Motivational strategies for teaching language arts : a resource K-12

FOREWORD
Each public school student in Georgia is entitled to a well planned, balanced and sequential program of instruction in the language arts including listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Wherever possible, instructional opportunities in language arts should be matched to individual needs, abilities and learning styles of each student; therefore program flexibility is needed. Because proficiency in all four areas of language arts is essential for students to become effective communicators in today's society, an integrated program is required. Isolated skill development in listening, speaking, reading and writing will not meet the needs of today's students. This guide has been developed as an aid to school systems in developing a language arts program that meets all the desired criteria - planned, balanced, complete, sequential, flexible and integrated. I hope you find it helpful.
Charles McDaniel State Superintendent of Schools
"

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

iii

Philosophy and Purpose

1

How To Use This Material

2

Target Population

7

Nature of the Unmotivated Student

..................................... 7

A Total Language Arts Program

8

Types of Programs

16

Steps In Developing A Remedial Program

17

Classroom Organization

18

Special Considerations

25

Coordination .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Support Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Evaluation

44

Strategies Anticipation Guide 58 Bibliotherapy 60 Creative Thinking 62 Directed Reading Activity 65 Experimental Activities 67 Film/Filmstrips 70 Folklore 73 Free Writing 75 Games 77 Graphic Organizer 80 Guided Listening Procedure 83 Guided Reading Procedure 85 Guided Writing Procedure 87 Herringbone 90 High Interest Topics 92 Humor 104 Interviewing 106

Journal Writing 108 Language Experience Activities
110 Machine Assisted Instruction/
Programmed Instruction 113 Musical Activities 115 Newspapers 117 Once Upon A Time 119 Oral Interpretation 121 Overhead/Opaque Projectors 123 Photography 127 Physical Education Activities 131 Poetry 133 Possible Sentences 137

55 Publishing 139 Reading to Students 144 Role Playing 147 Sentence-combining 149 Study Guide 152 Survey Technique 155 Survival Skills 157 Tape Recording 160 Television 162 The Topic Step 165 Typewriting 167 Video Taping 168 Visual Literacy (Art) 171 Vocabulary Development 176 Wordless Picture Books 178 Word Shaking 179

Appendix A: Essential Skills

181

Appendix B: Criterion-referenced Test Objectives

192

Appendix C: High School Graduation Policy

199

Appendix D: Standards for Basic Skills Writing Programs

205

Appendix E: Standards for Effective Oral Communication Programs

208

Bibliography

211

Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

ii

INTRODUCTION
The Georgia Department of Education has joined the nationwide effort to improve instruction in the fundamental skills of listening. speaking. reading and writing. Several documents have been developed in Georgia to help language arts educators plan. develop and implement effective language arts programs in grades K through 12. This supplementary language arts resource suggests alternative strategies for providing instruction to students who have had difficulty mastering language arts skills. This material provides a foundation upon which local school system personnel can build and expand a program suited to the individual needs of students. To build the skills which students need in communication. teachers must carefully diagnose and prescribe active learning experiences in as realistic a setting as possible. A team of Georgia educators wrote this material. It was edited and field tested statewide. Approximately 200 teachers and their 10.000 students in grades K through 12 tried out the strategies and evaluated their effectiveness. Their suggestions were incorporated into the material that follows. The close involvement of supervisors. teachers and students has contributed to the usefulness and practical nature of the material. Their continued feedback will ensure the successful implementation and evaluation of the product. We hope the suggestions and alternative strategies presented here will motivate teachers to use professional practices which help students find school more meaningful and increase their level of achievement.
Lucille G. Jordan Associate Superintendent Office of Instructional Services R. Scott Bradshaw Director Division of Curriculum Services
iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Office of Instructional Services gratefully acknowledges the time. effort and expertise of the many people who developed this resource. The writing committee represented all geographic regions of the state and included classroom teachers and supervisors of grades K-12. a principal and university personnel. The materials were field tested in local school systems statewide at grade levels K-12 and in college and university classes.
To the educators and students who were involved in this process and to the staff members of the Georgia Department of Education who reviewed this work. we extend our appreciation.

Writing Committee

Field Test Reviewers School Systems

Individuals

Alice Adams Ruthie Bazemore Syndi Sue Katz Joyce Rogers Keene S. Kemble Oliver III Kate Kirby John E. Readence Nancy Sims Geneva Stallings Kay Vaughn
Contributors
Ira E. Aaron Sherri Boothe-Ward Warren Combs Helen Dixon Eliot Wigginton

Atlanta City Schools Chatham County Schools Elbert County Schools Gainesville City Schools Gwinnett County Schools Jackson County Schools Lanier County Schools Marietta City Schools Muscogee County Schools Pike County Schools Richmond County Schools Spalding County Schools Sumter County Schools Trion City Schools Vidalia City Schools Washington County Schools

Mary Jo Brubaker Shirley Haley-James David Hayes Gale Hulme Judy Long George Mason C. Angelia Moore Judy True Dana Poole

Thanks also go to the individuals who permitted their copyrighted works to be reproduced in this resource. Their names are included with the material.

iv

PHILOSOPHY
It is the responsibility of language arts educators in Georgia to help their students become effective communicators. The ability to communicate is multidimensional. It includes becoming efficient at listening, speaking, reading and writing. Each of these four acts is best developed side by side in a balanced language arts program. Limiting a student to the contents of a basal reader or a grammar book or a speller fails to take advantage of the reinforcing aspects of listening, speaking. reading and writing. Basing instruction on the premise that students can best become effective communicators when they are immersed in an integrated language arts program encourages competence without fragmentation of skills. The methods used to present concepts to students stress that language must be practiced in order to be improved. This practice must approximate realistic situations to prepare students to function effectively. The foIlowing suggestions encourage students to be active learners. This precludes the silent classroom approach; it favors practical language use in natural settings and situations which integrate listening, speaking, reading and writing activities. The basic premises of interrelating listening, speaking, reading and writing and of involving students in practical activities are important in meeting the needs of Georgia students. They seem even more so when teaching students who are low achievers. Such students need reinforcement of initial instruction but usually balk at what they preceive as meaningless repetition of isolated, uninteresting tasks. This material contains suggested alternatives for combining basic skill instruction with relevancy in an effort to meet the needs of the student. the teacher and the community.
PURPOSE
This resource material provides teachers with strategies to use when students have difficulty in mastering language arts skills. Although their main purpose is to motivate students, the activities are not intended as frills or extra things to do. On the contrary, each strategy is designed as a vehicle for helping students to achieve the specific objectives listed in Essential Skills for Georgia Schools (Georgia Department of Education, 1980). The intention is to capitalize on relevancy while teaching basic skills to students who have demonstrated difficulty with or apathy toward learning language arts. The activities are alternatives. They can replace an overused approach or isolated skills instruction. The philosophy underlying this material blends with other Georgia Department of Education guides/documents which address language arts. This resource is supplementary and highlights a particular perspective, Le. the teaching of students who require reinforcing techniques rather than the same thing. again, in smaller portions, just slower. The alternative strategies presented offer variety within structure, a tactic often successful with low achievers. This material spans all school grades from kindergarten through high school. Each strategy is addressed at three levels, K4, 5-8 and 912. The methodology used in each strategy is generally applicable across grade levels; the subject matter within each strategy is most interesting to the students within the particular grade span in which it appears. Practitioners are encouraged to adapt the strategies to the needs of specific students. especially those who have little or no facility with the printed word. (Beginning teachers. especially. are urged to consider these strategies as alternatives as they design lesson plans for classroom use or for their assessment portfolios.)
1

HOW TO USE THIS MATERIAL
Planning is essential for any resource material. Coordinating this material with the ongoing language arts program will enhance its value as well as that of the language arts program.
The strategies included in this guide are designed to integrate and reinforce the various components of language arts and cannot be categorized as purely a comprehension strategy or a composition strategy. To derive maximum benefit from a strategy. however, it must be geared toward one particular objective. The user of this gUide must. therefore, identify which of the several objectives listed with each strategy will be emphasized and which will receive secondary emphasis.
The following chart will clarify this process. The chart includes the 10 general areas of language arts listed in Essential Skills For Georgia Schools. rather than each specific skill included in the listing. The specific skills under each category may be found in the appendix. The reader is urged to
identify the general area of needed concentration, i.e.. Language Study, Reading Readiness or Comprehension, etc.
review the components of the strategies listed under that area; i.e. definition. rationale. objectives. (Note: The objectives are taken directly from Essential Skills for Georgia Schools.)
match this information with the specific objectives identified in your ongoing curriculum.
investigate the resource material listed after each strategy.
adapt the strategy to suit the individual needs of your students.
This process is necessary to provide an orderly sequence to the alternative strategies listed. It prevents either a hit-or-miss or shotgun use of the material. Simply trying out a strategy on a Friday afternoon may be a good use of time but it will not provide the planned reinforcement of a teaching/learning situation that unmotivated low achievers must have if they are to succeed.
This chart matches the strategies addressed in this material with the 10 areas of language arts listed in Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. It is also cross referenced to the Georgia high school graduation requirements.

Legend

Essential Skill Areas
Language Study Listening Skills Reading Readiness Word Recognition Comprehension

Study Skills Functional Reading Skills Oral Written Communication Literature Mass Communication

High School Graduation Requirements
Reading Writing Mathematics Speaking/Listening Problem Solving

2

CROSS REFERENCE CHART

STRATEGIES Anticipation Guide Bibliotherapy Creative thinking Directed reading activity Experiential Activities Film Filmstrips Folklore Free writing Games Graphic organizer Guided listening procedure Guided reading procedure Guided writing procedure Herringbone High interest topics Humor Interviewing Journal writing Language experience activities Machine assisted instruction programmed instruction Musical activities Newspapers Once upon a time

Essential Skills: Language Arts

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Definitions
Anticipation guide - The anticipation guide combines prereading and postreading activities to enhance students' comprehension of material. Bibliotherapy - Bibliotherapy is a method of helping students understand or cope with problems through the use of stories. Creative thinking - Students explore and develop cognitive skills while finding unique approaches and solutions to specific tasks and problems. Directed reading activity - The Directed reading activity presents a basic format from which to provide systematic instruction to students as they are guided through a reading selection. Experiential activities' Experiential activities involve acquiring knowledge, concepts and skills through actual participation in a situation or event. Film/filmstrips - These activities involve the students in the production of films or filmstrips. Folklore Folklore involves the study of one's own or another's cultural heritage including customs, traditions and beliefs which have been preserved through the years. Free writing - Free writing is putting ideas into written form as they come to mind. Games . A game is an instructional, motivational, enjoyable activity developed with a specific skill in mind. Graphic organizer - The graphic organizer or structured overview is a visual diagram of major vocabulary terms that students will encounter in a content reading assignment. Guided listening procedure (GLP) - The GLP incorporates the comprehension processes of collaborative brainstorming, listening to a selection to correct inconsistencies and to add missing information and organizing information by long-term recall. Guided reading procedure - The Guided reading procedure is an integrated lesson approach designed to insure that students understand and remember key information from their textbooks. Guided writing procedure - Guided writing procedure is an instructional strategy designed to activate and refine students' prior knowledge of a topic through speaking, listening, writing and reading. Herringbone The Herringbone technique is a structured outlining strategy designed to aid students in organizing key information from text material by asking six basic questions-Who? Why? When? Where? and How? High interest topics - A topic qualifies as high interest when a student or group of students indicates curiosity and/or ambitions which they would like to explore.
Humor Humor is the ability to appreciate something that is amusing as an aid to learning. Interviewing - IntervieWing is talking with a person in order to obtain information. Journal writing - Journal writing is the written transcription of thoughts and ideas in a bound notebook. Language experience activities - Language experience activities use a total communication approach to learning, integrating listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Machine assisted instruction/programmed instruction . Teaching machines are devices which provide individual students with programs of questions and answers, exercises to be performed or problems to be solved, together with an immediate evaluation of each response. Programmed instruction uses materials which present subject matter or skills in small units.
Musical activities use melody and lyrics to aid students in developing academic skills.
5

Newspapers - The major purpose of a newspaper is to present the current news to the public accurately and inexpensively as soon after the occurrence as possible. Once Upon A Time refers to the study of myths. legends. fables. fairytales and stories of epic heros and heroines. Oral interpretation - In oral interpretation. the reader determines how a piece of literature should be read aloud. Overhead/opaque projectors - Both overhead and opaque projectors are devices which project images on a wall or screen. Photography Photography involves the use and/or production of still pictures.
Physical education activities - Physical Education activities can integrate the development of psychomotor skills with language arts skills.
Poetry - These activities include procedures for listening to and writing various poetic forms.
Possible sentences Possible sentences is a combination vocabulary prediction strategy.
Publishing - Publishing involves making an author's work available in print to an audience.
Reading to Students - These activities involve various things to do after a selection is read to students as well as ideas to stimulate enjoyment of a selection.
Role playing - Role playing consists of acting out a situation without a script for the purpose of interpretation by an audience.
Sentence combining - Sentence-combining is a highly structured technique for presenting students with smaller sentence parts and cues for combining them into a larger. more mature sentence structure.
Study guide - A study guide is an instructional strategy designed to guide students through a reading assignment in a textbook.
Survey technique . The survey technique is a systematic means for students to preview a textbook chapter. Survival skills . Survival skill activities are those assignments which parallel real life experiences through the use of actual materials with which adults cope. Tape recording . These activities involve the students in recording their voices on a cassette or reel-to-reel tape.
Television Television activities involve the students as active evaluators of television programs rather than passive receivers of messages.
Topic step - The topic step is a procedure to use when you have freedom to choose a topic for a writing assignment. Typewriting Typewriting involves the use of a keyboard which produces printed letters through type and ink on paper. Video taping - Video taping is putting visual images onto magnetic tape. Visual literacy (art) - Visual literacy through art can enhance any area of curriculum by capitalizing on students' imaginations and ability to manipulate concrete materials.
Vocabulary development - Vocabulary development reflects the acquisition of new concepts or the refinement of previously held concepts. Wordless picture books - A wordless picture book is an illustrated story without the accompaniment of the printed word. Word shaking - Word shaking is calling out words or phrases as rapidly as they come to mind.
6

TARGET POPULATION
This material is intended for language arts educators who are involved with students who require additional motivation to learn language arts skills. These students may appear to be underachievers. slow learners. reluctant students. low achievers or students who are working below their grade level. This material is for use with such students in supplementary programs which are funded by Title I (Chapter I) as well.
Georgia students are constantly improving in language arts skills. According to the Georgia CriterionReferenced Test results. the percentage of fourth grade students who achieved twenty objectives in reading was 18 percent in 1976 and 28 percent in 1980. The percentage of eighth grade students who achieved 20 objectives in reading was 21 percent in 1976 and 37 percent in 1980. The percentage of tenth grade students who achieved 23 objectives in communication skills was 10 percent in 1979 and 11 percent in 1980 (Georgia Department of Education. August. 1980).
Although these results show that some progress is taking place. a Georgia teacher still faces a tremendous challenge meeting the needs of each student. This material is intended as a help in meeting this challenge.
References
Georgia Department of Education. Criterion-Referenced Test Results. 1979-80 Statewide Assessment Summary. August 1980.
THE NATURE OF THE UNMOTIVATED STUDENT (K-12)
Georgia students exhibit a wide range of heterogeneity at all levels of learning. K-12. These learners differ not only in their academic potentials. but also in every identifiable human characteristic. These human variabilities have a tremendous effect upon the development of each individual throughout life. especially during their formal education.
It is almost impossible to determine the cause/effect relationship with achievement or lack of achievement. Physical, emotional and social factors are closely intertwined with the success or failure of the unmotivated learner. Keeping this view in mind. a brief description of prevalent characteristics of unmotivated students follows.
Visual inaccuracies often plague the unmotivated learner. appearing as poor visual discrimination of letters. word or letter reversal, omission of words or reading word by word. Difficulty in sound-symbol discrimination and association often occurs. Such students are often clumsy or awkward and have poor motor coordination. Communication skills. both verbal and written. are often limited for various reasons. such as possible speech problems or lack of opportunities for verbal expression. Student vocabulary. usage. syntactic and semantic choices may conflict with those met in classroom instructional materials. In addition. unmotivated students often have difficulties in recalling information.
Academic difficulties are often accompanied by low selfimage. Pressure. tension and lack of security result in either aggression or withdrawal. Lack of concentration and short spans of attention are also exhibited. Working independently is most difficult for such students. They are often unprepared for class and have difficulty planning and completing a task. The pursuits of schoolwork are often not reinforced or valued in the home. This discontinuity is reflected often in poor attendance and difficulty adjusting to change.
As students mature. their seeming inadequacies become compounded by their transition toward adulthood. The middle and high school student in particular is immersed in physical. emotional and social changes. Peers quickly become more influential than adults. Students want to be treated as adults even though they frequently resort to childlike behavior. They have a deep sense of what is right and are wrestling with the discrepancies they see in the real world. Emotions are much more intense than in earlier years and more time and help is needed to understand these feelings.
All students. however. have the same basic needs. among them the need for physical well-being. the need to love and be loved. the need to belong. the need to achieve. the need for change. the need to know and the need for a sense of beauty and order. Many unmotivated students seem to have an intensive demand to have these needs met more immediately than do other students.
7

It is a challenge for the teacher of such students to deal with their needs, collectively or individually. The reward for reaching even one of these students. however. is long-lived. This satisfaction is also contagious. thankfully. for both the students and the teacher. It is important to realize. however. that teaching such students can be. and usually is. demanding and frustrating. Balancing reality and optimism is the key for success. It may also be wise. for both students and teachers. to investigate tactics for dealing with stress. The article "Choosing A Healthy Lifestyle", which appears at the end ofthis section. offers some practical suggestions in this matter.
Resources Alexander. J . Estill and Ronald Claude Filler. Attitudes and Reading. Newark, Delaware. International Reading Association. 1976. Breyfogle. Nelson, Pitts and Santich. Creating a Learning Environment. Santa Monica, California: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc. 1976. Canfield. Paul. 100 Ways to Enhance Self-Concept in the Classroom. New Jersey. Prentice-Hall. 1976. Chase. Larry. The Other Side of the Report Card. A How To Do It Program For Effective Education. Pacific Palisades. California. Goodyear Publishing Co. 1971. Estes, T.. J. Johnstone, and H. Richards. Estes Attitude Scales. Charlottesville. Va.: Virginia Research Associates. 1975. Miller. William C. Dealing With Stress. A Challenge For Educators. Bloomington, Indiana. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1979.
A TOTAL LANGUAGE ARTS PROGRAM
The Georgia Department of Education considers a total language arts program as one which includes ten general areas of study which are balanced in proportion to specific student needs at a particular grade level. These areas are identified in Essential Skills in Georgia Schools and are accompanied by a listing of skills in each area with a suggested grade span for intoduction, development and reinforcement of each skill. The integration of these areas of study reinforces the separate learning that takes place in each area and facilitates the transfer of what is learned in an isolated instance to an applied understanding. This "connecting" of bits of knowledge provides a clearer rationale for learning for the unmotivated student. These 10 areas of study are summarized and included with the listing of skills in the Appendix.
Resources Meilman, Arthur and Elizabeth Holms. Smuggling Language into the Teaching of Reading. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, 1972. Moffett. James and Betty Jane Wagner. Student-centered Language Arts and Reading, K-13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1976.
8

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What's Your Lifestyle?
Some people take care of themselves only when they feel they're coming down with something. When they have a cold, they get plenty of rest and drink orange juice. When they don't feel well, they watch what they eat. The rest of the time their habits are not healthful.
Other people don't wait to get sick to take care of themselves. They do a number of things to make sure they stay healthy. They try to eat right all the time. Exercise and rest are part of their dayevery day. These people avoid certain habits that have been shown to harm health.
What is the difference between the two kinds of people? In the first case, the people are trying to get healthy. In the second case, they are trying to stay healthy.
People in the first group are more likely to get sick. They are more likely to do things that give sickness a chance to strike. People in the second group try to keep themselves healthy, so sickness barely has a fighting chance.

Reprinted by permission from Current Health I, Vol. 4, No. 1, September 1980.
Which group do you belong to? Is there a way to find out? Answer the following questions. They can give you an idea as to whether or not you have a healthy lifestyle.

WeI/ness Behavior Inventory developed by Barb Beier

9

WELLNESS BEHAVIOR INVENTORY
Directions: Read each of the following statements. Decide if the statement is never true for you, usually true for you, or always true for you. Then check ( ..... ) one of the three spaces.
Stress Management
Never Usualll Alwals
1. At bedtime, I fall asleep easily.
2. I get a full night's sleep. 3. If awakened, it's easy for
me to fall asleep again. 4. Biting my fingernails is not
a habit of mine. 5. I take 15 to 20 minutes a
day for myself to do whatever I want. 6. Rather than worry about something I can't solve right away, I can put off thinking about the problem until later. 7. I don't worry about money often. 8. I make sure I take time each day to relax. 9. I seldom feel tired out (except after hard physical activity). 10. I am happy with my life.
Personal Health and Safety
I. I do something to protect my home from fire and safety hazards.
2. I use dental floss. 3. I never smoke cigarettes. 4. I have fewer than three
colds a year. 5. I try to stay away from
fumes or exhaust gases. 6. I turn off appliances when
they are not in use. 7. I collect papers, cans,
glass, or other things that can be recycled.

Never Usualll' Alwal's
8. The heat in my home is set at 68 or lower in winter.
9. During the summer months, I use air conditioning only when necessary.
10. I wear a lap safety belt 90070 of the time that I ride in a car.
Nutritional Awareness
1. I eat at least one raw fruit or vegetable a day.
2. I drink fewer than five soft drinks a week.
3. I do not add salt to food after it is on my plate.
4. I rarely need medicine. 5. I have a good appetite. 6. I stay within 10 pounds of
my ideal weight. 7. I do not eat sugared cereal
for breakfast. 8. I seldom eat between
meals. 9. My biggest meal of the day
is breakfast. 10. I avoid eating fried foods.
Self-Responsibility/Feelings
1. It is easy for me to laugh. 2. I like getting compliments. 3. It's easy for me to give
honest compliments to others. 4. I have at least five close friends. 5. I look forward to the future. 6. At times I like to be alone. 7. I think it's OK to feel anger, fear, joy, or sadness. 8. I feel OK about crying and allow myself to do so. 9. I listen to and accept good advice rather than get angry.

10

LIFESTYLE WHEEL

10. I would seek help from friends or counselors if I had a problem.

Never Usually Always

Physical Fitness

1. Whenever practical, I climb stairs rather than use escalators or elevators.
2. I regularly ride my bike, run, or walk for exercise.
3. I like to exercise. 4. I take part in a strenuous
activity at least twice a week. 5. I always do some warm-up exercises before doing hard exercise. 6. I urge my family to join in physical activity. 7. I have enough energy to get through daily activities. 8. I do some form of stretching exercise for 15 to 20 minutes at least twice a week.

9. I avoid riding in a car when I am going someplace within walking distance.
10. Physical activity is part of my life.

Never Usually Always

Find Your Lifestyle Scores

You can get an idea of the "health" of your
lifestyle by scoring your answers to the statements.
Here is how to score them:
Never = 1 Point Usually = 2 Points Always = 3 Points

1. Add your scores in each of the five areas listed.

2. Write down your scores.

Stress

__ Points

Personal

__ Points

Nutrition

__ Points

Self.ResponsibilityIFeelings

__ Points

Fitness

11

Now look at the lifestyle wheel to see where your scores appear. 4. Answer these questions: - From the lifestyle wheel, what can you say
about your health habits? - In what areas are your health scores best
(highest)? Who helped you build these good health habits? How could you make these good scores better? - In what areas can you see room for improvement (which had the lowest scores)? What do you think you could do about these? What things might be hard to change? Who could help you change your health habits?
Toward a Healthy Lifestyle
The lifestyle wheel is divided into five sections or areas. Dr. Donald Ardell, a physical fitness expert, believes that a person who has a high score in each area is more likely to be healthy. Let's take a close look at each area.
Stress
What is stress? Stress is a physical or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension. Stress is normal and everyone feels it at times. Sometimes it is good. It helps you get some important homework done, and it also gets you to run from something that might harm you.
But too much stress is not good. Have you ever had so much to do that you couldn't get anything done? Have you ever been so nervous that you couldn't sleep or had an upset stomach from worrying? These are some of the ways that stress can be bad.
Studies have shown that too much stress over many years may cause even more serious trouble. Diseases like heart disease and cancer have been linked to stress. Learning to deal with stress now and during the years to come might help avoid such diseases.

Dealing with Stress
Whenever someone is under stress, he or she feels nervous or tense. It seems like the whole body is alive with energy. But the body doesn't know what to do with the energy from stress. There are two good ways to take care of the energy. One way is to use it up. Exercise ... ride your bike ... jump rope . . . run . . . . Can you think of any others?
Another way to get rid of stress is to relax. There are many good ways to relax. One is to find a comfortable chair, sit yourself down, and listen to soft music. Another is to sit or lie down and just listen to yourself breathe-in and out-with your eyes closed. Still another is to make different body parts as tight as you can for a few seconds (contract the muscles in various parts of your body), then let them relax. This is usually done by starting with the feet, then the legs, and on up until you get to the face.
Relaxing and exercising each day are good ways to deal with stress. About 15 minutes should be spent each day relaxing. When would be a good time for you to relax each day?

12

spare time filled with fun and enjoyment can help you avoid harmful health habits and also make you feel that you have control over your life. 4. Decide what is important to you. Then, think about the goal that is most important to you. How can you meet that goal? Is there anything in the way of that goal? Are you working toward that goal? 5. Look to the future. Don't just hang around waiting for the future to happen; do something today.

Personal Health and Safety
Everything around you, in your environment, can affect your health. Pollution and smoking have been linked with disease. A fire can destroy your home and you. Accidents may result in injury or early death. Can you prevent accidents or fires? What can you do about pollution? What health habits can you avoid that will help you stay healthy?
Shaping Personal Environment: Lifespace You can shape your lifespace (the places where
you spend most of your waking hours: home, school, etc.). Follow these guidelines: I. Notice your lifespace. Think about how dif-
ferent things around you affect you in good and bad ways. 2. Separate needs from wants. Needs are things you must have to live. Wants are things you'd like, but could do without. If a "want" is harmful or gets in the way of a "need," you may be better off without it. 3. Plan your spare time. Look ahead in your day and plan to do something you like. Keeping

Nutritional Awareness
Eating more food than the body can use can make people fat. Many diseases are seen more often in people who weigh too much. Eating the right amounts of each food group (milk, vegetablefruit, meat, bread-cereal) helps to avoid a weight problem and makes sure you'll have all the nutrients you need for good health.
Are you overweight? There are a number of ways to find out. One is to check on a heightweight chart. Another way is to see if you can grab pinches of fat from different spots on your body. If the pinch of fat is thicker than an inch, you are probably overweight. Still another good way to tell is by looking in the mirror. Put on a swim suit and stand in front of a full-length mirror. What does it show? None of these ways, individually, can really tell for sure if you're too fat. But all three together should give you an idea if you weigh too much.
Too much food is not the only nutrition problem. Some people don't get enough of certain foods. These people might get sick more easily because their bodies may not have the nutrients needed to fight disease. Even people who eat too much can have this problem.
Eat To Stay Well How do you eat to stay well? Eating a good, bal-
anced diet is the secret. Experts suggest that you avoid eating too many sweet, salty, or fried foods.
~

13

~

-
Self-Responsibility/Feelings
The way people feel about themselves and others can affect their health. Take Polly. She gets along with most everyone. Her friends care about her and she cares about them. Polly feels good about herself. She takes good care of herself so she can have fun with her friends.
Molly is just as nice as Polly, but she doesn't know it. She has few friends. She doesn't think she's good enough. The kids she hangs around with often talk about each other. Molly doesn't think she can trust them. She thinks her friends really don't like her. She isn't very happy because she doesn't think anyone cares. It seems like the only time she gets attention is when something goes wrong. Why should she even bother taking care of herself?
If Polly goes on feeling the way she does, she'll

--

-

.....
~ ~...

~
probably keep on taking care of herself. But what about Molly? How long can Molly go on not taking care of herself? What other things might people do if they.don't care for themselves?
Self-responsibility has to do with choosing. There are both good and bad habits. Polly chose to have good habits, while Molly chose bad ones.

Developing Self-Responsibility You may have heard someone say, "I wish I'd
never started that stupid habit." Do you have a habit you feel that way about? The easiest way to avoid a bad habit is not to start it in the first place. Are there any bad habits you have chosen not to start?
Some habits are good to have. Can you list some of your good habits? A good way to get rid of a bad habit is to replace it with a good one. For example, you have the bad habit of leaving lights on allover the house. Here's how to break the habit:

14

make a point of checking room lights whenever entering, leaving, and passing a room. You might have to think about it a lot the first few days. Every time you see lights on in an empty room, turn them off. Before long you'll do it without thinking. How did you do it? By replacing a bad habit with a good one.

Physical Fitness
Do you have to jog 10 miles a day to stay healthy? Of course not. You don't have to jog at all. But studies seem to point out that lack of exercise is a health hazard. A University of California study showed that young adults who exercise regularly were 14 times less likely to have heart attacks or heart or lung disease. A regular exercise program can help a person feel good, look good, be healthy, and enjoy life.
Most schools have physical education classes. For those who have gym, it is a time to learn about sports and games for life. What kinds of activities do you enjoy?
Tips For Fitness 1. Make physical fitness a part of your life. Make
time for it. Look forward to it. 2. Don't think of fitness as a crash program. Take
your time. Build up slowly. 3. Exercise is fun, so don't take an activity too
seriously. You don't have to be the best. Just have fun. 4. Get involved in your activity. Kl;ep a record of your times or scores, join a group, or forin a club. 5. Add to your favorite fitness activity. Don't stick to just one thing. Do different activities for different body parts. 6. Make a contract with yourself. Set a goal for three months from today. 7. Be sensible. Go slowly and let your body get used to the amount of exercise you do.

" ------

...

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Where Are You? What Are You Going To Do?
Look back at the lifestyle wheel. Do you have a healthy lifestyle, or is it "the pits"? Or are you somewhere in the middle? No matter where you are on the wheel, it's clear that staying healthy takes work. But since that work can .lead to good health for life, you can't lose. You are responsible for your own good health. Your lifestyle could give you more life!

15

TYPES OF PROGRAMS
Being able to communicate effectively can unlock many doors. A balanced language arts program assists in attaining this goal. The overall language arts program should involve instruction in listening. speaking. reading and writing no matter in what type of program a student may be enrolled.
In a language arts program the emphasis is upon the person. not the group or grade level performance. Language arts activities are directed toward near-capacity achievement for each individual. The program must include articulation of objectives and coordination of instructional efforts.
The focus of the program is upon the sequential development of language arts skills in all grades and in all content areas. A variety in the types of programs offered is often necessary to meet the needs of the students. Developmental programs are designed to provide instruction to the majority of students within the regular classroom situation in relation to each individual's potential. Corrective instruction is directed towards immediate assessment and implementation of strategies and activiJies to eliminate a problem or gap in skill development. This type of instruction is generally provided by classroom teachers.
Remedial instruction requires a more in-depth. individualistic approach. Students generally receive instruction on more of a one-to-one basis which is generally accomplished within the school by supplementary programs. Tutorial programs and those funded by Title 1 (Chapter I) are in this category.
In most instances. administrative modifications are needed to insure the successful implementation of a remedial program. This administrative modification may range from staffed. centrally located clinics with students transported to the facility to a mobile unit transported to the students at each school. Teachers with some specialized training often provide remedial instruction within each school either by "pulling" students from a portion of a class period or by "teaming" with the classroom teacher.
The activities in which the students engage are generally agreed upon by classroom and remedial teachers. The instruction provided by remedial teachers is based on various diagnostic procedures including both standardized and informal tests and teacher observation. The lower pupil-teacher ratio often facilitates individualization of instruction. High interest-low vocabulary materials are essential for an effective program. These students require variety in the instructional strategies and grouping employed.
The focus of attention in remedial programs must include attention to the affective as well as cognitive areas of development. Many remedial students make substantially more progress when teacher attitude and classroom climate are purposefully positive. The practice that such students require to reinforce instruction must be geared to interests and must include personal reading of self-selected materials without the usual follow-up questions. In other words. reading for enjoyment is necessary for it reinforces skill development and provides a feeling of success for the learner.
Remedial instruction is designed to help the student whose performance falls below potential. In many instances remedial instruction will make the difference between academic success and failure. It should be planned and implemented with care. Suggested steps in planning a remedial program K-12 follows.
Resources
Lewis. James. Jr. Administering the Individualized Instruction Program. West Nyack. New York: Parker Publishing Company. Inc. 1971.
Lewis. James. Jr. Administrator's Complete Guide to Individualized Instruction: A Professional Handbook. West Nyack. New York: Parker Publishing Company. Inc. 1977.
Otto. Wayne and Richard McMenemy. Corrective and Remedial Reading Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1966.
Otto. Wayne and Richard Smith. Administering The School Reading Program. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1970.
16

Steps In Developing A Remedial Program
Several steps should be taken in planning a remedial program in grades K-12.
Formulate a curriculum committee consisting of the curriculum director. the supervisor of the subject area. principals or representative department chairpersons for elementary, middle and secondary schools, subject area teacher representatives from various grade levels, a media specialist, a guidance counselor. representatives from the community and possibly students to oversee the project.
Review the philosophy of the school system concerning the subject area being considered. Include local policies. policy statements from professional organizations and Georgia Department of Education guidelines.
Initiate a needs assessment resolving the discrepancy between existing efforts and projected needs. Students number ages/grade span mobility needs/interests/attitudes test results strengths/weaknesses past school history parental/community support Teachers number expertise staff development opportunities resources available Curriculum objectives courses placement procedures organizational patterns assessment checkpoints and procedures options scheduling written plan methods of delivery recordkeeping communication of progress transfer system Materials print nonprint high interest readability Resources local. state and federal funding options physical space furniture/equipment
Plan a realistic program based on the needs assessment. Provide for revision by staff members who will implement the program. Initiate the program.
Pretest the students within a class on needed skills. Use standardized and/or teacher made instruments.
Match students and materials.
17

Balance explanatory teaching with individualized practice and student interaction.
Allow sufficient time for learning to occur.
Posttest students on skills taught.
Evaluate periodically. Student achievement Teacher satisfaction Program efficiency
Make revisions in the program as evaluation indicates or as conditions warrant.
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION
The purpose of a program determines the approximate number of students with whom a teacher works as well as the overall organization of the program. A variety of options are available to teachers, however, that are bound neither by the type of program nor by the number of students. Two key concepts can be useful in choosing appropriate patterns within a classroom: (1) A definite structure must be designed. (2) Variety within that structure must be planned. A balance between structure and flexibility can be the key to a classroom atmosphere that is relatively free of serious discipline problems which often plague teachers of low achievers.
Structure is determined by grouping patterns. The grouping pattern may be whole class instruction, small group instruction, individual instruction or independent instruction. In whole class instruction everyone is engaged in the same activity, such as listening to a record or writing in a journal. In small group instruction, the activity is shared by members of a particular group such as each group providing an ending to a story or one group reading quietly while a second is designing a poster. In individual instruction, the adult interacts verbally with an individual student. With independent instrution, the teacher plans independent work for the student(s) and then oversees how that work is accomplished.
Obviously, patterns other than whole group instruction may be used simultaneously and interchangeably. Specific planning based on the identified needs of and learning objectives for specific students is crucial. Flexibility and variety should be encouraged.
In order to prepare for the instruction and grouping of students, there are several steps a teacher can take. At the beginning, a general idea of the students' past performance is necessary. Standardized test scores should be used only as a starting point.
A graded word list or an informal inventory can serve as a basis for grouping. Some resources for the graded word list are included. The Informal Reading Inventory (lRI) is a process in which a student reads orally from increasingly difficult material until it becomes too difficult either to pronounce or to understand. At times this process is much too time consuming. "Kid-watching" and the analysis of miscues during oral reading are valuable alternatives which provide information about the thought processes underway during reading. Resources on these topics including some less time-consuming adaptions are listed at the end of the section.
Another measure, the Interest Inventory, gives an idea of students' hobbies and ambitions. It also allows the teacher to get an overview of the interests of the total group, thus offering the option to group by interests. Teacher-made tests serve as excellent informal surveys because the teacher may test for a specific purpose or identify an appropriate starting point for any given group. The results of this test can be used as a basis for level grouping. Some samples for the interest inventories are also included at the end of this section.
Student placement should also take social skills as well as academic skills into account. Knowledge of these facets is also a prerequisite for designing small group work. The number of groups is best limited to three or four. Students can also work in pairs or triads. Frequent regrouping is suggested so students can derive the benefit from varied interaction.
18

Individual and independent instruction provide the needed concentration on specifics for students. Again. however. options are available. Often there are one or two more able students among the unmotivated. Independent folder work may be introduced to foster self-reliance. This should be compiled with independent reading time and individual conferences.
The teacher may also want to designate this more able but still unmotivated learner as a "peer teacher". Each student can act as a peer teacher eventually since each has something unique to add to a teaching learning situation.
Peer teaching is a process by which one student may help teach another student a skill. On occasion. a student may be unable to follow the development of a particular skill as the teacher is presenting it. The teacher. in an attempt to re-explain the skill. may not be able to find an alternate method of explanation. Constant repetition or drill fosters boredom. However. a student who understands and has applied the skill may come to the rescue. This process serves as a motivating agent for the "teacher" and "peer" in communication skills. as a help in developing a sense of responsibility. as a reinforcing agent for curriculum and as a boost to everyone's morale.
Peer teaching is a process which could easily be set up as a contract. "Contracts are simply agreements between a student and a teacher (or.... between a small group of students and a teacher) for specified educational activities. or mastery of an objective agreed on in advance, with a clear understanding of an agreement on the assessment procedures to be used. The contract mayor may not have a grade designation." (Blackburn. 1976. p. 116). The use of contracts allows students to work at rates most comfortable for them, manage their time, receive individual prescription, make choices, and assist in planning curriculum.
One additional suggestion which would allow for individual differences and still maintain a common ground for the teacher would be the use of classroom learning centers. "Classroom learning centers are specified areas in the classroom designed by the teacher. by the teacher and students. or by students. They contain a variety of learning alternatives and media to enhance the development of concepts. themes, topics. skills, or student interest. Centers are means of achieving individualization and must be designed for learners with varying abilities, interests. values, and learning styles". (Blackburn. 1976. p. 54). By employing learning centers in the classroom. it is conceivable to have a variety of options such as two groups working at centers, or one or two individuals at a specified center (perhaps with the contract to "teach" a "peer" when an assignment is completed) and a "free" teacher to work with one group, hold individual conferences. or assist a particular student.
Structuring and varying grouping patterns within a classroom with some of the options mentioned combine the consistency needed by unmotivated students with the flexibility that they often require. It should be noted, however. that almost all unmotivated students require personalized instruction. The human need to communicate verbally must, therefore. never become subservient to designing individual assignments. If a teacher decided that a teaching machine or paperipencil assignment will benefit a student. special care should be taken that verbal interaction occurs between teacher and student during the assignment. not just afterwards when it is graded.
Matching students and materials is an important part of classroom organization. This concept is addressed throughout this document. The reader is directed in particular to the strategy of High Interest Topics. A listing of suggested Selection Criteria for Materials and information about Readability and the Cloze Procedure follows.
References
Blackburn. Jack E. and Conrad W. Powell. One At A Time All At Once: The Creative Teacher's Guide To Individualized Instruction Without Anarchy. Santa Monica, California: Goodyear Publishing Co.. Inc., 1976.
19

Resources Common Sense and Testing in English. Urbana. III: NCTE. 1975. Cooper. Charles and Odell. Lee (eds). Evaluating Writing: Describing, Measuring, Judging. Urbana. II1inois: National Council of Teachers of England. 1977.
Curwin. Richard L. and Mendler. Allen N. The Discipline Book: A Complete Guide to School and Classroom Management. Reston. Virginia: Reston Publishing Company. Inc.. 1980.
Glatthorn. Allan. A Guide to Developing an English Curriculum for the Eighties, Urbana, III: NCTE.1980.
Goodman. Yetta M. "Kid Watching: An Alternative to Testing." National Elementary Principal. June 1978.41-45.
Goodman. Yetta and Burke. Carolyn. Reading Miscue Inventory. New York: MacMillan. 1972.
Goodman. Yetta. Burke. Carolyn and Sherman. B. W. Strategies in Reading. New York: MacMillan. 1974.
Ingran. Barbara Kilroy. Jones. Nancy. Riggs and LeButt. Marlene. The Workshop Approach to Classroom Interest Centers: A Teacher's Handbook of Learning Games and Activities. West Nyack. New York: Parker Publishing Company. Inc. 1975.
Johns. Jerry L.. Garton. Sharon. Schoen- felder. Paula and Skriba. Patricia. Assessing Reading Behaviors: Informal Reading InventOl'ies. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1977.
Lapp. Diane (ed.) Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management: Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.
Lippitt. Peggy. Students Teach Students. Bloomington. Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1975.
Payne. David A. The Assessment of Learning: Cognitive and Affective. Lexington. Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Company. 1974.
Pechowiak. Ann B. and Cook. Myra B. Complete Guide to The Elementary Learning Center. West Nyack. New York: Parker Publishing Company. Inc. 1976.
Petesene. Susan S. The Complete Guide to Learning Centers. Palo Alto. California: Pendragon House. Inc. 1978.
Stanford. Gene. (Chairperson) Classroom Practice 1979 - 1980 How to Handle the Paperload. Urbana. II1inois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1979.
Stebbs. Andrew. Assessing Children's Language. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1979.
Wood. Barbara (ed.) Development of Functional Communication Competencies; PreKGrade 6, Urbana. III.: ERIC. 1977.
Word Lists: Some suggestions include Dolch. E. W. Teaching Primary Reading. Champaign. Illinois: Garrard Press. 1941. (p. 196-215).
Johnson. Dale. "A Basic Vocabulary for Beginning Readers". Elementary School Journal, 72. October. 1971. 29-34.
Johnson. Dale. "Dolch List Revisited". 24, Reading Teacher, February. 1971. 449-457. (includes Kucera-Francis list) Otto. Wayne and Chester. Robert. "Sight Words for Beginning Readers". (A & P List). Journal of Educational Research, 65. July - August. 1972.435 -447.
20

S'osson Oral Reading Test. Slosson Educational Publications, 1963.
Taylor. S. E. and Frackenpohl. H. A Core Vocabulary. EDL Research and Information BuIietin No. 5. New York: Educational Development Laboratories. Inc.. 1960.
Wilson, Corlett. T. "An Essential Vocabulary". Reading Teacher, 17, November. 1963,94-95.

INTEREST INVENTORIES

Interest inventories can take many forms such as sentence completion forms, questions to be answered or descriptions to be written. Some samples follow.

Sentence Completion
I am... I feel best when . I don't like to . My favorite hobby is... I like to watch . My best friend is . I'd like my parents or guardians when... A sport that I like is... A book that I've read is... I spend most of my free time... At school, I like to . At home. I like to . My friends... A famous person that I'd like to know is... I'd like to know more about...

Questions and Answers
What is your best subject? Do you like school? What do you like to do best? What bothers you the most? What is your favoriie food? What do you do at home? What kind of music do you like? How do you spend extra money? What kind of pet do you have or would you like to have? Do you like to be outdoors? Why do you like your best friend? What do you dream about when you are sad? What makes you happy?

Descriptions
Tell how you spend your time after school. Tell about the best days you have ever had. Explain why you like your favorite television show. Draw a picture of the members of your family and your house. Tell about them. Explain what kind of work do you want to do when you are out of school.
Many ideas for more informal types of getting to know your students can be found in resource books such as the following:
Canfield, Jack and Wells, Harold. 100 Ways to Enhance Self-Concept in the Classroom. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc., 1976.
Chase, Larry. The Other Side of the Report Card: A Howtodoit Program for Affective Education. Pacific Palisades. California: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1975.

Selection Criteria for Materials
Teachers in today's classrooms are constantly required to select appropriate materials for classroom use. Although supervisors and media specialists are excellent sources for assisting teachers, many times the teacher must complete such tasks individually.
The following criteria are presented to assist the teacher in selecting materials. The list can and should be adapted for use with nonprint materials as well.
1. Do the authors include those with classroom experience? 2. Are adequate consultant services provided by the publisher?

21

3. Does the material include reference to all necessary skiIls? 4. Are instructional techniques used that have been proven successful? 5. Is the language natural and suitable for the audience? 6. Does the material promote the integration of the various language arts? 7. Are the materials on an appropriate readability level? 8. Does the sequence of skills match the needs of the student? 9. Is sufficient. periodic repetition of skills provided? 10. Are directions easily understood? 11. Does the material provide for different rates of learning? 12. Does the material reflect student's experiences. language and background? 13. Are the materials free of cultural and stereotypic bias? 14. Does the material promote healthy self-images? 15. Are the materials interesting to students? 16. Is the length and depth appropriate to the abilities of the students? 17. Is the material visually sound and appealing? 18. Does the material encourage continuous evaluation? 19. Can the material be integrated into the on-going curriculum? 20. Does the material encourage transfer of knowledge to everyday experiences?
Resources Guidelines for Publications. Urbana. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1973. Harrington. Alma J. "What Is In Those Reading Materials?" Tennessee Reading Teacher, Spring. 1978. p. 19. Morris. Claire E. Selecting Children's Reading. Bloomington. Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1973.
Zenger. Weldon and Sharon Zenger. Handbook for Evaluating and Selecting Textbooks, Belmont: Fearon. 1976.
Readability and Cloze Procedures
One of the major problems to face classroom teachers has been that of providing reading materials for students at an appropriate level of difficulty. Readability formulae give us a measure of the relative difficulty of materials.
While a variety of factors have appeared in different formulae. three types of factors consistently appear (Klare. 1963). These include a direct or indirect measure of word difficulty or frequency. About 60 percent of the available formulae use some measure of sentence length. About 30 percent use some measure of sentence complexity; e.g.. the number of prepositional phrases. etc.
Some of the available readability formulae include Dale-Chall Fry Spache Gunning-Fog Flesch The following material is adapted from a 1977 article by Fry. The grade level designations are for American schools. The graph may be reproduced with the proper sources cited.
22

EXPANDED DIRECTIONS FOR WORKING READABILITY GRAPH
1. Randomly select three sample passages and count out exactly 100 words. each. beginning with the beginning of a sentence. Do count proper nouns, initializations. and numerais.
2. Count the number of sentences in the hundred words. estimating length of the fraction of the last sentence to the nearest one-tenth.
3. Count the total number of syllables in the 100-word passage. If you don't have a hand counter available. an easy way is to simply put a mark above every syllable over one in each word. then when you get to the end of the passage. count the number of marks and add 100. Small calculators can also be used as counters by pushing numeral 1. then push the - sign for each word or syllable when counting.
4. Enter graph with average sentence length and average number of syllables: plot dot where the two lines intersect. Area where dot is plotted will give you the approximate grade level.
5. If a great deal of variability is found in syliable count or sentence count. putting more samples into the average is desirable.
6. A word is defined as a group of symbols with a space on either side: thus Joe, IRA. 1945. and & are each one word.
7. A syllable is defined as a phonetic syllable. Generally, there are as many syllables as vowel sounds. For example, stopped is one syllable and wanted is two syllables. When counting syllables for numerals and initializations. count one syllable for each symbol. For example. 1945 is four syllables. IRA is three syllables and & is one syllable.

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Fry. Edward. "Fry's Readability Graph: Clarifications. Validity. and Extension to Level 17." Journal of Reading December. 1977. 242-252.
The Cloze Procedure can be used for several purposes including diagnosing student ability. matching a student with material that is within a certain readability range and using as a teaching tool. The procedures for designing a c10ze exercise vary according to several authors. A basic format is presented here. The reader is encouraged to review the resource section for adaptions.
Select a passage of 250 to 300 words which seem to form a unit.
23

Starting with one of the last five words in the passage. count backwards and circle every fifth word until you have circled 50 words. Do not count numbers or proper nouns.

Retype the passage and replace each circled word with an underlined blank 15 spaces long.

(eg. This (3)

is fun.)

Ask the students to try a trial exercise of c10ze with you then give them a duplicated passage. Students are to number their papers and replace the deleted words with the ones they think the author used in the original.

Only count an exact replacement or interpretable misspellings as correct.

Convert raw scores into percentages; a. below 40 percent ton difficult b. 40 percent60 percent appropriate for instruction with assistance c. above 60 percent - can be read usually without assistance

Reevaluate student answers for synonyms to get a more accurate view of the student's use of context clues.

Resources
Beil. D."The Emperor's New Cloze." Journal of Reading, 1977.20. 7. 601-604.
Bormuth. John. "Readability: A New Approach". Reading Research Quarterly, 1966. 79-132.
Blanchowicz. C. "Cloze activities for primary readers." The Reading Teacher, 1977. 31. 300-302.
Bortnick. R. and Lopardo. G. "An instructional application of the c10ze procedure." Journal of Reading, 1973. 16 (4). 296-300.
Grant. Patricia. "The doze procedure as an instructional device." Journal of Reading, May 1979. 22 (8). 699-705.
Harris. Albert and Jacobison. Milton. "A Comparison of the Fry. Spach and Harris-Jacobison Readability Formulas for Primary Grades." The Reading Teacher, 33, May 1980. 920-924.
Jongsma. Eugene. The Cloze Procedure as a Teaching Technique Newark. Delaware: The International Reading Association. 1971.
Kennedy. D. "The doze procedure." Instructor. November 1974. 84, 82-86. Klare. George. The Measurement of Readability. Ames. Iowa: The Iowa State University Press. 1963.
Lopardo. G. "LEA-Cloze reading material for the disabled reader." Reading Teacher, 1975. 29 (1). 42-44.
Marino. Jacqueline "Cloze Passages: Guidelines for Selection" Journal of Reading, March 1981. 470-483.
Rankin. Earl F. The Measurement of Reading Flexibility, Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1974.
Schell. Leo M. "Promising possibilities for improving comprehension." Journal of Reading, March 1972. 15 (6).415-424.
Seels. Barbara and Dale. Edgar (ed.) Readability and Reading: An Annotated Bibliography. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1971.
Sinatra. R. C. "The doze technique for reading comprehension and vocabulary development." Reading Improvement, 1977. 14 (2). 86-92.
Weaver. Gail C. "Using the c10ze procedure as a teaching technique." The Reading Teacher, February 1979. 32. 632-636.

24

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Four special considerations for low achieving students will be addressed: namely self-concept. learning style. classroom climate and individual differences.
Self.Concept
The self-concept of an individual is built upon and developed as a result of past experiences. Maehr (1969) suggests that a child's reactions to experiences are based more on opinions that people who are important to the child seem to hold than upon the child's success or failure with the task itself. A person usually has four alternatives regarding any evaluation of a competency. either by others or by one-self. The person may actually feel competent in those activities which are important. hide or disguise lack of ability. deny the importance of the activities or insist that poor performance resulted from lack of effort rather than lack of ability.
In a society which places great emphasis on reading ability there are only two alternatives to actual or perceived incompetence in reading. These alternatives are disguising incompetency or withdrawing effort. Few children are clever enough to hide a reading disability. therefore. they give the appearance that effort has not been extended. To avoid further negative feelings. the student may exhibit disinterest. apparent lack of effort. refuse to do assignments and or show carelessness in or professed hatred of school work.
A teacher in addressing students' individual needs must recognize which students classified as poor readers also have poor self-concepts. Wise teachers "believe that the students who feel good about themselves and their abilities are the ones who are most likely to succeed" (Purkey. 1970, p. 4).
Five types of behavior ordinarily observable as indication of self-concept include
Comments Reactions (facial expressions. body movements. gestures. groans and similar noises)
Interactions Quantity of volunteer answers
Confidence (An indication of this confidence may be the extent to which the student asks questions about assigned tasks) (Quandt. 1972.)
In building self-concept. the teacher should minimize the difference between groups. avoid comparisons and competition among groups. vary the bases on which groups are formed. and compare the progress of an individual with one's own previous work rather than that of other pupils. Teachers should guide students so they will accept the weaknesses and mistakes of others. guide students so that they reduce negative comments or actions toward others. help students develop a discriminating attitude toward tattling and avoid embarrassment as a punishment.
The teacher is a significant force in promoting positive attitude development and maintenance in the classroom. Teachers' nonverbal behaviors. the models they provide for their students. and the attitudes they have toward reading and toward students as readers are among the most powerful forces affecting student attitudes (Alexander and Filler, 1976). Some of the most influential communications sent from teacher to student do not involve direct statements and actions. The teacher may communicate personal expectations to the students through tone of voice, facial expression, eye contact and posture. A teacher needs to be aware of these aspects of nonverbal behavior and should evaluate the effect of them on students.
The following questions adapted from Robinson (1952) and Zintz (1972) will help teachers analyze themselves in terms of their attitudes and behaviors which are conducive to establishing positive attitudes in students.
Do I value each student as a person and respect efforts at self-improvement? Do I permit the student to express fears and dislikes even if they are directed toward me?
Do I consider the feelings of my students and give immediate attention to their needs and interests?
25

Do I convince my students that they need not be afraid to make mistakes? Do I believe that each student can achieve some measure of success? Do I rationalize that I do not have the time and materials to attend to individual needs and interests? Do I change methods and materials whenever student progress indicates that the methods and materials being used are not producing the desired results? Am I aware of the verbal and nonverbal ways that I communicate my feelings to my students? Teachers need to work also with parents to help provide a more positive home environment. Group meetings with parents or school-home cooperative programs can be useful in explaining the nature of self-concept and the value of using positive approaches at home.
Resources Alexander. J. E. and Filler. R. C. Attitudes and Reading. Newark: International Reading Association. 1976. Alley. Stephen. 100 Helps for Teachers. Provo: Brigham Young University Press. 1978. Anderson. Camilla A. "The Self-Image: A Theory of Dynamics of Behavior.". Mental Hygiene, 36. 1952. 227-44. Davidson. Helen H. and Lang. Gerhard. "Children's Perceptions of Their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related to Self-Perception. School Achievement and Behavior". Journal of Experimental Education, 29. December 1960. 107-18. Elkins. Dov Peretz. Glad to Be Me. Englewood Cliffs. Prentice-Hall. 1976. Maehr. Martin L. "Self-Concept. Challenge and Achievement". Lutheran Education, 105. October 1969.50-57. Purkey. William W. Self Concept and School Achievement. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1970. Quandt. Ivan. Self-Concept and Reading. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1972.
Richardson. Sybil. "The Teachers Influence Upon the Learner's Self Concept". Claremont Reading Conference Yearbook, 32. 1968. 114-22. Robinson. Helen M. "Fundamental Principles for Helping Retarded Readers". Education, 72. May 1952. 596-99. Rosenthal. R. and Jacobson. L. F. "Teacher Expectations for the Disadvantaged." Scientific American, 218. April 1968. 19-23. Zintz. Miles V. Corrective Reading, Second Edition. Dubuque. Iowa: Wm. C. Brown. 1972.
Learning Styles
Dunn and Dunn (1978) found that there are at least eighteen categories that. when classified. affect learners. These include (1) immediate enviroment (sound. light. temperature and design); (2) own emotionality (motivation. persistance. responsibility and need for structure and flexibility); (3) sociological need (self. pair. peers. team. adult or varied: and (4) physical need (perceptual, strengths. intake. time and mobility). Before teachers can diagnose their students learning styles. they need to understand the definitions and implications of each of the elements that affect them. Dunn and Dunn (1978. p. 5-24) provide an in-depth analysis of these elements and their possible implications. A brief discussion of each element follows.
26

Environmental Elements
Sound
Some students only need a relatively quiet environment. while others require complete silence before they can concentrate.
Light
Some students can tolerate only subdued lighting and others require extremely bright lights before they can engage in reading and writing activities comfortably.
Temperature
Some people concentrate better when the temperature is cool others cannot concentrate when they are cool.
Design
Some students require an informal. relaxed. casual design in order to concentrate on a task whereas other students may need traditional desks and chairs for comfort.
Emotional Elements
Motivation
Motivated students should be told exactly what they are required to do. what resources are available to them. how to get help if they should need it and how they will be expected to demonstrate that they have learned what they have been assigned. Unmotivated students should be given short assignments and resources that capitalize on their strengths. Such students may become able to function with responsibility when they are allowed to (1) make choices. (2) learn in accordance with their learning style preferences. (3) participate in paired or teamed peer group studies and (4) evaluate themselves.
Persistence
When given a task to complete. some students will work at it until it has been completed. seeking help from a classmate. or a resource book or the teacher if needed. The moment other students experience any difficulty. they lose interest. become irritated. begin to daydream. or become involved in social activities rather than finish their task. Students should be given their objectives and a time interval in which to complete them with the idea that although they need not continue learning without a rest. they do have to complete their task.
Responsibility
Responsible students follow through on a given task. complete it to the best of their ability. and often do it without direct or frequent supervision. The student who is not responsible. however. begins to annoy their classmates. The students who do not read well can be given short assignments. written materials read to them on a supplementary tape. frequent encouragement and supervision. and much praise as each objective is completed.
Structure
The teacher must identify creative students who find learning under mandated guidelines very frustrating and offer them many alternative opportunities to organize their own studying situations. It is equally important that the teacher recognize those who are unable to function comfortably unless well-defined directions and procedures are given to them.
Sociological Elements
Students learn in a variety of sociological patterns tl)at include working alone. with one or two friends. with a small group or as part of a team. with adults or. tor some. in any variation.
27

Physical Elements
Perceptual Strengths Instruction should capitalize on the student's perceptual strength or preferred learning modality. Students who learn through their auditory sense can differentiate among sounds. can reproduce them by hearing them and should be taught to read by the phonics approach. Students who learn better through their visual sense can associate shapes and words and can see the word in their mind. Such students can learn through a word-recognition approach. Students who learn through their sense oftouch (tactual) should be given many such experiences as: (1) tracing words in sand. or on clay: (2) writing the words on a chalkboard with water or chalk or on paper with pencil, crayons. and a pen; (3) molding the words with long sections of softened clay. and (4) piecing together the words with by (a) alphabet macaroni; (b) sandpaper letters. (c) pasting material such as felt. nylon or burlap onto letter forms. Students who learn through experiential or whole body (kinesthetic) experiences need to have some activities that provide for whole-body involvement. Examples of activities might include the teaching of new words by taking a trip and using the new vocabulary as part of the planning. the implementation. and the review. Students who require a combination of sense should be provided with multi-sensory resources through which to learn.
Intake It has been found that when some children are permitted to eat while they are learning. their grades and their attitudes improve. A student who. when concentrating. bites on fingernails. pencils or other objects may be exhibiting a desire for intake.
Time
Some students function at maximum capacity very early in the morning while others do not seem to do so until late morning or noon.
Mobility
Some students cannot function well unless permitted to change their position and location often. Other students are able to complete a task while in one physical position for a long period of time.
The questions used in the Learning Style Inventory are included at the end of this section. The inventory is scored and analyzed as part of the rating procedure. An awareness of the elements that affect one's learning style should be followed by a gradual sensitivity to one's implementation of alternatives to accommodate differences. Specific suggestions concerning lessons based on learning styles can be found in the suggested references.
References Ashely, D. H. "Children Need to Be Treated As Individuals." Instructor, August 1974. p.23.
Bernstein. B. E. "Tailoring Teaching to Learning Styles." 34. Independent School Bulletin, Dec. 1974. pp 50-52. Button. C. B. "Teaching for Individual Differences: A Necessary Interaction". Educational Leadership March 1977. pp. 435-438. Biophy, J.E. and T.L. Good. Teacher Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences: NY: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1974. Dunn, K. and Dunn. R. Teaching Students Through Their Individual Learning Styles: A Practical Approach. Reston. Virginia: Reston Publishing Company. Inc., 1978.
28

John. V. "Structure of Failure: An Overview - Children's Styles of Learning and Teaching Styles of their Teachers." 7, Urban Review, July 1974. pp. 207-214.
Mack. Don. "Privacy: A Child's Need To Be Alone in the Classroom." Teacher, Feb. 76, pp.52-53.
Trubowitz. S. "The Tyranny of Time." 73, Elementary School Journal, October 1972, pp. 1-6.
Classroom Climate
The classroom should provide the learner with as pleasant an atmosphere as possible. The teacher should be firm in standards of work and in expectations but should avoid creating hostility. tension. and fear in the student. A teacher should provide a place where students may enjoy learning without fear of criticism. Students should be able to express their fears, their frustrations and their dislike to a teacher who is willing to listen.
In addition to these intangibles, thought should be given to what is placed in the room and how it is arranged. Since the room becomes a source for initiating and orgaJiizinglearning activities, what is included and its availability to the students are of primary importance. Change for Children offers the following Room Environment Checklist (Kaplan, Madsen and Taylor, 1973. p. 10).
Check-Utilizing space to provide a balance between quiet and noisy work areas. Check-Providing areas for independent study and group interaction. Check-Labeling areas and posting directions for using them. Check-Providing containers and spaces for making materials available to students. Check-Devising ways to obtain human resources and materials.
Resource
Kaplan, S., Kaplan, J., Madsen, S. and Taylor, B. Change For Children. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publishing Company. Inc., 1973.
Individual Differences
As mentioned previously, students differ in many ways. One difference that is worthy of special consideration is cultural background. One's background is an intimately personal matter, one which is closely connected to one's perception of self-worth. One's language, customs and nonverbal behavior for example, are visible indications of "who you are" now. At the same time, they have been strongly influenced by the past, by one's cultural background. It is important, therefore, that cultural differences be accepted and not negatively stereotyped. Culturally different students have often been convinced, perhaps unintentionally, that they cannot succeed and that teachers do not like them. Cultural differences perhaps should be treated the way modern society now treats equal employment of the sexes ... there are obvious differences between men and women but each person should be viewed as an individual. regardless of a predetermined notion regarding ability based on stereotyping.
The first step in eliminating bias is an awareness that it exists. Prejudging a student because of cultural reasons is destructive to both the student and teacher. The student may exhibit genuine effort and not understand why progress is not praised. The teacher may not realize that favoritism is being shown.
Some of the recommendations for working with culturally different students include show respect for their ideas, praise them sincerely, recognize them when they do well, ask for students' ideas and use them in lessons, allow students to set goals. show them reasons for what they are asked to do. and help students to build a positive self concept, (Gilliland, 1978).
The literature abounds with material both of a theoretical and a practical nature concerning the issue of dialect differences and instruction in language arts. Only some resources are listed.
29

Resources Baratz. Joan & Roger Shuy (Eds.) Teaching Black Children to Read. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. 1969. Butler, Melvin (Chairperson). Students' Right to Their Own Language. Urbana, III: N.C.T.E., 1974. Ching, Doris C. Reading and the Bilingual Child. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976. Cullinan, Bernice E. (Ed.) Black Dialects and Reading. National Council of Teachers of English, 1974. Dillard, J. L. Black English. New York: Random House, 1972. Fryburg, Estelle L. "Black English: A Descriptive Guide for the Teacher." in Bernice E. Cullinan (Ed.) Black Dialects and Reading. Urbana, III: N.C. T.E., 1974. Gilliland. H. A Practical Guide to Remedial Reading. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1978. Ginsburg. Herbert. The Myth of the Deprived Child. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972. Goodman, Yetta M. & Rudine Sims. "Whose Dialect for Beginning Reading?" Elementary English. Vol. 51. No.6. Dept. 1974. Hall, Mary Anne. The Language Experience Approach for the Culturally Disadvantaged. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association, 1972. Harker. Jean and Beatty, Jane (ed). Reading and the Black English Speaking Child. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1978. Kochman, Thomas. (Ed.) Rappin' and stylin' Out: Communication in Urban Black America. University of Illinois Press, 1972. Labov, William. A Study of NonStandard English. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969. Seitz, Victoria. Social Class and Ethnic Group Differences in Learning to Read. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1977. Shuy. Roger W. Discovering American Dialects. Champaign, III: National Council of Teachers of English, 1967. Thonis. Eleanor, Literacy for America's Spanish Speaking Children. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association, 1976.
30

LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY
by Rita Dunn. Ed. D. Kenneth Dunn. Ed. D. Gary E. Price. Ph. D.
Directions This inventory has several statements about how people like to learn. Read each statement and decide
whether you usually would agree with statement or whether you usually would disagree with the statement. If you agree. answer "true" to the statement and if you disagree. answer "false" to the statement.
You should give your immediate or first reaction to each question. Please answer each question on the separate answer sheet. Do not write on this booklet.
Before you begin to answer the questions. be certain to write your name. your sex. your grade and the other information called for in the space provided on the answer sheet.
Remember. try to answer every question. Now open the booklet and start with question 1.
, Copyright 1975. 1978 P.O. Box 3271. Lawrence. Kansas 66044
31

1. 'study best when it is quiet. 2. My parents want me to get good grades. 3. 'like studying with lots of light. 4. I like to be told exactly what to do. 5. I concentrate best when I feel warm. 6. 'study best at a table or desk. 7. When' study I like to sit on a soft chair or
couch. 8. I like to study with one or two friends. 9. 'like to do well in school 10. , usually feel more comfortable in warm
weather than I do in cool weather. 11. Things outside of school are more important
to me than my school work. 12. I am able to study best in the morning.
13. I often have trouble finishing everything ought to do.
14. I have to be reminded often to do something! 15. I like making my teacher proud of me. 16. 'study best when lights are dim. 17. When' really have a lot of studying to do I
like to work alone. 18. 'do not eat or drink. or chew while I study. 19. , like to sit-on a hard chair when I study. 20. Sometimes I like to study alone and some-
times with friends. 21. The things I remember best are the things'
read. 22. 'think better when I eat while I study. 23. I like others to outline how I should do my
school work. 24. I often nibble something as , study. 25. It's hard for me to sit in one place for a long
time. 26. , remember things best when , study them
early in the morning. 27. I really like people to talk to me. 28. I hardly ever finish all my work. 29. 'usually start my homework in the afternoon. 30. There are many things 'like doing better than
going to school. 31. 'like to feel inside what' learn. 32. Sound usually keeps me from concentrating.

33. If I have to learn something new. , like to learn about it by having it told to me.
34. At home' usually study under a shaded lamp while the rest of the room is dim.
35. 'really like to do experiments. 36. I usually feel more comfortable in cool weather
than I do in warm weather. 37. When' do well in school. grown-ups in my
family are proud of me. 38. It is hard for me to do my school work. 39. I concentrate best when I feel cool. 40. I like to sit on carpeting or rugs when' study. 41. I think my teacher feels good when I do weIl
in school. 42. I remember to do what , am told. 43. 'really like to watch television. 44. I can block out sound when I work. 45. I am happy when I get good grades. 46. I like to learn most by building. baking or
doing things. 47. I usually finish my homework. 48. If' could go to school anytime during the day.
, would choose to go in the early morning. 49. I have to be reminded often to do something. 50. It is hard for me to get things done just before
lunch. 51. It is easy for me to remember what I learn
when I feel it inside of me. 52. I like to be told exactly what to do. 53. My parents are interested in how I do in
school. 54. I like my teacher to check my school work. 55. I enjoy learning by going places. 56. When I really have a lot of studying to do I
like to work alone. 57. I like adults nearby when I work alone or with
a friend.
58. 'can sit in one place for a long time. 59. I cannot get interested in my school work. 60. I really like to draw. color. or trace things. 61. The things I remember best are the things I
hear.
GO ON TO NEXT PAGE

32

62. 'remember things best when' study them in the afternoon.
63. No one really cares if , do well in school. 64. 'really like to shape things with my hands.
65. When' study' put on many lights. 66. 'like to eat or drink. or chew while' study. 67. When' really have a lot of studying to do ,
like to work with a group of friends.
68. When it's warm outside' like to go out. 69. , remember things best when' study them
early in the morning. 70. I can sit in one place for a long time. 71. 'often forget to do or finish my homework. 72. 'like to make things as , learn. 73. I can think best in the evening. 74. I like exact directions before' begin a task. 75. I think best just before lunch. 76. The things I like doing best in school I do with
friends. 77. I like adults nearby when' study. 78. My family wants me to get good grades. 79. Late morning is the best time for me to study. 80. , like to learn most by building, baking or
doing things. 81. I often get tired of doing things and want to
start something new. 82. , keep forgetting to do the things I've been
told to do. 83. I like to be able to move and experience the
motion and the feel of what I study. 84. When I really have a lot of studying to do ,
like to work with two friends.
85. I like to learn through real experiences. 86. If I could go to school anytime during the day,
I would choose to go in the early morning. 87. The things I like doing best in school, I do
with a grown-up. 88. 'can ignore most sound when I study. 89. If I have to learn something new, I like to
learn about it by seeing a filmstrip or film. 90. I study best near lunchtime.
91. 'like school most of the time. 92. I really like to listen to people talk.

93. 'often eat something while' study. 94. I enjoy being with friends when I study. 95. It's hard for me to sit in one place for a long
time. 96. I remember things best when , study them
before evening. 97. I think my teacher wants me to get good
grades. 98. The things 'like doing best in school I do with
grown-ups. 99. I really like to build things. 100. I can study best in the afternoon. 101. Sound bothers me when' am studying. 102. When I really have a lot of studying to do ,
like to work with two friends. 103. When I can, , do my homework in the after-
noon. 104. I love to learn new things.
STOP

33

COORDINATION
Planning
One of the most important aspects of working with unmotivated or low achieving students is coordination or planning between or among their teachers. Each teacher should have a working knowledge of the other teachers curriculum area. If a curriculum guide is used. it can be surveyed and units of study can be adapted to coincide with identified areas. Teachers can share ideas and methods of teaching. They can brainstorm ways to contribute to one another's area for the benefit of these students. Teachers can borrow ideas from each other so the students are exposed to the same type of activities in different classes.
Teachers Styles
Teachers should become familiar with the teaching style of other teachers with whom they work. They can observe the successful techniques used by each other in the classroom. Principals are often eager to supervise student learning while the teacher visits another room.
Student Records and Progress
Each teacher should become acquainted with student records. Communicating with other teachers concerning student progress and sharing any tips for success may increase a student's a overall progress.
Scheduling
It is extremely helpful for the principal or counselor to be aware of the joint efforts of teachers working with low achieving students. Their added support is encouraging and they can be of invaluable assistance in scheduling classes so these students can best be served. Joint planning time or occasional released time for teacher planning purposes is time well spent.
Student Personalities
All of us have some difficult students who don't seem to give anyone else the problems they give us. Working together. teachers can share techniques that work for maintaining discipline. motivation and accomplishment. Everyone benefits from this shared information.
Examples of Coordination Efforts between English and Social Studies Teachers Use the social studies vocabulary as spelling words in English class. Use social studies ideas (founding of colonies) as an assignment in English (writing a letter home describing life in the New World). Let the same activity count for two grades. one in English and one in social studies. (Write a letter to a politician; check facts in social studies class and letter form in English). This gives positive reinforcement to the student and will encourage more effort on the project. Coordinate visitors and field trips. Teach interviewing techniques in English class and have the students interview musket shooters during an American History unit. Use actual paragraphs from the social studies text to teach punctuation. vocabulary. compound sentences or some other skill.
In some schools. students receive instruction in language arts from more than one teacher or adult. Unless careful planning precedes instruction, needed assistance can be overlooked and opportunities for reinforcement missed. Decision making needs to be shared. not assumed by just one teacher while the other becomes an assistant. The table of role responsibilities that appears at the end of this section can be used as a guideline for full use of teacher talent. "Who does what" really requires forethought to avoid students being assessed twice for the same skill or required to do the same assignment again. Areas and suggestions for coordination between classroom teachers and those providing additional help are also described in the following pages.
34

Major Curriculum Roles and Responsibilities in Language Arts Instruction for Students

Role District Level

Responsibilities

Local Board of Education

1.

Members

Superintendent

Director of Instruction

Early Childhood Coordinator

Elementary Grades

2.

Coordinator

Middle Grades Coordinator 3.

Secondary Grades

Coordinator

Language Arts Coordinator

Reading Coordinator

Title I Coordinator

CBE Coordinator

Assessment Coordinator

Staff Development

Coordinator

Special Education

Coordinator

Plan and develop curriculum (a) according to guidelines and policies set forth by the Georgia Board of Education (b) with input from educators. the community. teaching staff and students (when appropriate). Supervise and assist in the implementation of the curriculum. Plan and develop a staff development program for teachers and paraprofessionals which enables them to implement the curriculum effectively.

Building Level
Principals Assistant principals

1,2.3. above

Lead teacher
State or locally paid classroom teacher

1,2.3 above as directed 4. Guides teachers in planning a total language arts
program for each student. 5. Assists in matching methods and materials through the
teachers to the students. 6. Assists in maintaining records of instruction and
progress. 7. Facilitates coordination among teachers 8. Oversees work of paraprofessionals 9. Assumes administrative or teaching duties as directed
1. Provides the basic instruction for all students in his her charge (a) A language arts teacher should provide a balance of instruction in all areas of language arts (b) A reading teacher should coordinate with teachers of the other language arts to insure a total program.
2. Assesses student strengths and weaknesses. 3. Groups and regroups students according to needs. 4. Matches methods and materials to student learning
styles needs. 5. Provides lesson plans directions for any state or
locally paid aide under his her immediate supervision. 6. Informs supplementary teachers of specific weaknesses
of students enrolled for Title I services.

35

Role

Responsibilities

State or locally paid classroom teacher

7. Plans jointly with all instructors of students in his her charge.
8. Maintains records of student instruction and progress. 9. Informs parents of student progress.

Title I funded teacher

*1. Provides supplementary instruction to identified

*In the substitution of services

students

model and teaming models. this (a) In order to be supplementary. the instruction

instruction does not have to be

must be in addition to the basic instruction provided

"the double dose" or strictly in

by the classroom teacher. For example. the classroom

addition to the basic instruction. teacher could teach a basal reader story. identify a

The instruction. however.

skill with which Title I students had difficulty and

should be geared to student

ask the Title I teacher to reinforce the skill using

needs and be more flexible and

the basal workbook. (The Title I teacher should also

interesting than a steady diet of use other materials.) (b) If the Title I teacher consistently

the same instruction that would teaches the entire basal story plus follow-up from the same

be provided without Title I

series used by the classroom teacher. the Title I instruction

assistance.

is supplanting the teaching responsibility of the

classroom teacher and is no longer supplementary.

2. Provides more individualized instruction to identified

students based on a planned program according to

specific needs.

(a) Instruction should include small group as well as

one-to-one instruction with frequent regrouping.

(b) A variety of methods and materials should be used

according to the needs of the student.

(c) A balance in the use of various materials should

be maintained to prevent overuse or misuse of

machines. workbooks. etc.

3. Provides lesson plans/directions for any Title I

aide under his/her direct supervision.

4. Maintains records of student instruction and progress.

5. Informs classroom teacher of student instruction and

progress.

6. Plans jointly at regular intervals with the classroom

teacher of the students receiving supplementary

instruction.

7. Informs parents of student progress in conjunction

with established policy (either jointly with the

classroom teacher or individually).

Paraprofessional (aide)

1. Works under the direct supervision of a teacher. 2. Reinforces concepts or skills previously taught by
the classroom or Title I funded teacher. 3. Assists teacher(s) as requested. 4. Plans jointly with teacher(s).

Note: Title I is now called Chapter I. 36

SUGGESTIONS FOR COORDINATION

REGULAR PROGRAM

SPECIAL HELP PROGRAM

Assessment Students In the regular classroom program may be The special program teacher should begin with the

assessed in several ways including 1. Standardized data upon which student eligibility was based (in-

testing (lTBS. etc.): 2. Teacher made tests: 3. Data cluding standardized tests. placement in the basal

in cummulative folders: 4. "Informal" reading

reader. teacher judgment. etc.). He she should then

observation folders (teacher guessing or evaluation proceed to obtain a more in-depth view of the

of student work)

student through 1. an informal reading inventory.

2. an interest inventory. and 3. a measure of learn-

ing style.

The components of a demonstrated deficiency should be examined thoroughly to determine severity (Le. difficiency in reading comprehension should be pinpointed for difficulty in determining the main idea. in drawing conclusions. etc.)

Procedures (method & material selection)

The method of instruction in the regular classroom The special program teacher should possess the

may depend on 1. Teacher familarity with method ability to evaluate critically the whole student. to

(Basal readers. language experience etc.): 2.

capitalize on his her strengths and to match his'her

Teacher competence in classroom management strengths and to match his her skill weaknesses

(ability to teach a variety of groups simultaneously); with the appropriate materials methods. Sensitivity

3. Availability of materials; 4. Teacher understand- to and skillfulness at determining learning style and

ing of diagnostic data.

providing required materials (commercial or

In the regular classroom. material selection

teacher-made) with many alternatives is necessary.

should be based on 1. The needs of the

students as indicated by the diagnostic infor-

The student's planned program should complement

mation: 2. The appropriate levels of ability

the basic program. Content should be presented in

of the students; 3. The expectation that there

smaller instructional units. A variety of both print

will be a wide range of abilities in the class;

and nonprint materials should be available. A

4. A planned program of instruction based on

balance within the programs and between the pro-

the student's indentified learning style. (Learn

grams should be maintained.

by doing. lecture. group. activity. etc.)

Student Progress
Support Services

In the regular classroom an assessment of student Student progress should be evaluated both formally

progress should be 1. Conducted periodically to and informally by the special program teacher in

determine the student level of personnel in a part- conjunction with the regular teacher. Smaller class-

ticular area; 2. Kept with accurate and periodically es facilitate using student teacher conferences. Pro-

updated records.

gress can be evaluated more frequently. perhaps on

a daily basis rather than at the end of a unit of study.

Evaluation should include not only performance but

also behavior and effort.

In the regular classroom program. the support of The special program teacher needs to develop

the principal and parents may be used to 1. Provide effective interpersonal skills to maintain program

necessary resources (human and physical) to

survival as well as program coordination. The

support the program: 2. Serve as resource to assist support of the principal must be obtained to secure

(in the classroom and at home) in the development planning time. purchase of materials. and the

of required materials and other support (volunteers. efficient use of instructional aides. Other

tutors. resource persons. etc.); 3. Provide input into teachers should feel that the special program is an

the future directions of the program.

asset to the school. Parents must feel comfortable in

talking with the teacher during a visitation or at a

conference concerning pupil progress. Such

communications with the parents could be done

jointly with the regular teacher.

37

SUGGESTIONS FOR COORDINATION

REGULAR PROGRAM

SPECIAL HELP PROGRAM

I Program Program evaluation in the regular classroom con- The special program teacher should assist in

Evaluation sists of an examination of the adequacy of the

assessing the supplementary aspects of the pro-

materials. course content. overall program object- gram at the end of a marking period or at the

ive. the delivery system. overall progress of students. end of the year. Items such as scheduling. methods

and other relevant program aspects. Among the and materials. and inservice training could be

data used to gain an accurate picture of the pro- assessed for effectiveness and suitability.

gram are as follows. 1. Summative data; 2. Group

achievement scores; 3. Student records of progress

and accomplishments including notebooks); 4. In-

dividual student grades; 5. Feedback from parents

(conferences and informal conversations); 6. Dis-

tribution of available materials; 7. Other informal

records.

Corda. Lanie and Bill Hammond. "Coordinating Special Reading Programs with the Regular Classroom". Proceedings from the Fifth Southeastern Regional Conference of the International Reading Association. Nashville. February 8. 1980. reprinted by permission.

38

SUPPORT PERSONNEL
Educators are aware of the continuing need for individualizing instruction. but at times numerous noninstructional tasks such as administrative duties. clerical work and housekeeping chores prohibit teachers from implementing this concept. Adult assistance in the classroom through paraprofessionals. parents, volunteers and college students can reduce many of these burdens and allow the teacher to work more closely with students varying levels of ability.
Many times community representatives possess special skills that can facilitate classroom learning as well. For example. musicians can teach children songs and develop their sense of rhythm. Painters can help children explore colors, form and texture. Gardeners can help children appreciate the growth process as well as the beauty of plants and flowers. while the gourmet cook can stimulate interest in nutrition. All of these areas can be used to expand language learning.
Volunteer workers can also produce puppet stages. listening stations, stands for learning centers and small tables for work centers. High school. vocational and college students could be scheduled to work as tutors in elementary and middle schools. Senior citizens could share their talents in many ways, including reading to students or helping them with projects or assignments.
The kinds of activities that support personnel do are limited only by one's imagination. The community could be used as an extension of the school with various agencies being used as classroom laboratories for a portion of the day. A close coordination of the efforts would have to be maintained between the school and the community agency for maximum student benefit. Banks. hospitals and department stores are few of the community agencies that might be involved in this effort.
Although every teacher seems to have a favorite person to use as a resource at a particular time. much more benefit can be derived from a planned adult assistance program. A survey of teacher and student needs can be taken. Needs can then be grouped into categories such as lunchroom supervision. assistance in the media center, field trip assistants. The next step is recruitment. This can be done informally by a telephone brigade to selected people or more formally by a survey form sent to the entire community. A short introductory meeting, repeated at various times one day: i.e.. morning. afternoon. after school and early evening, is another alternative. A sample form follows this section.
Once the initial recruitment is over, results should be catalogued in a resource file. A brief meeting. formal or informal. often sets the stage for productivity. Recruitment should be continuous. Some evaluation might be helpful before repeating or redirecting particular services.
In summary, parents and volunteers in our schools may very well serve as a iink between the school and community. In the classroom they become aware of the problems that are faced by school personnel. and then are in a position to interpret these problems in their communities. At the same time, they can improve communication between the community and the school. Some ideas for encouraging parental support follow.
Ways to Encourage Parental Involvement
1. Create a "How Parents Can Help" handbook which gives practical suggestions for home activities such as making out grocery lists, nature walks, etc.
2. Invite a few parents to a coffee hour with the principal. Hold it at the home of a PTA leader.
3. Vary the times for Open Houses. Hold some in the afternoon. some at night.
4. Invite several parents to sample the school lunch once a month. Seat them with the principal. a teacher. and several randomly selected students.
5. Hold a "Senior Citizen Day" at the school. inviting grandparents and other older friends of the school. Provide transportation.
6. Invite new teachers and new parents to a tour of the district. Cover points of interest. local churches. facilities available in the area, places that could be used for field trips. boundaries of attendance area.
7. Arrange athletic and acadernic contests between parents. students and teachers.
39

8. Send home "Happy-Grams"-good news notes about accomplishments and achievements. 9. Use parents as field trip helpers and observers. Make progress charts-one at school for the teacher and
one at home for the child and parent. 1O. Set goals for each child and send home notes that parents must sign and return. 11. Have children prepare a luncheon for parents. teachers. and themselves. Send hand written invitation. 12. Start "Saturday Clubs" to provide enrichment programs. film showings. family recreational activities.
etc. at the school. 13. Set up projects where children bring things from home. 14. Make it possible for teachers to make home visits at least occasionally. 15. Have students interview their parents about how life has changed since their childhood. 16. Recruit parents to spend an hour or two each week helping in their children's classroom. 17. Establish a classroom speaker's bureau with parents or relatives of children sharing their experiences.
hobbies. job information. etc. 18. Have students conduct a survey of parents to evaluate the school and collect ideas for improvement.
Distribute the survey results to all parents. 19. Use parent volunteers as tutors for students having difficulty. 20. Ask parents to assist in special clinics, the library. or counseling area. 21. Establish a homework hotline for parents to check on nightly assignments. 22. Hold high school department seminars for parents to help them help their children gain the most of
out of particular course offerings. 23. Establish regular visitation days for observation of classes. 24. Advise parents of the teacher's conference periods or other best times to reach the teacher. 25. Assign homework that requires parental input and participation. 26. Advertise one evening a week when parents or students can telephone the principal to ask questions or
discuss problems. 27. Help parents who are nonreaders to prepare their children to learn to read. 28_ Encourage parents to praise their child's successes. 29. Occasionally ask the child the have parents call the teachers. rather than have the teacher contact the
parents. 30. Set up an idea exchange in the school newsletter. Ask parents to send in ideas. Then. in a later issue of
the paper. publish the ideas and how they were used. 31. Take note ofthe fact that more fathers are participating in PTA. Be sure to include fathers in all school
communications. 32. Involve parents in discussions about junior high school while their children are still in elementary
school. Do the same for junior high parents before their children reach senior high. 33. Establish a Home-School Cooperation Committee. Exchange reports with other schools. 34. Urge teacher training institutions to place more importance On home-school cooperation in their
teacher education programs. 35. Conduct surveys and provide parents with research on such things as average hours of sleep per night
by grade. average hours devoted to homework, television viewing. etc. 36. Have parents contact colleges with suggestions for potential teachers. 37. Seek out the parents who never participate. Sometimes this parent feels inadequate or timid and
simply needs to be encouraged and needed.
40

38. Hold staff workshops on communication skills with a special focus on parents. 39. Be sure that teachers are represented and recognized at PTA or other parent group meetings. 40. Open meetings with a short activity designed to help people get to know each other. 41. Keep parents informed about what is going on at school through newsletters. personalized notes. home
visits. and bulletin board displays. 42. Try workshops which teach people something they really want to know. Plan your workshops to meet
their needs. Popular topics for workshops could include: 1. Overview of the school program. 2. Parent effectiveness training. 3. Communications between parents. teachers. and children. 4. What service are offered school children in the district. 5. How children learn and how parents can help. 43. Schedule activities at places that are close by. and are familiar to parents: a church. for example. 44. For parents who work. have a student-prepared breakfast meeting where they can meet the principal and teachers. 45. No matter what you do. always remember to use the person-to-person approach; make the invitations as personal as possible and extend them by phone or in person.
Resources Bauch. Sidney J. (ed.). Handbook For The Volunteer Tutor. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1969. Becker. Harry A. (ed.) "Working With Teacher Aides". Croft Leadership Action Folio. New London Conn: Croft Educational Services. 1968. Berclay. John G. Parent Involvement in the Schools. Washington. D.C.: National Educational Association. 1977. Brotherson and Johnson. Teacher Aide Handbook. Danville. Illinois: Interstate Printers and Publishers. Inc.. 1971. Welty. Don A. Aides to Teachers and Children. Washington. D.C.: Association for Childhood Education. 1968. Williams. Catherine. The Community At Textbook. Bloomington. Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1975.
41

Name

SURVEY FORM

Address

Telephone (Day)

(Evening)

Please check any service you can volunteer to

Noninstructional Tasks

1. Prepare practice activities

2. Prepare bulletin boards

3. Duplicate materials

4. Assist with record keeping

5. Assist with room arrangement

6. Chaperone students on field experiences

7. Accompany students to and from classes

8. Provide transportation on special occasions

9. Administer first aid

__ 10. Monitor lunchroom

11. Carpentry

12. Repair school machinery

13. Other

_

School.

Instructional-related Tasks

1. Tutor student on a specific skill as identified by the teacher

2. Monitor study groups

3. Read stories to students

4. Listen to students read orally

5. Administer informal tests

6. Administer interest inventories

7. Stimulate group discussions

8. Direct plays or dramatic activities

9. Simplify directions for student

10. Guide creative writing activities

11. Present puppet show

12. Design and prepare games

13. Design and prepare book jackets for students' writings

14. Record activities on chalkboard as directed by the teacher

15. Other

_

How often can you provide these services?

daily from

_

to

weekly on

from,

_ to

monthly on

from

_ to

once, as needed. other. please specify Please return to

Thank you.

42

_ _
_ _ _

Evaluation: Teachers/Students/Program

Language Arts
Success _ _ _ _---, Reteach

----~ Assess student skills

E -------i Keep clear records

III.

~ ... ...oOJ - - - - - - - i Provide instruction

Q..

-------i Schedule activities and students

-------i Group and regroup students
m-------i Develop positive attitudes -------t Plan instruction
II. -------i Integrate the parts of the curriculum

- - - - - i Know the curriculum

- - - - - i Know yourself. the teacher I.

The Teacher is the Key to Success! The successful teacher evaluates before and after each step toward success in education.
43

EVALUATION
Evaluation of the educational program is a serious responsibility and must include direct, thorough and regular assessment. Evaluation has often been considered by many a culminating experience, a test. This certainly is true and must be done, but it is only a small part of a total evaluation process.
The previous diagram indicates the teacher pounding away toward language arts success through three steps. It is important to note that these three steps overlap considerably although there is a logical sequence from bottom to top, as well. Each of the three areas - teacher, student and program - will be described.
The Teacher
The total evaluation process must begin with teacher self-evaluation. The initial question is: "Do I know my feelings toward teaching and am I willing to do what it takes to get the job done?" This involves assessment of the teacher's attitude toward the teaching responsibility and willingness to see personal deficiencies and correct them. It involves having others evaluate you and accepting criticism as well as handling praise.
The second question is: "Do I know the curriculum?" Teachers must be knowledgeable about resources for information in regard to all facets of the assigned teaching area. They must know materials related to the subject. They must have a working knowledge of diagnostic instruments and techniques. For the teacher of low achieving students, a thorough command of alternative teaching strategies is crucial.
Teachers must be aware of the effect of their attitude and expectations on the students. Teachers must manage, schedule and report. They must know how to question and lead students into discovering answers. Teachers have to be aware of interaction processes to use in the classroom settings and the advantages of each.
A study of time usage in the classroom should be conducted regularly by teachers to determine cost effectiveness of each precious minute. period. or day. A sample instrument for use by reading teachers. the Time Schedule, appears at the end of this section. Using this instrument will provide a global view of frequency of classroom behavior. The user is encouraged to investigate the quality of any behavior which is observed in a measurable degree. This second investigation should be geared to such items as the verbal interaction under way, motivational techniques used (such as praise), and the kinds of questions asked and answered (such as literal or interpretive). Teachers must also be wise enough to know when to leave the student alone to think. to answer or just to read.
The teacher's attitude plays a major role in successful growth. The teacher "who is too old to learn is too old to teach," old in attitude, not age. For some teachers, "the cloak of complacency prevents them from taking time to read. the fire of learning has died within, the acceptance of new ideas and challenges is refused and passive thoughts take over" (Nemeth. 1975, p.v.). Low achieving students require more than these teachers choose to give. The teacher who has taught for 10 years should have had more than one set of experiences 10 times.
An evaluative instrument for teachers to use in evaluating themselves in general terms might be comprised of questions derived from the above discussion. Can I do, do I do, or am I willing to do each of these? Some sample instruments are included at the end of this section. These scales can be adapted to all areas of language arts.
The teacher does not have the total responsibility for evaluation of self even though it is most important that evaluation begin and end with the teacher. Others can and should be involved in evaluation. New teachers in Georgia must pass written tests and classroom observation measures before becoming certified. Such measures can be both evaluative and diagnostic. They will help to ensure teachers' knowledge of the curriculum and classroom techniques. The areas included in this assessment should be examined by new and veteran teachers alike. Other forms are included at the end of this section.
44

Teachers must be sure of themselves and secure enough to look closely and not be intimidated by any deficiencies they, or others, find. An encouraging point is that the teacher who takes time to look inward is a step ahead of those who know so little or care so little that they never look closely at themselves. Evaluation must become a growth experience.
The Student
Student evaluation is an integral part of the total evaluation process. Evaluation of students begins with the very general information required for broad group placement and instruction. This information varies from grade to grade and school to school. Pre-schoolers and first graders are assessed by a standard measure of readiness or teacher observation. As students attain ability in reading, writing and language proficiency, standardized tests are administered. The Georgia Criterion Referenced Test and informal language inventories are useful in aiding the teacher in placement of students until further diagnosis can be made.
As the teaching process develops, further need for diagnosis of individual students develops. Teachers' expertise in the area of diagnosis is another area in which the teacher must evaluate oneself constantly. Teachers should all become familiar with various tests and their sources. The Reading Miscue Inventory (Goodman and Burke, 1972) and articles relating to miscue analysis suggest methods of "kid watching" as an alternative to testing.
Green and Petty (1971, p. 4445) suggest the following informal means for determining specific needs of students.
1) Observing and recording speech performance, individual and audience reactions, and specific behavioral elements in selected situations and activities.
2) Making observational notes on individual pupils at regular intervals with respect to non-standard usage. problems in organizing expression effectively, or lack of ease in speaking.
3) Using a checklist or inventory form for recording skill or lack of skill in particular reading, listening, writing, or speacking situations.
4) Tabulating writing errors made by individual pupils. 5) Using teacher-made standardized tests in a planned program for measuring growth and achievement
in total and specific aspects of language performance. 6) Tabulating departures from standard speech which occur in the children's formal and informal
conversation and other language activities in the classroom and on the playground. 7) Making recordings of speech and oral reading and analyzing them for particular problems. 8) Keeping samples of children's written expression for comparison at inter'fals throughout the school
year.
As with all diagnosis, none is complete without the involvement of the individual being assessed. Green and Petty (1971, p. 45) suggest strategies in which students can identify their own needs.
1) Using a checklist. perferably one that the student has helped to devise. 2) Working as one of a pair or as a member of a small group in identifying areas which need
improvement by the student, the student's partner or others in the group. 3) Looking at the material in a folder which contains samples of the student's work and recordings the
student achievement. 4) Participating in class discussion of needs, or efforts to meet class-established standards and of plans
for learning activities. 5) Meeting with the teacher to discuss needs. 6) Correcting the student's own paper, proofreading and editing student's own work. 7) Plotting or recording student's own test scores and comparing them with the results of previous
testing.
45

8) Keeping charts of errors made. such as ones made in handwriting. 9) Writing in a notebook things on which the student needs to work.
Many resources relating to evaluation are listed at the end of this section.
The student's attitude is vitally important in the learning process. The teachers must discern attitude problems by some means and take steps to improve attitude when the need exists. Attitude and interest surveys. sentence completion tests and sociograms. all lend useful information to teachers.
An important caution to teachers was offered in a poem by one "diagnosed student." "I can't read the books we use My brain goes blank My eyes won't fuse The teacher gives me every test Ah. go away and let me rest For what does she do When she gets the score She puts me out and shuts the door I never hear of it again Until it comes next grade and then The teacher finds that I can't read And so she proceeds with haste and speed To find another test for me Ah. go away and let me be." (Schulwitz. 1975. p. 91)
The teacher is also a record keeper. As was previously suggested. notes taken during informal sessions with students and transferred to some organized format for determining future instruction can be invaluable. A sample class record-keeping instrument follows. It allows the teacher a simple means of monitoring student proficiency and is helpful in establishing instructional groups.

Student

ii c::
.=...=. = III
" ... .. ~-.::. 'EIc.I:I:
=='. :.=c.. =.. = - ". " = :5 S ~ t
= " " " " = is <c.!l

ii

III

~

e'::

Cl III

_ Cl

E
<:IE

0.II0.I 01cII:I:

IcI:I:

III ~

:Q:

Q Col

Q
""C

c::
,~
'iii
.. Cl
: Col

i.:i
"~,,'"c:: Cc::l IcI:I:
Cl c~::

001= =(,J

III ~.c:

III Cl.

"Cc::

:!
Cl

" III

Cc::l
Q
001 III
~~~ .c: Q
rIJ;>

c::
...~.
III Col
:E -~;.
rIJ

..

III

Cl

:S E "Cl
III III .. III

'ri=.

1:);:;1 rIJ

c::
:Q:
=III
"a
=c::
Do

" c::
Q
'Vi

;
=.

c::
..c:
""r=.
E
Q (,J

E III

(Q,J "Col
..... III c::
.".. !c::
" =" .. " S;:trIJ

Cc::l c::"C
" III rIJ=

_=6Cc::l
III III
0=

....III
III
..""5..

x . Indicates sufficient progress at this level
~ Indicates need for additional work at this level (Teachers can use the same concept and insert any categories they feel necessary; this sample would be useful in grades K.4.)
46

The information needed to use this checklist should be compiled from combined diagnostic efforts. Students who have not mastered a specific skill can form a skill-group for instruction. This information and knowledge of students' interests give the teacher guidance in aquiring reading materials and/or developing units of instruction.
The number of skill groups will determine scheduling. The teacher should be cautioned to make schedules as close to individual need as possible. but not without regard to efficiency. Too many groups can be as ineffectual as too few. Again. evaluate teacher time task effectiveness.
Instruction of groups, provision for skill centers and skill groups must be well organized. The teacher can only work with one group at a time; therefore. some materials purchased or teacher-made must be self directive and if possible. self correcting for some students. The teacher must perform as both an instructor and facilitator of learning. For teachers who feel this "double-duty" is an impossible task, there are consultants and professional materials available to assist in the effort.
Good teachers both instruct and evaluate. All teachers evaluate in testing situations. Records must be kept of both teaching and testing so that information is available for reteaching. The process should and must repeat itself until students exhibit proficiency at each level.
The Program
The final stage of evaluation is program evaluation. Within a school program evaluation may range from a survey of teachers' feelings to highly sophisticated standardized measures of student achievement. Total reliance on student test scores for evaluation is not only inappropriate but quite damaging at times. Library circulation data can be used to determine whether students are indeed reading, certainly a valuable addition to evaluation. Students' attitudes can be determined by the condition of materials. the care of the facility. the lack of discipline problems as well as by the results of a survey. Community and parental involvement can register support of the program. A "self-fulfilling prophecy" approach may also be used; often it is encouraging to teachers and students when they begin to expect success because it is expected of them.
Informal checklists can be used to evaluate portions of a language arts program some sources are included at the end of this section. Standards on writing. speaking and listening are included in the appendix.
References
Courtney. Leonard. Reading Interaction, The Teacher, The Pupil, The Materials. Newark: International Reading Association. 1976. p.v.
Nemeth. Joseph S. Reading Rx: Better Teachers, Better Supervisors, Better Programs, Newark: International Reading Association. 1975, p.v.
Greene. Harry A. and Walter T. Petty. Developing Language Skills in the Elementary Schools, 4th Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971. pp. 44-45.
Schulwitz. Bonnie Smith. Teachers, Tangibles, Techniques: Comprehension of Content in Reading. Newark, International Reading Association. 1975. p. 91.
Resources
Goodman. Yetta (Chairperson). "Forum: Guidelines to Evaluate the English Component in the Elementary School Program." Language Arts, October 1976, pp. 828-838.
Neagley, Roso L. and N. Dean Evans Handbook for Effective Supervision of Instruction. Englewood Cliffs Prentice-Hall. 1980.
Okey, J .. J. Long and C. Johnson Teacher Performance Assessment Instruments. Athens: University of Georgia, 1977.
Fagan. William, Charles Cooper, and Julie Jensen. Measures for Research and Evaluation in the English Language Arts. Urbana: ERICNCTE. 1975.
47

Time Schedule

Directions: Every 10 seconds. mark the behavior being demonstrated at that time. Focus on the teacher and what he she is doing. Subsequent investigations should focus on the specific quality of behavior observed for the major portions noted on this initial view of time use.

Teacher Observer Date

_

Group Description Size

_

_

Time Start

_

_

Time Stop

_

1. COMPREHENSION

T. Talks

T. Questions

T. Corrects

Teacher Supervised Pupil Behaviors

P. Answers

P. Talks or Questions

Peer Corrects

P. Uses Machines

P. Reads Silently

2. SIGHT VOCABULARY

1. Talks

T. Questions T. Corrects

P. Answers

P. Talks or Questions

Peer Corrects

P. Uses Machines

I
P. Reads Silently

3. ORAL READING

T. Talks

T. Questions T. Corrects

P. Reads Orally

P. Talks or Questions

Peer Corrects

P. Uses Machines

P. Analyzes Word or Phrase

4. WORD ANALYSIS

T. Talks

T. Questions T. Corrects P. Answers

P. Talks or Questions

Peer Corrects

P. Uses Machines

P. Reads Silently

5. WORK STUDY

1. Talks

1. Questions T. Corrects

P. Answers

P. Talks or Questions

Peer Corrects

P. Uses Machines

P. Reads Silently

6. TIME OUT

T. Silent Waits Quiet

T. Finding Place or Material

P. Finding Place or Material

T. Awaits Answer

No Attention to Pupils by Teacher

No Attention to Subject by Teacher

Arranging Room groups Changing

7. TIME OUT

Rules broken-To Corrects Behavior

T. Severely Corrects Pupil

T. Gives Directions 2.3 times

P. Not Working Correctly

Work Not Relative

Outside Interruption

T. Moving No Contact

1 = 10 Seconds , 1980 reprinted by permission Corda. Elaine P. A study of the Relationship between Time Utilization During Supplementary Reading Instruction of Educationally Disadvantaged Students and the Subsequent Reading Achievement of the Students. Georgia State University, unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1980.

48

Time Schedule: Definitions of Categories
Teacher Talks: teacher talks about or explains content to pupil (s). Teacher Questions: teacher asks a question about content with the intent that a pupil answers. Pupil Answers: pupil responds to a question about content. Teacher Corrects: teacher corrects a wrong assumption made about content by the pupil (s). Pupil Talks or Questions: pupil asks question or requests information about content or procedure being considered. Pupil Reads Orally: pupil reads orally for teacher. Peer Corrects: classmate corrects a mistake made by pupil. Pupil Analyzes Word or Phrase: pupil silently or orally tries to analyze a word while reading to the teacher. Pupil Reads or Answers Questions Silently: pupil reads or answers questions silently from a workbook, worksheet, kit, etc., as a direct response to directions by the teacher. Pupil Uses Supplementary Machinery: pupil working with machinery, game, or other related material with teacher supervision. Teacher Silent/Awaits Quiet: teacher attempts to (re) gain attention of pupils by remaining silent for at least 10 seconds. Teacher Awaits Answer: teacher awaits an answer to a direct question for 10 seconds. Teacher Finding Place or Material: teacher attention is diverted by initial finding or loss of place or needed materials. Pupil Finding Place or Material: pupil attention diverted by initial finding or loss of place or needed materials. No Attention to Pupils by Teacher: teacher engaged in activities unrelated to lesson (reading paper, visiting with other teachers, etc.). No Attention to Subject by Teacher: teacher talks to pupils about unrelated subjects. Work Not Relative: pupils engaged in activities not related to lesson, such as doodling, drawing. Teacher Gives Directions Two or Three Times: teacher repeats directions more than one time. Teacher Corrects Behavior: teacher tells pupil that behavior is inappropriate or incorrect. Teacher Severely Corrects Pupil: teacher ridicules or degrades pupil for inappropriate or incorrect behavior. Pupils Not Working Correctly: pupils continue to do task in a manner that is different from the way the teacher explained the task. Outside Interruption: an interruption from outside the classroom causes a loss of reading time. Arranging Room/Groups Changing: class is engaged in moving from one activity to another or from one place in the room to another. Teacher Moving About RoomlNo Pupil Contact: teacher moves around the room and watches the students but does not interact with them.
49

SELF-RATING SCALE ON INSTRUCTIONAL AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Directions: The practices listed below are frequently recommended for effective classroom management

and instruction. Indicate by drawing a line around the appropriate number the extent to which your

program shows each characteristic. Use the following ratings:

1 = Almost always 4 = Seldom or never

2 = Most of the time 5 = Undecided

3 = Sometimes

6 = Not applicable in my program

Instructional Materials and Methods

1. I know the skills of reading and how to teach them effectively, and my

instruction reflects this knowledge.

123456

2. I know clearly what I am trying to accomplish, and I transmit this

knowledge to my pupils.

123456

3. I teach children in materials that will assure their success.

123456

4. I keep in the classroom a variety of reading materials on levels appro-

priate for my pupils, and I encourage them to use them.

123456

5. I use reading instructional materials that are interesting to children.

123456

6. I praise pupils for reading materials that are interesting to them.

123456

7. I diagnose constantly and teach in terms of my findings.

123456

8. I help children to recognize their own individual strengths and weak-

nesses in reading.

123456

9. I individualize reading instruction whenever possible.

123456

Pupil Attention to the Learning Tasks
10. I get and maintain pupil attention through use of a variety of acceptable techniques.
11. I involve children immediately in routine activities as they come into the classroom each morning.
12. I gather materials for each planned activity before that activity is to take place, and I have them ready for immediate use.
13. I get children's attention before beginning reading instructional activities.
14. I get down to the business of teaching-with as little lost motion as possible.
15. I am alert to disinterest and boredom, and I change activities when needed. 16. I help children to get back to work when they return from recess or lunch
periods.
17. I keep children constructively busy on tasks related to instructional goals.

123456
123456
123456 123456 123456 123456
123456 123456

Classroom Behavior
18. I involve children in establishing rules for classroom behavior.
19. I interpret a child's behavior both in terms of behavioral expectancy for children of his age and status and in terms of what I know about him as an individual.

123456 123456

50

20. I help children to know what they can do on their own when they finish assigned tasks.
21. I expect children to have positive attitudes toward learning to read, and I expect them to learn to read in keeping with their capabilities.
22. I show the children that I care about them-and I show it in ways that are acceptable to them.
23. Knowing that children-like teachers-sometimes have "bad" days, I am more tolerant of a child's deviant behavior on "bad" days.
24. I avoid letting my own insecurity cause me to become angry with children.
25. I encourage children to move about quietly and orderly in the room when they need to do so.
26. I manage effectively the movement of children into and out of the classroom.
27. I work toward preventing deviant behavior by anticipating behavior problems before they arise.
28. I use humor to alleviate tension-but not at a child's expense.
29. I "look the other way" when it is best to ignore pupil behavior.
30. When a child's behavior must be constrained, I do it as unemotionally as possible.
Physical Arrangements
31. I arrange the classroom seating to fit the learning task at hand.
32. I adjust the classroom lighting to suit the comfort and needs of the children.
33. I adjust the classroom temperature and ventilation to suit the comfort and needs of the children.

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12 3 4 5 6 123 4 56 12 3 4 56 12 3 4 5 6 123456 12 3 4 5 6
12 3 4 5 6 123 4 56 123 4 5 6

Reprinted by permission Ira E. Aaron. University of Georgia. Athens. Georgia.

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ACCOUNTABILITY IN READING INSTRUCTION: RATING SCALE

Directions: Indicate by circling the appropriate number after each item the extent to which practices in

your school and or system show agreement with the following statements about accountability in the

reading program. Use this scale:

1 = Strongly agree 3 = Disagree

2 = Agree

4 = Strongly disagree

General

1. Teachers and all others being held accountable have had input into the plan for 1 2 3 4 establishing the system of accountability.

2. The accountability system is clearly understood by all persons involved in it.

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3. The accountability system includes follow-up staff development for those teachers who 1 2 3 4 appear to need improvement.

Objectives 4. The reading program has clearly stated goals and objectives.
5. Objectives in the affective area are included.
6. Teachers have experience in generating objectives (behavioral or otherwise) though they are not expected to generate from "scratch" all of their own reading objectives.
7. Objectives and supporting behaviors are flexible enough to permit teachers to adapt them to the children being taught.
8. Teachers understand the goals and objectives of their reading programs and know some ways of reaching them.
Evaluation

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9. Teachers. administrators. and others involved in an accountability system are aware that many factors influence pupil growth in a reading program and that teacher effectiveness (though highly important) is only one of them.
10. Evaluation is accomplished in terms of program objectives.
11. Evaluation utilizes information gathered from a variety of sources and by means of a variety of techniques.
12. Teachers recognize that the typical standardized reading test. though useful in assessing progress. is inappropriate as a single instrument for assessing gains.
13. Teachers know what their tests and other evaluation instruments do and do not measure.
14. Teachers are aware of the potential hazards (such as regression toward the mean. low reliability and/or validity) in assessing change by means of standardized reading tests.
15. Reading evaluation includes an assessment of the extent to which pupils use the skills they possess.
16. Reading evaluation also includes assessment ofteacher knowledge about and performance in reading instruction.

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Reprinted by permission Ira E. Aaron. University of Georgia. Athens. Georgia.

52

RATING SCALE FOR EVALUATING RESPONSIBILITIES IN READING INSTRUCTION

Directions: Many persons are involved in and have responsibilities related to the teaching of reading in

elementary and secondary schools. Selected responsibilities of the teacher, the principal, the superinten-

dent. the parents. and the curriculum director are listed below. Indicate by drawing, a line around the

appropriate number the extent to which a given teacher. principal, superintendent, parent, or curriculum

director reflects each characteristic or meets each responsibility. Instead of rating an individual, you may

consider all persons in a given school or school system. Use the following ratings.

1 = Almost always

4 = Seldom or never

2 Most of the time

5 = Undecided

3 = Sometimes

6 = Not applicable in program

Teacher's responsibilities: The teacher1. Teaches each student on his own level and at his own rate. 2. Gives adequate attention to the decoding and comprehension strategies. 3. Uses a diagnostic prescriptive approach in teaching reading. 4. Constantly evaluates the progress children are making in reading. 5. Guides children and adolescents toward the enjoyment of reading.

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Principal's responsibilities The principal6. Converses knowledgeably with teachers and parents about the school's reading program and practices. 7. Assists teachers in obtaining needed teaching materials. 8. Takes the lead in planning necessary staff development for teachers. 9. Taps all available resources for assistance for teachers. 10. Encourages teachers to move toward excellence in reading instruction. 11. Observes classroom teaching for instructional effectiveness. 12. Creates an atmosphere that encourages teachers to seek help. 13. Identifies leaders among the teachers who will assist in coordinating efforts in reading. 14. Recognizes the relationship of reading to the total curriculum and emphasizes reading in the school program.

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1 2 345 6 1 234 5 6 1 2 345 6 1 234 5 6 1 2 345 6
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Content-area teacher's responsibilities: The content-area-teacher15. Teaches students to use developmental skills in that content area. 16. Teaches the special reading skills of that content area. 17. Continues to work toward the development of each student's reading-study
skills.

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Curriculum Director's responsibilities The Curriculum Director-
18. Assists in keeping teachers and principals abreast of new materials and new developments in the area of reading.
19. Assists principals in planning and conducting staff development in the area of reading for teachers and aides.
20. Prepares and works with leaders in each school who will in turn work with teachers.
21. Assists the superintendent in motivating principals and teachers to move toward excellance in reading instruction.
22. Assists the superintendent in motivating principals and teachers to tryout new or different practices if they offer promise for improvement.
23. Creates an atmosphere that encourages teachers and principals to seek help when needed.
24. Observes instruction to locate "promising practices" and to assist in improving reading instruction.
25. Provides leadership in evaluating the total reading program of the system.

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Superintendent's responsibilities: The superintendent-
26. Sees that adequate staff development for reading instruction is planned for system schools.
27. Sees that all school personnel are motivated to move toward excellence in teaching reading.
28. Sees that adequate personnel and materials for teaching reading effectively are available.
29. Sees that persons involved in making systemwide decisions about reading are representative of the groups to be affected and are well qualified.

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Parent's responsibilities: The parents30. Work toward building concept backgrounds and meaning vocabularies in
their children. 31. Encourage children to read. 32. Read to children and let them see parents reading. 33. Learn about the reading programs of their children.

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Reprinted by permission Ira E. Aaron. University of Georgia. Athens. Georgia.

54

STRATEGIES
The following strategies are presented as alternative ways to teach language arts skills to unmotivated low-achievers who have had previous difficulty in language learning. The strategies are listed alphabetically for easy reference. The nature of these strategies suggests that they be used to integrate various aspects of language arts instruction. A focal point is critical, however. A step by step process for matching each strategy to specific skills is included in the section How To Use This Material. This process should be used in choosing specific strategies to use with your students. The individual strategies are preceded by some nofail ideas.
"TWELVE EASV WAYS TO MAKE READERS HATE READING (and One Difficult Way to Make Them Love It)"
Taken from Thomas H. Estes and Julie Johnstone Language Arts, Nov. Dec. 1977, pp. 891-899. 1. Fail children who do not read up to grade level. 2. Define reading ability as scores on a standardized test. 3. Drill skills. 4. Separate learning to read from reading to learn. 5. Read aloud in groups, round robin. 6. Insist on careful reading for detail. 7. Follow the lesson plan in the manual to the letter. 8. Don't skip stories in the basal, and do not switch children from one basal series to another. 9. For vocabulary development. have children copy definitions from the dictionary.
10. Do not let children read ahead in the story to find out how it is organized or told. 11. Do not have ungraded materials around. like paperback books, magazines or newspapers. 12. Always set children's purposes for them. And, finally, here is one difficult way to make children love reading. "Be as certain as you possibly can be that anything you ask any student to read is something he or she can read and will want to read."
SOME NO-FAIL IDEAS
Taken from Pike County Language Arts Curriculum Supplement, Pike County Board of Education. 1978, reprinted by permission. Directions: Ask the students to 1. Complete the statement, either orally or in writing. by adding a consequence or a result to the "if
phrase." If hands grew roots .... If camels had no bodies . If people had half a face . If weathered boards were harp strings .... If people lived in sewer pipes .... 2. Find pictures of cartoons and relate or write dialogue for them that reveals something about the character, the relationship between the characters or the situation.
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3. Write or tell a story about a small boat in a big storm. The wind is wild and the waves batter the small boat. Imagine that you are the small boat; explain how you and your body feel.

4. Pretend that you are a fish in a fish bowl. How would you feel? What would happen to you if the bowl was over turned?

5. Write or tell a story about life of a young deer in a jungle from the deer's point of view.

6. Bring their baby pictures to school. Have a bulletin board of baby pictures with numbers under each and encourage students to guess whose pictures they are. Students can write a story about themselves as they were in the picture-who were their friends, what were their joys, their needs, likes and dislikes?

7. Choose a picture of a window or a door. Write or tell about the life of someone you imagine lives, or once lived, behind it.

8. Imagine that you are a person in the room on the second story and you hear a car going by at 3 a.m. Write either a poem or a paragraph or tell a story about the driver out alone at 3 a.m.

9. Imagine that you had the power to control time; what would you make it do for you? Why?

10. Imagine that someone has been standing on a corner observing you. What kinds of things would the person notice about you? Write a paragraph or describe yourself verbally as you think the person might.

11. Choose an object, such as a telephone or erasable pen. and examine it from the perspective of an

interplanatory visitor in the year 2500. What does the object tell you about the inhabitants and the

earth in the year

? Write a paragraph about it.

12. Play some unfamiliar music for the class. Listen, and try to feel the music. Ask the following questions. What ideas or mental pictures do you get? How does the music make you feel? If this were background music for a motion picture, what would you expect to see on the screen? Students can write an appropriate response (anecdote, poem. paragraph) or draw what the music makes them feel.

13. On a file folder panel, paste a display of magazine and catalogue pictures reflecting one's own personality and interests. On another part of the folder, the student attaches a brief writing sample which explains the creation. When all have completed their "personality" folders. display them (names hidden) on the bulletin board under the banner GUESS WHO?

14. Think about a place to live. If you had a choice of where you could live. where would you select? Why? Write a paragraph or explain your reasons verbally.

15. Time Capsules - select a half-hour from the day before and everyone writes about everything he or she remembers about that half hour. ..What you did, what you felt, what you said. what you saw, and what you thought!

16. Defend or attack this assertion. It has been said that people who have a strong desire to travel are trying to run away from something.

17. Write or tell about a scene such as woman checking out at the grocery store with apples, tomatoes. and a bottle of coke. Why has she bought these?

18. Take some small object out of your pocket or purse. Describe it without saying what it is.

19. Describe life as viewed by a(n): razorblade. skillet, telephone. alarm clock, pair of shoes, pencil, mirror, ashtray, fork. paintbrush.

20. Pick a strange or unusual name from the phone book. Characterize the person, using the name alone as your basis.

21. Write a creative thank-you note. Your aunt sent you something unidentifiable as a gift.

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22. Write or tell what it is like to a. go crabbing? b. live in high humidity? c. go on strike? d. live in a refinery town? e. see snow only every ten years? f. live in a seaport town? g. operate a tugboat? h. go surfing? i. walk on a sea waIl?

j. travel through swamps? k. play foot baIl in mud? I. take a canoe trip? m. ride a school bus? n. take care of someone who is ill? o. stand in the rain? p. be nearsighted? q. be an only child? r. be a member of a large family?

23. Complete sentence beginnings. a. Happiness is .... b. Maybe someday ....

24. Create the story that precedes these ending sentences. a. It was a relief to find it was all a dream. b. You can bet I never did that again!

25. Respond to a story. The teacher clips from a newspaper or magazine an article which involves many people, ego 900 people on strike at X factory; 100 families homeless foIlowing a tornado. The article is read to the class. Each student imagines what happens to a person involved in the accident. They jot down the important ideas, Rearrange them and write a paper on this broad news event, narrowing it to its effect on a single individual.

26. Divide into teams (2 or 4). Each team member gets an "assignment" card to write directions for locating something, an object which is in the room, a hidden item, a person, book, magazine, etc. When a team is up, the members get a copy of someone else's directions. Scores are awarded by the length of time it takes the member to locate the item; the fewer the minutes, the highter the score.

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Anticipation Guide
Definition
The anticipation guide (Bean and Peterson. 1980) combines prereading and postreading activities to enhance students' comprehension of content material. It can mobilize students' thoughts and opinions about a topic prior to reading a selection about the topic. or act as a focal point for review of important concepts learned during the lesson.
Rationale
The anticipation guide can act as a means to bring student misconceptions about a topic to the surface without fear of failure. Guide statements operate at the experientially-based level of comprehension and. as such. stimulate curiosity and motivation to learn. As the learning sequence progresses. a discrepancy between the students' preconceptions about a topic and the information being introduced should result in a subsequent modification of their knowledge base.
Anticipation guides may be used with students at all grade levels and may be used with a variety of materials such as tapes. filmstrips or textbooks.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The learner will 1. make judgments.
2. predict outcomes.
3. distinguish between fact and opinion.
4. distinguish between reality and fantasy.
Materials/Personnel
Three to five guide statements based upon the topic to be learned. chalk chalkboard or an overhead projector. or a set of handouts. textbooks.
Procedure 1. Teachers should identify the major concepts to be learned in a text selection. a lecture. or a film. 2. Identify students' beliefs or experiences that will be challenged. or supported by the material under
study. 3. Create three to five statements (not questions) that will reflect your students' beliefs concerning a topic
and those that will challenge and modify those beliefs. Le. "loaded" statements such as: (1) Nutrition: "All breakfast cereals are kid stuff." (2) Career education: "A woman's place is in the home." (3) History: "Peace-loving people avoid war at all costs." 4. Present the statements to the students and have them react individually by defending their thinking on each statement. 5. Students in small groups come to a concensus on each statement. 6. Teachers may tally the positive versus the negative responses of individuals or of the groups. 7. Students should then express their opinions so the total group may become exposed to a variety of thinking concerning each statement. 8. Direct students to read the content selection or view the film about the topic. keeping in mind their reaction to the statements and what the author will say about the topic. 9. After reading. have the students react again to each statement from not only what they believed but also from what they learned about the topic. Teachers should be careful not to belittle any clearly erroneous response of students' thinking regarding the topic.
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Evaluation The anticipation guide can serve as an informal diagnostic tool with teachers appraising students' prior knowledge in prereading and evaluating the acquisition of content based on students' post-activity responses to the guide statements. Anticipation guides serve as an approach to involve students actively in the learning process. They are ideal spring boards for large and small group discussion for all students. For those students at the K4 level. guide statements may be used at the listening level to prevent possible difficulties with reading. Teachers may also choose to read text selections to students at this level or to utilize the guide with films. In other words, the reading of the statements or the text should not prohibit the use of the anticipation guide. For 5-8 and 9-12 students. the use of the guide as described earlier should be appropriate. In all cases, teachers need to make sure that the statements they create will promote students' curiosity. Getting students to think about a topic is essential to the success of this strategy. Resources
Bean, T. W. and J. Peterson "Reasoning Guides: Fostering Readiness in the Content Areas" Read ing Horizons, Vol. 21. Spring 1981. Herber, H. L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978. Readence, J. E., T. W. Bean. and R. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: KendallHunt, 1981.
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Bibliotherapy
Definition Bibliotherapy is a method of helping students understand and cope with problems through the use of stories. Rationale When a student has a problem it has a direct impact on the education. social maturation. and sense of well-being of that student. Pinpointing a problem. matching this problem with an appropriate book, pacing the student so that the essence of the material is grasped. and guiding the student to apply the solution to the problem personally are the keys to a successful bibliotherapy program. Bibliotherapy may help foster self-recognition. personal value, empathy. understanding of different life experiences, and acceptance of others' values, attitudes. and beliefs. Sample (K-12) Objectives The learner will 1. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of purposes. 2. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that individual reactions to and perceptions of literature
are affected by many factors. such as attitudes. experiences, maturity, and knowledge. 3. recognize that literary representations of individuals, events, and society are influenced by the
perceptions of the writer and the perceptions of the reader. 4. recognize the complexity of the individuals and situations as depicted in literature. 5. recognize the importance of making inferences and drawing conclusions in reading literature. 6. make individual, personal determination of worth. desirability, and acceptability of various pieces of
literature. 7. demonstrate an understanding that speech and writing are tools of communication. 8. use oral language for a variety of purposes. 9. Demonstrate an acceptance and understanding of other dialects. Materials Appropriate stories (For particular suggestions, check the sources listed at the end of this section.) Bibliotherapy involves four main steps for the student: 1. Becoming familiar with a story and its character. either by reading it or hearing it. 2. Sharing or empathizing with the character. 3. Comparing behavior with that of the character. 4. Sharing one's feelings about the subject either personally with the teacher or through group oral or
written presentation. It is essential that the teacher be well acquainted with available books and be able to give short summaries of the books to be matched to a particular student or offered as a resource if older students are researching a general modern day problem as a subject. Several resources. many containing annotated suggestions by grade and reading interest levels are included at the end of this section. The school media specialist is also a valuable resource.
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A sample list of subjects could include
acceptance adjusting to school alcoholism appearance death decisions depression

disabilities divorce drugs fears foster homes loneliness lying

marriage nonconformity pregnancy running away stealing shyness sibling rivalry

Evaluation
Student reaction. both verbal and non-verbal. can be observed. Educators should refrain from imposing their own feelings and views of the world on the students. There is no guarantee that bibliotherapy will influence a student or that, if there is an influence. it will produce the desired change. If the problem persists or is viewed as serious. the student should be referred to a trained professional for indepth. monitored assistance.

Resources
Cornett, Claudie E. and Charles F. Cornett. Bibliotherapy: The Right Book at the Right Time. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1980.
Morris. Claire E. Selecting Children's Reading. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1973.
Russell. David and Caroline. Shrodes. "Contributions of Research in Bibliotherapy to the Language Arts Program."School Review. 58 (September (1950). 335-42.
Russell. David and Caroline Shrodes. "Contributions of Research in Bibliotherapy to the Language Arts Program. II." The School Review. 58 (October 1950). 411-420.
Dane. Chase. "The Role of Reading Guidance in the Total Guidance Program ofthe Elementary School." The Reading Teacher. 15 (November. 1961). 102-109.
Edwards. B. S. "Therapeutic Value of Reading." Elementary English. 49 (February 1972). 213-18.
Hoaglund. J. "Aiding Children in Personality Development."Elementary English. 49 (March 1972). 390-94.
Olsen. Henry D. "Bibliotherapy to Help Children Solve Problems." Elementary School Journal. 79 (April. 1975). 422-429.
Note: Many items listed in the strategy section High Interest Topics are also appropriate for use with bibliotherapy.

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Creative Thinking
Definition Creative thinking uses the students' critical thinking and problem solving abilities. Students explore and develop cognitive skills while finding unique approaches and solutions to specific tasks and problems. Rationale Unmotivated low-achievers often possess skills that are not in demand in many school-related situations. The emphasis on unconventional, unique solutions appeals to many such students. Recognizing other points of view and generating possibilities often assist in improving the students' self-concepts because there are no right or wrong answers. Sample (K-4) Interesting Possibilities Objectives The learner will 1. use generally accepted oral language forms 2. analyze and interpret pictures using elaborated language 3. distinguish reality from fantasy Materials Several familiar objects. or pictures of them. drawing paper. crayons. Steps 1. The teacher holds up a familiar object such as a sweater. and presents a problem. such as: "You have
lost your sweater. What would you do to try to find it?" 2. Students brainstorm for possibilities. 3. Have a volunteer student select another object and present a problem such as: "This lunch box won't
stay closed." 4. Students can draw a picture representing a solution. Pictures should be labeled and displayed. Evaluation Pictures can be discussed in small groups for plausibility of the solution. Sample (58) Ad It Up Objective The learner will recognize information and ideas through synthesizing. Materials Paper pencils. poster board. magic markers. Steps 1. Divide the class into small groups. 2. Have students brainstorm items suitable for selling such as T-shirt. car wash service or ice cream. 3. Present the task: Choose one item. Brainstorm some interesting words and phrases to use in an ad to
sell your item.
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Examples a. Super T-shirts Crazy many colors washable ... hilarious ... original messages ... your own pictures ... all sizes sensational for school and sports. b. Corky's Car Wash Plentyofsuds extra spray ... perfect polish ... cheerful workers ... terrific ... loving care ... inside and outside clean and sharp ... chrome and glass ... king of the road. c. Ice Cream Delicious ... 26f1avors ... rich and creamy ... no preservatives ... party prizes ... sundaes. shakes and super sauces ... nutritious ... friendly ... triple treat cones ... nutty and fruity combinations ... your favorite. 4. Students can make a poster to display the ad. Evaluation Teacher will observe evidence of students' creativity in assembling ads through synthesizing. Student groups will share ads with each other and provide peer feedback. Skits can also be planned. Resources Adapted from Symonds. M. Think Big, Special Projects for Creative Thinking. Santa Barbara: The Learning Works. 1977. Sample (9-12) Who Did It? Objectives The learner will 1. recognize. recall and retell details. 2. will draw conclusions and make judgments. 3. demonstrate that language functions in a variety of ways e.g. to persuade. Materials/Personnel Detective tales on tape. in a resource book. or in duplicated form. Steps 1. Divide the class into three groups. 2. Have students listen carefully to a short mystery story either read or taped. 3. Students discuss what clues might reveal the guilty party to the detective. 4. Students draw individual conclusions from the possibilities and try to persuade the others to their point of view, supporting statements with reasons based on the mysteries. 5. Students can write their own mysteries and submit them to educational magazines. Evaluation Teacher will observe how students attend to details. analyze information and use persuasion.
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Resources Cleary. D. M. Thinking Thursdays: Language Arts in the Reading Lab. Newark: International Reading Association. 1978. "Mini Mysteries." Scope. New York: Scholastic Press. Symonds. M. A. Think Big, Special Projects for Creative Thinking, Santa Barbara: The Learning Works. 1977.
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Directed Reading Activity
Definition
The Directed Reading Activity (DRA) (Betts, 1946) presents a basic format from which to provide systematic instruction to students as they are guided through a reading selection. Rationale
Some students require a structured approach to learn effectively from their textbooks. The judicious use of the DRA by the teacher can provide students with the atmosphere necessary to promote student learning.
The DRA is appropriate for all students, K-12. Modifications may have to be made for K4 students or for 5-8 or 9-12 students who are beginning readers. Using listening as a means to learn text material is a viable alternative for those individuals.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The learner will 1. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context with words specific to content areas. 2. demonstrate an understanding and use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary. 3. recognize, recall and retell the main ideas, details, sequence and cause-effect relationships. 4. draw conclusions from facts given. 5. infer that which is not explicitly stated in a selection. 6. make judgements. 7. predict outcomes. 8. interpret and use information presented graphically.
Materials/Personnel
Textbook, supplementary reading materials, nonprint media such as films and filmstrips. Steps
1. Prereading: In this stage the teacher develops concept background, creates interest, introduces new vocabulary, and establishes purposes for reading. Though each part will be discussed separately, most often they are not treated as discrete entities in the lesson. a. Develop concept background by associating what students already know to the new learning they will encounter in the text selection. Discussion centering around the chapter title and the illustrations within it and personal experiences of the students may accomplish this requirement. Additionally, teachers might employ some alternative strategies such as the anticipation guide, survey technique, or possible sentences. b. Create interest. Sometimes students become motivated simply by developing concept background. Other times, the teacher may have to use additional material to stimulate interest such as films, maps and audiovisual displays. c. Introduce new vocabulary, especially if understanding the major ideas of a selection is dependent on knowing the vocabulary that comprises it. It is suggested that teachers consider using some alternative strategies, such as the graphic organizer or possible sentences which are described elsewhere in this resource. d. Establish purpose. Providing a clear. purpose for reading gives students an opportunity to target their comprehension as they read. The purpose for reading can be general or very specific depending on teacher's objectives.
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2. Reading: Students read the text material for the purposes set in the prereading stage of the lesson. The teacher may elect to read a selection to students after purpose has been set or have them read it silently.
3. Postreading: The final stage of the DRA entails a comprehension check plus discussion and reinforcement activities to extend students' thinking. Students can answer the purpose-setting questions from the prereading stage of lesson. Discussion may be based on alternative strategies such as the study guide, herringbone technique, anticipation guide or possible sentences. Reinforcement activities extend and refine students' understanding of the selection's major ideas. They could include activities to reinforce new vocabulary or develop comprehension abilities. Activities. such as a post-graphic organizer or a game. may be designed by the teacher or the teacher may use published activities or assign a topic writing or research in the library/media center.
Evaluation The teacher can judge how successfully the students mastered the vocabulary and met the specific objectives of the lesson. Resources
Betts. E. A. Foundations of Reading Instruction. New York: American Book. 1946. Estes. T. H. and J. L. Vaughan. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 1978. Readence. J. E.. T. W. Bean. and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: Kendal1lHunt. 1981. Shephard. D. L. Comprehensive High School Reading Methods. Columbus: Charles Merrill. 1973. Tierney. R. L.. J. E. Readence. and E. K. Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices: A Guide for Improving Instruction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 1980. Also see strategies-Anticipation Guide. Graphic Organizer. Guided Listening Guide. Guided Reading. Possible Sentences. Study Guide.
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Experimental Activities
Definition Experiental activities involve acquiring knowledge. concepts and skills through actual participation in a situation or event. These activities reflect a philosophy of learning by doing rather than learning by observation modeling or learning by being told (Olson & Bruner, 1974).
Rationale First-hand participation offers many opportunities to build background experiences needed to interpret symbols. Students are encouraged to develop concepts and generalizations based on their own concrete experiences rather than to depend on another's ability to demonstrate or relate knowledge. Personalization and relevancy assist in maintaining a positive attitude toward learning.
Sample (K-4) Nature Walk
Objectives The learner will 1. expand the number of words understood in context 2. learn specialized vocabulary 3. use a variety of oral language structures 4. demonstrate that symbols stand for referents 5. make comparisons
Materials Natural materials, (leaves, nuts. or bark), construction paper, paste, chalkboard, chalk, experience chart.
Steps
1. The teacher should explain that the purpose of the walk is to identify different kinds of natural materials, especially leaves.
2. Display labeled pictures of various leaves. 3. Take the students on a short walk through the woods reminding them to observe the leaves. 4. Encourage the students to collect various leaves and other natural materials. 5. Have volunteer students describe their findings as thoroughly as possible. The teacher can transcribe
these descriptions on the board or on a chart and assist with labeling. 6. Have students paste their leaves and other materials on construction paper. 7. Display the students' work and encourage them to make comparisons. Evaluation The teacher might use the following criteria for evaluation. 1. Did the students learn new vocabulary words? 2. Can the students identify various shapes and colors of leaves or other natural resources? 3. Can the students apply the concept of colors to objects in the classroom? Options 1. Write a class poem about the walk. 2. Write sentences describing the walk. 3. Make a class scrapbook of the leaves or other materials. 4. Use puppets to reenact the walk.
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Sample (5-8) Textures Objectives The learner will: 1. use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary 2. demonstrate that symbols stand for referents 3. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spelling 4. make comparisons Materials Objects with a variety of textures such as fur. paper. sandpaper. scissors. etc.. paper and pencil. Steps 1. The teacher will display several selected objects with a variety of textures. 2. Circulate the objects for the students to feel and touch. 3. Divide the class into small groups. 4. Each group should select one of the objects and brainstorm a list of descriptive words to match how it
feels such as smooth. cool. prickly. etc. 5. Group can share their lists. 6. Objects can be classified under categories such as smooth. fun. paper. 7. Comparisons of similarities and differences can be made. Evaluation Enthusiasm for the task plus additional words offered by the other groups can be noted. Options 1. Students can write a descriptive passage about the object. 2. Students can investigate the properties of the objects. such as color. durability. etc. 3. Students can describe the object orally in a "Twenty Questions" type of game. Sample (9-12) Oragami (paper folding) Objectives The learner will 1. read and follow printed directions 2. interpret and use information presented graphically 3. recognize. recall and retell sequence and cause-effect relationships Materials Paper. resource books from media center. handouts of several styles of paper airplanes. Steps 1. Display the various materials available on how to fold paper to make a paper airplane. Samples may
also help promote interest. 2. Discuss characteristics of planes such as style. maneuverability and speed.
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3. Students may work individually or in pairs once they select a plane to make themselves. 4. Provide the printed directions in the form of handouts for the styles selected by the student. 5. Allow students time to make the plane. decorate it and label it with their names. 6. Decide on categories for competition such as speed. distance. style. etc. 7. Allow students to fly their planes at a specified time for practice not throughout the day in other classes. 8. A point system for scoring in each category can be devised and competition held. Winners in each
category plus a winner with the highest number of points can display their planes in a hall showcase. Evaluation The product serves as the evaluation. Students should be encouraged to reread the printed directions if their airplanes do not look like the model. Options Paper folding procedures for other items can be utilized to help students follow directions in sequential order. Resources
Althouse. Rosemary and Cecil Main. Science Experiments for Young Children. NY: Teachers College Press. 1975. Brehm. Shirley. A Teacher's Handbook for Study Outside the Classroom. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill. 1969. Hug, John and Phyllis Wilson. Curriculum Enrichment Outdoors. NY: Harper & Row, 1965. Krinsky. Norma and Bill Berry. Paper Construction for Children. NY: Van Nostrand Reinpold. 1966. Marbach, Ellen. Creative Curriculum. Provo: Brigham Young University Press. 1977. Murray. W. D. and F. Rigney. Paper Folding for Beginners. NY: Dover Publications, 1975.
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Film/Filmstrips
Definition These activities involve the students in the production of films or filmstrips. Rationale Movies hold an important place in children's and teens' lives. By involving students in some simple film projects, they become motivated to learn about visual literacy and to use critical judgement in the classroom. Students can be guided to understand how the filmmaker uses visual images to make the audience feel and respond in predictable ways.
Sample (K-4) A Documentary Objectives The learner will 1. distinguish four essentials of the communication process - source, message, medium, audience 2. recognize, recall and retell the main idea(s), details, sequences, cause-effect relationships 3. use oral language for a variety of purposes 4. demonstrate that speech and writing are tools of communication Materials A Super 8 camera, film, projector, splicer (if available), tape recorder (optional).
Steps 1. Students brainstorm a list of subjects about which they would like to film at their school: i.e. how food is
prepared in their cafeteria, how they get to school (bus, car, or by walking), playground activities or problems; a day in the life of a school principal, what a third-grader's day is like, how to find and check out a library book, what recreational sports are offered at their school, or what it is like to be a "safety patrol guard." 2. The students select a subject from the list of possibilities. 3. The sequence of scenes will be planned in order by the students but the filming will be done by the teacher. 4. Students can make posterboards with the film title and the credits. 5. When the film is developed, the students can view it and discuss the effectiveness of the story which is communicated. 6. A written narration can be dictated to the teacher and perhaps tape-recorded.
Evaluation The teacher can informally evaluate student interest and participation. Students can evaluate their own part in making the production effective, and whether the short film clearly communicates an interesting and accurate story to the audience. Students can be asked to recall the main idea, the details and the sequence of events.
Options Projects which can remain relatively simple or which have potential for a more skilled approach include 1. documentaries 2. drawing directly on celluloid (16mm or filmstrip)
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3. cut-out. collage or clay animation and 4. genre films such as monster. science fiction. detective. mystery. Sample (5-12)
Film Animation Objectives The learner will 1. write and compose for a variety of purposes 2. write and compose in a variety of ways 3. recognize. recall, and retell the main idea(s). details. sequences. cause-effect relationships 4. analyze relationships among source. message. medium and audience 5. understand and use basic -components of visual literacy
Materials
Construction paper. scissors. posterboard. clay. small models (optional). resource books. film. camera. tri-pod.
Steps
1. The students choose a story to portray with film. They may create a story themselves or choose one from a unit of literature dealing with short stories. fables or narrative poems.
2. Film animation can be done with cut-out figures. with clay models, or by pixilation (Morrow & Suid, 1977). Students will work best in small groups, planning their short film with a "story board."
3. The teacher should demonstrate the use of a Super 8 Camera with a single-frame release; the camera should be mounted on a tri-pod.
4. Students prepare their props. figures and any narration. 5. When the sequence of shots has been planned carefully. the students prepare a filming location. set the
camera on a tri-pod. and shoot double frames by means of a cable release. Books on animated films can suggest the distance in movements for figures so the movement will look smooth. 6. When the film has been developed. the group wiII share their experimental project with the class or with another audience. Evaluation The preplanning stage can be evaluated before any filming is started. The teacher can observe the interest. motivation and participation that this project creates in the classroom. Students can complete a self-evaluation on the effectiveness of how their group worked together and shared responsibility for all the details of this kind of project. Students can be asked questions about details. sequence. etc. Peer evaluation can be encouraged when the short film is shared with the class. Resources Aquino. John. Film in the Language Arts Class, Washington. NEA. 1977. Cox. Carole. "Making Films without a Camera." 57, Language Arts, March 1980, pp. 274-279. Davis, Robert. Introduction to Film Making. Urbana: ERIC and RCS. 1975.
Donelson. Kenneth. ed. NonPrint Media and the Teaching of English. Urbana: NCTE, 1975. Feezel. J .. K. Brown. C. Valentine. eds. Selected Print and Non-Print Resources In Speech Communication, An Annotated Bibliography K-12. Urbana: ERIC, RCS. 1976.
Foster. Harold. The New Literacy: The Language of Film and Television. Urbana: NCTE, 1979.
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Morrow. James and Murray. Suid. Media and Kids. Rochelle Park: Hayden Book Company. 1977. Shrank. Jeffrey. A Guide to Short Films. Rochelle Park: Hayden Book Company. 1979. Wegner. Hart. Teaching With Film. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Education Foundation. 1977. Schrank. Jeffrey. Understanding Mass Media, Skokie: National Textbook Company. 1980.
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Folklore
Definition Folklore involves the study of one's own or another's cultural heritage including customs, traditions and beliefs which have been preserved through the years. Rationale Folklore takes a personal look at one's ancestors and their lives. It instills a sense of personal pride and helps to develop a positive self-concept.
Sample (5-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. learn specialized vocabularies 2. will accept and understand other dialects as valid communication 3. use oral language in a variety of ways: (a) dialogue and discussion. (b) retelling, (c) summarizing. (d) interviewing; 4. Write and compose in a variety of ways. Materials "Foxfire" film, Foxfire series, access to the school Iibraryi media center. Steps 1. Introduce unknown terms such as heritage and folklore. 2. Discuss various activities and customs based on students' experiences. Be careful not to devalue any
that are mentioned. 3. Show film "Foxfire" available from the film library. 4. Look through books to acquaint students with the types of stories that deal with pertinent topics. 5. Acquaint students with the interviewing strategy. (See Interviewing) 6. Have students gather stories from designated interviewers. 7. Have students edit. rewrite and finalize writings in small groups. 8. Publish gathered stories in a book to be used in school library/media center or to be distributed in other
ways. Evaluation Students evaluate individual stories and decide which are to be included in published work. The teacher also has the opportunity to evaluate the mechanics and self-expression in the products.
Resources Center for Southern Folklore Magazine (magazine published in Memphis). Foxfire Experience. Rabun Gap: Foxfire Fund. 1975. "Foxfire" film. Georgia Department of Education Film Library. Foxfire (magazine published at Rabun Gap). Hands On: Newsletter for Cultural Journalism Rabun Gap: The Foxfire Fund.
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National Workshop for Cultural Journalism: Workshop Report. Rabun Gap: The Foxfire Fund. 1980. Wigginton. Eliot. The Foxfire Book. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. 1972. (also subsequent books in the series) Wigginton. Eliot, Moments: The Foxfire Experience. Rabun Gap: The Foxfire Fund. 1975. Wood. Pamela. Vou and Aunt Arie. Nederland: Ideas. Inc.
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Free Writing
Definition Free writing is putting one's ideas into written form as they come to mind. No time is taken to cross out an inappropriate word or to respell or restructure words into sentences until later in the process. Rationale Immediately putting an idea on paper even if it is "I can't think of what to write" helps students to overcome the initial difficulty in getting started and possible embarrassment concerning the product. Since the topic is of the student's choice, the activity is most relevant to the student's needs.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. demonstrate an understanding that speech and writing are tools of communication 2. increase, enrich and refine oral and written expression 3. write and compose in a variety of ways Materials paper, pencil or pen. Steps 1. Explain the procedure to students, that is. that everyone will write for a specified amount of time.
Begin with three. five or ten minutes depending on the maturity and ability of the students. 2. Everyone including the teacher writes without stopping. correcting. or reviewing. Picture writing and
personal respelling are all appropriate at first. 3. At the end of the allotted time, all writers read their papers silently. underlining any word or sentence
they particularly like. These ideas can be used for later written work. 4. If the teacher reads a student's work (see Evaluation), sentence structure and errors in mechanics
should be noted for future instructions but not red penciled. Evaluation Self-evaluation is very important here and should be used to build positive feelings toward the word process. Peer-evaluation can be useful if students want to share their work with one or more peers. Positive suggestions such as "I like the word ... " should be encouraged. The teacher should join this activity as a peer not a judge.
Note: Any topic is an appropriate one for free writing. Some starters include how you feel or felt about something or the description of an event.
Resources Applegate. Maureen. Freeing Children To Write. N.Y.: Harper and Rowe, 1963. Bernhardt, Bill. Just Writing. Excuses to Improve Your Writing. Urbana: Teachers and Writers Collaborative, 1977. Burrows, Alving Truet. They All Want To Write; Wirtten English In The Elementary School. N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1964.
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Carlson. Ruth Kearney. Sparkling Words: Three Hundred and Fifteen Practical and Creative Writing Ideas. Urbana: NCTE. 1979. Carter. Candy. ed. Focus On Writing. Urbana: NCTE. 1975. Clapp. Ouida. ed. On Righting Writing. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Convert. Anita and Gordon Thomas. Communication Games and Simulations. Urbana: ERIC. RCS.1978. Day. Robert and Gail Cohen Weaver. eds. Creative Writing in the Classroom; An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Resources, K12. Urbana: ERIC. RCS. 1978. Evertts. Eldonna. ed. Explorations in Childrens' Writing. Urbana: NCTE. 1970. Gallo. Donald. ed. Confronting Writing Obstacles. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Gallo. Donald. ed. Teaching Writing: Advice From The Professionals. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Graves. Donald H. Papers on Research About Learning, Balance The Basics: Let Them Write, New York: Ford Foundation. 1978. Hailey. Jack. Teaching Writing, K-8. Urbana: NCTE. 1978. Haley James. Shirley (ed). Perspectives on Writing in Grades 1-8. NCTE Committee on Teaching Written Compositions Urbana: NCTE. 1981. Hillocks. Georgia. ObserVing and Writing. Urbana: ERIC. RCS. 1975. Kirby. Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Strategies For Teaching Writing As A Developmental Process. N.Y.: Hayden Books. 1980. Leavitt, Hart Day and Rand A. Sohn. Stop, Look and Write. N.Y.: Bantam Books. 1970. Maxwell. Rhoda and Stephen. Judy. Composing: 1979 Yearbook of the Michigan Council of Teachers of English. Urbana: NCTE. 1979. Ruben. B.D. and RW. Budd. Human Communication Handbook: Simulations and Games. Rochelle Park: Hayden. 1975. Sohn. David. Pictures For Writing. N.Y.: Bantam Book. 1969. Tiedt. Iris. Individualizing Writing In the Elementary Classroom. Urbana: ERIC. RCS. NCTE. 1975. Tovey. Duane R. Writing Centers in the Elementary School. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. 1979. Weber. Philip. ed. New Approaches to Writing: An Ideabook For Teachers and Students. N.Y.: Bantam Books. 1973. Weiss. M. Jerry. ed. From Writers to Students: The Pleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark: IRA. 1979.
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Games Definition A game is an instructional. motivational. enjoyable activity developed with a specific skill in mind. Games are best used to reinforce a particular skill. Games are flexible. however. and a teacher can also introduce or diagnose a skill through the use of a game. Rationale Learning games have many advantages in the classroom. A game theme in itself is motivational and of high interest to students. Through games. students learn the concept of cooperation. With low-achievers. competition should be minimized if not eliminated. Frequently games are more realistic or relevant for the students than textbooks. Games alter the learning situation since the teacher becomes a participant rather than a judge. Through games students have many opportunities to make decisions. Finally. games are usually short. enjoyable activities. Sample (K-4) Concentration Objective The learner will discriminate visual similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context. Materials Index cards. pairs of identical words written on paper strips that are clipped to the index cards. Steps 1. Place pairs of high interest words. such as bike-bike. face down on table. 2. The student turns over two cards and pronounces the words. If the words are identical. the student uses
the word in a sentence and keeps the pair. If the words do not match. turn the cards face down and proceed to the next student. 3. The game ends when all the cards have been removed from the table. Evaluation This activity can be self-evaluating because only identical words match. This activity is also evaluated by teacher observation of the accompanying sentences.
Option Using student pairs (four students) promotes stronger cooperative efforts and is less competitive. Sample )5-8) Fact vs. Opinion Objectives The learner will 1. listen and respond for a variety of purposes 2. expand the number of words used in context 3. recognize use of propoganda devices 4. distinguish between fact and opinion Materials a set of cards for each student labeled Fact. Opinion.
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Steps 1. Divide the class into small groups. Each group plans a persuasive argument combining facts and
opinions concerning a household product such as a cleanser. toothpaste. etc. This will involve listing characteristics of the product and possible devices for capitalizing on its advantages. 2. A volunteer from each group tells the class something about the item such as "it is blue." or "it's worth its price." Students react by holding up a Fact or an Opinion card. Volunteers share reasons for answers. 3. Continue the process until all groups have shared their information. Evaluation The teacher can observe which students repeatedly have misconceptions about fact vs. opinion. Sample (9-12)
Match Objectives The learner will 1. listen and respond for a variety of purposes. 2. recognize, recall and retell the main ideas, details. sequences and cause-effect relationships. 3. recognize relationships of time and place. 4. recognize the complexity of the individuals and situations as depicted in literature. 5. analyze nonverbal symbols of communication. Materials Index cards. magic markers. Steps 1. Discuss a story, T.V. show or song with which the students are familiar. 2. Transfer parts ofthe discussion to index cards such as "place" written in black on one card and "Dallas"
written in red on another. Include the concepts that you want to reinforce such as main character. author. conclusion, etc. 3. Distribute one card written in black and one in red to each student, keeping one card yourself. 4. Begin by reading your card. 5. The student who has the match (if "red" card is read first. the match is a "black" card) to your card stands and reads it. 6. Discuss any misinterpretations. 7. That student then reads the second card. 8. The match to that card is read. The process continues until all cards are used. 9. You might want to include one irrelevant card with no match. This card can be discussed at the very end. Evaluation The teacher can note which concepts require additional instruction.
Resources Cratty. Bryant. Active Learning: Games to Enhance Academic Abilities. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1971. Davis, Ken and Hollowell, eds. Inventing and Playing Games in the English Classroom. Urbana: NCTE.1977.
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Ehrlich. Harriett. ed. Creative Dramatics Handbook. Urbana: NCTE. 1974. Fluegelman. Andrew. ed. The New Games Book. Garden City: Doubleday. 1976. Gallo. Donald. A Gaggle of Gimmicks. Urbana: NCTE. 1978. Heitzmann. Wm. Ray. Educational Games and Simulations. Washington. D.C.: National Education Assocation. 1974. Kaplan. Sandra N. Big Book of Writing Games & Activities. Santa Monica: Goodyear. 1975. Kinghorn. Harriet. Classroom and Workshop Tested Games, Puzzles and Activities for the Elementary School. West Nyack: Parker Publishing Co.. 1975. Pearson. Craig and Joseph Marfuggi. Creating and Using Learning Games. Palo Alto: Learning Handbooks. 1976. Stanford. Gene (Chairperson.) Activating the Passive Student: Classroom Practices in Teaching English. 1978.79. Urbana: NCTE. 1978. Sullivan. Dorothy D.. Beth Davey. and Dolores P. Dickerson. Games As Learning Tools: A Guide For Effective Use. Paoli: InstructoIMcGraw-HiII. 1978. Students also enjoy commercial games which can be adapted for instructional purposes. Among the favorites are Hangman. Scrabble. Probe. Anagrams. Password. Tic-Tac-Dough and Boggle. The students will readily volunteer the names of their favorite games. A unique approach to games can be found in a process called "Teams. Games and Tournaments/TGT." The reference is located below. Slavin. R. E. Using Student Team Learning. The John Hopkins Team Learning Project. The John Hopkins University. 1978.
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Graphic Organizer
Definition The graphic organizer or structured overview (Barron, 1969) is a visual diagram of major vocabulary terms that students will encounter in a content reading assignment. It provides a framework of interrelationships among the major vocabulary words and may serve as a reference for students as they proceed through a lesson. Rationale The graphic organizer is an instructional strategy which provides a systematic means to facilitate the learning of technical vocabulary. The teacher presents a picture or schematic diagram of the important to vocabulary terms within a text reading assignment and demonstrates to students how these words relate to one another. Barron (1969) has stated that this forms a sort of "advance organizer" that provides students clues to the structure of a topic to be studied. It will help the teacher clarify teaching goals and will provide students a graphic reference as they begin reading and studying their assignment in greater detail. Sample (5-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. recognize and use vocabulary specific to content areas. 2. demonstrate an understanding of and use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary. 3. recognize information and ideas through classifying, outlining, and synthesizing. 4. interpret and use information presented in diagram form. Materials/Personnel Chalkboard or an overhead projector, textbook. Steps The construction and presentation of the graphic organizer will be discussed in six steps. 1. Teachers should first analyze the material to be read to identify the major ideas that are important for
students to know, selecting the important words which convey those ideas. In this way a number of difficult words in the chapter may be eliminated because they do not tie directly to the major ideas. To provide an example, a science unit on minerals will be used. The teacher has identified the following major ideas. a. Minerals may be classified as either metals or stones. b. Metals may be further classified as rare, common or alloys. c. Stones may be further classified as precious or constructed by masonry. The words that might be
selected by the teacher as important for understanding these ideas are: minerals, rare, common, alloys, precious, masonry, gold, silver, aluminum, iron, steel, bronze, diamond, ruby, limestone and marble. 2. The teacher arranges these words into a visual display that demonstrates the interrelationships between the words and the ideas they convey. The teacher might try several arrangements and then select the one that appears to be the most appropriate. Continuing with our science example, the words might be arranged in the following manner.
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/MINERALS -------.

METALS

/\~

RARE

COMMON

ALLOYS

I

I

I

GOLD

ALUMINUM

STEEL

SILVER

IRON

BRONZE

"- STONES
/
PRECIOUS MASfNRY
I

DIAMOND LIMESTONE

RUBY

MARBLE

3. The teacher may choose to add any previously learned words from other units of study and insert these in the graphic organizer. Adding these known words should enhance students' understanding of the organizer and the topic to be studied.
4. The teacher should evaluate the completed organizer to make sure the diagram accurately illustrates the ideas to be stressed in teaching the lesson. The organizer must be interpretable by the students.
5. When presenting the organizer to students, the teacher should actually "talk" them through it by constructing the organizer in front of the students. In this way the teacher can thoroughly explain the arrangement of the terms. Students are encouraged to contribute additional information or ask questions concerning the arrangement of the organizer. It should be stressed that this presentation provides only an overview of the topic to be studied; do not anticipate mastery of the terms at this time.
6. The graphic organizer may be used as a teaching tool after students have finished reading their assignment and a discussion of the material ensues. The teacher may continually relate new information to the organizer or reinforce information by referring to the organizer. Since the organizer can be a major point of reference throughout the teaching of a particular lesson. the organizer might be placed on a large piece of poster paper and put on the bulletin board.
Barron (1979) has also suggested an alternative use of a graphic organizer in this post-reading stage. If the students have sufficiently learned the important ideas and vocabulary of a chapter. they should be able to complete a skeletal form of a graphic organizer.
For our science example, a post-graphic organizer might look like the following:

___

_ MINERALS

METALS\----

RARE./' GJLD

\
I

ST~EL

.

---~_~_

PRECI~ "

I

I
LIMESTONE

ALLOYS COMMON SILVER MASONRY ALUMINUM RUBY
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DIAMOND MARBLE STONES IRON BRONZE

Students would choose words from the list below the skeletal organizer to complete it. They should be able to complete the organizer accurately if they understand the topic under study. Such a technique provides an excellent review activity for students. Evaluation The use of a graphic organizer in the pre-reading stage of an instructional lesson enhances vocabulary knowledge while the post-graphic organizer enhances students' comprehension (Moore & Readence. 1980). An informal assessment of word knowledge and comprehension after the lesson has been read could give some indication of the effectiveness of the graphic organizer. Note: Because of the abstract nature of the design of the organizer. it is not recommended for use by K-4 students. For 5-8 and 9-12 students. teachers will need to adjust their presentation of the organizer to the ability levels of the students. It is also cautioned that the more actively involved the students become in the presentation of the organizer. the more personalized the learning will become, and therefore. the more effective it should be. Resources Barron. R. F. "The Use of Vocabulary as an Advance Organizer." In Research in Reading in the Content Areas: First Year Report. Eds. H. L. Herber and P. L. Sanders. Syracuse: Syracuse University. 1969. Barron. R. F. "Research for the Classroom Teacher: Recent Developments on the Structured Overview as an Advance Organizer." In Research in Reading in the Content Areas: The Fourth Report. Eds. H. L. Herber and J. D. Riley. Syracuse University. 1979. Earle. R. A. and R. F. Barron. "An Approach to Teaching Vocabulary in Content Subjects." In Research in Reading in the Content Areas: Second Year Report. Eds. H. L. Herber and R. F. Barron. Syracuse: Syracuse University. 1973. Estes; T. H. and J. L. Vaughan. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 1978. Herber. H. L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1978. Moore. D. W. and J. E. Readence. "A Meta-analysis of the Effect of Graphic Organizers on Learning from Text." Twentyninth Yearbook of the National Reading Conference, 1980. Readence. J. E. T. W. Bean and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt. 1981.
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Guided Listening Procedure
Definition The Guided Listening Procedure (GLP) (Cunningham. Arthur. & Cunningham. 1977) capitalizes on listening as a means to insure that students understand and recall key information from their textbooks. The GLP is an adaptation of the Guided Reading Procedure (Manzo. 1975) and. therefore. closely follows the procedural steps of that strategy. As such. the GLP incorporates the comprehension processes of collaborative brainstorming. listening to a selection to correct inconsistencies and to add missing information. and organizing information by long-term recall. Rationale Listening is often neglected as a means to facilitate students' learning from text material. The GLP may serve to aid students in developing their listening skills and to aid students in understanding text material which may be too difficult to read. Graphing quiz results can help to motivate students to listen. The GLP is appropriate for all students. kindergarten through grade 12. The length and difficulty of the material used for listening will be dependent on students' ability. interest. and attention span. However. in no case should the listening exceed ten minutes. Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. use a variety of oral language structures. 2. listen and respond to obtain information. 3. listen and respond to apply information heard to new situations. 4. recognize and recall main ideas. details. sequence. and cause-effect relationships when specifically
stated by the speaker. 5. infer main ideas. details. and sequence when not specifically stated by the speaker. 6. recognize information and ideas through outlining. summarizing. and synthesizing. 7. demonstrate an understanding that speech is a tool of communication. 8. increase. enrich and refine oral expression.
Materials/Personnel
Textbook. chalkboard or an overhead projector. paper and pencil, graph paper. Steps
The GLP consists of the following six steps. 1. Have students listen to a text selection in class according to the following purposes.
a. Set a specific overall purpose for the assignment, e.g. in a language arts unit on increasing vocabulary, a section on context clues might suggest the following purpose: "Determine the types of context clues a reader may use to obtain the meaning of unknown words."
b. Set a second more general purpose: "Listen to remember everything (be prepared to recall as many details as you can after listening to the selection being read)."
2. Have students. one at a time, recall what they remember and record this information on the board. (Accept only one remembrance at a time from only one student at a time.) A volunteer or two may be used to record this information, thereby allowing you to facilitate the brainstorming activity. Accept all volunteered information at this time. regardless of correctness.
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3. Review all recorded information. Reread the text selection again and have students listen for the purpose of filling in missing information and to correct any erroneous information. Include any new or corrected information on the board.
4. Have students organize the recorded information in an outline. The outline may be comprised of the main ideas and details or a sequence of events depending on the content of the selection. The teacher should facilitate the construction of the outline by asking questions designed to aid students in integrating the information on the board. Students may also vote on the importance or appropriateness of each idea as the outline is constructed.
5. Give students a short-term memory/comprehension quiz on the GLP selection. Approximately five true-false. short answer. or multiple choice questions designed to elicit thinking at all levels of comprehension should be adequate. Have students score the quiz and graph the results.
6. One week later give students a delayed recall pop quiz on the same selection. Some forgetting will have occurred; however. this is a key step in the GLP as students will develop a mind-set to organize and synthesize information for long-term retention with subsequent GLP sessions.
Evaluation
Teachers may evaluate students' progress by examining students' graphs of their quiz results for both short-term and long-term comprehension. Additionally, the graphs can act both as a motivator for students as well as a monitoring device as they attempt to improve their understanding and recall of content information. A simple bar graph as shown below may be used.

5

4

3

0 130

Short-term quiz results

2

1

o

2/14

2/28



Long-term quiz results

Quizzes may also be team efforts as students may guide each other in the comprehension/recall process.
Note: The teacher may want to consider interchanging the Guided Listening Procedure with the Guided Reading Procedure every other week to instill variety in the lesson structure. Such an interchange may also promote the equal importance of listening and reading as means to learn content material.
Resources
Cunningham, J. W. P. M. Cunningham, and S. V. Arthur. Middle and Secondary School Reading. New York: Longman. 1981.
Cunningham. P. M. S. V. Arthur and J. W. Cunningham. Classroom Reading Instruction K.5: Alternative Approaches. Lexington: D. C. Heath, 1977.
Manzo, A. V. "Guided Reading Procedure." Journal of Reading, 18 (1975). 287-291.
Moffett, James and Betty Jane Wagener. Student-Centered Language Aids and Reading, K-13. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1976.
Patterson. Charlotte. "Teaching Children to Listen" Today's Education, July-May 1978. pp. 52-53.

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Guided Reading Procedure
Definition
The Guided Reading Procedure (GRP) (Manzo. 1975) is an integrated lesson approach designed to insure that students understand and remember key information from their textbooks. The GRP highlights the comprehension processes of collaborative brainstorming, rereading a selection to correct inconsistencies and fill in missing information, and organizing information for long-term retention and retrieval.
Rationale
The GRP provides the basis for helping students organize their reading experiences and places a premium on efficient recall of information. Thus. it serves as a model for students to organize the information they gain from reading for later recall.
The GRP is appropriate for all students. kindergarten through grade twelve. The length and difficulty of the material used for reading will be dependent upon the student's ability, interest and attention span. However. in no case should the reading exceed 10 minutes.
Sample (K-12)
The learner will 1. recognize, recall. and retell the main ideas. details. sequence and cause-effect relationships. 2. recognize information and ideas through outlining, summarizing and synthesizing.
Materials/Personnel
Chalkboard or an overhead projector. pencil and paper, graph paper and the textbook.
Steps
A well-integrated GRP lesson consists of the following six steps.
1. Have students read a text selection in class according to the following purposes. a. Set a specific overall purpose for the assignment, e.g. in a science unit on weathering, a section on glaciers might suggest the following purpose: "What is the specific role of glaciers on the erosion of the earth's surface?" b. Set a second more general reading purpose: "Read to remember everything (be prepared to recall as many supporting details as you can without looking back at the textbook)."
2. Have students recall everything they remember and record this information on the board. Since this brainstorming activity may produce a barrage of ideas. be careful to tell students you will accept only one remembrance at a time from only one student at a time. You may even want to have a volunteer or two to help you with the recording so you may devote full attention to facilitating the brainstorming activity. Accept all volunteered remembrances at this time, regardless of correctness.
3. Review all recorded information. Have students go back and reread the text selection with their purpose being to fill-in missing information not initially recalled and to correct any inconsistencies in that information. Include these additions and modifications with the other information on the board.
4. Have the students organize the random information on the board into categories or main ideas and supporting details. The end result should be some form of outline of the information. A sequence of events. if appropriate for the text selection, may also comprise the outline. The construction of the outline can be accomplished by having students vote on the importance of each idea with the teacher acting as a "devil's advocate" by arguing for the inclusion of certain details where they appropriately fit or by asking higher level comprehension questions designed to aid students in integrating the information on the board.
5. Give students a short-term memory/comprehension quiz on the GRP selection. About five true-false, short answer. multiple-choice questions that elicit thinking at all levels of comprehension should be adequate. Have students score the quiz and graph the results.
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6. One week later give students a delayed recall pop quiz on the same selection. Some forgetting will have occurred. However. on a subsequent GRP sessions. students will have a mind-set to organize and synthesize information for long-term retention.
Evaluation
The graphing of quiz results for both short-term and long-term comprehension is the means for teachers to evaluate students' progress. Additionally. the graphs serve both as a motivator and a monitoring device for students as they attempt to recall and organize their reading more efficiently. A simple graph as shown below may be used:

5 4

#

3

CORRECT 2

1

0 3/1 DATE 3/8

c:::J = Short-term quiz results

_

- Long-term quiz results

Since this strategy is designed to guide students' reading of the text as well as to provide a model of the comprehension process. there is no reason why quizzes cannot be two (or more) person team efforts. You can still institute a point system for scoring and graphing the GRP quizzes and the team approach makes the whole activity more exciting.
Resources
Bean. T. W. and R. Pardi. "A field-test of a Guided Reading Strategy." Journal of Reading, 23 (1979) 144-147.
Cunningham. J. W. P. M. Cunningham. and S. V. Arthur. Middle and Secondary School Reading. New York: Longman. 1981.
Manzo. A. V. "Guided reading procedure." Journal of Reading, 18 (1975). 287-291.
Readence. J. E.. T. W. Bean and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: Kendall!Hunt. 1981.

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Guided WritiogProcedure

Definition

The Guided Writing Procedure (GWP) (Smith and Bean. 1980) is an instructional strategy designed to activate and refine students' prior knowledge of a topic through speaking. listening. writing and reading. As such. the GWP encompasses four central teaching goals: 1) to activate and sample students' prior knowledge of a topic before they do any text reading; 2) to sample and evaluate students' written expression in a content area; 3) to improve students' written expression through guided instruction; and 4) to facilitate the synthesis and retention of content area material.

Rationale

The retention of content area material is a difficult task for many students. The act of composing and then editing their own writing about a topic can contribute immeasurably to students' understanding and retention of information.

The GWP utilizes students' prior knowledge as the basis for improved writing and recall of information. The GWP may be inappropriate for those students who only possess beginning or rudimentary writing skills. Alternative strategies such as the Guided Listening Procedure or the Guided Reading Procedure may be more useful.

Sample (K-12)

Objectives

The learner will

1. use a variety of oral and written language structures. 2. listen and respond to obtain information. 3. listen and respond to apply information heard to new situations. 4. recognize, recall, and retell main ideas. details, sequence. and cause-effect relationships. 5. recognize information and ideas through outlining, summarizing, and synthesizing. 6. demonstrate an understanding that speech and writing are tools of communication. 7. increase, enrich, and refine oral and written expression.

Materials/Personnel

Chalkboard and overhead projector, paper and pencil and the textbook.

Steps

The GWP involves a series of specific steps spanning several days of content instruction.

1. Informal diagnosis of prior content knowledge and written expression.

a. On the opening day of a new content unit, have students brainstorm on all ideas they have about the unit topic, e.g. "The Revolutionary War."

b. Write down everything the students say verbatim on the board or projector. For example. students might provide the following information.

Declaration of Independence

Americans

George Washington taxes patriots

British freedom Boston Tea Party

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c. Have students organize this information into an outline format with teacher guidance. The teacher records this outline on the board or projector. For example. the information on the Revolutionary War might be organized as follows.
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR
A. Reasons for the War 1. Taxes 2. Boston Tea Party
B. Participants in the War 1. British 2. Americans (Patriots) 3. George Washington
C. Outcomes of the War 1. Freedom 2. Declaration of Independence
d. Have the students write one or two paragraphs using the displayed outline as a guide. Tell students that this will be their "first draft." A chart of reminders for editing purposes could be displayed.
e. Assign the text reading on this topic to students.
. Simultaneously, collect the students' paragraphs and rapidly analyze them for the quality of the ideas, organization, pattern of details and less importantly for effective sentence structure. correct spelling, and correct and effective punctuation. Rather than writing on the students' drafts, record this information on a checklist next to each students' name as in the following example:

CONCEPT AND WRITING CHECKLIST

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

IDEAS AND ORGANIZATION

PATTERN OF
DETAILS

EFFECTIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

CORRECT SPELLING

CORRECT AND
EFFECTIVE PUNCTUATION

JAMES

X

X

X

JOANN

X

X

In this example, James' first draft displayed adequate paragraph and sentence structure as well as correct spelling. however, he needs to edit his writing to improve punctuation. Joann needs to correct both paragraph and sentence structure.
2. Procedures
1. Display an illustrative draft or a composite draft on an overhead projector. Use an example or various examples that contain erroneous content information in addition to features that depart from good writing conventions. Using the checklist as a guide, have students contribute ideas for editing the displayed examples.
2. Return the student papers and have them use the displayed checklist to edit and polish their own first drafts, including some content revisions based on their text reading and classroom discussion of the topic.
3. Collect this second draft and compare it to the initial checklist results.
Evaluation
After using this procedure for a period of time. a positive trend in the quality of students' ideas and written expression in your content area should develop. Individual conferences should be used to provide help for students whose written expression has not shown a positive trend. Students may also be paired to help one another with their drafts. Finally, a follow-up quiz on the content material is appropriate.

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Resources Readence. J. E.. T. W. Bean and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: KendallyHunt. 1981. Smith. C. C. and T. W. Bean. "The Guided Writing Procedure: Integrating Content Teaching and Writing Improvement." Reading World 19. (1979). 19-27.
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Herringbone Definition The Herringbone technique (Tierney. Readence. & Dishner. 1980) is a structured outlining strategy designed to aid students in organizing key information from text material by asking six basic questionsWho? Why? When? Where? What? and How? The outline for recording information provided by Herringbone gives students the structure for notetaking and for future study. Rationale Many students find the amount of information contained in a text selection to be overwhelming. As a consequence their ability to assimilate this information suffers. By providing students a structure to assimilate and record the essential information found in text material. teachers can go a long way in aiding students' understanding and recall of information. Sample (5-8) Objectives The learner will 1. recognize. recall. and retell the main ideas, details and sequence. MaterialslPersonnel Mimeograph 81/2" X 11" Herringbone form. an overhead transparency. textbooks. Steps The use of the Herringbone strategy may be described using the following steps. 1. Provide students the following mimeographed form.
~'(\1)\.''1
'S>\~'
Ii0 4-?
Instruct students they wiII be seeking answers to the six questions on the form as they read and that they will record their answers on the form. Initially, the teacher should display the form on an overhead transparency for all students to view and then proceed to "walk" them through the form by using a portion of the text. The teacher should write in information on the form as students simultaneously fill in their own form. This "walk-through" may involve only a few paragraphs or chapter subtopics. 2. After students have experienced the structure of the form and have been sufficiently prepared to read their text assignment. they read and record information. The following expanded questions are given to students as they read to seek information. 1. Who was involved? 2. What did the person(s) do? 3. When did it occur? 4. Where did it occur? 5. Why did it occur? 6. How was it done?
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From a chapter on the Revolutionary War in a U.S. history text, for instance. students are told to read the first main chapter section entitled. "Events Leading Up to the War." The recording of their answers to the six key questions involving the Boston Tea Party could result as follows.

Patriots

Dumped tea

in harbor

')

~~e,~'

1773

Boston

Disguised as Indians

To protest taxes

Some subsections of a chapter will yield more than one set of important facts; others may provide only one set. This may be dependent on what the teacher emphasized in the lesson to be read.
3. The Herringbone form contains the term "Main Idea" on its midline. After students have completed their reading and recorded the information on the form. they are asked to derive a statement which represents the main idea of the reading. With the history example above. students may be asked. "What one statement can you make that would tell what the authors are saying about the events leading up to the Revolutionary War?"
With many students it would be best to check their forms through a whole class discussion to see if the essential information has been recorded before they are asked to derive a main idea statement. Since textbooks authors often do not provide all the information necessary to answer all six questions. the teacher may find it advisable to use probing questions to get students to infer the missing information that the teacher deems significant on the form. Students may be asked to predict such information. In turn. this should be followed by attempts to search out the information in the textbook or other sources. Research teams may be used to pursue answers to such missing information.
Evaluation
Depending on the difficulty of the material and the ability level of the students. teachers may need to check students' forms to make sure they have recorded all the significant information. Some students will need more reinforcement than others. Students may also be paired to decide the essential information in a text assignment. Short quizzes given to individual or pairs. may also be used to reinforce the important information students should have derived from the text.
Options
Herringbone is appropriate for those students who lack a method by which to study from a textbook. Herringbone may be used with upper level K4 students on a listening level to instill in them a method by which to comprehend and study from their textbooks.
Resources
Tierney. R. J .. J. E. Readence and K. E. Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices: A Guide for Improving Instruction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 1980.

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High Interest Topics
Definition A topic qualifies as high interest when a student or group of students indicates curiosities and/or ambitions which they would like to satisfy. Examples include science fiction. skateboarding. mystery or fashion.
Rationale By incorporating high interest topics into the curriculum. educators can make learning more relevant and interesting. Offering students appealing reading materials that match their achievement levels minimizes the chance of experiencing the same frustrations they may have encountered in prior reading experiences. The use of this type of material enables the teacher to provide students with the guidance they need while fostering an interest in independent and personal reading.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The objectives for which high interest topics can be utilized include most of those listed in Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. These skills are contained in the appendix.
Materials
Included at the end of this section A list of 155 Alternative Reading Materials A list of student magazines Ideas for stimulating reading interest Suggested ways to do a "Book Report" A list of resources for nonprint materials
Note: Also see preceding section on Classroom Organization especially suggestions for interest inventories.
Steps
High interest materials can be incorporated into the language arts curriculum in many ways. Students should be allowed to read material on their independent reading levels without constant probing from the teacher. Students may read some books, magazine articles or newspapers clippings independently for a specific purpose such as determining the author's point of view, and then share their findings with a small group. Other materials can be used to teach a skill such as using a recipe to follow directions.
Evaluation
One way to determine the effectiveness of attempts to match students with materials is by informally investigating the amount of materials they check out from the library. An informal questionnaire on attitudes and reading habits given at periodically during the year could indicate growth and a change in interest.
Resources
An annual bibliography of trade books selected by students and published in the United States is available. "Children's Choices for 1980" compiled by the International Reading Association and the Children's Book Council Joint Committee appeared in the October 1980 issue of Reading Teacher. This listing covers grades K-12 and is annotated.
Other excellent resources include book reviews in periodicals and several bibliographies, such as the following.
Cianciolo, Patricia, ed. Adventuring with Books: A Booklist for Pre K . Grade 8. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1977.
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Cianciolo. Patricia. ed. Picture Books for Children. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English. 1973. Root. Shelton. Jr. & NCTE Committee. Adventuring With Books 2.400 Titles for Pre K . Grade 8. N.Y. Citation Press. 1973. Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. 1973. Spache. George. Good Reading for Poor Readers. Champaign: Garrard Publishing Company. 1978. Stanford. Barbara Dodds and Karima Amin. Black Literature for High School Students. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English. 1978. White. Mariam ed. High.lnterest Easy Reading for Junior and Senior High School Students. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English. 1979. White. Virginia and Emeuta Schulte. Books about Children's Books: An Annotated Bibliogra. phy. Newark: International Reading Association. 1979. There is a final note concerning high interest topics and the selection of materials. Often adult perceptions and student perceptions are quite different. This problem is discussed in-depth in the article "The Adult as Critic vs. the Child as Reader". by Neilsen. Peterson and Searfoss. Caution regarding this discrepancy is recommended. A. Neilsen. R. Peterson. L. W. Searfoss. "The Adult and Critic vs. the Child Reader." Language Arts. Vol. 57. No.5. May 1980.530-539.
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Alternative Reading Materials
1. Advertisements: From newspapers, magazines. and catalogues. Note descriptions. dimensions. prices, comparisons. and contrasts.
2. Advertising: On billboards, signs. shop windows, truck sides. and atop buildings. 3. Airline schedules: Note places. times descriptions, connecting points. and alternate routes. 4. Bulletin boards: Read the captions, questions, descriptions. bookjackets. 5. Calendars: Note the illustrations, important dates. anniversaries. happenings. 6. Catalogues: From merchandising houses and mail-order stores. 7. Classified sections: Of magazines, weeklies. and newspapers. Read personals, lost and found,
employment ads. 8. Comic strips: Single cartoons, strips. and books. 9. Directions: From models. science experiments. repairs. 10. Directories: Telephone. personnel. and special groups. Note names, addresses. variant spellings, etc. 11. Do-it-yourself kits and materials: The descriptions. directions. materials. 12. Driver's manuals: Rules. laws. signals. requirements. 13. Envelopes: The addresses. postmarks, stamps. 14. Excerpts: From articles. stories, descriptions, essays. 15. Familiar objects: Note names, manufacturers, dates. patents. contents. 16. Field trip reports: The summaries. sequences. events. 17. Filmstrips: Read the captions. labels, directions. explanations as film is turned. 18. Games: The boxes, directions. alternative rules, plays and combinations possible. 19. Greeting cards: All kinds-birthday. Christmas. New Years. get-well-with their verses and senti-
ments. 20. Grocery materials: Cans. boxes, cartons. bottles. packages. and labels of all kinds. Use to make a
shopping list. 21. Handbooks: Simple guides for making things or doing things. 22. House advertisements: Note locations, streets, areas. and descriptions. 23. Holiday materials: Posters, descriptions. prices. places, events, participants. 24. Headlines: Use just the bold-faced print of newspapers, magazines. posters. 25. Illustrations: Pictures, graphs. tables, drawings. photographs with captions or descriptions. 26. Indexes: For any common subject or area: from books. complete volumes. sections. 27. Indicators: All kinds of signalling devices. guages. thermometers. barometers. 28. Insignias: Make a collection of Clubs. Lodges. Groups. trademarks. military. sports. 29. Invitations: To parties. events. socials. 30. Jackets from books: Use instead of the book for interest, author. title, illustrator. and short resume. 31. Jingles: Familiar rhymes. limericks. and short poetry. 32. Jokebooks: Any bit of humorous annecdote in newspapers. youth publications, magazines or books. 33. Labels: From clothing. food. appliances, or furniture which give information and directions. 34. License plates: Note numeral combinations. letters. states, and dates. 35. Letters: Personal. business. informal correspondence. 36. Library material: The Dewey Decimal System Breakdown card catalogue. reading guides. indexes,
shelving codes.
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37. Logs: Of a trip,voyage, camp-out, expedition, field trip. 38. Lunchroom signs: The foods, prices, daily menu. 39. Lyrics of familiar songs: Folksongs, westerns, populars, ballads. 40. Magazines: Stories, jokes, poetry, advertisements, articles, news items, pictures, and captions. 41. Mail: Post that comes-brochures, advertisements, announcements, notices, schedules, periodicals. 42. Manuals: The guides, instructions, and handbooks for any subject or activity plus for ordinary usages. 43. Manuscripts: For plays, presentations, books, articles, assemblies. 44. Maps: Not only in textbooks, but road maps, maps and guides for travel, trips, foreign places, tours. 45. Menus: School cafeteria or restaurant. 46. Mimeographed materials: Covering any subject and any length to provide a different media for
reading. 47. Movie information: Titles, actors, plot lines, settings, schedules, theatres ratings, directors. 48. Motorcycles: Advertisements, descriptions, stories. 49. Museum brochures: Display information, subjects, people, guides and locations, eras. 50. Newspapers: All sections-society, vital statistics, ads, sports entertainment, education, news-for
names, places, events, people. 51. Neighborhood bulletins, newsheets: For announcements, happenings of interest, schedules, honors. 52. Notebooks: Containing notes, outlines, summaries, quotations, data. 53. Notices: This could be school notices from teachers, administration, office. Printed bulletins from
public sources: sales, events of interest, scheduled happenings. 54. Obituaries: Of famous people from newspapers, magazines. 55. Observation reports: All kinds-classroom, playground, community, scientific, medical, behavorial. 56. Occupational information bulletins: Descriptions of jobs, requirements, openings, advantages and
limitations, regions and locations. 57. Office materials: Announcements, regulations, warnings, take-home bulletins. 58. Opinionaires: Survey results from any level or education, society. 59. Original or creative writings: Individual, group, or class compositions on any theme, topic, or subject
and making use of any literary style: poetry, prose, fiction, nonfiction. 60. Overhead projections: Of student work, examples or illustrative pictures, data, graphs, tables, or of
teacher-given points of interest or information. 61. Packages: From grocery or department store. Note brand names, contents, merchants, guarantees,
warnings, and directions. 62. Paintings: Works of art-all media-with captions, artists, titles. 63. Pamphlets: Descriptions, information, instructions, on most any subject and/or area of interest. 64. Parlimentary rules and procedures: For use in class meetings, assemblies, introductions, presenta-
tions. 65. Passports: Read data, information, visas, endorsements, places, official names. 66. Passenger lists: From tours, flights, passages, expeditions, trips. 67. Patriotic materials: Pledge of Allegiance, Declaration of Independence, Gettysburg Address, Pream-
ble to Constitution, Bills, Rules and Regulations, Creeds, Statements, Speeches. 68. Periodicals: For all ages and levels-news, leterature, humor, continued stories, dramatic scripts. 69. Pets materials: Their food, their care, description.
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70. Photographs, albums, reports, illustrations: Using the captions, descriptions, or explanations for reading.
71. Picture postcards: Noting the places, details, and descriptive notes as well as personal messages from the sender.
72. Plaques: Inscriptions, memorabilia, dedications, presentations, honor selections, memberships. 73. Plays: Scripts for dramatic participation, role playing, pantomine, radio and TV casting, assemblies,
programs, special occasions. 74. Play situations: Activities, games, competitions, recreational events, playground fun, physical
education-reading rules, requirements, sequences. 75. Plots: Of books, stories, situations, plays, musicals. 76. Pockets: On books, AV media, check-out equipment and materials which give data. 77. Postage stamp albums: Descriptions, dates, places, people, commemorative data, amounts. 78. Postmarks: On letters, cards, magazines, papers, advertising. 79. Posters: In the classroom, library, hallways, offices, playground-announcing, describing, inviting,
campaigning. 80. Predictions: Horoscopes, future happening information, astrological information. 81. Price tags: For comparing, making up shopping lists, work on numerical values. 82. Principal's rulebook: The Do's and Don'ts of conduct and deportment while at school. 83. Programs: The handouts at assemblies, plays, shows, exhibitions, competitions. Read for names and
roles.
84. Proofreading: Any written material-editing, correcting, evaluating correctness. 85. Puppetry scripts and directions: Booklets or scripts on making and using puppets, and dialogues or
monologues for presentations. 86. Puzzles: Requiring reading of directions for working, or crosswords, codes, jumbled scripts. 87. Questionnaires: Inquiries, surveys, forms to be filled out, opinions to be stated. 88. Radio logs: For stations, programs, times, dates. 89. Railway schedules: Of tours, regular runs, connections, times, dates. 90. Rebus materials: For getting context clues in reading. 91. Recipes and cookbooks: For measurements, sequence of process, new vocabulary words. 92. Reports: Of class meetings, field trips, experiments, projects, activities. 93. Record album covers: Titles, performers, lyrics. 94. Recreation materials: Posters, announcements, competitions, camps, programs, results, awards. 95. Real estate signs: Advertisements, descriptions, agents, addresses. 96. Riddles-quizzes, puns, and other word games: Fun with words. 97. Sales slips, receipts, contracts: Technical and factual materials related to merchandising. 98. Scenarios: For TV and radio productions, plays. 99. Schedules: Of school events, community happenings, room activities. 100. Scout (girl and boy) handbooks: For awards, creeds, procedures. 101. Scrapbooks: Of pictures, events, topics, history, geography, family happenings, community events. 102. Seasonal happenings: Pictures, announcements, representations, festivals, symbolism. 103. Secretarial reports: Minutes, notes, recommendations, motions, pollings. 104. Sentiments: For special occasions, anniversaries, presentations, receptions.
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105. Serials: Either in periodical or book form. 106. Signs: Road, street, buildings, traffic. room and office. classroom. 107. Skits: For reading or presentation. 108. Slogans: For elections, projects. campaigns. groups, clubs. advertising candidates. 109. Snack bar posters: Signs. menu offerings, prices, orders. 110. Social events: Invitations. announcements, reports, descriptions, calendars. 111. Solutions: To puzzles. games. problems, riddles. 112. Songs: The words of familiar melodies often make good reading. 113. Souvenirs: Realia. keepsakes, remembrances. curios in displays with descriptive information. 114. Speeches: Addresses. reports. introductions. presentations, for special occasions in school and
community. 115. Sports materials: In newspapers, sports magazines, Sunday supplements. school newspapers,
announcements of events, rallies, games. 116. Stamps: Postage, rubber, seals, signatures. 117. Statistics: Tabular and quantitative information relating to a specific topic or situation. 118. Syllabuses: Class schedules. curriculum areas, statement outlines. 119. Synopses: Of stories. articles, plays, literature. 120. Task cards: Contracts, individual learning units, job cards for modular scheduling or departmental-
ized classes. 121. Tax forms: Revenue reports. 122. TV guides: For program scheduling, descriptions, casts. 123. Telegrams: Succinct, terse language-summaries. 124, Term papers: Original reports, documents. 125. Tests: For all purposes of qualifying: driver's license, performance speed, especially noting directions
and regulations. 126. Theater programs and advertisements: Posters, casts, synopses, settings. 127. Theater tickets: Informational data. 128. Thesaurus: Word knowledge. vocabulary expansion, synonyms and related terms. 129. Tickets: Traffic citations, admissions or performances. sales slips, sports events. dramas. 130. Timetables: For buses. trains. ferries, flights, passages, tours. trips, outings. 131. Toys: Wrappings. descriptions. directions for assembling and using. 132. Travel brochures: Trip descriptions, city and area tour points of interest, places of interest, brief
summaries of important events and special sites. 133. Touring itineraries: Schedules, places, accommodations, restaurants, inns, hotels. transportation
facilities. and guide assistance. 134. Treasure hunt lists: Directions for finding articles, and further instructions in sequence. 135. Tricks and magic: Booklets of "How to Do" with descriptive information. 136. Trip-tics: Commercially prepared itineraries for auto travel-AAA schedules. 137. Tubes: Shaving cream. toothpaste, cosmetics, and medicinal; descriptions of usage. dosage,
treatment and guaranteed results. 138. Tutoring material: Directions for assisting and teaching another. 139. Unique or unusual captions, titles or subjects.
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140. Valentines: Humorous. rhymed. sentimental. 141. Vehicle code books: Regulations. signs. signals, laws. responsibilities. obligations and prerequisites. 142. Vending machines: Products, costs, operating instructions and limitations. 143. Verses: Couplets. limericks, jingles. quatrains. cinquains, haiku. ballads. epics, sonnets-all types of
poetry. 144. Vignettes: Miniature character sketches. incidents, happenings in narrative form. 145. Vocational folders: Brochures with job descriptions. qualifications, remuneration. advantages and
opportunities. 146. Want-ads: In newspapers and periodicals. 147. Warranties: Guarantees, claims and character. 148. Weather reports: predictions and changes. 149. Wedding announcements. invitations. reports. 150. Whimsey: Humorous. fanciful narrative. 151. Who's Who listings: For various professions and areas. 152. Wills and testaments: Real or fanciful such as class will. 153. Wrappers: Candy bar. popsicles. sandwiches. gum. nuts or chips-for contents. amounts. descrip-
tions. 154. "Y" programs and schedules: Sports. classes. camps. 155. Zoo signs: Descriptions of animals and their habitats.
REPRINTED BY PERMISSION: Chambers, Dewey Woods and Lowry, Heath Ward. "The Language Arts: A Pragmatic Approach". William C. Brown. Publishers, 1975. Pages 219-225.
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Magazines *With teacher's editions BASEBALL DIGEST. monthly, about $7. MS/HS BASKETBALL DIGEST. 8 yearly. about $6, ElMS BLACK BELT MAGAZINE. monthly, about $10, MS/HS BOY'S LIFE. 10 yearly, about $13, MS OAK CRAFT MAGAZINE. monthly, $11. HS CHILD LIFE. 10 yearly, about $9, ages 4-7 CHILDREN'S DIGEST. 10 yearly, about $9, grades 2-6 CHRISTIAN ATHLETE. 9 yearly, about $5, HS CRICKET. monthly, about $16, ElMS EBONY. monthly, about $12, HS EBONY JUNIOR. 10 a year, about $7 ElMS BOOK DIGEST. monthly, $12, HS FLYING monthly, $16, HS FOXFIRE, 4 yearly, about $9, MS/HS HIGHLIGHTS FOR CHILDREN. 11 yearly, about $14, grades K-5 HOT ROD. monthly, about $11, MS/HS JACK AND JILL. 10 a year, about $9, E JR. TENNIS. monthly, about $6, MS OUR FAMILY. 11 yearly, about $6, Catholic families in everyday life; MS/HS RANGER RICK'S NATURE MAGAZINE. monthly, $9, E SKATEBOARDER MAGAZINE, monthly about $13, MS/HS *SCHOLASTIC SCOPE. 24 yearly, twice a month, about $10, MS *SCHOLASTiC VOICE. monthly, about $9, HS SKATING. 8 yearly, about $5, E/MS/HS TROPICAL FISH HOBBYISTS. monthly, $8, HS WORKBASKET. monthly, $4, MS/HS WORKBENCH. bi-monthly, about $14, HS YOU AND YOUR WORLD. 28 issues a year, about $5, 15 and over with 3-5th reading level TENNIS. monthly, about $10, HS RUNNER. monthly, about $18, MS/HS HORSE LOVER's NATIONAL MAGAZINE, monthly, about $13, upper E DAISY. 7 a year, about $6, E girls *CURRENT MEDIA. monthly, about $3.95, 7-15 *CURRENT HEALTH 1 or 2 monthly, about $3.95, grades 4-7, 7-12 *CURRENT LIFESTUDIES. monthly, about $3.95, grades 7-12 *CURRENT CONSUMER. monthly, about $3.95, grades 7-12 *CAREER WORLD 1 or 2. monthly, about $4.25, grades 4-7,7-12 *CURRENT ENERGY & ECOLOGY. monthly, about $3.95, grades 7-12 *WORLD NEWSMAP 1 or 2. weekly, $3.95 reproducible, grades 4-7, 7-12
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IDEAS FOR STIMULATING READING INTEREST
1. Book reviews by media specialist. teachers or students. 2. Feltboards 3. Bookmarks. commercially printed or made by students 4. Publishers "blurbs" or advertising note 5. Bookjackets removed from books 6. Bookjackets made by students illustrating books read 7. Story telling 8. Reading aloud whole books or portions of books 9. Booklists on particular topics or for certain events 10. Bulletin boards 11. "Ladder lists" leading from one interest to another or to a more mature subject 12. Mobiles 13. Publicize television and radio programs dealing with books and authors 14. Dramas depicting scenes from stories or books 15. Drawings of book characters 16. Dolls dressed as book characters 17. Signs and posters advertising library media center or books 18. Slides showing scenes and characters from books 19. Filmstrips of books 20. Roller movies made by students about favorite books 21. Peep shows 22. Finger painting 23. Clay modeling of book characters (especially animals) 24. Wire sculpture 25. Wood carving of characters or objects in books 26. Dramatizations including puppets. shadow plays. role playing and pantomine 27. Murals on walls. boards. or paper 28. Illustrated and mimeographed book reports (or reviews) 29. Library corners in home and classroom 30. Store window displays during certain times of year (Book Week and Library Week) 31. Browsing among media center library shelves 32. Follow up television or movies with displays 33. Recordings of stories and books 34. Recordings of music taken from book titles or movies 35. Games. Quizzes. Charades. Riddles. etc. 36. Writing of plays and skits from books or stories 37. Scrapbooks on particular subjects 38. Write an autobiography to accompany a student-authored book 39. Chalk talks by students. teachers. or media specialist
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40. Displays of articles made from directions in Do-it-Yourself books 41. Class criticism of books 42. Have students write their own ending to books 43. Have students compare incidents found in books to their own experiences 44. Storytelling with musical accompaniment (recording or "live music") 45. Brief biographies of favorite authors (include human interest) 46. Compare one book with another in content or treatment of subject 47. Publicize award-winning books 48. Publicize movies or television programs taken from books 49. Emphasize book week and Library Week with any of the many devices 50. Visits to other libraries by classes 51. Book clubs and discussions groups 52. Allow students to help with selecting books to be purchased 53. Make "book lines" (pin book jackets to line between two poles with clothes pins) 54. Leave books lying casuaily on desk (curiosity will make them ask about it) 55. Round table discussions with view to link talk about books to classroom work 56. Maps and charts from historical books 57. Articles about library media center services for school and local papers 58. Annotated booklists made by teachers, media specialists or students 59. Make a historical or fictional "Who's Who" 60. Use maps to show geographical backgrounds 61. Displays of objects or art-models. curios. implements 62. Encourage children to share with fellow students books read 63. Student written letters to friends recommending books 64. Group evaluation by means of debates. discussion. etc. 65. Displays of polls determining favorite authors and books of students or teachers 66. Letters to favorite authors (often they will reply) 67. Choral reading 68. Group storytelling-narrator telling story and group providing action and sounds 69. Auction show-"selling" book to group by telling interesting points 70. Bibliographies of favorite books. stories, poems, or selected topics 71. Original illustrations telling the story with a series of pictures 72. A time-line map showing books representing various periods in the history of a region 73. Use school's sound system to publicize books or library 74. Dress like book characters and tell the role the character plays in the book 75. For travel books, have students give talk using postcards. slides. or magazine pictures 76. Have students prepare monologues from books or stories 77. Book fairs for Book Week or Library Week
Adapted from Eloise Rice, "Techniques ant. Jevices for Reading Guidance in the Elementary School" School Libraries, May 1958.
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SUGGESTED WAYS TO DO A "BOOK REPORT"
The following are suggestions of ways students can report on reading a book. 1. Illustrate the story or part of the story. 2. Dramatize the story. 3. Make models of things read about in the book: airplanes. boats. dolls. 4. Tell flannel board stories. 5. Read an interesting or exciting incident from the book to the class. 6. Tell about an interesting, exciting or amusing incident from the book. 7. Tell what has been learned from the book, especially in science or nature study. 8. Discuss the book with the teacher. 9. Write about the characters liked best.
10. Write about the characters disliked. 11. Dramatize the story, taking the part of different characters (different hats can be used to distinguish
characters). 12. Make a display to correlate with the book such as seashells, rocks. 13. Show a science experiment. 14. Paint a mural (several may work on this if reading the same book). 15. Make stick puppets. 16. Make string puppets. 17. Make paper bag puppets. 18. Find out about the author and report to the class. 19. Write a poem about a character or part of the story. 20. Make a clay model of some character or characters in the book. 21. Make a diorama of an interesting part of the book. 22. Be a super salesperson and sell the book to the class. 23. Make an original book cover to fit the book. 24. Make a large map showing the action of the story (use this as you tell about the action). 25. Make a poster to advertise or sell the book to the class. 26. Make up a crossword puzzle about the story (give a short oral report and let the class solve your
puzzle). 27. Illustrate the main characters of the book. 28. Make a panel cartoon illustrating some humorous part of the story. 29. Write a letter to a friend recommending the book. 30. Rewrite the ending of the book to make it suit your idea of a proper ending. 31. Give a talk using the chalkboard or paper on flannel board about an interesting part of the book. 32. Use recordings, dance or sing, or use background music to match the mood of the story. 33. Dance (Ex: Indian dance) or do magic tricks which highlight the story. 34. Use opaque projector to show a drawing either from the book or a self-made one. 35. Make up a code and write the report in coded form (give key for code). 36. Make a folder for book - include your comments about book in folder, date read, etc.
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37. Make a collage (30 picture) using seeds. beans. macaroni. shells. grass. branches. twigs. fabric. paper. beads. etc.
38. Make a booklet of interesting facts about an animal. bird. etc. featured in the story. 39. Make a movie (five panel illustration) and use a movie frame to show it. Nonprint Materials Nonprint materials such as films and filmstrips often stimulate student interest. The criteria for selecting materials in the section Classroom Organization is appropriate for nonprint items as well. Reviews of specific materials may be located in several professional journals. Booklist. ALA. bimonthly Media and Methods. Media and Methods Institute. monthly Instructional Innovator. formerly Av Instruction. AECT. Wilson Library Bullentin. H. W. Wilson Co. The ALAN Review. National Council of Teachers of English The Hom Book. Horn Book. Inc. Kirkus Reviews. Kirkus Service Library Journal. Bowker. monthly School Library Journal. Bowker Previews: Nonprint Software and Hardware News and Reviews. Bowker Media Review Digest. Pierian Press. annual Top of the News. Ala. quarterly Media Review. University of Chicago Laboratory School. monthly Elementary English. National Council of Teacher of English English Journal. National Council of Teachers of English Language Arts. National COlmcil of Teachers of English Reading Teacher. International Reading Association The Journal of Reading. International Reading Association
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Humor Definition Humor is the ability to appreciate something that is amusing. Rationale Humor sparks enthusiasm and may be a welcomed addition to a day full of academic frustration. Humor also helps to build a realistic self-concept. Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. experiment with how word order reveals meaning. 2. listen and respond for a variety of purposes. 3. recognize, recall and retell cause-effect relationships. 4. infer literal meaning from author's use of figurative language. 5. make individual, personal determination of worth, desirability and acceptability of various pieces of
literature. Materials Examples of humor clipped from magazines or typed on index cards, gem clips, typewriteer (optional) Steps 1. Put a stack of index cards and gem clips near a typewriter for student use. 2. Ask students to bring in copies of jokes they hear or read and attach them to or type them on index
cards. 3. Divide the class into pairs. Try to match students who are not good friends. 4. Distribute the index cards to the students, at least two per student. 5. One student reads the first part of a joke to the other who in turn tries to guess the punch line. It is best to
start with a set of question-type jokes such as "what is dark and eye-opening in the morning?" Answer: A cup of cold coffee. 6. The other student then reads a joke to the first student. 7. Repeat the process with each student reading a limerick, pun or light verse type of humor to the other. 8. A class discussion in middle/high school can follow this activity focusing on the types of humor and each one's characteristics. Evaluation Laughter is not only the best medicine, it is a good evaluative tool for this exercise. Some, but not all jokes, could be explained if inferential meaning has not been grasped. Options Have a graffiti board where students can pin or write jokes along with their names. Caution students about the appropriateness of the jokes they add.
Resources Cerf, Bennett. Bennett Cerf's The Sound of Laughter. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, 1970. Cerf, Bennett. Bennett Cerf's Treasury of Atrocious Puns. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.
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Cerf, Bennett. Out On a Limerick. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1960. Nash, Ogden. Verses From 1929 On. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1959. Orben, Robert. The Joke-Teller's Handbook or 1,999 Belly Laughs. Garden City: Doubleday and Company. 1966. Reader's Digest Treasury of American Humor. New York: American Heritage Press, 1972. Schultz. Charles M. Nobody's Perfect, Charlie Brown. Greenwich: Fawcett Crest, 1963. Seuling. Barbara. You Can't Eat Peanuts in Church and Other Little-Known Laws. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, 1975. Untermeyer. Louis. ed. Treasury of Great Humor. New York: McGraw-Hili Book Company, 1972.
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Interviewing
Definition Interviewing is talking with a person in order to obtain information. Rationale The following are positive effects of interviewing. 1. Children assume language roles that are too often restricted to adults. 2. Students become motivated to ask intelligent questions, to write and to read their own writing. 3. Students become active participants in learning. 4. Each student becomes an authority on the subject of the interview, abandoning any image of being a
failure or one who does not know anything. 5. Interviewing naturally combines the aspects of listening, speaking, reading and writing. 6. Students discover rules about language that are based on experience and observation. In addition, this
process capitalizes on the relevancy ofthe topic to the student's world (Haley-James & Hobson, 1980). Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will 1. understand figurative language, idiomatic expressions, colloquial terms and allusions. 2. lean specialized vocabularies. 3. listen and respond to obtain information. 4. receive and evaluate material critically by making judgments about validity, bias. speaker qualifica-
tions. fact and opinion. 5. accept and understand other dialects as valid communication. 6. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spellings.
Materials A favorite or familiar object. paper, pencil, resource personnel Steps
1. The teacher displays a favorite or familiar object which might be of interest to students. 2. The teacher tells students they can ask questions to find out about the object and they will receive only
the answers to questions asked. 3. Give yes/no answers to yeslno questions. opinion answers to opinion questions, etc. 4. Discuss the types of questions that elicited the most informative answers. 5. The next day have students bring objects from home. Form triads and let two students interview one.
The interviewers take notes. Interview for five minutes. then switch and let another student be interviewed. After everyone has been interviewed, have students review their notes. 6. Each student uses these notes to write a paper about one of the classmates interviewed. 7. Each student holds a conference with the teacher about openings, word choice. endings, etc. 8. The student submits this paper to the teacher. 9. Next, prepare students to interview resource persons, ones connected to a planned unit of study. perhaps in another class. 10. Conduct the research in small groups, and list questions the group can ask.
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11. Arrange for a small group to interview each person. Explain to the person that the individual does not have to answer a particular question.
12.. Students ask the agreed upon questions and others that deemed appropriate. Notes are taken. 13. Students write a paper about the interviewee using each other as reviewers. Papers are then submitted. Evaluation The teacher can evaluate student participation in the questioning procedure as well as the written products themselves. It may be valuable to determine a criteria for the written work with the students after Step 12. Resources
Haley-James. Shirley (ed). Perspectives on Writing in Grades 1-8 Urbana: NCTE. 1981. Haley-James. Shirley and Charles David Hobson. "Interviewing: A Means of Encouraging the Drive to Communicate." Language Arts, May 1980. p. 497-502. (Specific information regarding interviewing for first graders is included.) Kirby. Dan and Liner. Tom. Inside Out: Strategies For Teaching Writing As A Developmental Process, N.Y.: Hayden Books. 1980. Leavitt. Hart Day and Sohn. Rand A. Stop, Look and Write, N.Y.: Bantam Books. Incorporated. 1970. Ruben. B. D. and Budd. R. W. Human Communication Handbook: Simulations and Games, Rochelle Park. N.J.: Hayden. 1975. Tiedt, Iris. Individualizing Writing In the Elementary Classroom. Urbana. Illinois: ERIC. RCS. NCTE.1975. Weber. Philip (ed.) New Approaches to Writing: An Ideabook For Teachers and Students, N.Y.: Bantam Books. Inc.. 1973.
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Journal Writing
Definition
Journal writing is the written transcription of thoughts and ideas in a bound notebook. Topics may be determined individually or assigned.
Rationale
Journal writing is designed to introduce students to and maintain the habit of writing. Such writing assists in self-awareness and also builds positive self-concept because it demonstratess that the person can compose ideas. Many teachers choose to keep journal writing as a personal, nongraded experience to be read only at the request of the student. This additional feature builds both trust and confidence.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The learner will 1. demonstrate an understanding that writing is a tool of communication. 2. increase, enrich and refine written expression. 3. to write and compose for a variety of purposes. 4. to write and compose in a variety of ways.
Materials
Notebook, pencil, stimulus ideas, if necessary
Steps
1. A good introduction to journal writing is for students to begin their books by writing about their physical appearance including their age, sex, height, hair, unique features. Personal reactions to such characteristics should be encouraged.
2. Ask students to write in their journal at least five minutes a day in class and whenever else they have time to do so. Primary students may begin by combining pictures and words. They should be encouraged to try to write. Do not emphasize the mechanics initially but do encourage expressions of thought. Drafts can be checked for mechanics afterwards.
3. Reluctant or insecure students may require several days in which you assign a topic such as ''I'm really good at .. ." or "My favorite... ."
4. Students should be told that you will check the number of assignments and will read all work unless it is labeled personal. It is critical that you adhere to these rules.
5. Students may also share their writings in small groups.
Evaluation The teacher evaluates only the number of assignments. Work that is shared should be evaluated in terms of "I like how you said this" or "Tell me more, I'm not sure I understand," etc. Peer evaluation should be directed toward positive feedback. Students should be told that the teacher will note consistent errors in mechanics for future instruction but will not mark the journal.
Resources Applegate, Maureen. Freeing Children to Write, N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1963.
Bernhardt, Bill. Just Writing, Excuses to Improve Your Writing. Urbana: Teachers and Writers Collaborative, 1977. Burrows, Alving Truet. They All Want to Write; Written English in the Elementary School. N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.
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Carlson. Ruth Kearney. Sparkling Words; Three Hundred and Fifteen Practical and Creative Writing Ideas. Urbana: NCTE. 1979. Carter. Candy. ed. Focus on Writing. Urbana. NCTE. 1975. Clopp. Ouida. ed. On Righting Writing. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Convert. Anita and Gordon Thomas. Communication Games and Simulations. Urbana: ERIC. RCS 1978. Day. Robert and Gail Cohen Weaver. eds. Creative Writing in the Classroom; An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Resources K12. Urbana: ERIC. RCS. 1978. Evertts. Eldonna. ed. Explorations in Childrens' Writing. Urbana: NCTE. 1970. Gallo. Donald. ed. Confronting Writing Obstacles. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Gallo. Donald. ed. Teaching Writing; Advice From The Professionals. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Graves. Donald H. Papers on Research About Learning, Balance The Basics: Let Them Write. New York: Ford Foundation. 1978. Hailey. Jack. Teaching Writing K8. Urbana: NCTE. 1978. Hillocks. Georgia. Observing and Writing. Urbana: ERIC. RCS. 1975. Kirby. Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Strategies for Teaching Writing As a Developmental Process. N.Y.: Hayden Books. 1980. Leavitt. Hart Day and Rand A. Sohn. Stop, Look and Write. N.Y.: Bantam Books. 1970. Maxwell. Rhoda and Stephen Judy. Composing: 1979 Yearbook of the Michigan Council of Teachers of English. Urbana: NCTE. 1979. Ruben. B. D. and RW. Budd. Human Communication Handbook: Simulations and Games. Rochelle Park: Hayden. 1975. Sohn. David. Pictures For Writing. N.Y.: Bantam Books. 1969. Tiedt. Iris. Individualizing Writing in the Elementary Classroom. Urbana: ERIC, RCS. NCTE. 1975. Tovey. Duane R. Writing Centers in the Elementary School. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa. 1979. Weber. Philip. ed. New Approaches to Writing: An Ideabook For Teachers and Students. N.Y.: Bantam Books. 1973. Weiss. M. Jerry. ed. From Writers to Students; The Pleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark: IRA. 1979.
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Language Experience Activities
Definition Language Experience Activities (LEA) utilize a total communication approach to learning integrating listening. speaking. reading and writing. It begins with students thinking and talking about their personal experiences. Students generally dictate these experiences to adult or older students who record them in printed form. This record becomes the basic reading instruction material for the students and their classmates.
Rationale The LEA can be used for a beginning reader of any age. from a preschooler to an adult illiterate. The studentproduced materials are often more interesting to read than many things a publisher could provide since the LEA uses the actual vocabulary and experiences of the reader. The LEA stresses learner involvement rather than passive receptiveness. The student produces personal language material and therefore no one is presenting the student with fixed ideas or vocabulary. Competition is minimal in LEA because each person is encouraged to speak as fluently as possible. read as much as possible. and listen as well as possible. Vocabulary. word recognition. and spelling skills are acquired as needed through the student's own written materials.
Sample (K4)
Objective The learner will demonstrate an understanding of speech and writing as tools of communication. Materials Paper, pencil. teacher aides if possible Steps 1. Have students write the name of their favorite pet. doll, toy or game. 2. Tell students to write two words that describe the pet. doll. toy or game on the next line. 3. Then have students write three things their pet. doll. toy or game can do on the third line. 4. On line four. students write a sentence about the pet. doll. toy or game.
Pet's Name Rex Descriptive Words Brown. White Action Words Runs. Barks. Jumps Sentence Rex is a good dog. 5. Each student can use the words about the chosen pet. doll. toy. or game in the paragraph. This paragraph may be shared with the class.
EXAMPLE
My pet's name is Rex. He is a brown and white shephard. Rex runs. barks and jumps. Rex is a good dog.
Evaluation The teacher can note word choice and praise interesting vocabulary.
Sample (58)
Objective The learner will use appropriate usage patterns language.
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Materials Various objects for students to describe
Steps 1. Bring various objects to class and place them on a table. (Objects already in the class may also be used.) 2. Allow students to examine the different objects and select two objects about which they individually
would like to write a descriptive riddle. 3. Tell students that riddles should contain the following information.
Description of the color (or colors) of the objects Description of the size (or sizes) of the objects Description of the texture of the objects Use and function of the objects Any other pertinent information 4. Have students read riddles aloud to other class members.
EXAMPLE I come in every color imaginable. I am long and thin and my top gear is rubber made. I am originally smooth but the occasional gnawing of my surface will sometimes cause a roughness. My tip has been on the tongues of thousands and my body in the hands of millions. I have helped to produce things as great as laws and things as small as a grocery list.
What am I? Pencil Evaluation Peer interest and reception is a good evaluation. Options Student can compose riddles about famous people. different sports or different school subjects.
Sample (912)
Objectives The learner will 1. distinguish between informal options and word choice and formal counterparts. 2. demonstrate an acceptance and understanding of other dialects.
Materials Recorded conversations on tape and a tape player.
Steps 1. Let students listen to two different conversations on tape. The first conversations are to be that of two
people conversing in formal or standard English. The second conversation is to be of two people conversing in informal English. 2. Have students discuss the differences in the two conversations along with the type of circumstances under which each might be used. 3. Divide the class into small groups. 4. Have each group create a five minute skit using as many forms of informal English as they can. Then have them write a translation of the skit in formal English. 5. Permit students to perform their skits in class for other members.
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Evaluation The teacher should note the facility with which students use formal and informal English according to the demands of the situation. Options Have students make a "Slang Dictionary" which contains as many old and new slang terms as they can find along with the standard English translations. Encourage them to use only terms appropriate for school propriety. Resources
Allen, Roach R. Language Experience in Reading. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Corporation, 1975. Askland, Linda. "Conducting Individual Language Experience Stories" Reading Teacher, 27 (1973), 167170. Bentley, E., E. Collins, L. Weiner. Language Experience Approach. Atlanta: Metropolitan Cooperative Educational Services Agency, 1977. Engel, Rose. Language Motivating Experiences for Young Children. Van Nuys: DFA Publishers, 1970. Hall, MaryAnne. "Linguistically Speaking, Why Language Experience," Reading Teacher, 25, (1972), 328331. Herrick, Virgil and Marcella Nerboirg. Using Experience Charts with Children. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, 1964. Stauffer, Russell, The Language.experience Approach to the Teaching of Reading. N.Y.: Harper & Row, 1980. White, David. "Language Experience: Sources of Information," 57, Language Arts, Nov.lDec. 1980, pp. 888-889.
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Machine Assisted Instruction/Programmed Instruction
Definitions Teaching machines are devices which provide individual students with programs of questions and answers. exercises to be performed or problems to be solved. together with an immediate evaluation of each response. If errors are made. the learner has the opportunity of correcting them before proceeding to the next exercise. Each practice session should be supervised by the teacher.
Programmed instruction uses materials which present subject matter or skills in small units. Responses are made for each unit. Answers are provided enabling the learner to receive immediate feedback after making each response. Programmed material may be teacher-made or purchased in the form of complete programs. with or without machinery, separate work sheets, cards, workbooks or textbooks.
Rationale
Machine assisted instruction and programmed instruction are effective learning devices that stimulate motivation and proVide for individualized practice in which the learner can proceed at an individual. noncompetitive pace. They also free the teacher of repetitious tasks which take little advantage of teaching skills. Samples (K-12)
Card Devices I. The Language Master provides excellent auditory and visual cues for developing language arts skills.
It uses large cards on which strips of magnetic tape are mounted. Learners look at the card and attempt to identify the word. They place the card in the machine and listen through earphones as the recorded voice pronounces the word. The learner's response can also be recorded and played back. 2. Audiocard Programs - The audiocard programs consist of sets of audiocards with pictures or other visual skills on the top portion of the cards with corresponding audio presentations on a strip of magnetic recording tape at the bottom. 3. Voxcom Card/Cassette Player - Voxcom combines the functions of a regular cassette player and a regular card player to create a card/cassette player with pressure adhesive magnetic recording tape. Any type paper as well as photos and plastic can be used. Tape Recorder
A tape recorder that records and plays back is a must in every classroom. The creative teacher can find numerous ways to use a tape recorder for instruction - motivation. individualized vocabulary. storytelling, making assignments, etc.
Tachistoscopic Machines
The use of tachistoscopic machines allows the presentation of visual materials for brief intervals.
They emphasize improving concentration and qUickness in perceiving words and phrases and associating them with their meanings. Follow-up work using words in context is essential to prevent word calling without comprehension. 1. Flashx is a small, round. hand-held tachistoscope that exposes words. 2. Tachx uses a tachistoscopic shutter with a projector and special filmstrips. 3. Controlled reader is a filmstrip projector with variable speed. Special or programmed materials are
used to project materials one line at a time. 4. Tachomatic 500 presents reading materials from special filmstrips at various speeds per minute. a
third of a line. a half line or a full line at a time.
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Programmed Workbooks The majority of programmed workbooks are usually divided into series. each series corresponding to a sequence of specific skills. The exercises or frames present a sentence and/or picture containing a blank to be filled. The correct response is given immediately on the side of the page or on the next page. The immediate response offers reinforcement if the answer is correct, and provides self-correction if the answer if incorrect. Teacher-made programmed material permits the use of current content to be included in reinforcing previous instruction. It also offers the opportunity to personalize instruction somewhat by including the names of classmates and familiar surroundings in the material. Cautions Teaching machines and programmed materials should never be used as the only method of instruction nor should they constitute the total program. In order to maintain balance and ensure that all learning is teacher-directed and teacher-assessed. they should be used as supplementary components of a well balanced program. It is crucial that personal. face-to-face interaction with the teacher remain the most important part of an instructional program. It is necessary to be sure that students actually comprehend the material and are not simply matching words visually or looking ahead to the answers. Again, teacher-assisted follow-up is recommended. Resources The abundance of material available commercially. especially with the addition of Computers in the classroom prohibits even a brief listing of student materials. Some resources for teacher consideration, however, are listed below.
Dunn. Rita and Kenneth Dunn. "Designing Programmed Institution Sequences" in Teaching Students through their Individual Learning Styles. Reston: Reston Publishing Co, 1978. Mason. George and Jay Blanchard. Computer Applications in Reading, Newark: IRA. 1979.
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Musical Activities
Definition Musical activities use melody and lyrics to aid students in developing academic skills.
Rationale Students who have difficulty with sight words or with learning new vocabulary can often be highly motivated to increase their learning by using music, short stories or short poems on records. The repetition of hearing words used in a meaningful context often with a musical background, can have a positive effect on learning. Sample K-12
The Musical Cloze Objectives The learner will 1. expand the number of words understood when heard in context. 2. listen and respond for a variety of purposes. 3. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources. 4. demonstrate an understanding of and use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary. 5. recognize, recall and retell the main idea, details. sequence and cause - effect relationships.
Materials Record player, records, written copies of words (optional: listening station with 6-8 headphones if the teacher wishes to use this activity in small groups)
Steps 1. The teacher will duplicate a copy of any song lyrics, story scripts, or narrative poems with key words left
out. These words can be keyed to vocabulary being learned in other lessons or may be words needed to increase students' sight vocabulary. 2. Students will listen to the song or story several times and try to fill in all the blanks.
Options 1. Students can listen to the music without lyrics and either draw or write a poem about how they feel. 2. Students can be asked specific questions about details, sequence of events or the main idea. 3. Students can sing familiar songs with particular attention being paid to pauses, a natural way to learn
syllabication of words. 4. Written copies of word lyrics can be used as a springboard f(jr students to role-play parts of the story. 5. Instrumental music can be used by older students as background for a skit or multi-media presentation
on a subject of teen-age interest.
Evaluation The teacher can informally observe the student's participation and enthusiasm for the task as well as measure word knowledge.
Resources Andress. Barbara. Musical Experiences in Early Childhood. New York: Holt. Rinehart. and Winston, 1980. Athey. Margaret and Gwen Hotchkiss. A Galaxy of Games for the Music Class. New York: Parker Publishing company. 1975.
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Greenberg. Marvin. Your Children Need Music: A Guide for Parents and Teachers of Young Children. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1979. Hester. Charlotte. Rock and Read. Carrollton: West Georgia Cooperative Educational Service Agency. 1979. Klink. Howard. "Words and Music." Language Arts. 53 (April 1976). 401-403. Mulligan. Mary Ann. Integrating Music with Other Studies. West Nyack: The Center for Applied Research in Education. 1975. Nye. Robert E. and Vernice T. Nye. Music in the Elementary School. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1970. Nye. Vernice. Music for Young Children. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. 1979. Peterson. Sue. ed. Index to Children's Songs: A Title. First Line. and Subject Index. Bronx: H. W. Wilson. 1979. Note: Be sure to check commercial publishers for biographies of recording stars with or without ac-
companying questions. Magazines with words to popular songs and/or sheet music are valuable resources especially in grades 5-12.
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Newspapers Definition
The major purpose of newspapers is to present the current news to the public, accurately and inexpensively, as soon after the occurrence as possible (Cheyney, 1971). The news can be read for enjoyment, for information, or for assisting in the development of a language arts skill.
Rationale
Newspapers contain many sections that are relevant and of high interest to students. Most selections are shgrt. There is much variety from which to choose. Finally, newspapers are viewed as material that is not "babyish" in spite of its relatively low readability level. (Since sections vary considerably in reading level the teacher should carefully match the purpose of the lesson with the available selections.)
Sample (K-4)
Compound Words
Objective The learner will demonstrate an understanding of and use phonetic analysis clues and principles to identify new words. Materials Newspaper ads, glue and construction paper, adults or student aides.
Steps
1. Mount newspaper ads on construction paper. 2. Divide the class into pairs. Students alternate in identifying words. 3. One student underlines a word that demonstrates the specific skill being reinforced, such as identifying
compound words (e.g. "bookcase for sale.") 4. The student uses the word in an original sentence to ensure correct word meaning. 5. The word and sentence can be written or dictated and later shared with the class. 6. The second student repeats the process with a new word.
Evaluation
The peer can function first as a helper and then as an evaluator. The teacher and aides can provide immediate feedback as they circulate among the students.
Options 1. Cut out food pictures and classify fruit, vegetables or meat. 2. Use ads for "show and tell." 3. Use newspaper for student to dictate or write a story about the picture. Sample (5-8)
Headlines
Objective
The learner will demonstrate the ability to adjust manner and style of writing to suit audience and situation.
Materials Newspapers, paper, pencils, chalk, chalkboard.
Steps 1. Each student brings a newspaper headline to class or selects one from available newspapers. 2. Each student writes an article supporting the headline. 3. Students share articles in small groups.
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4. Revisions are made based on peer suggestions. 5. Articles can be written or typed and displayed with the headlines then matched to the original article. Evaluation
Peer evaluation is inherent in the activity. The teacher reviews the finished article on preestablished criteria such as style. voice and errors in mechanics.
Options 1. Use a grocery ad to write a menu for lunch. 2. Locate the who. what. when. why, where, and how of a news story. 3. One student writes a letter to Dear Somebody and a peer writes the reply. Sample (912) Editorial Cartoons
Objective The learner will recognize that critical reading requires reader involvement and interaction with the material being read. Materials Newspaper editorial cartoons, student/teacher criteria. Steps 1. Divide the class into groups of four. 2. Students can select an editorial cartoon from the paper. 3. The students can discuss the intent of the cartoon and any implications it might have. 4. Each student in the group then writes an editorial that supports the opinion expressed. Provide any
needed assistance. 5. Small groups are reformed for suggestions for revision. 6. Each student submits a final paper.
Evaluation The final product can be evaluated by the teacher based on preestablished criteria. Options 1. Write a letter in reply to a job advertisement. 2. Write the dialogue for a wordless comic strip. 3. Create an ad for a tour. Include all necessary details.
Resources Cheyney, Arnold. Press. Stevensville: Educational Services. 1978. Cheyney, Arnold B. Teaching Reading Through Newspapers. Newark: IRA. 1971. Decker. Howard. Newspaper Workshop: Understanding Your Newspaper. New York: Globe Book Company. Heitzmann. Wm. Ray. The Newspaper in the Classroom. Washington. D.C.: National Education Association, 1979. Marsee. Joy and Judy Long. Newspaper Primary Reading Program. Atlanta. Cox Enterprises. 1978. Rhoades. Lynn and George Rhoades. Teaching with Newspapers: The Living Curriculum. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1980.
Schaff. Joanne. The Language Arts Idea Book. Pacific Palisades: Goodyear Publishing Company. 1976.
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Once Upon A Time
Definition Once Upon A Time refers to the study of myths. legends, fables. fairy tales and stories of epic heros and heroines. This strategy can also be extended to include accounts of tall tales, fantasy and science fiction. Rationale These accounts seem to stimulate the imagination and foster creative thinking ability in youngsters. The motivational appeal of the stories encourages an interest in literature and provides a vehicle for the teaching of related language skills. Sample (K-12)
Note: Enjoying and exploring the story should remain of paramount importance. The following sample demonstrates a suggested follow-up for teaching a related skill.
Objectives The learner will 1. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of purposes 2. demonstrate an understanding of word etymologies 3. demonstrate that symbols stand for referents. Materials Stories from mythology, magazines. newspapers, poster paper, glue. construction paper, scissors. Steps 1. Have students read or listen to short versions or summaries of stories of Greek and Roman gods.
Discuss the stories as deeply as student interest and maturity warrant. 2. Give each student newspapers, magazines and scissors. 3. Have the students clip all the pictures and words that refer to the Greek and Roman gods such as
Mercury car advertisements, Cupid on Valentine's Day cards. Provide a sample list for younger students. 4. Facilitate a discussion of the relationships of various terms to mythology. Le. Why would a car
manufacturer name a car Mercury? 5. The students staple or glue the symbols or names on construction paper or poster paper. 6. The students label and identify each symbol and explain why each was used in present day advertising. 7. Some students might want to make scrapbooks. Evaluation Students display posters or scrapbooks. The projects should be checked for accuracy. Options The teacher could construct a game board and the students could match the symbol with the reference such as the figure of a cherub with an arrow to the word Cupid. Resources Aquino. John. Fantasy in Literature. Washington: NEA, 1977. Benson, Sally. Stories of the Gods and Heroes. NY: Dial Press, 1940. Donelson, Kenneth (ed.) Adolescent Literature Revisited after Four Years. Urbana: NCTE, 1976. Donelson, Kenneth (ed.) Science Fiction in the English Class. Urbana: NCTE, 1972.
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Favat. F. Andre. Child and Tale. Urbana: NCTE. 1977. Graves. Robert (ed.) Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology. NY: Prometheus Press. 1959.

Huck. Charlotte. Children's Literature in the Elementary School. NY: Holt. Rinehart. 1976.

Olson. Paul (ed.) The Uses of Myth. Urbana: NCTE. 1966. Smith. Ron. Mythologies of the World: A Guide to Sources. Urbana: NCTE. 1981.

Representative Authors
Aesop Brothers Grimm Walt Disney Rudyard Kipling Joel Chandler Harris Louis Untermeyer J. R. R. Tolkien Madelein I'engle Roald Dahl Peter S. Beagle

Mother Goose Hans Christian Anderson Lewis Carroll Richard Scarry Charles Perrault (in translation) Brian Wildsmith E. B. White Lloyd Alexander William Mayne

Note: One of the most interesting activities surrounding the recreation of myths is the fantasy game Dungeons and Dragons. A popular source is Dungeons & Dragons Fantasy Adventure Game Basic Set, TRS Games. P.O. Box 756. Lake Geneva. Wisconsin 53147.

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Oral Interpretation
Definition In oral interpretation. the reader determines how a piece of literature should be read aloud. The reader should be advised to select a piece that suits his or her personality. The selection may be prose. poetry or drama. The reader should refrain from acting. Rationale This strategy provides the repetition that low achievers need to progress. It is particularly good reinforcement for building sight vocabulary. Students who are poor readers can have the option to work with one piece of material until they feel completely comfortable with it and achieve success with the written word. Oral interpretation also involves the students in good literature. Sample (512) Objectives The learner will: 1. make choices which indicate an appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of oral and written language. 2. use a variety of oral and written language structures by experimenting with word order and learning how
it reveals meaning. 3. recognize and use sight vocabulary from context. 4. adjust reading technique and rate according to the difficulty of material and purpose of reading. 5. use oral language for communicating feelings.
Materials/Personnel
Materials selected from literature. (relevant to the student's instructional materials so that they reinforce current study). a tape recorder. and an audience. Steps 1. The student analyzes the meaning of the passage. 2. The student studies the words. checks the dictionary for exact meaning and reviews the meaning of
punctuation. 3. The mood or feeling of the selection should be analyzed. The student decides what vocal tone should be
used to convey the feeling to the listener. 4. Rate. volume and enunciation should be practiced using a tape recorder. 5. The student should mark the copy as an aid to oral expression. underlining each word or phrase that is
to be stressed. Pauses can be indicated by a vertical line or slash. 6. The student should use good eye contact. correct posture and stance in delivery. Evaluation
The evaluation will be the immediate feedback of audience reaction and teacher input at the completion of the reading.
Options 1. The student can investigate careers based on oral interpretation such as news reporting. commentary.
acting. etc. 2. Choral reading using similar procedures is suitable for K-4 students.
Resources Coger. I. and M. White. Readers Theater Handbook. Glenview: Scott. Foresman. 1973.
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Crowley. Sharon. ed. Speech and Drama in the English Class. Urbana: NCTE. 1978. Duke, Charles. Creative Dramatics and English Teaching. Urbana: NCTE, 1974. Ehrlich. Harriet, ed. Creative Dramatics Handbook. Urbana: NCTE, 1974. Gerbrandt, Gary. An Idea Book for Acting Out and Writing Language KS. Urbana: NCTE. 1974. Henry, Mabel Wright, ed. Creative Experiences in Oral Language. Urbana: NCTE, 1967. Klein, Marvin. Talk in the Language Arts Classroom. Urbana: NCTE!ERICiRCS. 1977. Long, Beverly, Lee Hudson, and Phillis Jeffrey. Group Performance of Literature. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1977. Post. Robert, M. "Children's Readers Theater" Language Arts 56 (March, 1979). 262-267. Tredt, Iris, ed. Drama in Your Classroom. Urbana: NCTE, 1974.
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Overhead/Opaque Projectors Definition Both overhead and opaque projectors are devices which project images on a wall or screen. Rationale These projectors are usually available in most schools. Their varied uses provide many alternatives to students in relevant, self-selected projects which stimulate interest. Sample (K-4) A Silhouette Collage: Inside My Head Objectives The learner will 1. demonstrate the understanding that symbols stand for referents 2. recognize relevance of data 3. analyze and interpret pictures, people and events using elaborated language. 4. recognize, recall and retell details 5. recognize information through classifying Materials Overhead projector, butcher paper, construction paper, magazines, glue, scissors. Steps 1. The teacher can use this as an introductory, get-acquainted activity. Each student will sit between the
overhead projector and a wall which has been covered with a large piece of butcher paper. The teacher sketches an outline of the student's head in profile. 2. The student cuts out the silhouette and mounts it on a large piece of colored construction paper. 3. The students look through magazines and cut out words or pictures which tell something special about them, their favorite activities, foods, their wishes, what they want to be when they grow up, of what they are most proud, etc. 4. After they have glued their pictures and words on their silhouettes, they can display them on bulletin boards, as mobiles, or on hallways outside classroom. Evaluation 1. Teachers can informally evaluate the success of this activity by asking: Did all the students participate? Were students "involved" in this activity? Did students show interest in each other's project? Did students carefully select pictures and words for their collage to show their individuality? 2. Teachers can help students evaluate their own project, focusing on the process. Peer feedback of the student's collage can be used to judge the effectiveness of visual choices to communicate the student's ideas. Sample (5-8)
Roll it! .... A Story on Butcher Paper
Objectives The learner will 1. analyze and interpret pictures, people and events using elaborated language 2. recognize, recall and retell the main idea(s), details, sequence and cause-effect relationships
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3. recognize information and ideas through synthesizing and summarizing 4. write and compose for a variety of purposes 5. write and compose in a variety of ways 6. demonstrate the ability to adjust manner. and style of speaking and writing to suit the audience and
situation
Materials
Opaque projector. white or brown butcher paper about 12-15 inches wide. cut in long rolls; construction paper, glue. scissors. miscellaneous art supplies.
Steps
1. This activity may be based on an experience shared by the class (field trip, a guest with an interesting job. a story read by the teacher. etc.). or it can be based on the student's creative imagination for story-telling.
2. In small groups. students are to write a script for their story, paying close attention to logical sequence. interesting dialogue, and clear description. Work with students on revision and editing.
3. Next, they will decide on parts of the story which they can illustrate with pictures (students' art work or cut out pictures) or words.
4. Students mark "frames" on their rolls of butcher paper (approximately 12" wide by 15" high). 5. Students plan the continuous illustration of their story by making a storyboard, including a title and
author frame. A description of the illustration will go in the "picture" square and the story line will go in the "audio" portion. (See example in Photography strategy.) 6. Allow time for students' art work to be completed. A mistake can be cut out from the butcher paper roll and a new frame spliced in its place. 7. When the illustrated roll is completed, both ends should be taped onto sticks, or paper towel cardboard centers in a scroll fasion, so the roll can be handled more easily by two students. 8. The audio portion of the story can be pre-recorded on a cassette tape or the students can read the audio portion as the roll is being pulled through the opaque projector. Allow practice time before the story is presented to the class. 9. The project can be shared with other classes or with parents on parents' night.
Evaluation
Feedback from classmates when the project is shared can help the students and teacher evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation. The teacher can informally observe the students working in groups and can look for active participation and creative thinking from all the students. The final "story roll" can be evaluated for its effectiveness in illustrating the story. If some students are uninvolved. the teacher can subtly intervene in the group process to encourage total involvement. Sample (9-12)
Great Picture Heist: Making Color Lift Transparencies
Objectives
The learner will 1. recognize the use of propaganda devices 2. distinguish between fact and opinion 3. recognize relevance of data 4. analyze and interpret pictures. people and events using elaborated language 5. understand and use basic components of visual literacy 6. analyze non-verbal symbols of communication used in television programming and visual advertising
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Materials
Overhead projector, clay-based magazines for cutting, scissors, construction paper, dry mount press, laminating film, clear or contact paper, soapy water, pan, filing folder frame. Note: Not all attempts will be successful to make a clean color-lift, but the results of several usable
color-lifts are worth the efforts; the best results are from clay based paper. Your finger will have a chalky substance if the paper you touch with a moistened finger is clay-based.
Steps
1. Discuss various propaganda devices with the class. 2. The teacher should bring in a collection of advertising from newspapers and magazines mounted on
construction paper for easy display. 3. Ask students to find examples of "fact" and "opinion" from the advertisements after students have had
opportunity to read through the ads. 4. The teacher helps students find examples of appeals such as the following with the displayed
advertisements: a. Factual: A no-nonesense business-like appeal.
"Our automobile gets 47 MPG." b. Comparison: Comparing one product with another.
"Our product has more peanuts than the leading brand." c. Testimonial: Famous and not-so-famous people give glowing reports about the product.
On a hidden camera Mrs. Swartz of West Covina, California, says, "I tried this sink cleaner for two weeks and it worked wonders." d. Clever production: Dazzles the audience with fanfare or dramatics. Mrs. Swartz looks on in amazement as a giant green man cleans her sink sparkling clean. e. Bargains: Appeals to the bargain hunter in all of us. "Our prices have never been lower during our 25% off sale." f. Soft sell: Charms the viewers or uses reverse psychology. A baby sits on the floor playing with bathroom tissue. A voice says sweetly, "Now thai's softness." g. Integrity: Emphasizes honesty and character. "Service is our only product. We're working to keep you happy." h. Popularity: Appeals to our desire to be one of the bunch. Scenes which show that everybody has the product. 5. Arrange students in eight groups, each group selecting one of the advertising appeals. 6. Ask students to find 5-10 examples of their advertising appeal in magazines provided for them. 7. The students cut a piece of laminating paper slightly larger than the cut-out magazine advertisement. The students then use the dry mount press to bond the laminating paper to the advertisement. 8. The students place the picture in a bucket or pan of warm soapy water and let it soak 15-30 minutes until the paper backing is ready to rub off with fingers. 9. After the paper is carefully rubbed off, they will have a color lift transparency which can then be mounted in a filing folder frame. The transparency is ready for projection on the overhead projector. 10. When all groups are ready to present their projects with the overhead projector, encourage them to ask each other questions and to try to identify the appeals in other ads they remember from other media.
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Evaluation The students should evaluate their own effectiveness in planning. find materials. making transparencies. and discussing their project with the class. Classmates should be encouraged to ask questions when projects are presented and to share examples they remember from radio and TV which further illustrate a type of "appeal". The teacher can make informal observations of the group's effectiveness in functioning and can evaluate peer feedback and interest in projects as they are shared. The teacher can also develop a test made up of advertisements to match up with "appeal labels" to evaluate students' understanding of the concepts presented. Resources
Brown, James, Richard Lewis and Fred Harcleroad. AV Instruction; Techniques Media and Methods. NY: McGraw Hill, 1977. Culclasure. David. Effective Use of Audiovisual Media. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1969. Erickson, C. and D. Curl. Fundamentals of Teaching with Audiovisual Technology. NY: Macmilan. 1972. Morrow. James and Murray Suid. Media and Kids. Rochelle Park: Hayden Books. 1977.
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Photography Definition Photography involves the use and/or production of still pictures. 35mm or instamatic cameras, film and a visual maker are necessary tools if students are to experiment. Note: The cost of photographic materials can be included in the school budget or become a P.T.A project. Rationale Projects in photography offer the student an opportunity for communicating, for being creative, for thinking through a logical sequence, and for developing an awareness of visual literacy. Any c1asswork involving media equipment requires careful instruction and set limitations by the teacher. Photography demands active involvment of the students. Students decide their own subject so the content becomes extremely relevant to student needs. Sample (K-4) Show Me A Story Objectives The learner will 1. use a variety of oral and written language structures 2. learn ways of expanding basic language structures 3. recognize and use options for word order 4. use generally accepted oral written language forms 5. demonstrate the understanding that symbols stand for referents 6. infer sequence which is not explicitly stated in a selection 7. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spelling Materials A collection of slides (with a slide-sorting tray for students to use later), or black and white photos, or magazine pictures mounted on construction paper, paper and pencils. Optional: Cassette recorder. Steps 1. The teacher will stir the student's imagination by sharing a collection of interesting slides, photos or
magazine pictures. 2. The teacher will ask for quick "feeling" responses to the pictures as they are shown. Appropriate
questions might be: a. "What do you think is happening in this picture?" b. "What do you think the person in the picture is feeling?" c. "Have you ever been in a place like this?" d. "What do the colors make you feel in this picture?" e. "Is this a peaceful or angry or lonely picture?" f. "What do you think this person's life is like?"
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3. The teacher wil then focus on 3-5 pre-selected pictures which are "open" for responding and which will go together in some way. Ask students to do some "word-shaking" by eliciting and recording on the board all the words you can from them which describe the pictures.
4. Students will then compose their own "story" about the pictures in writing or on a cassette recorder, or have it transcribed by the teacher.
5. Display all the stories on a bulletin board, publish them in a class magazine or have students read them aloud in small groups.
Evaluation The teacher can informally evaluate students' involvement in the word-shaking activity and encourage students who might feel they have little to contribute. Students can give each other helpful feedback when they show enjoyment of a classmate's story whether it is shared on tape or displayed on a bulletin board. The teacher can also assess sentence structure, usage and punctuation. Sample (5-8) This Is Our Classroom Objectives The learner will 1. recognize information and ideas through classifying, outlining, summarizing and synthesizing 2. recognize, recall and retell the main ideas, details, sequence and cause-effect relationships 3. make judgements 4. demonstrate that language functions in a variety of ways 5. use generally accepted oral and written language forms 6. recognize and use options for word order 7. distinguish four essentials of the communication process (source, message, medium and audience) 8. understand and use basic components of visual literacy Materials Instamatic camera, flashcubes, 126 film for slides, art materials, cassette tape recorder. Steps
1. Ask students which are their favorite activities at school Le. their writing groups, art instruction, story time, science experiments, recess, or even lunchtime. Record responses on the board or butcher paper.
2. Arrange for students to form small groups in which they will work together to plan a visual representation of their own classroom. The groups select an activity from the list on the board.
3. Ask students to come up with a jot list of all the things involved in their activity. 4. Have students sequentially or logically arrange the parts of their activity using storyboard sheets, such
as the following. Storyboard 1. Use l/2 piece of 8 x 11 paper. 2. Duplicate this representation on a ditto master. 3. The students will use a storyboard sheet for each change in visual frames.
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STORYBOARD: PLANNING A MEDIA PRESENTATION
AUDIO/SOUNDTRACK OR PLANNING NOTES:
PICTURE/DESCRIPTION: Visual Aid
5. Next, the students will plan for appropriate photo shots which will illustrate a part of the activity (live action shots, magazine collages, students' art work). Students complete any art work which will be used in the presentation.
6. After discussing and planning for 610 shots, students should write out the script (sound track) which will accompany the slides. Encourage students to reread and revise their brief scripts for interest and clarity.
7. Once their story board is complete with script and a description of each slide, the teacher or randomly selected students will take the pictures.
8. Students will practice and prepare their accompanying soundtrack on cassette tape using clear speaking voices.
9. After slides are developed, the group will practice synchronizing the slides with the recorded script. 10. The groups will then share their slide tapes with the whole class, other classes or parents. Evaluation The students can mark an informal self-evaluating checklist to evaluate their group's progress. They should be encouraged to evaluate the effectiveness of their own finished project and discuss possible ways of improving the total communication. Students can give each other feedback on the effectiveness of visual images and language choices. The teacher can informally observe and evaluate the interaction between students in groups, observe involvement, and evaluate the planning state (storyboards). The teacher can respond as an audience member when the project is presented in class. Sample (912) Visual Music Objectives The learner will 1. recognize, recall and retell details and sequence 2. make judgments 3. read and follow directions 4. distinguish four essentials of the communication process (source, message medium and audience) 5. understand and use basic components of visual literacy Materials Collection of written song lyrics, and records; visual maker, 126 film for slides; any slides from the teacher's personal collection; magazines and illustrated books. (Instruction in using the visual maker is necessary.)
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Steps 1. The teacher can best generate enthusiasm for this type of activity by demonstrating a teacher-made
project combining slides and music. After sharing this with the class, ask for their response in a discussion or free-writing response. Share with them the process you went through to make the project. 2. Students who wish to plan for the Visual Music Project should meet in small groups and begin by brainstorming for songs which might be appropriate for illustration. They can browse through record albums with accompanying printed lyrics, your collection of lyrics. or magazines which feature printed song lyrics. 3. Once a song is chosen. the students are to create a storyboard planning for the pictures they wish to take with the visual maker to illustrate individual lines of music. They will write out the lyrics. line by line. on the storyboard "audio portion." 4. In the "production notes" portion of the storyboard. students should write a description of what kind of picture they wish to take to accompany the lyrics. 5. Students will search through magazines and books for appropriate pictures which will be taken using the visual maker. 6. Once all the pictures have been selected and marked, students will get the teacher's approval and guidance for operating the visual maker stand. (Pictures which are too small to fill up the pre-set. 2-frame sizes. should be "masked off' with black construction paper.) 7. While students are allowing time for film processing. they are to write out a complete copy of the lyrics on a cue sheet which is marked with the slide numbers. 8. When slides are returned, students will arrange slides in a tray, and practice several times with the music on tape or record. 9. The project can be shared with the class or other classes or with parents.
Evaluation
The teacher can informally observe the interaction between group members, looking for active involvement in the planning, creating. practicing and presenting stages. The effectiveness of the group's project in communicating ideas or feelings can be evaluated on a checklist which has areas for commendation and improvement. Students can evaluate their own progress and participation with group checklist. Peers can give feedback after the project is shared with the class.
Options If cameras are unavailable. try making photograms (pictures without cameras). Some resources are included below.
Resources
Bruandet, Pierre. Photograms. New York: Watson-Guptell Publications, 1973.
Chapman. Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978.
Cooke. Robert. Designing with Light on Paper and Film. Worchester: Davis Publications, 1969.
Guenberg, Pearl. Art and Ideas for Young People. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970. Hoffer, Virna. Making Photograms. New York: Hastings House, 1969.
Kay, Alan. Photography in Art Teaching. London: B. T. Batsford. 1978. Linderman, Earl W. and Marlene Linderman. Crafts for the ~Iassroom.Dubuque: Wm. c. Brown Co. 1969. Nelson, George. How to See. Boston: Little. Brown & Co., 1977.
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Physical Education Activities
Definition Physical education activities can integrate the development of psychomotor skills with language arts skills. Rationale Movement activities are naturally invigorating and..as such. help students to release tension and boredom that may accompany academic frustration. Sample (K4) Movement Match Objectives The learner will 1. demonstrate the understanding that symbols stand for referents 2. demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence 3. learn specialized vocabulary 4. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources 5. analyze nonverbal symbols of communication Materials Premade word cards Steps 1. Have several premade cards with words appropriate to a physical education activity clearly printed on
them. Distribute the cards, face down to the students. 2. Ask students to turn over their cards. All students who have words beginning with "a" stand. 3. The "a" cards line up in alphabetical order. 4. The first student acts out the meaning of the word on the card. such as "above" without using words. 5. The other students try to match the student's actions with the meaning. The word card is the selfcheck
answer. 6. Continue, in alphabetic order. Evaluation The teacher can notice the interest and enthusiasm of students for each task as well as monitor word recognition. comprehension and alphabetic sequence. Sample (5-8) Question and Answer Match The same procedures as above can be followed with the audience asking questions to which each student responds "yes" or "no". Limit the questions to five.
Sample (912) Sports Dictionaries Objectives The learner will 1. recognize. recall and retell the main idea(s), details. sequence and cause-effect relationships 2. recognize ideas through summarizing
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3. demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence 4. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources 5. learn multiple means of words 6. make comparisons using stated information Materials Short selections from sports stories or articles from the school or local newspaper. index cards, pencils. Steps 1. Have a small group of students read several selections on the same sport i.e. volleyball. while other
groups read on football. soccer. etc. 2. Have the students within the same group discuss their selection as it relates to the sport itself. 3. Have the students brainstorm a list of terms used in the sport. List each term on an index card. 4. The cards are distributed to the group and each student defines the term orally then in writing using
student vocabulary. The word should also be used in a sentence which clarifies its meaning. Peer help is utilized. 5. The cards are then alphabetized. 6. The cards can be bound into a student book on "Volleyball" or "Soccer" etc. or typed on cards and illustrated by the students. 7. Books from different groups on different sports can be shared. Variations in terms can be discussed such as "strike" in bowling and in baseball. Evaluation The teacher can assist as needed and note errors as they occur. Peer evaluation is inherent in the activity. Resources Georgia Department of Education. A Reading Program for the 80's: Physical Education. Atlanta. Ga.; Georgia Department of Education, 1979. (includes word list). Gentile. Lance. Using Sports and Physical Education to Strengthen Reading Skills. Newark: DRA.1980. Humphrey, James and Dorothy Sullivan. Teaching Slow Learner Through Action Games. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas. 1970. Latchaw. Marjorie. A Pocket Guide to Movement Activities for the Elementary School. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1970. Weiner. Jack and John Lidstone. Creative Movement for Children. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969. Note: Other resources include movement records and stories on sports heroes. These should be
available through the school's media center.
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Poetry Definition Minot (1965) states that "composing a true definition of poetry is a task for critics. Leave it to them" (p. 115). His informal description of characteristics, however, includes: 1. the use of the line as a significant aspect of form 2. the use of rhythm 3. the use of sound devices such as alliteration, rhyme. etc. 4. the use of stanza other divisions in the text 5. the use of compressed material by extending the meaning or suggestion of individual words and phrases
(p. 115-117). He states that all characteristics cannot be applied to all verses. The reader is referred to Minot's discussion for more specific information. Some sample poetry forms are presented following this section. Rationale Students often approach the reading or writing of poetry with a negative attitude but once this initial impression is dispelled. students often become avid readers of poetry and prolific poets. Writing poetry capitalizes on personal thoughts. feelings, and perceptions and can be a constructive outlet for the unmotivated student. These activities also promote a positive self-concept and encourage acceptance of others. Objectives The learner will 1. recognize that literature works can take a number of forms 2. write and compose in a variety of ways 3. write and compose for a variety of purposes 4. increase, enrich and refine oral and written expressions Materials Samples of the poetry form to be written, chalkboard/chalk or overhead projector/transparency/pen. paper and pencil. Steps 1. Begin by reading several samples of the form of poetry to be written. 2. Allow for positive and negative comments and reactions to be discussed. 3. Introduce the form to be used on the chalkboard or transparency. Be specific. 4. Illustrate the "rules" of the form by applying them to one of the poems read which was received
favorably. 5. "Wordshake" for ideas by having students call out words while they are listed on the board. 6. Have students, individually or in pairs, use an idea from the wordshaking and write a poem. 7. Poems can be submitted anonymously until students become more confident and accepting. 8. To provide positive support some of the poems can be displayed on a transparency and favorable
comments about word choice or form may be shared. 9. Poems can be assembled in a class book to be shared.
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Evaluation
Peer evaluation and teacher evaluation are inherent in step 8.
Some sample poetry forms include
Haiku: A traditional Japanese poetry form which tells about one specific incident. experience or impression. It is a three-line poem with 17 syllables arranged as follows:
Line 1-5 syllables Line 2-7 syllables Line 3-5 syllables Example: A leaf falls bright gold To the forest floor Enriching the scene.
Cinquain: A poetry form composed of five lines arranged thus: Line I-Write the word (noun) Line 2-2 adjectives separated by a comma Line 3-3 "ing" words or action words Line 4--4 words (attitude toward topic) Line 5-synonym of word in line 1
Example: Mud Slimy. squishy Smearing, swishing. ooshing Making little mudpies Mush
Limerick: A limerick has a nonsense or humorous theme. The poem is composed of 5 lines and has a regular rythm and rhyme pattern of aabba. Example: There was a small maiden named Maggie (a)
Whose dog was enormous and shaggy (a) The front end of him (b) Looked vicious and grim (b) But the tail end was friendly and waggy. (a) Free Verse: Unrhymed and has no regular meter, but is rhythmical through the use of line length, repetition. and parallel structure.
Example: I walk down the garden paths And all the daffodils are blowing I walk down the patterned garden paths With my powdered hair and jeweled fan. I. too. am a rare pattern. As I wonder down the garden paths.
Couplet: Composed of four lines rhyming aabb.
Example: A sensitive plant in a garden grew. And the young winds fed it with silver dew, And it opened its fan - like leaves to the light, And closed them beneath the kisses of night. Shelley
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Acronym: Write your name or another word down the page. Try to find adjectives that describe you that also begin with each of the letters.

Example: Fun-loving Restless Affectionate Nervous C areftd Imaginative Serious

Diamante: A 7 line poem that tells about oposites or contrasts. The lines are arranged by words in a diamond form. The poem has pleasing rhythm but no regular rhythm or rhyme pattern. The first word in each line is capitalized and the words in each line are separated by commas.

Line I-Title (1 word) noun Line 2-Adjectives describing the title (2 words) Line 3-Action words ending in "ing" or "ed" about the title (3 words) participles Line 4-Nouns related to the title (4 words) Line 5-Action words ending in "ing" or "ed" Line 6-Adjectives describing an opposite of the title (2 words) Line 7-0pposite of the title (1 word) noun

Example:

Young Happy, Lively Living. Wrestling, Walking Work, Machines. Bed, Paper Retiring. Resting, Sleep
Sad, weary Old

Options

"Easy" poetry activities can be initiated prior to form poetry. Such activities could include making word/picture posters, collages, mobiles, word chains. alliteration stories and word drawings. Check word play sections of the resource books listed. Also, having a poet in residence should be considered. A good resource (Poets in the Schools) is included.

Resources

Many magazines such as Read and Scope publish student poetry. Be sure to check the listing of magazines in the High Interest Topics section.

Bradley, Buff. Growing from Word Play into Poetry. Palo Alto: Learning Handbook, 1976.

Esbensen, Barbara. A Celebration of Bees: Helping Children Write Poetry. Minneapolis: Winston Press, 1978.

Galls, Donald, ed. Poetry: Reading, Writing and Analyzing It. Urbana: NCTE, 1979.

Glaus. Marlene. From Thoughts to Words. Urbana: NCTE, 1965.

Ivie. Michael. Poets in the Schools, A Handbook. Urbana: NCTE, 1976.

Koch, Kenneth. Wishes, Lies and Dreams. New York: Random House, 1970.

Minot, Stephen. Three Genres: The Writing of Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1965.

Painter, Helen. Poetry and Children. Newark: IRA, 1970.

Powell. Brian. Making Poetry. McGill University.

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Shapiro. Jon, ed. Using Literature and Poetry Affectively. Newark, Del: IRA, 1979. Whitman, Ruth and Harriet Feinberg. Poemmaking: Poets in the Classrooms. Urbana: NCTE. 1975. Be sure to check the media center for nonprint media on poetry.
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Possible Sentences
Definition
Possible sentences (Moore & Arthur, 1981) is a combination vocabulary/prediction strategy. It is designed to acquaint students with new vocabulary they will encounter in their reading and, additionally, to guide students in their attempts to verify the accuracy of the statements they generate. Furthermore, it arouses curiosity concerning the passage to be read.
Rationale
Possible sentences is based on student-generated vocabulary and. therefore, capitalizes on relevancy. It helps students to become independent learners in determining meanings and relationships. It also provides needed structure and direct instruction. Possible sentences provides an opportunity to practice their language skills. Using their experiential background, students think of possible associations new vocabulary terms may have and evaluate them. They speak to express those associations and listen to others' thoughts and associations.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The learner will 1. use generally accepted written language forms. 2. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context concerning words specific to content areas. 3. recognize information and ideas through classifying and synthesizing. 4. use a study technique to guide the reading of a text selection. 5. write and compose for the purpose or recording information.
Materials/Personnel
Chalkboard, textbooks.
Steps
Seven steps comprise the sequence of a possible sentences lesson. 1. The teacher lists the essential vocabulary terms of a text selection on the board and pronounces the
words for the students. For example, from a selection on volcanoes, the teacher might list the following terms: lava obsidian magma pumice steam crater basalt steam 2. Students are then asked to pair any words from the list and formulate a sentence using the two words that they think might possibly be in the text. 3. The sentence is recorded verbatim on the board and the words from the list in the sentence are underlined. Caution is given that the sentences be recorded exactly as stated even if the information is not correct. To continue with the volcano example. students might generate the following sentences: 1. Lava causes the crater to form. 2. Lava cools to make magma. 3. Obsidian and pumice come out of volcanoes. The eliciting of the sentences from the students continues until either a speCified period of time elapses or until students can produce no more. It should be mentioned that students may use words already placed in sentences as long as a new context is created.
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4. Students are told to read the text selection with the explicit purpose of verifying the accuracy of their possible sentences.
5. A discussion now ensues concerning the evaluation of the sentences. The text may be used as a reference. Sentences are evaluated according to their accuracy, and those that are not accurate are to be refined or omitted. Such a discussion calls for careful reading, and judgments of the accuracy of the generated sentences must be defended.
6. As a result of their reading and discussion, students now must refine inaccurate sentences being careful to make sure their refinements are accurate. Continuing with the volcano example, students might do the following with their sentences: Lava causes the crater to form. (Refined to:) A build-up inside the earth's crust causes an explosion eventually forming a volcanic crater. Lava cools to make magma. (Refined to:) Magma from the volcano cools to form igneous rocks. Obsidian and pumice come out of volcanoes. (Accept as accurate.)
7. After the evaluation and modification of the original sentences are accomplished, the teacher asks for new sentences. New sentences are generated with the intent of extending the students' understanding of the text concepts. As these sentences are dictated and recorded, they should be checked with the text for accuracy. The final acceptable sentences are then recorded by the students in their notebooks.
Evaluation The teacher can have students organize the generated sentences into a few paragraphs summarizing their learning experience. Additionally, teachers can assess the degree of prior knowledge the students possess on a particular topic and see how well students are able to modify that knowledge upon reading the text. Options Possible sentences may be used with students at all levels: K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. However, it is cautioned that students must be able to read a text selection to perform possible sentences as described. With K-4 students or less able readers at the other grade levels, the teacher may choose to adapt possible sentences by doing it on the listening level; Le., the teacher reads the selection to the students instead of having them read it themselves. Resources
Moore, D. W. and S. V. Arthur. "Possible Sentences." In Dishner, E. K., T. W. Beam, & J. E. Readence. Reading in Content Areas: Improving Classroom Instruction. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1981.
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Publishing

Definition

Publishing involves making an author's work available in print to an audience.

Rationale

Publishing provides the framework for utilizing each student's language to the fullest extent. It provides a unique opportunity to display students' own language in a way that it can be recognized as having some authenticity and value. Publishing often sets the stage for the mastery of skills in personal language development and usage. Through publishing, students see themselves as creators and producers of language and as authors.

Published books often spark the beginning of a home library for many low achieving students and foster selfesteem as students are able to share ideas and see their publications being enjoyed by others.

Suggestions (K12)

Class Books and Blank Books
Class books should include the works of all individuals. Blank books consist of stapled blank paper and may take on many shapes and forms. They are used primarily for one student to compose original stories.

Newspapers and Magazines

Students and teachers will decide on the format to be used in the production of these two items. Students may want to decide on the number of pages they want to produce, what kinds of items or topics (e.g., comic strips, weather reports, news reports, crossword puzzles, and human interest stories) they want to write. Some decision about the layout that students will use for both the newspaper and the magazine will need to be made. Assigned specific tasks and a deadline for the completion of the articles should also be decided upon by the group.

Hardcover books can also be produced within the classroom. This process is generally facilitated by volunteer personnel.

The type of books published are only limited to one's imagination. Some of the examples of the different types of books are as follows:

1. Alphabet Books
2. Poetry Books
3. Shape Books
4. Class or Group Books
5. Individually Authored Books
Some topics of interest for students include:
(K4)
1. My Family 2. My Pet 3. My Best Friend 4. When It Rains I. ... 5. When I Come To School 6. Vacations 7. Boy Scouts B. Girl Scouts 9. Brownies 10. I Feel Happy When . 11. I Feel Sad When . 12. My Best Friend Is .

6. Picture Books 7. Cookbooks B. Word Books 9. Diaries 10. Anthologies
13. What I Did Today 14. Just For Laughs I. ... 15. Riddles 16. The Circus 17. I Wish I Had.... lB. I Wish I Could Be 19. I Am Thankful For.... 20. Be My Valentine 21. The Halloween Pumpkin 22. Wishes For Christmas 23. Christmas Cards 24. Mother's Day Cards 25. I Was So Scared When....

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(58)

1. Football

2. Camping

3. Fishing

4. Hunting

5. My Parents Make Me Angry When .

6.

Makes Me Angry When .

7. Hobbies

8. My Favorite TV Show

9. My Favorite Actor/Actress

10. Diaries

11. I Want To Be....

12. My Favorite Rock/Soul Group is....

(9-12)
1. Albums Of The Week 2. Fashions 3. Dating 4. Driving 5. Good Grooming 6. Long Ago 7. Dancing 8. Sun Glasses 9. When People Get Angry 10. It Was A Close Call 11. The Day Was Like Any Other Day
Except For.... 12. Cars 13. People In Sports

13. Skating

14. If I Had A Million Dollars

15. My Favorite Foods Are....

16. Double Talk

17. My Position On The....

18. The Computer

19. Last Night The Coach .

20. From The Window I Saw .

21. My Friends Think. ...

22. I Would Go to

For Advice

B e c a u s e. . . .

23. When I Interviewed the Principal. ...

24. I Live In A Fascinating City

25. Stranded

14. Getting a Driver's License 15. Going Steady 16. Last Night The Headlines Read 17. Commercials 18. My Heritage 19. Cults 20. Effects of Narcotics 21. Money 22. The Draft 23. Autobiographies 24. Poems 25. Money Making Careers

How To Make Hard-Back Books
1. Take two (2) pieces of cardboard which are the same size and lay them side by side leaving about W' space between them.

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2. Take 4 or 5 pieces of masking tape and run them horizontally across starting at top and bottom and 3 across the center.
3. Next take 2 long pieces of masking tape and run them vertically between the two pieces of cardboard on the front and back.
4. Now take material (wall paper, contact paper, wrapping paper or whatever you would like for a covering) and cut it to cover the entire cover leaving an extra inch all around.
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5. Fold the material down and paste it all around.
6. To give the inside a neat finished look. cut a piece of colored paper for the front and back inside covers about 114" smaller than the cover and paste it down.
7. To put leaves in the bookcover you can use larger sheets and fold them in half and stitch them in or use brads or pipe cleaners or staple the pages all together putting the cover and title pages in. Then take 2 sheets of paper which are the length of the book and 4 inches wide and fold them in half.
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8. Take one and paste one half on the front cover and the other on the pages which are stapled together. 9. Now do the same thing with the other pieces at the back ofthe book and the leaves will be securely
fastened.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
10. Children can decorate and put the title on it at a later time. Adapted by Mrs. Almut Jackson from:
From Cover to Cover, Publishing in Your Classroom. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Corporation. 1970. Resources Beach, Richard. Writing About Ourselves and Others. Urbana: ERICIRCSINCTE, 1977.
Copeland, Kathleen. "Share Your Students: Where and How to Publish Children's Work." 57. Language Arts, September 1980, pp. 635-638. Kinnick. B. Jo. The School Literary Magazine. Urbana: NCTE, 1966. Purdy, S. Books for You to Make. N.Y.: Lippincott, 1973. Weiss, H. How to Make Your Own Books, N.Y.: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1974.
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Reading To Students
Definition Bond and Wagner (1966, p. 301.) say, "Whatever the grade level, a day should not pass without the teacher reading aloud to a child, a group, or the entire class." Every teacher should make it a regular practice to read fascinating stories, riddles, poems, and poetry to stimulate interest. Stories prerecorded by the teacher on tape can also be used with individuals or groups. Preferably, the audience should just listen, but at times, the audience may follow along in the book while listening. Rationale The reading of short stories, poems, riddles, and other materials by the teacher is an effective means of building background and concepts. Reading aloud also improves the students' listening comprehension, stimulates their interest in reading, and provides them a model of an adult who enjoys reading. It also places oral reading in proper perspective, that is, reading to an audience for a particular purpose. Sample (K-4)
Reading to students for their pleasure is the first priority. At times, reading to students may be combined with an assignment. Objectives The learner will 1. listen and respond for a variety of purposes. 2. infer sequence when not specifically stated by the speaker. 3. show an interest in hearing materials read. 4. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spelling. 5. recognize and demonstrate that individual reactions to and perceptions of literature are affected by
many factors. MaterialslPersonnel Paper and pencil, adults or older students to assist in dictating an interesting story. Steps 1. The teacher will read "just enough" of an interesting short story to arouse the interest and curiosity of
the learners. 2. The learners will complete the story by dictating or writing sentences or short paragraphs or by drawing
the ending. 3. Several or all the students will read orally their ending of the story to the class or discuss the drawing.
Help students to label their drawings if necessary. 4. Students can make a book attaching all the possible endings with appropriate illustrations. Evaluation All sensible endings should be accepted. Options 1. The teacher or a "good reader" can complete the reading of the story from the original source. 2. Compare orally the endings from the original source with those of the learners.
Sample (5-8) Role Playing
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Objectives The learner will 1. listen and respond for a variety of purposes 2. show an interest in hearing materials read 3. make individual. personal determination of worth, desireability and acceptability of various pieces of
literature 4. use generally accepted oral language forms 5. adjust listening strategies according to the purpose 6. use oral language in a variety of ways 7. demonstrate the ability to adjust manner and style of speaking to suit audience and situation Materials Books. tape recorder or adult reader. costumes (optional). music (optional). sound effects (optional.) Steps 1. Learners select books or stories. portions of which can be taped or read aloud. 2. Learners gather all the necessary information needed about a character. such as age. sex. birthplace.
hobbies. occupations. etc. 3. Learners take turns demonstrating or "acting out" characteristics of their character. Evaluation The teacher can compare the accuracy of the students' presentations to the original material. Peers as well as the student may want to read the original material independently. Options 1. A question and answer period can follow. 2. Students can draw and paint pictures to demonstrate characters. Sample (9-12) Fact vs. Opinion Objectives The learner will 1. distinguish between facts and opinions 2. adjust listening strategies 3. receive and evaluate material critically 4. recognize, recall and relate main ideas. details, sequence. cause-effect relationships Materials Reading materials. index cards, or manila tag board. tape recorder or an adult reader. Steps 1. The teacher can prerecord or read a selection from a short play, an autobiography of a sports hero
to the learners. 2. Prepare cards with statements that are facts and statements that are opinions about the material. 3. The learners will read the statements and determine whether each statement is a fact or an opinion. 4. The learner will "defend" the answer based on statements from the selection.
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Evaluation Self-check answers could be on the back of cards or answers could be discussed in small groups. Options Investigate storytelling as an alternative to reading aloud. Resources
Check the resource list that accompanies High Interest Topics. Adair, Margaret Weeks. Do.It.ln.A.Day Puppets for Beginners. N.Y.: John Day, 1964. Bauer, Caroline. Handbook for Storytellers. Chicago: America Library Association, 1977. Champlin, Connie. Puppetry and Creative Dramatics. Austin: Nancy Renfro Studios, 1980. Cullihan, Bernice and Carolyn Carmichael, eds. Literature and Young Children. Urbana: NCTE, 1977. Evertts, Eldonna and Antionerte Wiggins. Storytelling, Oral Reading and the Listening Process, Urbana: NCTE, 1974 (Cassette). Graves, Michael, Rebecca Palmer, and David Furniss. Structuring Reading Activities for English Classes. NCTE, 1976. Johnson, Ferne, ed. Start Early for an Early Start. Urbana: NCTE, 1976. Martin, Sue Ann. "Techniques for the Creative Reading and Telling of Stories to Children." Elementary English, 45 (May 1968), 611-618. Renfro, Maney. Puppetry and the Art of Story Creation. Austin: Nancy Renfro Studios, 1979. Rhodes, Lynn. "I Can Read: Predictable Books as Resources for Reading and Writing Instruction." Reading Teacher, Feb. 1981, pp. 511-517. Somers, Albert and Janet Worthington. Response Guides for Teaching Children's Books. Urbana: NCTE, 1979. Tiedt, Iris M. Exploring Books with Children, Atlanta: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1979.
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Role Playing
Definition Role playing consists of acting out a situation without a script for the purpose of interpretation by an audience. Students role-play situations selected from any written material appropriate to the grade level in order to tie the activity to reading and other language arts skills. The instructions to the student include the use of any gestures. facial expressions, etc. Verbal clues mayor may not be used to act out a scene or action from a story previously read or heard. When verbal clues are excluded, role playing becomes mime.
Rationale
Students who are low achievers require concrete examples to reinforce learning. Role playing allows the student to internalize concepts and demonstrate understandings. Students who are asked to respond to the roles being played are afforded supervised oral language development. which is another concrete form of practice with language skills. In addition. ,students can be easily introduced to the impact of non-verbal clues through role playing. Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will
1. recognize, retell and recall the main idea, detail and sequence by role playing a scene or event from a story previously heard or read.
2. use appropriate language patterns in oral language. 3. analyze non-verbal symbols of communication.
Materials
A story from a book or magazine appropriate to the student's reading and interest level, cards or small sheets of paper and pencils.
Steps ,I. The teacher will read a story to students or have students read one silently. 2. The teacher gives oral directions to the student: "act out the part in the story when-without saying
anything." Further directions might need to be given to specific students. The teacher can prepare stimulus cards for older students which read: Role play the scene-without words.
Options
(K-4)
1. Identify the action from the story you have just heard/read that is being role played. 2. The other students will listen while each student makes a statement or reads from the prepared sentence
which has been written. 3. The role player will respond to the correctness of the response and the teacher and students will react to
the sentence. 4. Write your response to the role being played in a complete sentence.
Options
(5-8)
1. Role play the expected outcome of a story before it has been completed. 2. Role playa different or surprise ending to a familiar work of literature. 3. Role play events leading up to a familiar literary work. 4. Role play emotions relative to literature.
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5. Role play the author as the student perceives the task of writing a particular piece of literature. 6. Role playa situation relative to the reaction of some member of the author's family regarding the work. Options (912) 1. Role play involving as many characters as the work being studied contains. 2. Role play the audience reaction to a stage production. 3. Role play a news reporter who has the responsibility of being a critic. Evaluation Noting oral language patterns and non-verbal communication should accompany the accurate representation of information as the focus of evaluation. Written responses can be shared with peers in small groups or evaluated by the teacher. Resources
Crowley, Sharon. Speech and Drama in English Class. Urbana: NCTE, 1978. Duke, Charles. Creative Dramatic and English Teaching. Urbana: NTCE, 1974. Ehrlich, Harriett. Creative Dramatics Handbook. Urbana: NCTE, 1974. Henry, Mabel Wright. Creative Experiences in Oral Language. Urbana: NCTE, 1967. Kelly, Elizabeth. Dramatics in the Classroom: Making Lessons Come Alive. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1976. Thompson, John F. Using Role Playing in the Classroom. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1978. Tiedt, Iris. Drama in Your Classroom. Urbana: NCTE, 1974.
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Sentence-combining
Definition
Sentence-combining (SC) is a structured technique for presenting students with smaller sentence parts and suggested cues for combining them into a larger, more mature sentence structure. SC is the reverse of parsing. It does not require students to label grammatical structures but rather to produce them.
Rationale
Over twenty years of research (Morenberg, 1979) documents that SC has a significant and positive effect upon the maturity of sentences that students subsequently use in their own free writing. Research has further established that SC practice positively affects teachers' judgements of students' quality of writing (Combs 1976), increases scores of various reading measures (Morenberg, 1979) and standardized listening tests (Straw, 1977). Teachers employing extensive SC practice report increases in students' understanding and use of punctuation, vocabulary and capitalization. The writing of younger students and older remedial students show the greatest gains as a result of SC practice.
More importantly, however, is the students' positive attitude toward writing in general and an increase in their confidence in using language that often emerges from SC practice. Students generally find SC problems intriguing; they are challenged by the "puzzle" inherent in each problem, yet guided by the simplicity of the cueing system. SC practice readily fits into short time segments and is easily adapted to group, individual, or learning center work. SC practice is effectively presented in a systematic and extended fashion, e.g. twice weekly throughout the school year. This provides needed repetition and opportunity for internalizing the concepts presented.
Sample (K-8)
Objectives
The learner will 1. make choices which indicate an appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of oral and written language. 2. use a variety or oral and written language structures.
a. learn ways of expanding basic language structures. b. experiment with and learn how word order reveals meaning c. recognize the options for word order. 3. use appropriate usage patterns in oral and written language. 4. use generally accepted oral and written language forms. 5. expand the number of words understood when heard in context, i.e. learn multiple and specific meanings of words, their denotations and connotations. 6. speak clearly and write legibly, i.e. use language understandable to others. 7. increase, enrich and refine oral and written expression, i.e., eliminate unnecessary words and use standard language patterns. 8. write and compose in a variety of ways, i.e. organize paragraphs in a variety of ways.
Materials/Personnel
paper/pencil, chalk/chalkboard, overhead transparencies and projector, sample texts with suitable exercises.
Steps
1. Present in writing the sentences to be combined from the students own speed or from an exercise sheet. 2. Ask a student to repeat the sentences after hearing them aloud or reading them. Combine the sentences
by inserting a word or phrase from one sentence into another. Example: I like the ball. The ball is red. I like the red ball.
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3. Provide as much oral practice as needed and accompany it by the written form. 4. Provide several written problems of sentences to be combined in the same manner as the models. 5. Students can work individually, in pairs or in small groups to complete the task.
Evaluation
Evaluation of the oral and written work can be performed in small group settings.
Options
(K-4)
1. Change sentence types e.g. from a statement to a question He came home. Why did he come home?
2. Use a compound sentence structure e.g. John has a dog. Mary has a cat. John has a dog but Mary has a cat.
Options
(5-8)
1. Use more mature vocabulary. e.g. The class was boisterous. The teacher was annoyed. The teacher was annoyed at the boisterious class.
2. Add adjective clauses, infinitives etc. e.g. The girl is pretty. The girl lives next door. The girl who lives next door is pretty.
Sample (9-12)
Objectives High school students need more freedom in completing SC problems. In addition to the K-8 listing, an important 9-12 objective is to have students choose among various possible structures.
Materials Written sentences, pencils.
Steps 1. Present students with as many as forty simple sentences separated into groups of 2-8 sentences without
cues. Allow students to share their choices and agree upon a group version of resulting paragraph (Strong, 1973). a. A dilemma is a problem. b. The problem has two solutions. c. Both solutions are bad.
A dilemma is a problem with two solutions and both solutions are bad. -OR- A dilemma is a problem with two equally bad solutions. (Strong, 1973). 2. Present this problem: a. Mary bought a new suit.
b. The suit was tailor-made. c. Mary gained twenty-five pounds. d. Mary could never wear the suit. Combine the sentences into one which emphasizes that Mary could never wear the suit.
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Evaluation Assess students' progress in choral readings of SC problems or review tests of SC problems. You may also assess students' SC ability by asking them to rewrite a paragraph of short simple sentences. Examining students' free writing for evidence of more complex sentence structure should be encouraged. Careful observation of a T-unit analysis of students' writing (Hunt, 1965) is valuable here. Resources
Combs, Warren E. "Further effects of Sentence-combining Practice on Writing." Research in the Teaching of English. Vol. 10, No.1, 1976. Combs, Warren E. and Kathy C. Wilhelmsen. Sentence-Building: Teaching Grammatical Patterns Inductively_ Athens: WACE, 1979, (Five volumes. Elementary and Middle Grades) Horst, William H. and Debbie A. Rosenberger. Sentence-combining. McDougal Littell & Company, 1981. (Middle School) Hunt, Kellogg W. Grammatical Structures Written at Three Grade Levels. Urbana: NCTE, 1965.
Mellon, John c., Transformational Sentence Combining: NCTE Research Report No. 10.
Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1969. O'Hare, Frank. SentenceCraft. New York: Ginn & Company, 1975. (High School) Rippon, Michelle and Walter E. Meyers. Combining Sentences. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978. (High School) Shuster, Edgar. Sentence Mastery. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1980. (Middle School) Strong, William. Sentence.Combining: A Composing Process. New York: Random House, 1973.
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Study Guide
Definition
A study guide (Earle, 1969; Herber, 1978) is an instructional strategy designed to guide students through a reading assignment in a textbook. Often, study guides are nothing more than a series of textually explicit questions by <t teacher to test students' comprehension. However, a "good" study guide contains the necessary ingredients to extend students' thinking beyond the mere parroting of factual information. It asks students to react to text ideas at multiple levels of understanding.
Rationale
A study guide provides the needed structure that low achievers require for success. It helps students not only to understand what has been read but to deal with the common organizational structures of tests such as cause/effect, comparison/contrast, sequence and listing. Study guides can encourage students to become active participants rather than observers in the learning process. Additionally, they key students into the major ideas present in the reading assignment and give them an opportunity to explore ideas. Their judicious use can provide the atmosphere necessary to develop students' independence in reading and thinking.
Sample (58)
Objectives
The learner will
1. recognize, recall and retell the main ideas, details, sequence, and cause-effect relationships. 2. draw conclusions from facts given. 3. infer that which is not explicitly stated in a selection. 4. recognize information and ideas through classifying and synthesizing. 5. use a study technique to guide the reading of text material.
Materials/Personnel
The guide in the form of a handout, students' textbooks.
Steps
The study guide will be discussed utilizing the following three steps: development, construction, and use. 1. Teachers must analyze the text assignment for both the content to be emphasized and the skills
necessary to acquire it. Through analyzing the content, portions of the text fitting your objectives will be emphasized while other portions can be deleted leaving students to focus their attention on important information. Additionally, analyzing the content will tell what levels of comprehension and patterns of organization to emphasize in the construction of the study guide. For example, in a science unit on foods the teacher might decide that the concepts of fats, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals are important for students to master. To do so, students must utilize all three levels of comprehension and must be able to utilize the comparison and contrast pattern organization to understand fully the material. Finally, before constructing the guide, the teacher must consider the students' abilities and the difficulty level of the material. This assistance takes the form of providing an information index to help students locate the desired material. This assistance takes the form of providing the page number and possibly even paragraph or line numbers on the page as well. 2. Study guides have no standard form, but the teacher must be cautious to make the guide interesting enough to motivate the students and to avoid overcrowding so as not to overwhelm the students. The guide may be constructed for only a single level of comprehension or for differential levels. Additionally, it may be constructed for only a particular organizational pattern. Varying the structure of the guide will depend on the analysis of the reading assignment and should be considered to provide variety in their
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usage. Adding a lot of humor. either in the question or by an addition at the end of the gUide helps to relieve pressure about studying. Below is a mini-example of questions at three levels of comprehension with the foods unit previously mentioned. (Literal) What is changed into simple sugars by the digestive process? (p. 131 par. 2)
(Interpretive) What function do various minerals have with regard to people's daily menu? (p. 135)
(Applied) What would happen if proteins were not in your daily diet and you were severely injured?
It should be noted that the name of the appropriate level of comprehension would not be provided the students on their guide; it has been provided for you, the reader. It should also be noted that an information index of page and paragraph has been provided in question one and only page assistance in question two. Such assistance has been provided to key students into essential information.
A guide may also be constructed for the comparison and contrast organizational pattern. if desired. in lieu of the levels of comprehension guide. This can be done by constructing a guide which requires the students to match the type of essential nutrient (e.g. Fats) with the type of food which contains it (e.g. Butter vs. Peanuts). Additionally, students can also be required to match the nutrient with a statement which describes its function (e.g. Helps in moving water in or out of the tissues vs. Essential for building body muscles). 3. Study guides should be used only in the context of a well-planned lesson. otherwise. it may become only
a meaningless ditto. Students should be prepared to read the assignment through developing conceptual background and purpose. A follow-up discussion should ensue after students complete the guide.
The teacher may decide to "walk" students through a part of the guide initially so they will become acquainted with its structure and will be better able to use it. Groups of students may also cooperatively work on a guide to provide for an active learning situation and collaborative decision-making. Finally. as students become proficient in the use of the study guide and begin to transfer their learning to other situations, the varying structure included initially, and eventually the guide itself, may be progressively withdrawn. This is done to encourage students to become independent in their reading.
Evaluation
Teachers can check the effectiveness of a study gUide through the ease with which they use it as well as by the results of a quiz or a discussion on the subject matter.
Note: The study guide is used in conjunction with content area subjects and, therefore. is probably inappropriate for the lower grades. Students in grades 5-8 and 9-12 will benefit from its use particularly if the material is difficult or if guidance is necessary to help them read the material.
Resources
Dishner:, E. K. and J. E. Readence. "Getting Started: Using the Textbook Diagnostically." Reading World, 1977. 17, 36-49.
Earle, R. A. "Developing and Using Study Guides." In Research in Reading in the Content Areas: First Year Report. Eds. H. L. Herber and P. L. Sanders. Syracuse: Reading and Language Arts Center, Syracuse University, 1969.
Estes, T. H. and J. L. Vaughan. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1978.
Herber, H. L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1978.
Laffey, J. L. and J. L. Steele. "Tell No Teacher ..... In Herber, H. L. & Riley, J. D. (Eds.), Research in Reading in the Content Areas: The Fourth Report. Syracuse: Reading and Language Arts Center, Syracuse University, 1979.
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Readence, J. E., T. W. Bean and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1981. Tierney. R. J .. J. E. Readence. and E. K. Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices: A Guide for Improving Instruction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1980.
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Survey Technique
Definition
The Survey Technique (Aukerman, 1972) is a systematic means for students to preview a textbook chapter. Based upon the first step of the SQ3R method of study (Robinson, 1961), the Survey Technique is designed to prepare students to read a text assignment by utilizing a whole-class overview of the material.
Rationale
The Survey Technique provides teachers with a systematic approach to aid students in associating their prior knowledge with new information to be acquired. Once teachers have demonstrated the use of this strategy and "walked" students through it a number of times, the Survey Technique can provide students a means to study a chapter independently prior to a thorough reading of it.
Students will often be surprised at the amount of information they know about a topic before they actually read about it. The Survey Technique provides an excellent means to utilize this previous information. Once students see the value of such an overview before they read, they will begin to use it independently and teachers will be able gradually to withdraw the structure and guidance they provide with the strategy.
Sample (K-12)
Objectives
The learner will 1. recognize information and ideas through classifying, summarizing, and synthesizing. 2. predict outcomes. 3. interpret and use information presented graphically. 4. use titles, headings, subheadings and pictures to locate and preview information. 5. use a study technique to read a text assignment.
MaterialsIPersonnel
Textbooks, chalkboard.
Steps
Aukerman (1972) has outlined a six-step procedure which may be used with most traditionally designed textbooks. 1. Have students read the chapter title and ask them to make predictions about the chapter content.
Teachers might ask questions such as: "What do you think the chapter is about?" "What do you already know about the topic?" "Can you relate this chapter to what you have already studied?" Regardless of ability all students can participate in this step of the procedure. Though Aukerman does not suggest to do so, it is recommended that students read the review questions directly after a discussion of the chapter title. Students should be asked to predict answers to the questions. In this way they will be exposed to what the author thinks is important and will be able to see how much information they already possess on the topic. 2. Students should read each of the chapter subtitles. This will first give them an idea of the chapter outline. Students should turn each of these headings into a question. For example, the section entitled, "King Cotton," in a Georgia history text would result in a question such as, "Why was cotton called king in Georgia?" Students should attempt to answer these questions before proceeding. Later, these questions can serve as purpose-setting devices for reading the chapter. 3. Often times much important information is found in the visuals of a chapter. Analyzing the visuals allows teachers to stress the importance of them and, if necessary, gives them an opportunity to show students how to obtain information from the visuals. As such, students should analyze any graph, picture, map, or chart which appears in the chapter for the information conveyed by it.
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4. Many text authors use an introductory paragraph or two to provide an overview or rationale for the important ideas set forth in the chapter. After reading these paragraphs, students should be asked to integrate this information with what they have already gleaned from the first three steps of the procedure. A question such as, "Now that you have read the introduction, how does this information support what we have already discovered about the chapter?"
5. Generally, the concluding paragraphs of a chapter provide a summary of the important information previously detailed. Reading this summary can provide students additional confirmation of what they have previously discovered in all preceding steps of the Survey Technique.
Again, though not suggested by Aukerman, students should return to the review questions at the end of the chapter. Students should see how many new answers have resulted from the survey ofthe text. It will not be uncommon for students to answer correctly up to half the questions by utilizing the information they have gained through this strategy.
6. Given all the information that they have derived from the chapter, students are now asked to synthesize it and develop a summary statement that could stand as the main idea of the chapter. This is recorded on the board. Utilizing this predicted main idea statements are the purpose-setting questions derived from step two of this technique, students are directed to pursue a more detailed study of the chapter.

Evaluation

Follow-up quizzes may be used to demonstrate to students the effectiveness of this strategy in enhancing

the comprehension process.

'

Note: The Survey Technique is most appropriate for students in grades 5-8 and 9-12, but may be adapted for upper level students in grades K-4. The technique would appear most useful when students might have difficulty with the text material.

Depending on the chapter structure, the Survey Technique should be adapted. For instance, all chapters will have a title though they may not possess other traditional parts. Teachers should still attempt to use the chapter title to help students associate their prior knowledge to the topic under study. This may be particularly appropriate for K-4 students who are only gradually being introduced to study techniques but who would benefit from some preparation for reading.

Resources

Aukerman, R. C. Reading in the Secondary School Classroom. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1972.

Estes, T. H. and J. L. Vaughan. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1978.

Herber, H. L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas: Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978.

Robinson, F. Effective Study. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.

Readence, J. E., T. W. Bean, and R. S. Baldwin. Content Area Reading: An Integrated Approach. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1981.

Tierney, R. J., J. E. Readence, and E. K. Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices: A Guide for Improving Instruction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1980.

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Survival Skills
Definition Survival skill activities are those assignments which parallel real life experiences through the use of actual materials with which adults cope. Rationale The use of actual rather than contrived situations establishes a genuine purpose of learning. The experiences used are not bound by prior knowledge but rather offer the challenge of future needs. The situations are those which the students meet outside of school and therefore set the stage for intrinsic motivation to learn the skills at school so they can be applied out of school. Such activities maintain positive motivation for learning. Sample (K-4)
Alphabet Match Objectives The learner will 1. demonstrate the knowledge that language functions in a variety of ways 2. learn specialized vocabularies 3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes 4. identify individual letters of the alphabet. high interest words and phrases that appear frequently in the
environment 5. discriminate visual similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context 6. demonstrate an understanding that symbols stand for referents 7. interpret symbols and symbolic language
Materials
Cut out letters of the alphabet. logos or pictures from various advertisements mounted individually on cards or construction paper. Steps
1. The teacher should hold up one of the most familiar logos and have the students identify it by name. 2. Ask for volunteers to spell it aloud. (This may be difficult if the logo is in script.) 3. Ask for volunteers to match the letters that you have cut out (both upper and lower case) with the ones
in the logo. 4. Discuss any variations such as the entire name in upper or lower case letters as an attempt by
advertisers to attract attention.
Evaluation The teacher can note which letters of the alphabet are commonly confused.
Options 1. Have more able or older students volunteer the slogan that usually accompanies the name. 2. Use these words to help teach sound/symbol correspondence. Sample (58) Labeling Information
Objective The learner will interpret and use basic instructions and labeling information. e.g. medicine labels.
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Materials

Provide a folder with a picture of an aspirin bottle and the actual label with directions. Inside the folder have

work sheets with sample questions such as (1) What is the adult dosage? (2) A physician is another name

for a

. (3) An adult can take up to

aspirins a day. On the back of the folder have a copy of

the answers.

Steps

1. Have pairs of students read the label and discuss the answers to the questions verbally. 2. Have them complete the worksheet and check their answers by the key.

Evaluation

The material is self-checking.

Options
1. The teacher can remove the answers and have a group discussion of responses. 2. Programmed material can be prepared.
a. Place the statements concerning the label on the left-hand side. Leave a blank for the last statement in the question.
b. Place the correct answer to the question at the right-hand side of the page or upside-down at the bottom.
c. Have the student place right hand over the right half of the page or at the bottom. d. Have the student read each question and decide on the correct answer to fill the blank. e. The student slides hand down and checks the answer before going to the next question. Adapted from: Insel, E. and A. Edson. How to Read for Everyday Living. Freeport: Education Activities, 1978, pp. 2-3.
Sample (9-12)

TV: Comparing Television Programs Objectives The learner will make comparisons using stated information and implied information.

Materials Copies of a viewer's guide should be available.

Steps
1. Discuss briefly some of the students' favorite TV shows.
2. Categorize shows according to mystery, adventure, game, comedy, etc.
3. Divide the class into pairs or groups of three with each group composed of students who all like comedy or mystery, etc.
4. Have each student in the pair or group watch a different selected show in their category during the week and keep brief notes on it guided by questions on a viewer's guide. Sample questions might include:
a. What is the name of the show? b. When does it appear? c. Is the background music used? d. How does the show begin? e. What was the main idea/plot? f. Who were the characters? g. What was the climax? h. How did the program end?

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5. Have the students reform into groups and elaborate on their answers comparing programs of the same type. Provide assistance as necessary.
Evaluation The students can organize their material with teacher assistance into a larger chart form of the viewer's guide. Options Different groups can compare different types of programs. Adapted from: Schaff, J. New Dimensions in English. Santa Monica: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1978. Note The Essential Skills for Georgia Schools in the appendix contains a listing of skills under Functional Reading from which suitable activities can be developed. In addition. commercial materials are now available on many of these topics. Resources
Adams, Anne, Anne Flowers, and Elsa Woods. Reading for Survival in Today's Society. 2 Vols. Santa Monica: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1978. Blair, Susan. An Implementation of a Functional Reading Program. ERIC Reproduction Document Service, ED 161 017, March 1979. Cassidy, Jack. "Survival Reading." In Motivating Children and Young Adults to Read. Eds. James L. Thomas and Ruth M. Long. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1979. Cassidy, Jack and Timothy Shanahan. "Survival Skills: Some Considerations." Journal of Reading, vol. 23, no. 2, 1979, p. 136-140. Chambers, Dewey Woods and Lowery Heath Ward. The Language Arts: A Pragmatic Approach. New York: William C. Brown, Publishers, 1975. Epstein, Kitty Kelly. "The Road to Literary; Teaching a 16 Year Old to Read." Journal of Reading, March 1981, pp. 497-502. Insel, E. and A. Edson. How to Read for Every Day Living. Freeport: Educational Activities, 1978. Reis, Ron. "A Curriculum for Real Life Reading Skills." Journal of Reading, 21, iii (December 1977), 208-211. Schaff, J. New Dimensions in English. Santa Monica: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1978. Schrank, Jeffrey. Deception Detection. Boston: Beacon Press; 1975. Sticht, Thomas. "Needed: A Functional Literary Skills Curriculum for the Secondary School." ERIC Reproduction Document Service. No. ED 088 039, April 1974. Vacca, Richard and Jo Ann Vacca. "Functional Reading In Competency Programs." Journal of Reading, March 1981, pp. 512-515.
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Tape Recording
Definition These activities involve the students in recording their voices on a cassette or reel-to-reel tape. Rationale Creating projects on tape can involve students in a total language arts approach with thinking, listening, speaking, reading and writing. Students can explore the possibilities of communication which informs, persuades or entertains. In a medium which has no visual reinforcement or iIlustration, the students wiII be challenged to experiment with the power and effectiveness of language alone. The use of a tape recorder is useful for students who need practice in reading but prefer privacy to avoid embarrassment. Sample (K-8) Dial a Story: Reading to Friends Objectives The learner wiII 1. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources 2. demonstrate an understanding of and use phonetic analysis clues and principles to identify new words 3. demonstrate an understanding of and use structural analysis clues 4. speak clearly 5. eliminate unnecessary space-fillers such as "and," "well," "urn," "eh," "ya know" 6. recognize that critical reading requires reader involvement and interaction with the material being used Materials Cassette tape recorder, story books. Steps 1. The teacher can announce that the class is going to make a library of books-on-tape for classmates to
enjoy or for lower grades to use. A selection of colorful, iIlustrated children's books should be provided. 2. Let each student choose a book of interest that can be read with minimal help. 3. Provide opportunity for students to practice reading their book aloud, stressing to them the desire for
reading with feeling and clarity of voice. 4. When the student is ready to record the story, the teacher should help with a "practice run" with the
recorder so the reader can experience hearing his/her voice. The student should be encouraged to operate the recorder after the teacher's instruction. 5. Ask students to begin their recording by giving the title of book and their name as the reader. 6. When the books have been recorded, check the quality of the recordings before distributing them for listening. Share them with other classes for a short time before you record a new set.
Evaluation The teacher can informally observe student's participation and enthusiasm for sharing favorite books in this way. Peer enthusiasm and interest in listening to a student read-along-tape will give the reader positive feedback as well as demonstrate the success of this kind of book sharing. Be sure to double-check the recording for background noise, level fluctuation and distortion. Sample (9-12) Mind Movie
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Objectives
The learner will 1. recognize, recall and retell the main idea(s), details. sequence, cause-effect relationships
2. make judgments 3. write and compose for a variety of purposes 4. write and compose in a variety of ways 5. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of purposes 6. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that individual reactions to and perception of literature are
affected by many factors
Materials
Cassette or reel to reel tape recorder. resources for readings. music. excerpts from interviews, song lyrics, sound effects, or story lines.
Steps
1. If time permits. a demonstration of a Mind Movie will enhance motivation for students. 2. Students will need a list of possible ideas to help them see the potential for a Mind Movie: images of
women, loneliness, relationships between young and old persons, the struggle to be an individual. drugs and their effect on young people. Arrange for students to work in small groups to brainstorm topics and decide what "message" they want to communicate. The students will submit their plan in writing. 3. The students will then begin their search for specific music. literature excerpts. and any other media sources such as newspapers, magazines. radio or TV which will help communicate their ideas. 4. Students will select and organize the excerpted materials by using a script sheet and writing out the sound track. With a reel to reel. stereo tape recorder it is possible to record two different sound tracks which will be played as one; this requires a great deal more planning and patience to create a technically good tape. A length of 5-10 minutes is adequate for students' first attempt at a Mind Movie. 5. When the students are ready to make their tape. the teacher will need to assist them with instruction on using the equipment or help them record their script. Emphasize the need to pay close attention to beginnings. endings. transitions. voice level. and background noise. Provide practice in cueing and splicing. if necessary. 6. When the students are ready to share their Mind Movie. they should introduce their project by reminding the class the visual images are created within the Iistener's minds. A darkened room will enhance the presentation. Evaluation
The teacher can informally observe the group interaction and evaluate individual participation. Teachers can evaluate students' demonstration of using the tape recorder properly as well as creating a quality tape technically. Feedback can be given to the students on the effectiveness of communicating the message which they developed on tape. Peer evaluation can be directed at the effectiveness and cohesiveness of the project. Students involved in creating a Mind Movie can evaluate the perception of using sound and language to communicate ideas and feelings.
Resources
Brown. James. Richard Lewis and Fred Harcleroad. AV Instruction: Techniques, Media and Methods. NY: McGraw Hill. 1977.
Donalson. Kenneth. ed. NonPrint Media and the Teaching of English. Urbana: NCTE. 1975.
Freezel. Jerry. Kent Brown. and Carol Valentine. eds. Selected Print and NonPrint Resources in Speech Communication: An Annotated Bibliography, K12. Urbana: ERIC/RCS/SCA. 1976.
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Television
Definition These activities involve the students as active evaluators of television programs rather than passive receivers of messages. Rationale Television has changed the life style of Americans. Although estimates vary and. in fact, change every month. a recent estimate that approximately 98 percent of all households have at least one television set which is on about 45 1/2 hours a week seems about average (Fernsibler & Mead. 1980). Instead of competing with TV, it is wise to assist low achievers in becoming informed consumers. The relevancy of using TV can also be incorporated into skill instruction in many areas of language arts. Sample (K.4) Looking for Specifics Objectives The learner will 1. recognize. recall and retell details 2. learn specialized vocabulary 3. make comparisons using stated information 4. recognize information and ideas through classifying 5. make appropriate generalizations 6. recognize visual appeals (color, shape, familiarity) 7. recognize visual stereotypes Materials Chalkboard/chalk, television schedule, television. Steps 1. Focus attention on a topic being studied in a content area such as clothing, food or transportation. 2. Check the channel listings for the week to determine when a program suitable for student viewing will be
broadcasted. 3. Set the stage for viewing by brainstorming questions about the topic on the board such as
a. What type of clothing was worn (outdoor, indoor. casual. dressy, etc.)? b. How did the clothing differ according to the age, sex, occupation, status in the program of the
wearer? c. What styles were most often seen Oeans. dresses, sweaters)? d. What colors were worn? e. How does this clothing compare with the clothing you wear to school, church. for recreation? f. Did the clothing seem to suit the character and the situation? 4. Assign small groups of students to watch for the answers to a particular question. 5. Watch the program. 6. Use a fishbowl technique after the broadcast. Have the small group in the center discuss the question while the other students sit around the outside just listening. After the topic has been discussed, the "outsiders" can be permitted to ask the "insiders" questions.
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7. Each group alternates as the "insiders." B. Compare their discussion to the materials being used as other resources such as textbooks and films. Evaluation The teacher can guide the discussion and be aware of accurate/inaccurate statements. Options An awareness of stereotypes and persuasive techniques of visual appeal can be stressed with more mature students. Sample (5-B) Types of Programs Objectives The learner will 1. recognize information and ideas through classifying 2. recognize. recall and retell the main idea(s). details, sequence and cause-effect relationships 3. make comparisons using stated information 4. learn specialized vocabulary Materials Pen/paper. posterboard, magic markers, premade cards. Steps 1. Have the students brainstorm the names of their favorite television shows. List these on the board. 2. Divide the class into small groups. 3. Give one premade card with a type of show on it such as news. detective. talk show, soap opera. etc. to
each group. 4. Have the students in each group identify the shows from the board that fit their category. 5. Have each group discuss this type of program. Elicit characteristics of the type of program. Immature
students might need a starter list to which they respond "yes" or "no." A list could include host(ess). music, suspense, prizes, etc. 6. Similarities and differences can be pointed out when the posters have been on display for a while. Evaluation The teacher serves as a helper during the process. Peer feedback during discussion can help to insure accuracy. Sample (9-12) Spotting the Shots Objectives The learner will 1. recognize information and ideas through classifying 2. analyze relationships among source. message. medium and audience. 3. analyze nonverbal symbols of communication used in television programming and visual advertising. Materials Television schedule. television.
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Steps 1. Select an evening when several of the students' favorite shows are on television. 2. In class that day divide the class into five small groups based on student interest in one of several
programs. 3. Discuss the types of shots that are commonly used in television such as the fade-out, the close-up, the
long shot, the zoom, etc. 4. Watch an educational television program without the sound to demonstrate these shots. 5. As each shot is seen, discuss the reasons behind the shot selected i.e., to show the character's expres-
sion, to shoot a view of a crowd, etc. 6. Assign the first group to watch the first five minutes of their show for the types of shots used and possible
reasons for the shot. Include commercials. The second group watches the second five minutes of their show, etc. (This is to enable the teacher to switch channels if desired while the students can simply enjoy the rest of the program.) Evaluation The teacher can select a program to watch in class which the students can view to "test" their skill at identifying the reasons behind the shots. Resources Many educational television programs are made available during school hours which are designed to use the techniques of television to teach academic skills. Check the EVT schedule for specific programs as well as with Georgia Public Television. Becker, George. Television and the Classroom Reading Program. Newark: IRA, 1973. Corbett, Scott. What Makes 1V Work? Boston: Lutte, Brown, 1965. Donaldson, Kenneth, ed. NonPrint Media and the Teaching of Eng~ish. Urbana: NCTE, 1975. Foster, Harold. The New Literacy: The Language of Film and Television. Urbana: NCTE, 1979. Potter, Rosemary Lee. "The Link Between Reading Instruction and Commercial Television: Is This a Bandwagon? 24, Journal of Reading, February 1981, 377-382. Sherington, R. Television and Language Skills. London: Oxford University Press, 1973.
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The Topic Step Definition The Topic Step is a procedure to use when you have freedom to chose a topic for a writing assignment. Rationale A structured procedure is helpful when students feel overwhelmed or insecure about a suitable topic upon which to write. Personal ideas also emphasize relevancy. Sample (K-12) Objectives

The learner will 1. learn ways of expanding basic language structures 2. use generally accepted language forms 3. demonstrate that language functions in a variety of ways 4. increase, enrich and refine written expression 5. use functional vocabulary related to experiences

6. write and compose in a variety of ways

Materials

Ideas, paper and pencil/pen, teacher assistance for primary students.

Steps

1. Have students utilize a three step process, either individuaIly through silent work, through small group discussion, or verbally with teacher assistance.
2. The three steps are listed below. Primary grade students may require someone to whom they can dictate their ideas.

a. THINK ABOUT PEOPLE YOU KNOW

Write the name of a person next to the word that best describes him or her:

surprising

_ mysterious

_

noble

_ dedicated

_

entertaining

_ helpful

_

Choose a person from this group who reaIly interests you. List at least three of his or her qualities that attract you. Think of an experience that you have shared with this person that was out ofthe ordinary. Choose one with which others can identify.

b. THINK ABOUT A PLACE

Write the name of a familiar or special place next to the word that best describes it:

beautiful

_ threatening

_

peaceful

cozy

_

spooky

private

_

Choose one place that stands out from the rest in your mind. List three reasons why. Remember one unusual experience you had there.

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c. THINK ABOUT AN EVENT

Think about things that have happened to you. Write an event next to each word that describes it.

scary

_ funny

=_

unusual

_ exciting

_

rewarding

_ embarrassing

_

Which event stands out in your mind? Write three reasons why you feel this event has stayed with you.

3. Each student has the beginnings of three personal topics about which to write. Each student should select the one topic that seems most interesting.
4. Individually focus on the selected topic. Brainstorm for a few minutes by writing down all these ideas on a jot list.
5. Tell students to write nonstop for 10 minutes. Recall incidents and details that illustrate it. Let their minds wander freely. They may discover aspects of the subject they've never considered.
6. This writing can now be reviewed and revised, perhaps through small group interaction.
7. The student can then revise the writing and hand in the assignment.

Evaluation

Peer evaluation is inherent in step 6. The teacher can evaluate the final product according to the initial purpose of the assignment and the quality of expression. Errors in mechanics should be noted for future instruction.

Resources

Landrum, Roger. A Day Dream I Had at Night and Other Stories: Teaching Children to Make Their Own Readers. Urbana: NCTE, 1971.

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Typewriting
Definition Typewriting involves the use of a keyboard which produces printed letters through type and ink on paper. Rationale The use of a typewriter has the appeal of an adult-related task. In addition, the typewriter encourages precision and neatness through self-motivation rather than extrinsic authority. A variety of skills can be improved through the use of a typewriter. Sample (K-12) Objectives The learner will 1. experiment with and learn how word order reveals meaning 2. recognize and use options for word order 3. discriminate visual similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context 4. demonstrate understanding of terms used in reading instruction 5. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spelling 6. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources 7. write and compose for a variety of purposes Materials Typewriter, typing paper, some method of correction (fluid, tape, eraser). Steps As stated, the typewriter can be used to reinforce a variety of skills. Some suggestions include 1. learning the alphabet letters 2. learning alphabet sequence 3. practicing the correct form of personally misspelled words 4. proofreading one's writing 5. composing sentences or paragraphs 6. reinforcing sight vocabulary words 7. alphabetizing 8. letter writing Evaluation Evaluation should be based on the purpose of the task-expression of thought vs. mechanics, first draft vs. final product. The opportunity for correction without penalty should be provided. Resources:
Nash, Kate and Charlotte Geyer. Write to Read Typing Program. Woburn: Curriculum Associates. Play'n Talk Reading Program. Oklahoma City: International Heights.
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Video Taping
Definition Video taping is putting visual images onto magnetic tape. Rationale Many school districts have video equipment available; potential users need only to be instructed in its operation. These activities require student ideas and involvement. They offer opportunities to expand language. They also encourage students to be critical, creative and better problem solvers. The advantages of using video tape over film include the following. 1. There is no "development" time; your taping can be instantly replayed. 2. Tape can be used and reused several times. 3. Sound is recorded at the same time as the visual image (Morrow and Suid, 1977). Video taping, however, can be time-consuming and patience is needed. Sample (K-8) A Class-Produced TV Program Objectives: The learner will 1. listen and respond for a variety of purposes 2. recognize, recall and tell sequence, cause-effect relationships 3. predict outcomes 4. recognize the use of propaganda techniques 5. eleminate unnecessary spacefillers such as "and," "will," "urn," "uh," "ya know" 6. use oral language in a variety of ways 7. demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of external structures 8. distinguish four essentials of the communciation process (source, message, medium, audience.) 9. understand and use basic components of visual literacy Materials Video equipment, paper/pencil, optional: material for scenery, costumes. Steps 1. The teacher will present a wide range of choices on what kind of class program can be produced for a
video tape: a variety show, an original play, a variation on a literary piece, a game-quiz show, a man-on-the street interview show, a candid camera show, a documentary. 2. After discussion of the choices, the students will select one type of program which the entire class will produce together. 3. The class should be divided to work in small groups so segments of the production can be planned effectively. Specific assignments concerning the performers, those who work on costumes, scenery, the writers, etc. should be discussed. 4. The class should assist the "script writers" with revisions. Students who have parts should rehearse their roles until they develop some confidence. 5. When the class is ready for taping, the teacher or film crew will tape the students' presentation.
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Evaluation The teacher can observe the interaction within groups to evaluate students' enthusiasm and participation. The script can be informally evaluated on how weIl it speaks to an audience and communicates before students rehearse with it. Students can evaluate their planning the script, the rehearsing and the actual taping, and the final video tape.
Sample (9-12)
Speaking Out-A Public Service Announcement
Objectives
The learner will
1. distinguish four essentials of the communication process source, message, medium, audience 2. write and compose for a variety of purposes 3. write and compose in a variety of ways 4. understand and use basic components of visual literacy
Materials
Video equipment, pencils/storyboard
Steps
1. In relation to a study on advertising appeals and propaganda devices, public service announcements on the media can generate some thoughful discussion and ideas for video tape projects. The teacher can lead a discussion on some sample public service announcements, focusing on the need, the language and visual images used, and the audience intended for change.
2. Categories of public service annoucements that can be analyzed are: personal (family), school, job (education and safety), community and country.
3. Students can be asked to list 610 problems faced by our society or by individuals which could be addressed by a public service announcement created by them.
4. Once the "problem" has been clearly stated, the task of finding appropriate language and visual choices to communicate a message must be determined.
5. Students can work in small groups with the task of creating a script and scene which will effectively communicate to a predetermined audience.
6. Using a story board, the students will plan the logical sequence of shots and audio track for a public service announcement. (See Photograph strategy.)
7. When the scene is ready for taping, the teacher or "taping crew" can video tape the announcement. (Mistakes can be erased and retaped.)
8. When all the groups have completed their project, the announcements can be viewed and discussed by the entire class. The best quality announcements can possibly be aired at the local TV station-check with them!
Evaluation
The teacher can observe the involvement of individuals in the discussion and the group interaction during the planning stage. Students can evaluate their own work with a checklist. Peer evaluation of finished projects can be shared informally or with the aid of written forms.
Options
Possible projects using video tape include such things as making commercials, documentaries, plays, public announcements, game shows and role playing activities. Possible projects with television viewing include analyzing TV viewing habits using interviews and surveys, identifying persuasion and advertisement
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appeals, writing opinion letters in response to TV programs. studying the rating system, and debating the effect of TV on its viewers. Be sure to read the section on "Television." Resources
Anderson, Yvonne. Teaching Film Animation to Children. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhard. 1970. Brown. James, Richard Lewis and Fred Harderoad. AV Instruction: Techniques, Media and Methods. NY: McGraw Hill, 1977. Chapman, Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. New York: Harcourt. Brace. Jovanovich. 1978. Feldman. Edmund Burke. Becoming Human Through Art. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1970. Kinsey. Anthony. How to Make Animated Movies. New York: Viking Press. 1970. Lowndes. Douglas. Film Making in Schools. N.Y.: Watson-Guptill Publications. 1968.
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Visual Literacy (Art)
Definition
Visual literacy through art can enhance any area of curriculum by capitalizing on student's imagination and ability to manipulate concrete materials. Projects can range from drawing to construction. but one basic premise should permeate all activities: these students have failed before and become easily frustrated. The process. therefore. rather than the product should be emphasized.
Rationale
A student's failure is most probably not the sole product of personal performance but also that of past teaching methods and/or materials and/or facilitators. By applying a multi-sensory approach (auditory. visual. tactile. kinetic) to teaching and allowing a student to explore. perhaps for the first time. with no absolute right or wrong answers. the teacher provides the freedom of selection the student may never have had.
Sample (K-4)
Mystery Box
Objectives
The learner will 1. demonstrate the knowledge that language functions in a variety of ways. e.g. for personal expression. to
regulate. to receive. and to create and imagine. 2. adjust listening strategies according to the purpose. 3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes including following directions. 4. receive and comprehend varied materials at different levels of thinking. e.g.. literal. inferential.
evaluative. and appreciative. 5. analyze and interpret pictures. people. and events using elaborated language. 6. distinguish between reality and fantasy.
Materials
Large box covered with construction paper, newspaper, chalkboard, a piece of 18" X 18" manila paper for each student, paint and crayons or chalk, sample pictures.
Steps
1. Show the mystery bo?, to the class. Shake it and let the students hear the "thumps" of a rolled up newspaper. Let the students look at it carefully and shake it themselves. Discuss what might be in the box.
2. List items on the board. Show pictures of possibilities. Encourage variety - real things, invented things, etc.
3. On manila paper. have each student draw the object he or she imagines is in the box. Tell the students that their papers are a box too, and they have to try to squeeze their picture into the box. Allow time for students to complete the work and clean up.
4. Have students describe their own work and display the pictures. 5. Reveal the object in the box and carefully explain that the newspaper was a prop.
Evaluation
Student can be evaluated by the way they express the "why" of the object in the box including reality vs. fantasy. Peer evaluation can also be used through discussion and comparison of drawings. Spatial relation can also be evaluated-is the box big enough to contain an elephant?
(Adapted from "Unique Art Activities," Education Insights, 1979)
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Samples (K-4) Caged Animals
Objectives The learner will 1. demonstrate the knowledge that language functions in a variety of ways. e.g. for personal expression. to
regulate. to receive and to create and imagine. 2. adjust listening strategies according to the purpose. 3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes-
for pleasure and enjoyment to follow directions to apply information heard to new situations 4. discriminate visual similarities and differences. 5. analyze and interpret pictures. people. and events using elaborated language. 6. distinguish between reality and fantasy. 7. make comparisons using stated information. ' Materials 12" X 18" white paper for each student. 12" X 14" piece of black construction paper for each student. watercolors. crayons. brushes. water cans. newspapers. scissors. pencils. pictures of various animals found in a zoo (display). styrofoam egg cartons (cut in half-six "bowls"). Steps 1. Display pictures of large zoo animals around the area in which you are working. perhaps in connection with a unit on animals. 2. Before beginning. cover work area with newspaper. fill water cans. and layout brushes. Put a small amount of watercolor into the 6 "bowls" of the egg carton. Two students can share each egg carton. 3. Talk about large animals found in a zoo before beginning this lesson. Also include the concept of cages and restrictive iron bars. similarities and differences in colors. shapes. texture and proportion. 4. Have students paint or draw their favorite large animals on white paper. Allow time for drying if necessary. 5. Demonstrate how the animals can be put into cages. Cut bars out of black paper. keeping the edges of the paper in tact so the result is a rectangle with bars. 6. Staple the black bars over the painted picture-lining up the edges. Painting will be forced to bow. as black paper is smaller. this will create the 3D effect. 7. Assist students as needed to finish their project. then pin pictures on bulletin board in "zoo" formation.
Evaluation Students should feel pleased with their product and the students in the group can evaluate each others' products when they are displayed on the bulletin board. Some questions to ask Ipight include: Does this really look like the animal is in a cage? Does the bulletin board resemble a real zoo? (Adapted from "Unique Art Activities." Educational Insights. 1979).
Sample (5-8) Permanent Design
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Objectives The learner will 1. analyze and interpret pictures using elaborated language 2. discriminate visual similarities and difference 3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes-
for pleasure and enjoyment to follow directions to apply information heard to new situations
Materials White paper 9" X 12" (two for each student), india ink (1 bottle per 4 students), paint brushes, water tins. newspaper. payons (watercolor crayons), container of water (one per 4 students) large enough to submerge a 9 X 12 paper. colored. construction paper, glue. Steps 1. Display artists "abstract" pictures to demonstrate the terms. line. color. shape and texture. Discuss
similarities and differences. 2. Cover work area with newspaper-make sure all materials are readily available. 3. Display samples of finished projects. 4. Guide students to make a permanent "plate" by painting a design with india ink. Be sure brushes are
placed in water can immediately after finishing-reemphasizing the permanent aspect of the ink. 5. Allow the India ink to dry thoroughly. wash brushes. and cover inks. 6. While ink is drying. take another sheet of paper and, with heavy application. create a compatible design
with the multicolored payons. Be sure all areas of design are covered with a consistent coat of payon. Set aside. 7. Submerge the entire dried ink design paper in water. 8. Very carefully place this wet ink design paper over the crayon plate. rub. and remove. The once plain ink drawing is now filled with a splash of glorious colors! 9. Discuss the transference of color and the texture created by this transference.
Evaluation Student can evaluate their own work by examining and criticizing where the transferred colors ended up. Is it satisfactory? How could it be improved? The teacher can evaluate the students' ability to plan ahead when dealing with abstract concepts by assessing whether or not the transferred colors are within the ink design. The students can evaluate each other through discussion and comparison.
Sample (912) Paper Batik Objectives The learner will 1. recognize visual appeals. 2. recognize visual similarities and differences. 3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes.
a. For pleasure and enjoyment. b. Following directions.
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c. Applying information heard to new situations. 4. explore the possibilities when using two media at the same time. 5. experience an element of surprise using a random variable. 6. demonstrate a knowledge of color contrast. 7. demonstrate an ability to follow series of directions.
Materials
Manila paper, one for each student, water cans, paint brushes, colored tempera paints, thick black tempera paint, old ends of used candles, tubs of water or a sink if possible, egg cartons cut in half (six "bowls"), construction paper, scissors, glue.
Steps
1. Cover work area with double layer of newspaper. 2. Display some finished products and discuss the textures and colors in each. Be sure to display some
which do not use bright colors-point out why they don't work as well. 3. Fill each egg carton "bowl" with bright colored tempera. Two students can use a set of "bowls." 4. Direct students to use large design pattern-smaller, detailed work will be lost in the batiking process. 5. Paint a design on paper, using bright colors-set aside, let dry.
6. While paintings are drying, return excess paints to their jars. Wash brushes and provide clean newspaper.
7. When design is dry, apply a heavy, even coat of candle wax (as if crayon) directly on top of paint. This wax is clear; it is important the entire surface be covered for best results. Hold the painting up to the light to check for uncovered areas.
8. Dampen the paper by dragging through a tub of water. Wrinkle paper up into a ball in order to create random cracks in the wax.
9. After straightening out the paper, paint over the entire surface with thick black tempera. 10. Drag the paper through a tub of water or use a sink to let excess black paint run off, making sure some
of the black remains in the cracks, creating the "batik" effect. 11. When the batiks dry (the next day) they may be mounted on construction paper.
Note: The wax coating must be applied with a lot of pressure; the size of paper used may be reduced if the students participating are not likely to stay on-task. This activity is ultimately "messy" so allow extra time for clean up and hand washing.
Evaluation
Teacher may evaluate the final products in terms of the effects they produce. If the student followed all directions, the product will be a textured, brightly colored design with a series of black lines running through it. Once the batiks are mounted and displayed, peer evaluation may be employed by drawing comparisons and selecting the best ones.
Resources
The limitations for activities would include the age of the student, maturity, motor control and previous environmental experience. Various projects can be used to meet the needs of students and their varied abilities.
Bland, Jane Cooper. Art of the Young Child. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1957.
Chapman, Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978.
. Churchill, Angiola. Art for Preadolescents. New York: McGraw-Hili Book Company, 1970.
Cohen, Elaine and Ruth Gainer. Art, Another Language for Learning. New York: Citation Press, 1976.
De Francesco, Stalo. Art Education Its Means and Ends. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958.
174

Erdt, Margaret. Teaching Art in the Elementary School. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1954. Greenberg, Pearl. Art and Ideas for Young People. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970. Herberholy. Barbara. Early Childhood Art. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company. 1974. Hopper. Grizella. Puppet Making Through the Grades. Worcester: Davis Publications. 1966. Lenderman, Earl and Marlene Lenderman. Crafts for the Classroom. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company. 1969. Mendelourtz, Daniel. A Guide to Drawing. New York: Holt. Rinehart & Winston, 1976. Myers. Hans. 150 Techniques in Art. N.Y.: Reinhold Publishing, 1966. Peck. Ruth L. and Robert Aniello. What Can I Do for an Art Lesson. West Nyack: Parker Publishing. 1966. Sparkes, Roy. Teaching Art Basics. New York: Watson, Griptill Publications. 1973. Tuck, Barbara and Harriett Judy. How to Teach Children to Draw, Paint and Use Color. New York: Parker Publishing Company. 1975.
175

Vocabulary Development
Definition Vocabulary development reflects the acquisition of new concepts or the refinement of previously held concepts. A person's stock of words is increased through listening, speaking, reading and writing. For our purpose, sight vocabulary and meaning vocabulary will be considered. Sight words are recognized by word form clues, configurations and special characteristics of the word. Meaning vocabulary is a match between one's experience and what an author intended. Rationale Researchers have found a definite positive relationship between reading success and a strong vocabulary. Increasing one's vocabulary assists in the understanding of most oral and written messages. For most low achieving students, this basic understanding greatly assists in preventing a poor self-concept. Sample (K4) Word Bowling Objective The learner will recognize and use sight vocabulary in and out of context from various sources. Materials Word cards, "bowling pins" made from tag board and brads. Steps 1. Words that are used in the reader or from the students' own vocabularies are put on cards and inserted
behind the pins. 2. The class is divided into two teams. Students take alternate turns to try for a "strike" by correctly
identifying each word. The word must be used in a sentence which demonstrates an understanding of the word. Evaluation The teacher, another adult or older student should be available to check for accuracy. Options Play the same bowling game with 4 students, 2 per team. Each student team collaboratively try to read 10 words to make a strike. Adapted from Greater San Diego Reading Association, Reading Games Unlimited, San Diego, CA., 1974, p. 59. Sample (5-12) Figurative Language Objective The learner will infer meaning from the author's figurative language.
Materials Chart (optional), chalk, chalkboard Steps 1. Place the following phrases or similar ones on the board or a chart.
a. Quiet as a mouse b. Hungry as an elephant
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2. Invite students to describe that kind of quiet and/or hungry. 3. Encourage the students to invent additional responses such as:
a. Quiet as students who forgot their homework. b. Hungry as the last one through the lunch line. 4. Have the students supply other names to complete other phrases and allow them to discuss the rationale behind choices. 5. Have students write about a personal experience using as many of the completed phrases or others as they can. Example Last week in math class, Mr. Jones came in with a smile on his face and announced a math quiz. We all got as quiet as a turkey the day before Thanksgiving in hopes that this would appeal to his better nature. Well, it didn't affect "Jones the Terrible" in the least. "JT" (as he is sometimes teasingly called) went to his closet and pulled out a briefcase as old as a dinosaur and as big as an elephant. It was crammed full of all kinds of papers including our math quiz. We worked on the quiz for what seemed like a lifetime. We were all as tired as plowing mules. By the time we finished we were as hungry as three bears. This seems to give old "JT" a great sense of pleasure. In fact, he was still smiling when we left the room as beat as a whipped dog. Evaluation Students can "try out" their stories with classmates and revise their work according to useful suggestions. Both teachers and students can enjoy the works as a positive form of evaluation. Resources Bromberg, Murray and Liebb, Julius. Words with a Flair. Woodbury N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series, 1979. Dale, Edgar, Joseph O'Rourke and Henry Bamman. Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary. Atlanta: Feld Educational Publications, Inc., 1971.
177

Wordless Picture Books
Definition A wordless picture book is an illustrated story without the accompaniment of the printed word.
Rationale The absence of words allows the reader, whether young or old, to become involved in developing a story theme. Such a process also frees the reader from a dependence on unlocking the printed word in order to understand what is happening. Using these techniques encourages creative thinking and oral language development and at the same time, boosts the confidence of a non-reader. Picture books can also be used to teach a variety of skills without the obstacle of print. Sample (K-12)
Objectives The learner will
1. use a variety of oral language structures 2. learn ways of expanding basic language structure 3. experiment with and learn how word order reveals meaning 4. demonstrate an understanding of how dialects differ 5. analyze and interpret pictures, people and events using elaborated language 6. infer that which is not explicitly stated in a selection 7. predict outcomes 8. recognize relationships of time and place 9. demonstrate that speech and writing are tools of communication 10. recognize that critical reading requires reader involvement and interaction with the material 11. make individual, personal determination of worth, desirability and acceptability of literature
Materials Picture books, an audience (people, paper/pencil, tape recorder). Steps (K-12) 1. Readers should be allowed to select their own books. 2. Books should be looked through before any verbalization takes place. 3. The reader should relate the events of the story to an audience. The audience can be younger students,
peers or the teacher. 4. The story can be preserved in writing (with help, if needed) or by tape recording it. 5. Particular skills such as sequence, character development, etc. can be emphasized as desired. 6. Various aspects of listening, speaking, reading and writing can be used as a natural follow-up. Evaluation Evaluation should center on the reader's self-perception of the success of the task. The audience can provide constructive feedback to the reader. Versions of the same story by other readers could be compared and discussed. Resources
Cianciolo, Patricia Jean, ed. Picture Books for Children. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1973.
178

Word Shaking
Definition Word shaking is called out words or phrases as rapidly as they come to mind. Thoughts can then be connected and organized as desired. Rationale This prewriting activity is an aid in organizing one's thoughts on paper. The rapidity of the task encourages students to stay on-task. It also fosters cooperation. Sample (K-12) Objectives The learner will 1. make choices which indicate an appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of oral and written language 2. use functional vocabulary related to experiences 3. write and compose for entertainment 4. recognize, recall and retell sequence, main idea and details Materials Overhead and transparencies, colored pencils or chalkboard and chalk, pen and paper. Steps 1. A topic is selected and the teacher or student volunteer puts it in the center of board or transparency. 2. The writer records all thoughts as they are called out that are related to the topic. Students are urged to
use their senses and questions are asked to help them with vivid images and ideas related to the topic. 3. Similar thoughts and feelings are grouped together by circling them in the same color and connecting
the circles with lines. All thoughts unrelated to the topic are scratched out. 4. Groups of thoughts (now color-coded) are numbered in a logical order. 5. Each participant writes or dictates a poem or paragraph using those ideas related to the topic. 6. Participants read their work to a small group; one can be selected to read aloud; all can be displayed. Evaluation The students will share their work in small groups. Each group chooses one work to be read to class. The teacher can evaluate the clarity of ideas as well as the format used. Options Students can write a short story or a composition as a culminating activity.
Adapted from presentation by Dianne Perrault, Teaching of Writing Workshop, Griffin CESA, Summer 1980.
179

081

Appendix A
The following is a summary of the language arts section of Essential Skills for Georgia Schools (Georgia Department of Education. 1980). The actual listing of skills as they appear in Essential Skills follows this summary.
Language Study
In language study. the student will become aware of and learn ways of expanding oral and written language structures in an environment which encourages rather than restricts language experimentation. Through positive feedback. students will learn appropriate usage patterns in oral and written language ranging from formal to informal options in word choice and order. The student will have opportunity to study and demonstrate an acceptance of a variety of dialects common to this country. Finally. the student will be introduced to and have opportunity to experiment with the various functions which language has (i.e. for personal expression. to inform. to create. to imagine. to persuade).
Listening Skills
Listening skills are an integral part of a student's potential to be successful in school and to develop as an active. discerning listener who can adapt to various situations. especially if personal reading and writing skills are weak. Experiences which call for using listening vocabulary in meaningful context. varied responses in listening activities. comprehending stated and implied information. recognizing bias or opinion so students can become informed citizens as well as careful consumers will be helpful.
Readiness
Readiness refers to skills necessary before reading a selection as well as skills which facilitate initial efforts at learning to read. These skills are applicable whenever the student's level of readiness reaches a normal developmental stage.
The teacher needs to provide the stimulus of having stories and materials read aloud as well as providing visual and auditory stimulus for words used in the readings. The student needs encouragement to experiment with using oral language to create stories with pictures so the relationship between talk and print can be established. This concept of "writing as a kind of talk written down." will facilitate the student's being ready to develop as a reader of print.
Readiness also refers to preparation for a task. In this instance. readiness refers to providing explanatory. background information for better understanding of material. This concept is addressed in suggestions relating to content area materials in the strategies section of this resource.
Word Recognition
Reading requires a large number of words instantly recognizable by sight. In addition. phonetic analysis and structural analysis can be used to increase the number of words a student recognizes. Using words from one's own vocabulary. high frequency word lists (including survival reading word lists). words specific to content areas. classifications. schemes or categories. multiple meanings of words. context clues. synonyms. antonyms. and homonyms will help students become independent readers.
Comprehension
Through the use of interesting and relevant reading material. the student will have ample opportunity to develop and become proficient in understanding main ideas and details. sequences. and relationships between ideas. The student will need to read and follow directions. make predictions and draw conclusions. distinguish between fact and opinion. reality and fantasy. recognize propaganda techniques and relevance of data and understand graphically presented information such as maps. graphs. charts. schedules. calendars. diagrams. It is important that students be encouraged to read for total comprehension of whole pieces rather than for isolated comprehension of isolated segments.
181

Study Skills The student will need to develop a knowledge of alphabetizing words to be able to use study resources such as a table of contents, glossaries, dictionaries, indexes. catalogs, newspapers. card catalogs and references such as encyclopedias. The student should have ample opportunity to learn how to locate materials in the school's media center and how to study for various kinds of tests. The student should also have some guided practice in reading materials for different purposes and at flexible reading rates.
Functional Reading Skills Functional reading materials (often teacher-made or teacher-found) can frequently motivate students who show reluctance with other reading tasks because the reading resembles adult tasks and situations. The students need practice in specific areas such as following directions or interpreting information on signs and labels, understanding and filling in information requested on applications. forms and agreements, understanding and using various forms of written communications, understanding and using functional transportation information, and understanding and using various aids for occupational information.
Oral/Communication The student needs to become aware of and develop the skill of sharing and responding to communication in an atmosphere which provides opportunity for real communication experiences. The need for language that is understandable to others whether it is written or oral. as well as the importance of using standard language patterns emerges if genuine reasons for activities are presented. An atmosphere for experimenting and role-playing with communication encourages the use of language for a variety of purposes. With both oral and written communication. the student needs to develop an awareness of voice and audience so his or her effectiveness as a communicator will be maximized.
Literature Through a variety of children's and adolescent literature, the student will expand personal awareness ofthe many purposes and structures of literature. The student will learn to respond to and interact with the material being read within an atmosphere in which student-centered responses are encouraged. The teacher can help students recognize that their reactions to literature are affected by many factors and that they can develop a maturity in reading tastes and perceptions. Through literature study, the teacher can foster reading for enjoyment and students who are confident readers are able to select and read books independently.
Mass Communication With a variety of relevant activities. the student should become aware of the power of mass media to persuade, inform, entertain and shape ideas. values, and opinions. Students especially need the opportunity to develop a critical approach to the assessment of the reliability of media message sources and to understand the influence mass media has on their personal buying habits. Visual literacy and recognition of nonverbal symbols used in programming and advertising is needed. Students should have opportunities to create media projects that inform. entertain and persuade, while at the same time analyzing the media already present in their lives.
182

Topic A Language Study
B. Listening Skills

I. Language Arts

Concept/Skill

K-4

The learner will

1. make choices which indicate an appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of oral and written language.

2. use a variety of oral and written language structures.

a. learn ways of expanding basic language

structures.

(1) use (not label) whatever language

structures best express ideas and learn

alternating ways of phrasing ideas.

ID

(2) use modifying phrases, compound structures, single word embeddings and single clauses.

(3) use phrases, clause embeddings and complex clauses.

b. experiment with and learn how word order reveals meaning.

c. recognize and use options for word order.

3. use appropriate usage patterns in oral and

written language.

ID

a. distinguish between informal options of word choice and formal counterparts.

b. use a variety of usage patterns in different contexts.

4. demonstrate an understanding of how

dialects differ.

ID

5. demonstrate an acceptance and understanding of other dialects.

6. use generally accepted oral and written language forms.

7. demonstrate the knowledge that language functions in a variety of ways, e.g., for personal expression, to regulate, to receive information, to create and imagine.

8. demonstrate an understanding that language can be described in a variety of ways, e.g., grammars, parts of speech.

9. demonstrate an understanding of word etymologies.

The learner will

1. expand the number of words understood when heard in context.

a. learn multiple and specific meanings of

words, their denotations and connotations.

ID

b. understand figurative language, idiomatic expressions, colloquial terms and allusions.

c. learn specialized vocabularies.

183

5-8
D
D ID
D D D
D DR ID D D ID
D D D

9-12
R
DR DR IDR DR DR
R
R R DR
DR DR DR
DR DR DR

Topic

Concepti Skill

K-4

5-8

9-12

2. adjust listening strategies according to

a. the purpose (distinguish message from noise, concentrate, suspend judgment. avoid distraction, wait for turn to talk, avoid inter-
rupting, display interest and involvement). I ID I

b. the nature of the material (topic, density

and concept difficulty).

I1 I

c. the organizational cues of the speaker

(statement of points, organizational phrases,

repetition).

II I

3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes.

a. pleasure and enjoyment

ID

b. to follow directions

ID

c. to make intelligent consumer judgments

I

d. to function as an informed citizen, e.g.,

news broadcasts, editorials, speeches,

political appeals e. to obtain information

I I I ID

f. to apply information heard to new

situations

I ID I

4. recognize and discriminate' among

common sounds and sound signals in his or

her environment. 5. demonstrate understanding of a basic

I IDR I

vocabulary related to his or her environment. I ID I

6. recognize and recall the following when

specifically stated by the speaker.

I ID I

a. main ideals)

b. details

c. sequence

d. cause-effect

7. infer the following when not specifically

stated by the speaker.

I ID I

a. main ideals)

D I DR
D I DR

D I DR

ID

R

D

R

DR

R

ID R

R

DR

R

D I DR

RI R
D I DR D I DR

D I DR

b. details

c. sequence

8. receive and comprehend varied materials at difference levels of thinking, e.g., literal, inferential, evaluative and appreciative.
9. receive and evaluate material critically by making judgments about validity, bias, speaker qualifications, fact and opinion, fantasy or realism.
10. recognize and identify the qualities of a speaker's style, imagery, word choice and technique.
11. accept and understand other dialects as valid communication.

I ID
I I
I ID

I D I DR
I ID I D R I ID I D R
I DR I DR

184

Topic

Concept/Skill

K-4

C. Reading Readiness

The learner will
1. show an interest in hearing materials read.
2. discriminate auditory similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context.
3. discriminate visual similarities and differences in commonly used words in and out of context.
4. identify individual letters of the alphabet, high-interest words and phrases that appear frequently in his or her environment.
5. analyze and interpret pictures, people and events using elaborated language.
6. demonstrate understanding of terms used in reading instruction, e.g., top of page, leftto-right progression, beginning-ending of words.
7. attempt self-expression in writing using individualized spellings.

D. Word Recognition

The learner will
1. recognize and use sight vocabulary in context from various sources. a. his or her own vocabulary b. high-frequency word lists c. basal readers .d. words specific to content areas

ID ID ID
D ID
ID IDR
IDR

2. demonstrate an understanding of and use various aids to develop and expand vocabulary. a. context clues b. synonyms, antonyms and homonyms c. acronyms d. multiple meanings of words e. classification (categories, general to specific)

3. demonstrate an understanding of and use phonetic analysis clues and principles to identify new words.
a. consonant sounds and clusters b. silent consonants c. multiple sounds of consonants d. short and long vowels e. variant vowel sounds (dipthongs, controlled vowels)

4. demonstrate an understanding of and use

structural analysis clues and the related

principles of

a. syllabication,

e. possessive forms,

b. accent,

f. compound words,

c. contractions,

g. plural forms.

d. abbreviations, h. word parts.

IDR IDR IDR

5-8

9-12

R

R

R

R

R

R

R

DR

DR

R

DR

DR

R

185

Topic E. Comprehension

Concept/Skill

K-4

5-8

9-12

5. demonstrate the understanding that

symbols stand for referents.

I IDR I DR I

R

The learner will

1. recognize, recall and retell a. the main ideals)' b. details, c. sequence, d. cause-effect relationships.

I ID

2. read and follow printed directions. 3. draw conclusions from facts given.

I ID iD

4. infer that which is not explicitly stated in a selection a. main ideals), b. details that support main idea, c. sequence, d. cause-effect.

I ID

5. recognize information and ideas through a. classifying, b. outlining, c. summarizing, d. synthesizing.

I ID

6. make judgments. 7. predict outcomes.

I ID ID

8. infer literal meaning from author's use of

figurative language.

I ID

9. infer figurative meaning from author's use

of literal language.

ID

10. distinguish between fact and opinion.

ID

11. distinguish fiction from nonfiction.

ID

12. distinguish reality from fantasy.

ID

13. make comparisons using stated information.
14. make comparisons using implied information.

II ID ID

15. recognize use of propaganda techniques. I

16. interpret symbols (including special

subject area notations) and symbolic

language.

ID

17. recognize relevance of data.

18. recognize relationships of time and place. ID

19. make appropriate generalizations.

ID

20. interpret and use information presented

graphically, such as

I ID

a. maps

b. graphs

c. charts

d. tables

e. schedules

f. diagrams.

I DR I

R

I I D R

R

DR

R

I DR I

R

I DR I DR

I I D R DR

DR R

I DR I

R

DR DR DR DR

R DR DR DR

I DR I R

I I D

DR

D

DR

DR ID
DR DR

R DR
R DR

I DR I

R

186

Topic F. Study Skills
G. Functional Reading Skills

Concept/Skill
The learner will
1. demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence.
2. alphabetize words up to the third letter.
3. locate information using a variety of sources.
a. table of contents, page numbers
b. dictionaries - guide, entry words
c. glossaries
d. indexes - key words, main and subtopics e. encyclopedia
f. thesauri
g. library card files (card catalogs, periodical files)
h. catalogs
i. newspapers
4. locate materials in a media center.
5. use dictionaries for a variety of purposes. a. identifying word meanings
b. finding synonyms
c. identifying and interpreting phonetic respellings to aid pronunciation
d. selecting appropriate meanings of words in context
6. use titles, headings, subheadings and pictures to locate and preview information.
7. use a variety of study techniques, e.g., survey, question, read, recite, review,(SQ3R).
8. adjust reading technique and rate according to the difficulty of material and purposes for reading. a. rereading b. skimming c. scanning
The learner will
1. interpret and use basic instructions and labeling information. a. recipes b. clothing care instructions c. appliance instructions d. warning labels (poison control, electrical hazards, etc.) e. medicine labels f. product contents and nutritional information labels

K-4
IDR ID ID R ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID
ID

5-8
R R
R R R R R ID R R R R DR
ID ID
DR DR
D

9-12
R R
R R R R R DR R R R R R
R R
R R
DR

187

Topic
H. Oral/Written Communication

Concepti Skill

K-4

5-8

9-12

2. interpret and use forms, applications and

agreements including those relating to money

management (at a nontechnical level).

II

a. discount coupons

b. credit cards

c. banking procedures

d. payments and loans

e. change of address form

f. social security card application

I0 I

3. interpret and use various forms of written

communication.

II

a. directories

b. correspondence (personal and business)

c. mass media (newspapers, magazines,

advertisements)

I0 I

4. interpret and use functional transportation

information.

II

a. routes, schedules and timetables

b. signs, marquees and billboards

c. driver's manual

d. travel brochures

I0 I

5. interpret and use occupational and career

information.

I

a. job listings

b. paycheck stubs

c. salary schedule and benefits
IThe learner will

1. demonstrate an understanding that speech

and writing are tools of communication.

II

I 10 I
I oR I

2. speak clearly and write legibly.

a. use language understandable to others. I 10 I 0 I

b. demonstrate understanding of left-to-right

pattern of writing.

I lOR

c. manuscript and write standard letter forms,

lower and upper case.

I lOR I

R

3. increase, enrich and refine oral and written

expression.

I 10 I 0 I

a. use functional vocabulary related to experiences.

b. eliminate unnecessary words such as and, well, um, uh, ya know.

c. use standard language patterns.

4. use oral language for a variety of purposes. I 10 I 0 I
a. personal and creative expression b. relating and obtaining information
c. describing experiences
d. communicating feelings

oR
oR oR oR
R
oR oR oR

188

Topic I. Literature

Concepti Skill

K-4

5. use oral language in a variety of ways.

ID

a. dialogue and discussions

b. retelling and paraphrasing

c. summarizing

d. interviews

6. write and compose for a variety of

purposes.

ID

a. personal and business communication

b. clarifying thoughts and ideas

c. self-expression and personal satisfaction

d. recording information, e.g., message and

note taking

e. entertainment

7. write and compose in a variety of ways.

a. organize paragraphs using various modes (argumentation, exposition, narration, description)

b. combine paragraphs to create longer works

(letters, stories, essays, reports)

ID

8. demonstrate the ability to adjust manner and style of speaking and writing to suit audience and situation, e.g .. formal and informal.

The learner will
1. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of purposes.
a. artistic expression
b. recording events, ideas and values of diverse societies and cultures (past through the present)
c. entertainment and diversion
d. extension of individual knowledge and experience
e. comparing values, beliefs and behaviors
2. recognize and demonstrate an understanding that individual reactions to and perceptions of literature are affected by many factors, e.g .. attitudes, experiences, maturity, knowledge.
3. recognize that literary representations of individuals, events and society are influenced by the perceptions of the writer and the perceptions of the reader.
4. demonstrate an understanding that literature has a variety of external structures, e.g., poetry, prose, fiction, nonfiction, drama.
5. recognize the complexity of the individuals and situations as depicted in literature.
6. recognize thnt critical reading requires reader Involvement and interaction with the material being read.

5-8
D
D
ID D
ID
D D D D
D ID
DR

189

9-12 DR
DR
DR DR DR
DR R R R R
DR DR
R DR DR

Topic
J. Mass Communication

Concept/Skill

K-4

5-8

9-12

7. recognize the importance of making

inferences and drawing conclusions in

reading literature.

II

8. demonstrate the understanding that

literature can be read and compared from

several perspectives, e.g., genre, theme,

chronology, nationality, author.

I

9. recognize that literary works can take a

number of forms, e.g., fables, myths, fantasy,

short story, novel, essay.

II

10. recognize and understand the various

recurring features of each literary type, e.g.,

romance, irony, tragedy and comedy.

II

11. make individual, personal determination

of worth, desirability and acceptability of

various pieces of literature.
IThe learner will

II

1. differentiate among several classes of

communications - intrapersonal, interper-

sonal and mass communications.

II

2. distinguish four essentials of the com-

munication process,- source, message,

medium, audience.

II

3. analyze relationships among source,

message, medium and audience.

II

4. identify primary communication vehicles

comprising American mass media.

II

5. analyze complexities distinguishing mass

communications from interpersonal and intra-

personal communications.

I

6. evaluate degree of saturation of mass

media in contemporary society.

I

7. describe the primary functions of mass

media.

II

8. analyze the fulfillment of information,

persuasion and entertainment functions by all

major mass media.

II

9. show how mass media depiction of

standards of living affect contemporary living

standards.

II

10. assess the probable reliability of media

message sources.

II

11. demonstrate an understanding of the

influences advertising has on personal buying

habits.

II

II

I DR

II

I IDR

ID I

R

II

I DR

ID I R

I D I DR
I D I DR
I ID I D R I ID I D R

II

I DR

II

I DR

ID I R

I D I DR

I D I DR

II

I DR

I D I DR

190

Topic

Concept/Skill

K-4

12. define and identify propaganda devices of mass media; messages as glittering generality, card stacking, name calling, testimonial. plain facts, bandwagon, transfer and elitism.
13. understand and use basic components of visual literacy.
a. identify visual persuasion techniques, including logical processes and affective appeals such as use of color, placement, sequence and repetition.
b. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual fiction (creation/ fabrication).
c. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual metaphor (imagery, allegory, fantasy).
d. differentiate between visual fact (representation) and visual commentary (selection/slanting).
e. recognize visual appeals (color, shape, familiarity).
f. recognize visual stereotypes in film and television, including hero/heroine, villain, man, woman, child, family, professional, ethnic group.
g. differentiate between visual logic and visual fallacy.
14. explain the influence of advertising on editorial role, tone and stance.
15. analyze nonverbal symbols of communication used in television programming and visual advertising.

5-8

9-12

D

DR

D

DR

D

DR

D

DR

191

Appendix B
Criterion-referenced Test Objectives
Kindergarten
Objective
Goal Area: Communication Arts . Listening 1. The child participates in oral activities as an active listener in his environment. 2. The child recognizes and discriminates among common sounds in the child's environment. 3. The child demonstrates understanding of a basic vocabulary related to his/her en-
vironment. 4. The child listens and responds to orally presented language for the purpose of
appreciation. 5. The child listens and responds to orally presented language for the purpose of gathering
information and following directions. 6. The child listens and responds to orally presented language for the purpose of making
judgments. Goal Area: Communication Arts Speaking 1. The child uses oral language to describe experiences. 2. The child modulates voices to accommodate the activity settings. 2.5 The child uses language understandable to others. 3. The child uses functional vocabulary related to experiences. 4. The child uses elaborated language to describe objects, events, fellings and their
relationships. 5. The child uses elaborated language to communicate with others for a variety of
purposes. Goal Area: Communication Arts Reading 1. The child demonstrates interest in being read to as a way to extend/enrich personal
experience. 2. The child discriminates auditory similarities and differences in commonly used words. 3. The child discriminates visual similarities and differences in commonly used words. 4. The child analyzes and interprets pictures of objects, people and events using elaborated
language. 5. The child demonstrates understandig of terms used in reading instruction (e.g., top
of page, left to right progression, same-difference, beginning-ending of words). 6. The child identifies individual letters of the alphabet, high interest words and phrases
that appear frequently in his/her environment. Goal Area: Communication Arts Writing 1. The child demonstrates interest in a variety of written materials. 2. The child demonstrates fine motor coordination in a variety of situations.
192

Objective
3. The child orally dictates meaningful information to an adult. 4. The child demonstrates understanding of the left to right pattern of writing. 5. The child (writes-puts) name and other meaningful words from his experience.
Goal Area: Number Understanding. Number and Numeration
1. Classification: The child will be able to group objects according to similarities. 2. Seriation: The child will be able to arrange objects or events in some kind of order
based on differences among them. 3. Matching one-to-one: The child will be able to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between elements of one set and elements of another set. 4. Recognition and naming of number groups: The child will be able to recognize a set
of one element, a set of two elements, a set of three elements, up through a set containing five elements. 5. Counting: The child will be able to recognize and name sets in order as they increase by one up to nine. 6. Combining and separating sets: The child combines and separates sets with different properties. 7. Reading Numerals: The child selects the numeral that names the number of elements in a set (up through nine).
Goal Area: Number Understanding. Measurement
1. Comparing and ordering: The child makes statements about the relationship between two objects. (indicators-larger, taller)
2. Using nonstandard units of measure: The child uses nonstandard units (e.g., hand, persons, feet, paper clip, string) to measure.
Goal Area: Number Understanding. Geometry
1. Awareness of body in space: The child moves in space, receives and gives directions for getting from one point to another point in space, and judgment about how to get from one point in space to another.
2. Geometric figures and solids: The child identifies and sorts (and makes) geometric figures and solids.
Goal Area: Number Understanding. Money
1. Recognition: The child recognizes coins and bills as representing a value for exchange. 2. Naming: The child names common coins and bills. (Specify coins 1, 5, 10, 25,
$1.00, $5.00.)
Second and Third Grade Objectives
The student has word attack skills in that (s)he 1. auditorily or visually matches beginning and/or ending consonants. 2. auditorily or visually matches beginning and/or ending consonant digraphs and blends. 3. associates beginning and/or ending consonants with their written representations. 4. associates beginning and/or ending consonant digraphs with their written representations. 5. associates beginning and/or ending consonant blends with their written representations.
193

*6. auditorily discriminates between the sounds of vowels-long, short and controlled vowel soundsin one-syllable words.
7. associates the sounds of vowels-long, short and controlled vowel sounds-in one-syllable words presented orally with the symbols representing the sounds in the words.
8. associates the sounds of vowels-long, short and controlled vowel sounds-in written one-syllable words with the symbols representing the sounds in words.
9. recognizes a representative sample of sight words taken from the Dolch 220 and the Great Atlantic and Pacific Word Lists.
10. associates contractions with appropriate meanings, both given in written form. 11. recognizes plural forms of nouns presented in written form. 12. visually identifies the appropriate prefix and/or suffix (except plurals) to be added to a given written
word for a specific meaning that is presented orally and in written context. The student has comprehension skills in that (s)he 13. demonstrates knowledge of the concept that words are units of language. 14. demonstrates knowledge of the concept that words and sentences represent meaning. (Questions
are presented orally.) 15. recognizes, in context, words that represent the same or opposite meanings. 16. recognizes multiple meanings for words in context. 17. uses context clues to obtain meaning by supplying information and content words. (Cloze procedure
used.) 18. recognizes main idea, details, sequence of events, and cause and effect relationships when directly
stated. 19. infers main idea, cause and effect relationships, draws conclusions, and predicts outcomes when
not directly stated. 20. distinguishes between statements of fact and statements of fiction or opinion in reading material. The student has study skills in that s(he) 21. classifies into appropriate categories words representing objects and ideas. 22. demonstrates knowledge of alphabetic sequence and alphabetizes. 23. uses table of contents to locate specific information. 24. demonstrates knowledge of the function of punctuation marks and initial capitalization in reading
material. 25. follows simple oral and written directions. (Questions require recognition.)
Third Grade Only Objective The student has word attack skills in that s(he)
*identifies the correct division of one-, two-, and three-syllable written words into syllables using the VC-CV and V-CV principles.
Fourth Grade Reading
The student can 1. distinguish between sentence fragments and complete sentences. 2. identify the sounds of beginning consonants or two-letter combinations of consonants (blends and diagraphs such as "tr" in train, "sw" in swing, "ch" in church, or "sh" in ship).
194

3. identify the sounds of long vowels in one and two-syllable words (cake, rode. meeting) and the sounds of short vowels in one and two-syllable words (sit, bat, puppy).
4. identify the number of syllables in a word and can divide words into syllables correctly. (For example: dinner-2 syllables. din-ner)
5. identify the sounds that vowels have when they appear before L, Wand R (such as tall. saw, and car) and can distinguish between the two different sounds of C and G (such as cow, city, and go, gem).
6. select the appropriate word such as HERE, UNDER. BESIDE, AROUND, ABOVE, etc. to indicate position or location.
7. identify contractions (such as won't = will not) and abbreviations (such as Ga. = Georgia) and the
words they represent. 8. select the appropriate verbs or adjectives which correctly complete sentences. (Example: The lemon
tastes sour.) 9. select the appropriate meaning for the following word endings: S. ES, IES, ING. ED, LV, ER, EST.
(Example: In the words harder, softer, taller. "er" means more.) 10. recognizes simple vocabulary words (such as big, what. the. some, Mother and other words from the
Dolch Word List) instantly when seen without having to analyze them in order to pronounce them. 11. match symbols and pronouns to the things. ideas, or persons that they represent. (Example: $ stands
for money. Bob lost his dog. "his" stands for Bob's.) 12. read short selections and identify the main idea and the supporting details (less important statements
that help get the main idea across) in the selections read. 13. read short selections and identify which statements are facts and which statements express the writer's
opinions.
14. arrange groups of objects or ideas into simple categories. (Example: apple. orange. banana = fruits.)
15. arrange words in order from the most general to the mo.st specific. (Example: animal, dog, Lassie) 16. read a simple selection. identify heroes, villians. other main characters and the setting. 17. distinguish between the obvious (literal) and implied (figurative) meanings in simple statements.
(Example: John was as mad as a wet hen while Bill hit him.) 18. alphabetize words according to the first two letters and can use dictionaries and tables of content to
locate specific information. 19. read and comprehend a simple passage and can draw conclusions. recognize cause and effect
relationships. and/or the sequence of events (what happened first. second, last. etc.) in the material read. 20. recognize the correct use of basic pronunciation marks (, ? .. ") and recognizes how punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence. (Example: Bob, the doctor is here. Bob, the doctor. is here.)
Sixth Grade Objectives
The student has word attack skills in that (s)he
1. associates the sounds of long. and short vowels, vowel digraphs and diphthongs with symbols representing those sounds. including cases involving the final "e".
2. associates the sounds of consonant digraphs and blends with the symbols they represent in written words.
3. recognizes variant sounds such as. making visual and auditory associations for hard and soft sounds of c and g and for the r controller; applies the a before I. wand u generalizations; recognizes common silent letters.
4. applies the appropriate open and closed syllable principles using VC-CV, V-CV and Ie generalizations.
195

;...
5. uses affixes (prefixes and suffixes) such as. reo. dis-. mis-. in-. uno. pre-, en-, de-, -est. -er, -tion, (a)ble, -ed, -ing, -Iy. -y. etc.
6. translates contractions into the uncontracted form and abbreviations into the unabbreviated form. The student has comprehension skills in that (s)he
7. recognizes that a symbol stands for a referent and that some symbols have clear-cut referents, some symbols refer to states or conditions. some symbols refer to generalizations, and some symbols refer to abstractions. (Emphasis is placed on essential symbols.)
8. uses context clues to determine word meaning and/or punctuation. (Material used focuses on content areas. functional reading. etc.)
9. comprehends the meaning of written materials by the way they are punctuated with periods. commas, exclamation marks. question marks, and or quotation marks.
10. recognizes and summarizes main ideas and supporting details in material read. 11. reads a passage or sentence and answers questions of fact-why, what, when, where, who-as stated
in the passage or sentence. 12. discriminates between fact and opinion as given in (a) passage(s) or sentence(s). 13. demonstrates the ability to put material in sequential order. 14. draws logical conclusions from material read. (Material has inferred information, etc.) 15. predicts outcomes from material read. (Material calls upon the student to use life experiences. etc.) 16. follows written directions of varying lengths. 17. interprets graphic material, such as maps, charts. graphs, tables, etc. The student has study skills in that s(he) 18. demonstrates ability to use a dictionary for the follOWing purposes: identifying word meanings,
selecting the appropriate word meaning for a word given in context. finding synonyms, finding antonyms, interpreting phonetic respelling in order to pronounce words. 19. demonstrates ability to use a table of contents, glossary, and index from content area books and other materials encountered in daily living (e.g., catalogs, telephone directories. etc.). 20. uses titles, headings. subheadings, preview summary statements. pictures. etc. in order to locate information and/or to get an overview of the reading material.
Eighth Grade Reading Objectives
1. The student can identify the sounds of long vowels in words (bone. paste. useful). short vowels in words (upset, happiness, history), and combinations of vowels in words (boy. noise. pound, crown).
2. The student can identify the sounds of two and three-letter combinations of consonants in words (blends and digraphs such as "pi" in please, "str" in strike, "ph" in phone. and "th" in therefore).
3. The student can divide words into syllables correctly. (Example: content = con i tent) 4. The student can recognize how the same word accented in different positions can have different
meanings. (Example: sub'ject - The subject of the discussion was the energy crisis. sub ject' - Do not subject your child to harsh punishment.) 5. The student can identify the sounds that vowels have when they appear before R. L. W. and U in words (such as caution, awful, and started) and can distinguish between the two different sounds of C and G in words (such as count. space. and golden. giraffe). 6. The student can identify the phonetic spellings of words as they might appear in a dictionary.
(Example: mil for mile)
196

7. The student can use a dictionary for the following purposes: selecting appropriate word meaning. finding synonyms (words that mean the same thing). and finding antonyms (opposites).
8. The student can use the table of contents and the index to locate specific information in a textbook or a reference book.
9. The student can demonstrate the ability to locate materials in a library. 10. The student can read a selection and distinguish between the main ideas and the supporting details in
the material read. 11. The student can read newspaper articles and advertisements and determine which statements are facts
and which ones are statements of the author's opinions or preferences. 12. The student can read a passage and determine the order in which the events occurred (what happened
first, second. last, etc.) in the material read. 13. The student can read typical textbook passages illustrated with a diagram and can accurately interpret
the material presented. 14. The student can read a passage and can respond accurately to questions of who. what. when. where.
and why as they relate to the material read. 15. The student can read simple poems and recognize the obvious (literal) and implied (figurative)
meanings of statements (such as the soup was as cold as ice). patterns of rhyme. and patterns of sound in the poems. 16. The student can interpret the meaning of prefixes (such as un in unlike and unhappy) and suffixes (such as er in harder and closer) and can recognize the root word in words presented (such as wish is the root word found in wishful.) 17. The student can match symbols and pronouns to the things, ideas. or persons that they represent. (Example R R Stands for Railroad Crossing; The boys did their work. "their" stands for the "boys.") 18. The student can place words in appropriate categories (such as Georgia, Florida, Alabama = States), and can arrange words in order from the most general to the most specific (such as nation, state, city). 19. The student can distinguish between sentence fragments and complete sentences and can correctly combine two or more sentences to form a single sentence. (Example: The two sentences - We watched a movie. We ate popcorn. - can be combined as - We ate popcorn as we watched a movie.) 20. The student can identify the plurals or nouns or the appropriate verb forms which correctly complete given sentences.
Tenth Grade Learner Competencies
Indicator Clusers: Reading
Literal Comprehension
1. The student distinguishes between fact and opinion. 2. The student interprets semantic relationships. 3. The student recognizes explicitly stated main ideas, details, sequences of events, and cause and effect
relationships. 4. The student follows directions.
Inferential Comprehension
5. The student interprets figurative language. 6. The student recognizes propaganda devices. 7. The student recognizes implicitly stated main ideas, details, sequences of events, and cause and effect
relationships.
197

8. The student makes predictions. generalizations and comparisons. 9 .The student draws conclusions. Study Skills 10. The student interprets graphic information. instructions and labeling information. forms and applica-
tions. transportation information. and occupational and career information. 11. The student recognizes relevance of data. 12. The student recognizes appropriate reference resources. 13. The student locates information in reference materials.
Indicator Clusters: Problem Solving
1. The student distinguishes between fact and opinion. 2. The student recognizes main ideas. details. sequences of events and cause and effect relationships. 3. The student recognizes appropriate reference sources. 4. The student locates information in reference materials. 5. The student estimates outcomes. with or without units of measurement. 6. The student draws conclusions. 7. The student interprets nongraphic instructions. labels. forms and applications. 8. The student recognizes relevance of data. 9. The student organizes data into tables. charts and graphs. 10. The student interprets data in the form of tables. charts and graphs. 11. The student makes predictions. generalizations and comparisons. 12. The student solves simple word problems.
11"81 No indicator clusters have been developed at present for the other learner competencies.
198

D~scnplor T"rm
Graduation Requirements
Cf: IC

Appendix C
D"'ClIplor Code
IHF
IHF

Issued Date.
May 1981
Issu"d
June 1980

The Georgia Board of Education recognizes the importance of assuring an adequate educational opportunity for each Georgian. This goal is to be supported by quality secondary school programs which promote personal development, academic growth and career preparation. Such programs are to be based on a broad, flexible curriculum which addresses each student's needs, interests and abilities.
The state board defines as a major role of secondary schools the responsibility for providing the youth of Georgia with opportunities to acquire and to apply basic skills necessary for contemporary adult life. Such skills are defined as those skills which enable one to address effectively and efficiently the decisions and opportunities presented in a technological, urban, free society.
Graduation requirements from any Georgia high school which receives public funds shall include attendance, Carnegie units of credit and life role competency criteria signifying preparation for adult roles of learners, individuals, citizens, consumers and producers.
Secondary school instructional delivery and support services shall reflect the competency-based high school graduation requirements and assist all students to develop their unique potential to f-.IT> :tion in contemporary society.
Graduation Requirements

Attendance
Attendance requirements of local boards of education shall be consistent with state compulsory attendance laws.

For students more than 16 years of age, local boards may adopt policies allowing for program completion in more or less than 12 years of schooling. Attendance requirements can be waived considering the age and maturity of the student, accessibility of alternative learning programs, student achievement levels and decisions of parents or guardians. Such attendance waivers must be consistent with guidelines of the state board.

Carnegie Units
Students who graduate from any state-supported Georgia high school must earn at least 20 Carnegie units of credit. Ten Carnegie units must be earned through the Georgia Core Curriculum, with the remaining units .earned either through local board of education requirements or elective areas of study.

Areas of Study

Carnegie Units

English Language Arts

3

I

Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Science

1

I

Science or Mathematics

lI

1
-J

199

IHF (Continued)

Graduation Requirements (Continued)

Personal Finance Health and Safety Physical Education Career Planning Economics/Business/Free Enterprise Citizenship Social Studies U.S. History/Government.

113 113 113 113 113 113 1
:-:...:..l
Required Units - 10 Elective Units - 10
Total Units - 20

Competency

Students who graduate from any state supported Georgia high school must demonstrate at least minimal mastery of the competency performance standards as prescribed by the Georgia Board of Education. Such standards are established as instructional guides for preparation for adult life roles.

1. Learner

Each graduate should demonstrate competence in the areas of reading, writing, mathematics, speaking and listening and problem solving. Performance will be demonstrated by students using those materials which are used in typical academic, employment and everyday tasks. These may include newspapers, magazines, personal budgets, tax and employment forms, textbooks, business and personal letters and other materials requiring the application of basic learning skills.

Reading - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to read, understand, interpret and use written materials in the context of academic problems, everyday tasks and employment activities. Indicators of reading competence include such skills as identifying main ideas and details, interpreting literal and figurative language and using reference resources.

Writing - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to select, organize and compose written material in the context of academic problems, everyday tasks and employment activities. Indicators of writing include such skills as composing sentences, organizing information and writing paragraphs.

Mathematics - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to understand and employ basic mathematical concepts and operations in the context of academic problems, everyday tasks and employment activities. Indicators

200

Graduation Requirements (Continued)

IHF (Continued)

of skills in mathematics include translating numbers, computing percentages and applying arithmetic operations.

Speaking and Listening - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to receive and transmit oral and aural communication in the context of academic problems, everyday tasks and employment activities. Indicators of speaking and listening may include interpreting aural communications, composing oral directions and questions and using formal and informal speaking styles.

Problem-Solving - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to evaluate, analyze and draw conclusions from situations presented in the context of academic problems, everyday tasks and employment activities. Indicators of problem solving may include interpreting a variety of data, inferring cause and effect and applying logical reasoning to the identification and solution of problems.

2. Individual

Each graduate should have the skills and understandings necessary to improve both physical and mental health, to use leisure time in a profitable and fulfilling manner and to establish a personal family role which is mutually beneficial to the individual and to members of the family.
Health and Safety - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to recognize and practice basic health principles involved in developing and maintaining physical and mental health and to demonstrate preventive and emergency actions for health and safety. Indicators may include identifying physical and mental health problems; describing effective physical and mental health maintenance; identifying community health care services; and demonstrating safety and emergency practices.

Leisure Time Activities - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her knowledge, appreciation and use of the cultural arts and humanities, and of avocational and recreational activities. Indicators may include identifying and participating in activities related to the arts, sports and recreation, hobbies and volunteer work as means of maintaining physical and mental well-being.

Family and Community Living - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to develop sound interpersonal relationships with persons inside and outside the family and the ability to define personal responsibilities within these relationships. Indicators may include effective use of skills that enhance interpersonal relationships and knowledge of family planning, parental responsibilities and available community resources.

3. Citizen

Each graduate should have the skills and understandings needed to function as a responsible member of society, using and contributing to society in an appropriate manner and interacting with the environment in a responsible way.

201

Graduation Requirements (Continued)

IHF (Continued)

American Political and Economic Systems - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her knowledge of the basic structure and functions of the American system of government and the American economic system including interrelationships of the global community. Indicators may include identifying and describing the structure and functions of the three branches of government and their interrelationships at the local, state and national levels; identifying the characteristics of the American economic system; and explaining interrelationships of the global community.
Citizen Rights and Responsibilities - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to identify and describe rights and responsibilities of American citizens. Indicators may include identifying personal rights and responsibilities under the law and Constitution; and describing current societal and environmental problems and the individual's role in solving these problems.
Citizen Participation - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her knowledge of the skills needed to participate in the political and social arenas. Indicators may include analyzing American political and civic behavior and describing the citizen's role in the decision making processes of this system.

4. Consumer

Each graduate should have the skills and understandings needed to function as an informed consumer and to use available resources in an efficient and beneficial manner.
Personal Resource Management - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to plan and manage personal and financial resources through effective budgeting and use of these resources. Indicators may include developing a plan for money management, describing various forms of credit and comparing goods and services on a cost/quality basis.
Consumer Rights and Responsibilities - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her knowledge of legal rights and responsibiities of consumers and community resources that provide consumer assistance. Indicators may include recognizing consumer problems, identifying laws and agencies which aid the consumer and describing procedure for utilizing these resources.
5. Producer
Each graduate should have the skills and knowledge necessary to select and pursue a career reflecting personal interests and abilities. Each graduate should also have the skills needed to pursue a new career should situations arise which dictate career changes.
Career Decision Making - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to evaluate career options as they reflect personal interests, aspirations and abilities. Indicators may include relating personal interests and abilities to career options, identifying sources of career information, using an effective method of goal setting and decision making and planning educational experiences related to tentative career choices.

202

IHF (Continued)
Graduation Requirements (continued)
Job Acquisition and Retention - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her skills in locating and making application for employment and knowledge of behaviors and attitudes necessary to maintain employment. Indicators may include completing employment documents, identifying sources of information and assistance about job availability, demonstrating interview techniques and identifying attitudes and behaviors necessary for maintaining employment.
Career Mobility - A student will demonstrate competence by his or her ability to anticipate and prepare for job advancement or career change. Indicators may include identifying behaviors and attitudes which are required for job advancement, describing conditions or events which may necessitate career change and analyzing personal skills in anticipating and preparing for such a change. Procedures for Awarding Carnegie Units of Credit
Three procedures may be used by local systems for awarding Carnegie units of credit or increments of units of credit.
Course Credit - Carnegie units may be awarded for courses of study based on 150 clock hours of instruction provided by the school. (Quarter programs offer 50 clock hours of instruction for one-third Carnegie unit. Semester programs offer 75 clock hours of instruction for one-half unit of credit.)
Credit in lieu of Enrollment - Local boards may adopt policies, with state board approval, to grant credit for learning which has occurred outside the school. Local systems must develop assessment procedures to award or exempt credits in lieu of enrollment.
Credit for Planned Off-Campus Experiences - Local boards may adopt policies, with state board approval, to grant credit for planned off-campus experiences if such experiences are a part of planned studies program.
Secondary School Credentials
The High School Diploma shall be the official document certifying completion of attendance, units of credit and competencies required for high school graduation.
The High School Performance Certificate shall be awarded to pupils who complete some, but not all, of the criteria for a diploma and who choose to end the formal schooling experience. Such a certificate shall identify those competency performance standards which the pupil did demonstrate during the secondary school experience.
All students ending their formal schooling experience shall receive a Record of Demonstrated Competency as a part of or in addition to their School Transcript.
Local Authorities and Responsibilities
Local boards of education have the authority to require attendance, Carnegie units and adult life role competency requirements exceeding the state minimum criteria for graduation.
203

IHF (continued)
Local Authorities and Responsibilities (continued) Local boards of education have the responsibility to establish instructional support services and delivery services to uphold the multiple criteria for high school graduation.
To provide an ongoing guidance component beginning with the ninth grade for familiarizing the student with graduation requirements and for examining the likely impact of individual career objectives on the program of work he or she plans to follow; also, to provide annual advisement sessions to report progress and offer alternatives in meeting graduation requirements and career objectives To provide record-keeping and reporting services that document student progress toward graduation and include information for the school, parents and students To provide diagnostic and continuous evaluation services that measure individual student progress in meeting competency expectations for graduation To provide instructional programs, curriculum and planned course guides and remedial opportunities to assist each student in meeting graduation requirements To provide appropriate curriculum and assessment procedures for students who have been identified as having handicaps which prevent them from meeting the prescribed competency performance requirements
Georgia Code: 32-408 (1937, 1961), 32-609a (1974, 1975), 32-61la (1974, 1975), 32-653a (1974), 32-657a (1974), 32-660a (1974), 32-1901 (1971).
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Appendix D
The National Council of Teachers of English

March 1979

STANDARDS FOR BASIC SKILLS WRITING PROGRAMS
The following standards were developed by a specially selected committee of teachers. supervisors. and writing specialists for use by states and school districts establishing comprehensive literacy plans. The National Council of Teachers of English urges study of these standards as a means of determining that plans attend not only to effective practice within the classroom but also to the environment of support for writing instruction throughout the school and the community. If effective instruction in writing is to be achieved. all the standards need to be studied and provided for in shaping comprehensive literacy plans.
At a time of growing concern for the quality of writing in the society. it is important to take the most effective approaches to quality in school writing programs. These standards will help states and school districts assure that efforts to be undertaken will indeed lead to improvement.
Planners must begin with an adequate conception of what writing is. To serve this purpose. we offer the following:
Operational Definition of Writing
Writing is the process of selecting. combining. arranging and developing ideas in effective sentences. paragraphs. and often. longer units of discourse. The process requires the writer to cope with a number of variables: method of development (narrating. explaining. describing. reporting and persuading); tone (from very personal to quite formal): form (from a limerick to a formal letter to a long research report); purpose (from discovering and expressing personal feelings and values to conducting the impersonal "business" of everyday life): possible audiences (oneself. classmates. a teacher. "the world"). Learning to write and to write increasingly well involves developing increasing skill and sensitivity in selecting from and combining these variables to shape particular messages. It also involves learning to conform to conventions of the printed language. appropriate to the age of the writer and to the form. purpose and tone of the message.
Beyond the pragmatic purpose of shaping messages to others. writing can be a means of selfdiscovery. of finding out what we believe. know. and cannot find words or circumstances to say to others. Writing can be a deeply personal act of shaping our perception of the world and our relationships to people and things in that world. Thus. writing serves both public and personal needs of students. and it warrants the full. generous and continuing effort of all teachers.
STANDARDS FOR BASIC SKILLS WRITING PROGRAMS
An effective basic skills program in writing has the follOWing characteristics:
TEACHING AND LEARNING
1. There is evidence that knowledge of current theory and research in writing has been sought and applied in developing the writing program.
2. Writing instruction is a substantial and clearly identified part of an integrated English language arts curriculum.
3. Writing is called for in other subject matters across the curriculum.
4. The subject matter of writing has its richest source in the students' personal. social. and academic interests and experiences.

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5. Students write in many forms (e.g.. essays. notes. summaries. poems. letters. stories. reports. scripts. journals).
6. Students write for a variety of audiences (e.g.. self. classmates. the community. the teacher) to learn that approaches vary as audiences vary.
7. Students write for a wide range of purposes (e.g.. to inform. to persuade. to express the self. to explore. to clarify thinking).
B. Class time is devoted to all aspects of the writing process: generating ideas. drafting. revising. and editing.
9. All students receive instruction in both (a) developing and expressing ideas and (b) using the conventions of edited American English.
10. Control ofthe conventions of edited American English (supporting skiIls such as spelling. handwriting. punctuation. and grammatical usage) is developed primarily during the writing process and secondarily through related exercises.
11. Students receive constructive responses - from the teacher and from others - at various stages in the writing process.
12. Evaluation of individual writing growth: (a) is based on complete pieces of writing; (b) reflects informed judgments. first. about clarity and content and then about conventions of speIling. mechanics. and usage; (c) includes regular responses to individual pieces of student writing as well as periodic assessment measuring growth over a period of time.
SUPPORT 13. Teachers with major responsibility for writing instruction receive continuing education reflecting
current knowledge about the teaching of writing. 14. Teachers of other subjects receive information and training in ways to make use of and respond to
writing in their classes. 15. Parent and community groups are informed about the writing program and about ways in which they
can support it. 16. School and class schedules provide sufficient time to assure that the writing process is thoroughly
pursued. 17. Teachers and students have access to and make regular use of a wide range of resources (e.g. library
services. media. teaching materials. duplicating facilities. supplies) for support of the writing program.
PROGRAM EVALUATION lB. Evaluation of the writing program focuses on pre- and post-program sampling of complete pieces of
writing. utilizing a recognized procedure (e.g. holistic rating. the Diederich scale. primary trait scoring) to arrive at reliable judgments about the quality of the program. 19. Evaluation of the program might also include assessment of a sample of student attitudes; gathering of pertinent quantitative data (e.g. frequency of student writing. time devoted to writing activities); and observational data (evidence of prewriting activities. class anthologies. writing folders. and student writing displays).
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COMMllTEE ON WRITING STANDARDS Gary Tate. Chair Department of English Texas Christian University Martha L. King Department of Elementary Education Ohio State University Barbara Leib-Brilhart Speech Communication Association Richard Gebhardt English Department Findlay College Betty Murray Language Arts Program Manager Lexington Schools. Massachusetts Lee Odell Department of English State University of New York. Albany Marjorie Farmer Director. English and Reading The School District of Philadelphia Eileen Tway Department of Elementary Education Miami University Charles Suhor Deputy Executive Director NCTE (formerly Supervisor of English. New Orleans Schools)
Reprinted by permission.
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Appendix E
STANDARDS FOR EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION PROGRAMS
Prepared by American Speech.Language.Hearing
Association and
Speech Communication Association
Adequate oral communication frequently determines an individual's educational. social and vocational success. Yet, American education has typically neglected formal instruction in the basic skills of speaking and listening. It is important that state and local education agencies implement the most effective oral communication programs possible.
The following standards for oral communication were developed by representatives of the Speech Communication Association and the American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association. If effective oral communication programs are going to be developed. all components of the recommended standards must be considered. Implementation of these standards will facilitate development of adequate and appropriate oral communication necessary for educational. social and vocational success.
DEFINITION
Oral Communication: the process of interacting through heard and spoken messages in a variety of situations.
Effective oral communication is a learned behavior, involving the following processes:
1. Speaking in a variety of educational and social situations: Speaking involves. but is not limited to, arranging and producing messages through the use of voice. articulation, vocabulary. snytax and non-verbal cues (e.g., gesture, facial expression, vocal cues) appropriate to the speaker and listeners.
2. Listening in a variety of educational and social situations: Listening involves. but is not limited to. hearing. perceiving, discriminating, interpreting. synthesizing, evaluating, organizing and remembering information from verbal and non-verbal messages.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
1. Oral communication behaviors of students can be improved through direct instruction. 2. Oral communication instruction emphasizes the interactive nature of speaking and listening. 3. Oral communication instruction addresses the everyday communication needs of students and includes
emphasis on the classroom as a practical communication environment. 4. There is a wide range of communication competence among speakers of the same language. 5. Communication competence is not dependent upon use of a particular form of language. 6. A primary goal of oral communication instruction is to increase the students' repertoire and use of
effective speaking and listening behaviors. 7. Oral communication programs provide instruction based on a coordinated developmental continuum of
skills, pre-school through adult. 8. Oral communication skills can be enhanced by using parents, supportive personnel, and appropriate
instructional technology.
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AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION PROGRAM HAS THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS:
TEACHING/LEARNING
1. The oral communication program is based on current theory and research in speech and language development, psycholinguistics, rhetorical and communication theory, communication disorders, speech science, and related fields of study.
2. Oral communication instruction is a clearly indentifiable part of the curriculum.
3. Oral communication instruction is systematically related to reading and writing instruction and to instruction in the various content areas.
4. The relevant academic, personal and social experiences of students provide core subject matter for the oral communication program.
5. Oral communiction instruction provides a wide range of speaking and listening experience, in order to develop effective communication skills appropriate to: a. a range of situations; e.g., informal to formal, interpersonal to mass communication. b. a range of purposes; e.g., informing, learning, persuading, evaluating messages, facilitating social interaction. sharing feelings, imaginative and creative expression. c. a range of audiences; e.g. classmates, teachers. peers. employers, family, community. d. a range of communication forms; e.g. conversation. group discussion, interview. drama. debate. public speaking, oral interpretation. e. a range of speaking styles; impromptu, extemporaneous, and reading from manuscript.
6. The oral communication program provides class time for systematic instruction in oral communication skills. e.g., critical listening, selecting, arranging and presenting messages, giving and receiving constructive feedback, non-verbal communication, etc.
7. The oral communication program includes development of adequate and appropriate language, articulation, voice. fluency and listening skills necessary for success in educational, career and social situations through regular classroom instruction, cocurricular activities, and speech-language pathology and audiology services.
8. Oral communication program instruction encourages and provides appropriate opportunities for the reticent student (e.g., one who is excessively fearful in speaking situations), to participate more effectively in oral communication.
SUPPORT
1. Oral communication instruction is provided by individuals adequately trained in oral communication and/or communication disorders, as evidenced by appropriate certification.
2. Individuals responsible for oral communication instruction receive continuing education on theories. research and instruction relevant to communication.
3. Individuals responsible for oral communication instruction participate actively in conventions, meetings, publications. and other activities of communication professionals.
4. The oral communication program includes a system for training classroom teachers to identify and refer students who do not have adequate listening and speaking skills, or are reticent, to those qualified individuals who can best meet the needs of the student through further assessment and/or instruction.
5. Teachers in all curriculum areas receive information on appropriate methods for: a) using oral communication to facilitate instruction, and b) using the subject matter to improve students' oral communication skills.
6. Parent and community groups are informed about and provided with appropriate materials for effective involvement in the oral communication program.
7. The oral communication program is facilitated by availability and use of appropriate instructional materials, equipment and facilities.
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ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 1. The oral communication program is based on a school-wide assessment of the speaking and listening
needs of students. 2. Speaking and listening needs of students will be determined by qualified personnel utilizing appropriate
evaluation tools for the skills to be assessed. and educational levels of students being assessed. 3. Evaluation of student progress in oral communication is based upon a variety of data including
observations. self-evaluations. listeners' responses to messages. and formal tests. 4. Evaluation of students' oral communication encourages. rather than discourages, students' desires to
communicate by emphasizing those behaviors which students can improve. thus enhancing their ability to do so. 5. Evaluation of the total oral communication program is based on achievement of acceptable levels of oral communication skill determined by continuous monitoring of student progress in speaking and listening. use of standardized and criterion-referenced tests, audience-based rating scales, and other appropriate instruments. Reprinted by permission:
SPEECH COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 5205 Leesburg Pike
Falls Church. VA 22041 (703) 3791888
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