in the soil support bacteria and fungi which bring insoluble soil minerals into solution and make them available to plant roots for better growth.
b. Organic nitrogen is made available in the soil by certain soil bacteria which live on legume-type plants and make atmospheric nitrogen available to all plants.
c. The health of plants and animals is affected by the presence or absence of essential minerals in soil. d. Soil minerals in solution help support life on the earth by furnishing structural and catalytic mater-
ials for the fundamental organic functions of all life forms.
e. Regions of glacial deposition possess those surface conditions of fertile soil, pure water, and level topography, com,posed of glacial drift materials.
f. :Mild temperatures and most climatic conditions are favorable to maintaining high soil fertility, to the absorption of surface water by the rock surface, and to the maintenance of high organic content in the soil by abundant vegetal growth.
6. Soil fertility is maintained and/or established when erosion can be checked and controlled by good landuse practices.
a. Surface and subsurface waters carry loads of dissolved minerals from place to place but generally toward the ocean.
b. Soils vary widely in their natural supply of available plant food; this d e t e r min e s the crops to be raised, the minerals to be added, and the land planned to maintain its fertility.
c. Soil use, adapted to the natural processes of soil formation, maintains soil fertility and conserves the soil.
182

d. Maintenance' of vegetal cover, water retention capacity, control runoff, and high organic content result from good use of land practices for the control of soil erosion.
e. Under agricultural practices of clean-till cropping, soils form less rapidly than erosion removes them; hence conservation practices are essential.
i Differences in soil, weather, topography, and past land-use cause good land-use practices to vary from place to place and from time to time.
g. Nature protects the soil by its vegetal cover, which controls the rate of surface erosion, leaching, snd depletion of soil, air, and water.
7. Running water removes soil from one place and deposits it elsewhere. a. Topsoil is eroded when it is exposed to the agents of erosion or unprotected sloping surfaces. b. The per cent of runoff from precipitation depends upon the amount, intensity, and type of precipitation; the soil texture, composition, and thickness; the amount of surface slope; and the nature of vegetal cover. Co The manner in which surface water may escape from soil surface depends upon the rainfall type, amount of surface slope, nature of vegetal cover, and nature of the winds. d. Sheet-erosion control results from good land-use soil conservation practices which diminish water runoff at the natural source and lessens flood control needs in the larger drainage channels.
183

Major Principles Pertaining To Animate Phenomena
L Animate matter owes its properties to a unique organization of very few elements.
A. Protoplasm is the physical basis of all life.
1. Abundant elements in the protoplasmic material are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulphur, calcium, iron and magnesium; trace elements are cobalt, nickel, b 0 l' 0 n, manganese, iodine, silicon, and zinc. a. Elements in living matter exist as separate elements which are usually ionized. b. Elements in living matter form inorganic compounds and organic compounds.
2. The processes of a living body occur in protoplasm; the sum of all of these chemical and physical processes is metabolism.
B. Living matter which bears chlorophyll is able to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and liberate oxygen when it is activated by light of certain wave lengths.
1. Sunlight is the usual source of light in the process of photosynthesis.
2. Light energizes chlorophyll and that reaction is independent of temperature. 3. Simple and soluble carbohydrate molecules produced by this process are basic units of structure of all
carbohydrates.
C. The functional unit of living matter is a particle of nuclear substances surrounded by pro t e i n material under its controL
1. Typical functional units of living matter include viruses, rickettsia, and cells. 2. The general processes of any living body are carried on continuously within this unit (cell). 3. Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into systems to carry on functions of complex
organisms.
4. Osmosis, the diffusion of molecules of water through a differentially permeable m e m bra n e from the region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration with a stoppage of the flow of molecules of the solute, is a basic process in plant and animal physiology.
5. All living cells require oxygen to provide energy or to build protoplasm.
D. Certain life processes are performed by all living organisms.
1. Living organisms utilize organic and inorganic substances from their environment to provide energy and to rebuild tissues.
a. All living things except chemosynthetic bacteria depend directly or indirectly on photosynthesis for food.
b. Saprophytes cause decay by which process necessary raw materials are produced from dead matter for the growth of new organisms.
c. Fermentation and putrefaction are usually caused by living micro-organisms. d. The higher forms of terrestrial life are dependent either directly or indirectly on the soil bacteria for
their nitrogen supply. e. All living things require proteins for cell growth and maintenance. Animals pro cur e them in their
diets; plants can synthesize proteins from carbohydrates and nitrates. f. Digestion accomplishes two things; it makes insoluble and indiffusible foods soluble and diffusible; it
breaks down complex nutrients to simpler substances that are synthesized into living and other materials that are needed by an organism. g. The carbon cycle occurs in nature as a result of the decom}iosition of carbon compounds of organisms; this cycle replenishes the carbon supply in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. h. All living things with the exception of several anaerobic and tutotrophic bacteria obtain their energy through the oxidation of food.
184

i. Living things require food and other substanees: fuela to supply energy, materialt for growth. and replacement, minerals and water for cell structure, and cell produets.
j. Circulation is earried on in all livlni orpnisma. With increase in size and eomplexity of the body of an organism there goes a correspondlni elaboration of the transportation (circulatory) system.
2. An organism increases in size throup autosyntheaia in protoplasm accompanied by differentiation according to the genetic pattern.
3. Organisms receive and respond to stimuli and adjust to their internal and external environment. a. All living thlnis respond to stimuli in their environment. b. The multitude of interrelated neurons of the nervous system of higher animals form a complex system through which every organ of the bodJ is in connection with every other organ. c. The secretions of the endocrine glands are absorbed directly into the blood stream from the gland tissue that produces them and are absorbed from the blood by the tissues of the organs whose activities are regulated by these substances.
4. A characteristic of living organisms is the power of independent motion, either of protoplasm within the cell or of the body as a whole.
a. ThE' power of contraction, which results in movement, is possessed by all protoplasm to a greater or lesser degree.
b. The difference in motion and locomotion between animals and plants is one of degree. c. In many multicellular organisms body form is secured and maintained either by the consistence of
the tissues and the internal pressure of body fluids, or by the secretion of special substances which are formed into supporting structures.
5. Certain electrical phenomena are exhibited by all living organisms particularly in energy transfer. a. An electric current is produced when a nerve ia stimulated. b. In general the more active regions of a tissue or a cell are electronegative to the less active and a measurable difference in potential may exist between such areas.
6. Enzyme activity is of prime importance as a manifestation of life.
7. Reproduction is common to all organisms and the methods of reproduction are essentially similar in their nature, varying only in complexity; the methods of reproduction fall into two general categories, asexual and sexual reproduction.
a. Reproduction is a fundamental biological process that provides for the continuance of life on the earth by providing new individuals.
b. In sexual reproduction a male cell from one parent unites with a female cell from the other parent to produce the young (except in the few cases of self-fertilization and parthenogenesis).
c. Asexual reproduction in organisms may be brought about by fission (simple division), by external or internal budding, or by sporulation.
d. Offspring produced asexually are almost always like the parent; they will have exactly the same or similar chromosomes and the same gene complex.
e. Regeneration is almost universal among living things from the simple to the more complex animals the abilities to regenerate lost parts and to reproduce asexually fall off, gradually and independently, as the body becomes specialized.
f. Alternation of generations or a somewhat parallel process is characteristic of all higher plants, but is comparatively uncommon with animals.
g. All sexually reproduced individuals begin their careers as single fertilized cells. (1) In organisms which reproduce by sexual means, fertilization serves two functions: stimulating the egg to develop and introducing the hereditary properties of the male parent.
(2) All embryos start from a single fertilized egg cell and grow through division and redivision into
the form of the organism which produces the egg or sperm. (3) Similarities in the embryological development of organisms show hereditary relationships between
these organisms; and the closer two species are related, the longer they parallel one another in development.
185.

lit ~cIIHW1'1l a:tmriDgr\~l1lInIsitirir' in4i'ddual:.I!JcredituY~ICilUlp.~:a,j,$tl!jbYP~I')i'~s

f c::paracter

potentials are genes usually ~~ ~s~WWS:~LWOJW>~!bfJU zLrj$JJ:lim ~il1IlMI:N~tn

i.. fit !i ...., lllr;~ l{l '\t)g'1!Jl""m~ ,li".i ~~, tW ~~'"!;;';L1 fi;, W ,w::rs:;~ 't.O i-Gtl',;":

,.eLl .G;IO ;

'~"

A. Th~rlh~~1f;!WA"~~9,ih~~~e~~(,>IlHQ~ ~~~~. BlJ~u 9

'.0 ~ transJDlt-

ted to it in the reproductive cells received from its parents.

a

,

.m A~ 1i.... 'l~l;l':H.i -h r1

rU:"7f]t~~~ ]Jllt-.;:l.n::;j~'".Z.;j m ~c!Jtrtzm:Ja ti:lJJrr~ ~ J1i ~~~JmJl fDlllaiiJI:, ~

J:

1. The sex chromosomes may carry the genes for a number of charlt~~XoS'!IJ~~~-+r\<I,!Uacters

are sex-linked.

2.

lt/"ll'nl'l"I"ll'lW j:f.rntl!!l h'll.E Min!'!.::.:. Living things reproduce offspring

";.I~'ct) c,J Ja'(~~
which possess

belA
the

gde..~.me.sU~QfG3thf:ejrIr::roq

''1 b ances

$'
ors

1

' 1o' ugnu r nl-lie"sr.

1() "
oIfsring

do not necessarily resemble any one 18fi1flise- aIrc~f8rs. ~\ IiJJtJU:~ "-J b:wqu:J ,"",ell), '(' 11.)1>

~,,~

3.fta~c~te~Srs"twl:h;i.(cJ!h~~t.~hr~,e:yt..i.d;.;e".teSrfI:mf}(l1m9,l~e~c~a,"rW0el.l~i':l-l;Ke,,e1~a;n-im,eJ"ef'u~"dh:.e~.n.tia' nf~ce..~o,

("~~m~r lD">tidtrdm
:J aO:!1" <' U"S)

"

'J

Vlr~~~ flflrt
J:I ."/.r .J t.ll'JJ

die

char

l;r:~r.4.:~ ~~~~~~:'.a ~h~~~Q~~~:~':~~t~~t;~e;b{i s!~g!~~~~P!,:~~Jb~;~.n.:e ~rf~~C'~:i~~01~or~genes;

in

this

interaction

the

genes

may

interiere

with,

modify;

counterpct,

.,J

. . . . . . ::;

~,o..r~,

rerwinf~C.!~ryce

~~;a;c.1i,~ 9...t...l. ie~l~;~..

r I

. .5. ~TJ;le inhexi~ed pDtential~may

pear m

fJu't. ure

..

J

'. . . '

generatIons.

cont4in recessive ~enes .whicll

., ..l.

.~... " " ' "

,.".

"l ......_

.remain~ AAchanged .and pure and

" al "'...... ..l..~ J a. J..olo ':1 'LJef.. J:J.004~i.

J~'0

~v

_ *

.c:~

~;,';v\.j

..I
5:i.ld

~, tQ


....'U

d

~.

.jl

mAa

y

r
~

e

a

p

-

. . . 6.
....

Many

hereditary ."

characters are sijbject to.a

J

~~.l

4 .........

,r:t nOn-geneti<\ .or. in J_ ..... ~4_G,......~..n._viro4n/ me,J~t....a"l,=,. :__v.a.cr:Gi,~a~~iQon~~

eXJ?rE:~sion. Co ,..

B. Heredi tary characters are trans:r~ eI l lt~e d ther by mJ0 toslS or by meIO SiS and fertiliz.a9t'Ilo.n~~Oof','aj'!n.'::e';gg:r.,

..

I ' " ;0 J-

'r. ~,.

. .J ~~J .... ~.

.J_ ..;t:~""... ..c . 9.......s~1 ...... .)~ 7' '-:

to, ,1. ,Her~~tary Piaracters" fe~. ,~elatiY~~!1~c_onstJmt in "as.e~~l ?:gan~~. _. " " ~:::: . C:' ~ fl J

Ii, tJ '2. Hereditary characters 'oceUr 'jn>.cerlaiil J predicbb1eJ a'tiog.1iJjaseilual. organisrilscsin<rei . hel gene; of two parents combine at random in germ cells and meet at random~in'fedllli'zattau oj b!;;.II!~ol!)u

C. New h~redit~;y ~hat;~ter~';Jay ~arf~~:'fh;o 'gli mutatioJ. ~~."~,j.r.:: 'n3 .u: ::::oc:siiq i'~'.~.~al'J) X:1"!~:' .j;

r.:u L J

,12 !l ''3;: A ~a

b~.:bolq a.L J.!l.'JTWO 'Jh,,'.l,.aA '"

m. "I'herel is' an ,interaction; oflli~ing.organisms:-roth the' .physicaL ~nYU;o.mnftQt) lDill ~~ re,a~ QtlJ.~r uId

., ,J:. r1..,.>. \.');

,<..t.t.5l'(

~ 'c;:".':lt;! s .cs ..:fUb ~ld~1.;;~""!I1

A. Living organisms are found in definite zones a~d local regions, from ocean depths to mountain heights,
where conditions are favorable to"ihelP s'iir\liVal. ~(.:. ~ c ,? O-{lrL 3 'iq.1i ti '9 '?u')c: ~r.lJ~'13 };

,,; '" i~ :EaciI'~p~cies'Aof !&ii:r{alolf.h~tlid t~rld~tt{eit1md'\t;'tinge'tintl1' oMe (im'passabl~ bafi'le~'i~-;,efil.!&mtered .
/ r',' 'a. In gen-eral; the' natifrlli'flora' JaIid fauria' of a Jreglon are"the most luxurianHiiaf it~can'suppok
b. Stretches of water act as barriers to purely terrestrial animalS: tUl(P:Stefchesz~ ied 1)8' The migra

r 1 ~.. . ,1 . o~,of,t~ helM ,i.n,)ha~tanJ tsl,fj>.f,Jw ~t. pr~.'IL""t 0 "

'~""" ,~ ; 0 ~ ) \,; ".. "._ .. ~\J .. ~ -

.'_

J-

.,

ioI

~

~ I I; r....,,~." ,) ,~ J~'1~rr

2. Food, oxygen, certain optimal conditions of temperature, moistw.e." and.;,}jghti~~essenijalo to life of

t ftr~.r.;, most.living:things....) ')' .. Jll :. dUi. ~r.J ..--...U !n~.~c; e!!o C::vU ~9~ ~.u. .... S '"'cl.')..:bJ1q;)'"': 1~..:..1.~.a cl

a. With Ie,!.; iiceptioftS: tI1e':rahge oftetnperatffi.Effor~liflfaCtiVit1es;kftommanyul;g?eeg;be10w oC. to

", IN ',1.r nearlY'the/,boiling, pointIof .water "0- '~.;.-'" #.; .~"" __ ..

. ,.:~ :; ,"<:,,1 . ~;:....J. .)

b. Water is essential to all living things because protoplas~cc-keHf.i\y-;1s:aeIiehd~ uImn':in adequate
:;j.il.,,,.:"v , 1" ";flo<' ,'wat6P"supply,l! Lllt 'or' ,l:l"J"lI'''..l 'J;;J ;,1: '(:ff:S J2QC;;l.i; ) ~ '!;".r..)<.a c,'3'Jc:'o-rq

c. Life may exist under conditions of light -1I'om':IlohgH IiIiItgn~'io:tHe (mmPiefet>a'arkliE!sjf"Of caves or

1,"11" 'j of depths1>f,soil,or,water... j,";' ,_',

",/l, ,,'.f; _ ,J ..J '.0,1.'. <.. .':H~11~1"J::J~ II ~

TlCl",J, d:'.l!.ue',Hl1S we. kno'W .It\'Jis'!Il{!pefrdent-ciUpon L.Complex; dhemical, -compounds, at :carboD;l..nitl'ogen; hydrogen,

oxygen, and other elements.

,b~:;..LE.,J~';;~ as.:llo'Ja{j ~'Vc o;.ri: al.

I l ,,1 ,e..,,~rliYing ~ell&,requ.ireJ QX'Yg~ato>.prj)yide jm;~rgf. to_.ll.\jil~ I\~Wdlrgt()n~!O~o (1(,,:;:,1- , .. ;1; "

3. Each species of living organism is adapted, or is in th<e"prohess nf beoCb&iftfi''idl~feif;'b' t r" tructurally

a:,. .. and functionaIIYf.to"livr~}wne'r&fj,tiS'lfoundi'J ';, JC':

j )t .. t b'li b'~w' '):Q9'l 1Ll.".;7.3~ IT, ~

~1I. :l". 1.a.t,a'be earthi'sr:surface and ,its: surrounding oa.t.ropspheteJ llrej cpjlJ{gin~ -comtJntll:::.IR<t$eJIl,@ d I~hat organ isms migrate, hJbetnate, 'aestivat~;J~uil~ artifWal lle).te s-.r:QJ:t~:r:rte-Bd p~dJ~o th ~ changes.

'iI'" f!',' I> l.frpt~~~Jvp' J.a<;l~p~a~~J ~dlf~lI-;vvrtl.! .. i..:. o!.j"J L"l:;,:u 0;: ' :::1..2 " a:r,,' .~t>J.. ao-nows 1'1'. ~~~
c. Species not fitted to the ctmdi~ions ~l>out t~JDI~~Q.t:.tl)riv~;j,\IDJa~iJllVD~CMl~l e)6jnct.

II"''' Jl ,d j;rh~,.i;lA9!qg~I~~IJ-91ii0,I,l~19.f<,co)%~~1~J> lS2~~h di~~~~, ~ ~erRPeaslJni:lm)a Ie,

m ,,,/~I'H~ 'lihe o.llganiBplS;'1l1ost~elYJtb slJf>Yiv and;. remoqvce.,er ~O~ :tP~a.il'~~~~!!Jldphysiologic

ally best fitted to their environment.

,jQilliJltJ,qcolnsD

186

B. All gradationJ'



~" . .

11l4~

'those which are mutu-

ally beneficial to the individuals concerned 0 those which are parasitic.

thr~~h m~~ladot 1. A balance in nature is maintained

of plants and animals with each other and with

their physical environment.
2. The highe~~r%s ~ fe~~;lilli f.Mg ar~'a~e~d~~ elf ef1atrctIJr'b~ <tlffu~cti'fU&a lli }~oi1llbllct~ri fir

their nitr~"~lf ~u.peR! . 9dJ 1:0 crObSll sg-ro 9r:U ~.::n:r:lUO~ C-j:~rJ~jjj lb'lltlti.uul1.o1 ">#1.11 1!'7"1~r<lrI01)e~ Ie

3. Different kinds of plants and animals form communities based on their interrelations with one another

and witbJ~i{&PM~i~tr{;iR9.!PJUtn~dJo !Hli lie 10 9tll93 ~~9':l.'1 0 iii tlliuIJUt.ll/H4 '1rU III cw... lUI)

4. All plants an!!J~~' 'rr ~~ .

mt~~~ tr glil e JHfdfnf7fm '1.")lhuJ m"l~ ,.; 1Ilh~ Lflo.

ltwm Hw. 5. C~~ir;, s~S~t~~G9'

~ ()J\Wa~lH'~ rrfffi~r~f~\\tst[c~gftlt~ht~f,v~'yty~!r.,,~~~, e~~p e, com-

mumty or socIal life, parasItism, and mu alfsm.

t

. <:l:' 'to ~;B:; 1:1. f';L'P", : ~S91l:l "s ") "HO q~:>We tWo -r '); 19-:::!1 4 ((i1)'11 a.m,!, "lIrf vnmtilo:ml Ill. ~

IV.ltiVni~organiSmS!'{)t-the'~resentAt "deNved~m oY-g:a-niSri!.s 1t>'f-1lie~past~tbtt01igl1>rhmg;'llDd 1OOn~inuoU8 changes.

2:'0r~:r'lli~ ()tgiau~qarme <ffhni;lpre:reiisbng rgam&nis.D3~,)':l~:!I't '(0 l1:rJl..t~ ~'U .<,)11",j rlT'>'.' .~!.~" Ill'. )
iOl'nl'>w f~ult tJ'l>l.
1. Living organisms give evidence of a definite progression from simple to complex forms.
a. Living things alter their tr.J?es; present spe<fi~~at~~g~n&~ ~'~~y1::6 e ,1(1)lli-ila~~' b'rigtiig'edfby de-
"" ;Z,\ q toers s In'1 tfPom thik ~Ard1i9:ui"tui1i e'J/ dei!wed..,'frdfn rsffil'eai'Iiet"~n'esl (i'!soFdOWil'1to lie first living c.:~ lotrils~ClilJS~ sa9d.l 10 ::>,,~ qcr:l~' 9d ) 'l:>-qqs a'" ~., '-~..::~ ) 1 'J;. ~ 1-1 .In', ';',:, r , ., 1. ,~)"

b. The forms of living tlUngsi have'rclianged'slbwly:bflt steadily.:;m.oThe-'pifs:t!; except'>for "tllOse-J resulting

-:. d' <,:..' ."t:.o~ WPv~ns;~" ,E. < c[',u>q ... ;.,.:t;,d, 1ag". q 'L9til ~d ~':.J;)" mrn} 1Il', .,ilJ J, 'n::< _, ,rr 1'1_

i>' :.f '2.nFoss'its~aat~(j:J b'YdtJie- roeiS ihi ~c~ tBeY ~ ounc:F;J '~veai -poi-t'N)il! of;1-thed hdttia1tl 'Story of"llie's past

changes.

"',', ,r ,.,) ..

if a. In fossiliza~

iiaahYllli~ahatJcJ1W~at~ g~"ibatrati!'P eS'erv~a.!l'Jll~lrl: -"IT

et '.lX, rl;db~ o1-~atr&tDl~ii e, ossi1g~a.r~rfO'1iftql1n9~tlyl qk(i~ll1ve~r~~tP di'e~)fu'lIeJ' ~rio'dll-~heiffhe" strata in

which their remaiD'r'areCita

"..,.rJc'"{ e~ af81~wn!9)~ ~jJ .10t ':It , ~ r[lU', :. 1 11.'.

"~.' a M~S' g"s:! >-1" l';.r'c-;r91 1 J"r,~ '9t' 10 ~(q 9el ;:~",,: r"rJ'~ r,"lP )". ~~r (Itl. ,_), IId'{ 'l

B. Living organisms areausumy JmaiAifi~il fjtfJ NiS~l~fJ ~CtiJrlir ':sin1ilaritY~ 'tte'\VeI' 1te&niqttes l:!for classifica-

ir' ''IT'l~O~~g9.'em~~l_ 43d f&9~9~!D~~r1! -~: lo. 9";; '5-.8'" t tin a, Ci )I1,(1"J1 'J J } 11' "lrn t,

.il:9iqi:ox.: "':r.lb..wq ttl wrH )')fllll: .,eft ~/I'" ntl~

",- Ib s

ti s ~'~'Uib b Il Jdrt' '{'50 1

Eoh9'q t -.: 5',6.11 a!) i:~q IattGli:aJrn ~fl'Jr l!lP' ~)'Jr Lf'f !l
.toldl lWl'J "JTuJll [I'1IW.~

boorrS' 0;( Lsup9 e ill" gh" lJ.q 00 ~r.t;""9r 1 I>~'" ;i-rr.!l rm 1rf(\II",r} } .t'lloq fSCl:otU.01 srlJ no Llr:l itl~ttl 10 atlmtt titrJO,'" tll nQ

n . I:

l.f SOI!l!!l'Q9[;r!1 bo:~ 1I't!! Cf:l ~ L.s..:ro~s I"S ~ 'tL~rf) a.a tJ1luaLQi tl)'tE.rl i'Jldr'!lim..e u',ntl'I
'Cfl'!lI1'll
cif. t~ tro';J. tn.o.aitYltr~ rlT II:
dhllb5

';!. cif rr qCf J\!l.~ (q: 9lalU' 1)0 i.r.s-m ~IfJ ao u <.bl1~ 9b }s::lsf r.bs!! i b-Sto'.7.9Ut!J.q ,9ft ... fu In 1. tfmrirr !:<rlt ,rf
.artl9JlZ a 'II.Ioz ad.l cd 9tH,en ,0 m.oU~dt.;2lb seU ,',)qtt b Ie .ro.u~ ~rit mnl: O/HUd;;H),

, 0 tef (!i').:2"~dq Eli 10 bn')!l. a 9'1. croom. sd:r lalO ~o/tul&'alr ""l~h,La ,,>111." .5'

ll'Z If'll ad? ,'[ 1)'1' m:~!ll ~1l!fQlJ$:ft rt'l:l a 1Dod& S'{[O\,S b

lc.at[ ita t s[19'1 d~irlw a')lbod (It,k(a .trOG .Hi ,lit lQ,~ o:rti1 mrnl b."w~t-r fI~ d ..-

, Wi ~ ",por ,.19d:J or &ll1lb ~rr~cfq?;omJ W(j!>lC~ 111s;Js '1:0 !'Ss.r 0:1 01 etdsO'[[ 8l't1J &al~d' ett5ra'(i uto!!. rft-:-m2 'i
~')I'l.O r~rroiflrt'

.1!l:1Ia: ~dr ~a: l!J S<E2.:C[ "[1:1 d!f '{d ~e':ll ~ h'!! a.s- ~j' cf . (s:,U i rre '([dtl.dl fIf tllU enl 1U/J'Qll 'a Yr, en it.hrao> ~

'?lnb' t ",rl

Z'!Htft @1lllS, at t' sr.fl. ::1'~SO''tIi{Gtlf tJ90!l'iOO' a!ld n tfJ'~, 9t rse'li! 9-itJp"l1!' hall IC' ~ a-ilii~'5 0') ,Ill .IJ2. S d.J' tnOti '!l ;),:>9' Us 00 ad: at d. ",. ~ m

..oo~ ~,i!U m::J"11' \: It LJ, '1I>q; C:V;;5C La !lrno~ If III tad !Hff d

Major Principles Pertaining To Extraterrestrial Phenomena
L Kovements of all bodies in the solar system are due to gravitational attraction and inertia.
A. Altronomers have formulated theories concerning the organization of the solar system.
B. Our sun is the gravitational and energy center of all the other members of the solar system.
1. All solar system bodies move about their gravitational centers in elliptical orbits. 2. The periods of revolution for the planets vary in proportion to their distances from the sun. S. An imaginary line drawn from a planet to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time;
aa a planet approaches the sun its speed increases, and as it recedes from the sun its speed decreases.
C. All solar system bodies are visible by reflected light from the sun with the exception of the self-luminous IUJl and meteol'5.
1. The sun consists of a ball of incandescent gases. &. The sun and the earth are composed of the same elements, differing in the am 0 u n t s and physical states of each element, while the other planets appear to be composed of these same elements. b. The release of atomic energy is the source of the energy of the sun.
2. Planets are different from stars by their apparent changing positions among the star patterns, by their positions among the star patterns, by their reflected light, and by their visible disk when seen through telescope. &. The rotation of the earth on its axis produces the succession of day and night. b. The shape of the earth is determined by the force of gravity and the earth's rotation, which exert pressures on the earth's interior, the ocean basins, and the earth's crust. Co Planets with axes inclined from normal to the plane of their orbit of revolutions have seasons result. ing from their sun-planet relations during their revolutions about the sun d The surface conditions on a planet are determined by the mass of the planet, its distance from the sun, and the functions of possible atmosphere. e. Planets with long rotational periods have long periods of daylight and darkness and great diurnal temperature contrasts. f. Daylight and darkness intervals on planets will be equal in period at the time of equinoxes when the north-i;outh limits of twilight fall on the rotational poles.
I. Planetary satellites have planets as their gravitational c e n t e r 8 and are dependent upon the sun for energy. &. The gravitational pull of the moon and sun upon the earth cause tidal waves in the solid and fluid earth. b. The number of satellites possessed by each planet depends upon the mass of the planet, upon their distance from the sun, and upon the distribution of matter in the solar system. Co The surface features on the moon are a record of its physical history. 4. Solar IYstem bodies, which reflect sunlight and revolve about a gravitational c e n t e r, show phases when viewed from the earth. e. SmaIl solar I1Btem bodies are unable to collect or retain gaseous atmosphere due to their low gravitational forces.
4. Comets move about the sun in highly elliptical orbits as evidenced by their passage near the sun. &. Comet tails grow and acquire great length when comets approach the sun, and these tails diminish in length as the comets recede from the sun. b. The tail of a comet always points away from the sun.
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II. Meteors are heated to incandescence b1 friction with the atmospheric gases.
m. Stars are SODa and consist of incandescent gases.
A. The weak stellar radiations from distant stars result from their great distances from the observer and/or their low radiation intensity at the star.
B. The color of a star reveals its temperature, mass, and position in the crcle of matter-energr relations. C. A star will vary in brightness because of such factors as radial motion, variation in absolute brightness,
and/or being eclipsed b1 nonluminous matter. D. Energr radiated into space b1 luminous stars is only VerJ slightJr absorbed in space b1 matter since space
is sparse17 occupied b1 matter. E. Stars are grouped into apparent constellations, which possess width and length but with infinite depth.
This indicates that great differences in distance to various star members exist. F. The combined motions of rotation and revolution produce the apparent westward displacement of stan
across the celestrial sphere. IV. Astronomical matter exists in space with bonds of force controlling their motion and space relations.
A. Galactic srstems are aggregates of radiant galaxies which are held together b1 central cores of gravita tional concentration.
B. Our solar srstem is a member of our galuy as indicated br our view of the galax7 or the milk:y way. C. The entire solar srstem moves within our galaxy to which it belongs, and the galax7 moves through space
in relation to other galaxies. D. The entire solar srstem moves with the galaxr to which it belongs through an orbital path around the
center of the galuJ. V. The masses, temperatures, motions, and distribution of other astronomical bodies give evidence of the astro-
nomical origin and nature of the earth. A. The true motion of an astronomical bodr is determined in relation to the known motions of an observer
and some second astronomical bodr.
B. The apparent magnitudes of astronomical bodies are d1rect11 proportional to the absolute brightness and
inversel7 propnrtionate to their distance from the observer. VI. Interplanetarr space contains dangerous radiations, limited fuel sources, and meteoritic hazards.
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DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT