Manual of methods for Georgia teachers, 1898

ldANUAL OF METHODS
FOR
Georgia Teachers.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA:
GBO. W. HARRISON, STATE PRINTER.
Franklin Printing and Publlllhing Company.) 1898.

DEC



MA JUAL OF METHODS FOR GEORGIA TEACHERS.

The Manual of Methods herewith presented to the

teachers of Georgia has been prepared by the following

gentlemen :

Lawlon B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools, Augusta,
Ga.

E. C. Branson, Teacher of Pedagogy, State Normal

School, Athens, Ga.

G. G. Bond, Superintendent of Schools, Athens, Ga.

D . L. Ernest, Department of Nature Studies and

Mathematics, State Normal School, Athens, Ga.

''

Euler B. Smith, English Department, State Normal

School, Athens, Ga..

F. J. Orr, Penmanship Department, Stale Normal

School, Athens, Ga.

C. B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools, Columbug,

Ga.

These gentlemen have given to the teachers of Georgia

in this complication of Methods, the very latest and best

thought in each of the branches discussed. I am sure

that our teachers everywhere will appreciate this e:plendid

contribution to our professional literature, and the more

w from the fact that these papers have been prepared ab-

solutely without compensation.

TO THE COUNTY SCHOOL COl\IMISSIONERS :
A sufficient number of copies of this "Manual of Methods" has been sent to you to place one copy in the hands of every teacher i~ your county. Please call a

4
meeting of your teachers at some early day and explain to them the necessity for becoming thoroughly familiar with the contents of this Manual The questions for the Summer examination will be taken mainly from the subjectmatter herein discussed. This Manual will be used also in all of the Summer Institutes ot Georgia the present year. In this connection I beg to say that the five days -of one week will not be time enough for more than a very hurried and unsatisfactory discussion of the methods herein developed. While the law fixes only one week for compulsory institute work, I hope that the Commiss~oners -of this State and the teachers of this State will voluntarily prolong this Institute study and investigation for at least two weeks. The teachers themselves will see the importance of this matter when they begin to examine the contents of this book.
The people of Georgia have added this year to the common school fund $400,000. I do not know any better way in which the teachers can show their appreciation of this advanced step on the part of the State, than by a voluntary determination to extend the limit of the Institute for a time not less than one week. They would show the people in this way that they have determined to make any needed sacrifice in order to equip themselves better for the highest and best professional work in th~ schools.
In addition to this Manual of Methods, the teachers will be examined this year upon Page's Theory and Practice, and Halleck's Psychology. Most of the teachers have Page already. .Both ut these books are now in Ulle iu the St11.te Normal School, and I destre that we shall keep our studies as far a>< possible i11 line with the general course mapped uul in that institution.

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TO THE TEACHERS OF GEORGIA :
This book has been prepared especially for you . It is intended to be your vade mecum. It is a suggestive and helpful discussion of the best methods, approved by the highest authorities, for the presentation of the subjects comprised in our common school course. It is not expected that you shall follow literally and blindly the methods of presentation set forth in this volume. You could no more wear these methods literally in your schoolroom than you could wear the clothes of the gentlemen who have been good enough to prepare these discussions. Your method, if it is to be successful, must be absolutely your own. You are a separate and distinct individual. Your individuality should appear nuwhere so forcibly and so distinctly as in your teaching. The Almighty bas never made any other individual that personates and rep resents just what you personate and represent.. The intellectual clothing of nobody else can be made to fit your personality. But while this is true, we can improve the force and attractiveness of our intellectual and professional ideas by clothing those ideals in proper form, just as we can improve the attractiveness and carriage of the body by clothi ng the body after the style of the most approved fasbion plates ; but, as above indicated, you must fit to your mind and to the measure of your own growth as an in divid ual that which is becoming and propet for you.
This book can be made helpful or hurtful to you, just in proportion as you make the right or wrong use of it. It is not intended that you shall imitate slavishly anything that is in this little volume, but that you shall model your methods of teaching after the types that are herein presen ted. It is hoped that there may come to you in the study of these pHges suggestions that will deve!op aud en-

6

rich your own professional life. Do not be guilty, there-

fore, of the folly of trying to imitate Superintendent Evans

or Professor Branson, or Professor Smith, or anybody else.

~mitation cannot minister to any kind of growth.

One other thought-the purpose of this book is to aid

you in your ministry to the children. There is no higher

s~rvice in this world than the service in which you are en-

gaged in developing life, and character, and power, and

love for right conduct in the hearts of the little ones. Th e

world has moved rapidly in the last few years in the de-

velopment that has been going on in your profession and

mine. Infinitely more is demanded of a teacher to-day

than ever before in all our history.

The wise teacher will therefore recognize that be must

grow and increase in power to use all the light from any

source that will aid him in his ministry to childhood.

. The secret fountains of knowledge beneath the earth

and below the seas, within th~ sun and beyond the stars,

from all the dead past ~~end out of the living present, must

yield their well-springa of truth to him who in this day

and time i3 called to lead a little child out of darkness

into light. The teacher must unlock the treasure-hous e

of all the ages, and of all the worlds, and of all the phi-

losophies, and bring the "wealth of all his research" into

his schoolroom. As freely as he receives the bread of

life, so freely he mu st give to the little ones. From the

hand of the Great Teacher he must receive again the

broken loaves, and with the spirit of the true disciple, he

must watch with reverent, patient love the miracle of the

broken bread multiplying' as it passes from his hand.

1\fore than ever in all the ages the children are crying

for this bread. Let us see to it, fellow teachers, that we

qo not give them stones.

G. R. GLENN,

State School Commissioner.

SPELLING.
BY E. C. BRANSON, STATE NoRMAL ScHooL.
(Copyright ed.)
I. P URPOSES.
1. To teach vocabulary af every-day English. 2. To teach the vocabulary of tlhe common school
texts. 'Dhese two purposes concern about 10,000
words; about one-third the num'ber in the average speller. 3. To teach t he use O'f the dictionary in order to extend his vocabulary, now and later. 4 . To teach (1) tt:he forms (spelling an'!i pronunciation) of the words acquired, (2) their meanings and uses, an'd (3) their forms in written English (c111pi-tals, hyphens, quotations, etc.) :5. To aim directly at reading from the stal"lt. ~. To develop promptly a ready self-determina-tion of words by pupils. '7. To lodge a memory of word-forms in t he fingt?rs. To excite an interest in words: (1) derivation, (2) composiUon, (3) hiSit.ory, (4) choice. 9. To teac:h the important rules of spelling. 10. To educalte the pupil. Teaching spelling and educating the pupil by means of spelling are different :things. Appeals to arbitrary memory of worn-forms alane are not quickening but deadening to in.telligence.
fl. METHODS.
1. Primary GI'aldes. (Words from Readers moslly.) (1) Copying words in script from daily lessons.

8
(2) Sight spelling; orally from bb., chart, or open book.
(3) Memory spelling, words in -all lessons. {4) Word-buildiug; using letter cards (both
script and Roman te~t.) ~5) Phonic word-bui-lding. a . To teach to
eye and ear tJhe sign- and sound-like nesses of words. b. In order to develop ready self-determination of n E'W words. (6) Picture spelling. a. Children writ e words for thlng.s seen in pictures. b. Use of O'lltline drawings. (7) Seilltence building. a. Using word-cards, in script and Roman text. (8) Short sentences. a. Dict-ated by teacher;. b. From given words. (9) Elliptical sentences. Copied and completed. (10) Picture stories. Shor-t sentences suggested by pictures. (11) Classifying words. a. Alph!llbetically. b. According t o No. letters. c. According to No. syllables. d. Capitals. e. Action words or name words, etc.
2. Intermediate Grades.
(1) Sentence making, for d'Oubt!ul or difficul t. words, in all lessons, (1) orally, (2} in writin&".
(2) DiC'tation exercises. Paragraphs assigned for study from any school boolt, the readers mostly.
(3) Recollection lessons. (4) Observa.tion spelling. (1) Indoor obser-
vat ions. (2) Outdoor observations~ Spelling to be centered largely aroundl nature studies.

9
(5) Reproduction stories. (6) Marking words diacritically-beginnlng
with 3d -Reader classes. (7) Making word lists for given sounds. (8) GrammaJtical spelling. (1) Plurals, (2)
Possessives, (3) Past tense forms, (4). Contractions and abbreviation~, h;v~ phenated words, etc. (9) Memory verses and maxims. (10) Supplementary lists, made by the pupils (1) in school, (2) out of school. Thing~ seen on the way to school; common farm or garden products; household: furniture; ta'ble ware and foods; articles made o'f clay, iron, silver, etc.; garden and farm tools; Bible characters; amusements and gam~; t.hings. found in a boy's pocket; animals thal eat grass, flesh, tha t swim, wade, etc. (11) Common misspelled words. (12) Spelling mat0hes. Suggestions: 1. PresMve sides throughout the session
if possible. 2. Keep pupils in the ranks t.hroughoul
the exercise. 3. Each side notes the misspelled words.
of the opposite side in all exercises; reports them to its captain, who lists them for the teachers to giveout to the other side. 4. The teacher tallies t~e words missed: by each side, and also records tl!& victories by days. 5. Matches once a fortnight. (13) Trapping in QJl"al spelling. (14) Listing, sounding and spelling words difficult of articulrution; mists, lists, morning, ringing, etc.

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(15) Recreations. 1. Spelling rhymes. Teacher gives out a word, pupil spells, gives out a rhyming word and spells. 2. Building words out of the letters of. a given word; "legislature," for example. 3. Teacher gives out the name of a tool, say; pupil spe.Jls and calls the name of another tool for the next pupil to spell and so on down a list of tools. 4. Each pupil calls out and spells a word beginning wit h the la&t letter of the word previously spelled. 5. Pupils point out objects, ,parts or qualities of objects; class spells. 6. Pupils describe word~>, class spell">. "Whrut gums envelopes.?" Class spells, "mucilage," etc. 7. One pupil gives out a word, the n ext spells its opposite. "Straigl!t," crool{ed." 8. Spelling synonyms.
:3. Upper Grades.
(1) Diotations. (2) Common misspelled words. (3) Teach <the important rules of spellin g
(1) by induction, (2) by use, for ex ample: Rule for doubling the final consona nt .
Ru1e for dropping the final silent e.
Rule for changing final y into i. (4) Spelling derivatives from primitives
given. (5) Defining deriva,tives etymologically. (6) Forming words from common foreign
roots ; like grapll cin, tacer e, etc.

11
(7) Making word liSJts for given suffixes or roots; like un-, -ion, - logy.
(8) Listing words according to ongmLatin, Greek, Arabic, Celtic, etc.
(9) .Word studies, as they occur in course of upper class work. "Swinton's Rambles Among Words," a good cue to the teacher.
(10) Listing and sounding words commonly mispronounced.
III. SUGGESTIONS.
1. Get spelling mostly from the readers !(.he first three years at least, and aim all spelling aU the time at intelligent reading and correct written forms.
2. Omit, therefore, infrequent words-mere catch words diffic~o:lt to spelL Stress the words the pupil needs constantly-the vocabulary of the various school books certainly.
3. Do not have the pupil spelling words from the spelling books, the meaning and uses of which neither 'he nor the teacher knows.
4. Make sure of meanings and uses, along with forms of words everywhere. Breed in him the habit of using the Dictionary.
:5. Remember that oral spelling teaches (1) the sound values of the letters, (2) syllabication, and (3) -pronuncioati'ons; and cannot therefore be dispensed wit h. You can ea,sily have too much of it, and you can el!lslly rob it of its chief value, by neglecting to have pupils for the first three years to pronounce syUables as they are spelled.
16. In oral spelling: (1) Give out the words once, distinctly. (2) Permit no guessing.

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(3) Have pupil to pronounce w_ord before spelling f.t. (A lesson in arUcula:tion and Jjlronunclation, this).
(4) Have 'him pronounce each syllable as spelled. AJ.so to call capit al letters, hyphens, &c. w1hen they occur.
(5) Have sentences for doubtful words. (6) Do not begin always at the heail of the
class, nor with the first word in the lesson. (7) Va;ry the meth<Xls only w.hen flagging interest requires it, butt do not fail to do so then. (8) Preserve good lines and postures. 7. But remember that spelling is first an aid to the re'ady recognition of words (r'31ding) and next to the ready reproduction of words (writing); that we do nott need spelling in oral speech, but only in written speech; thaJt we spell in life with our fingers; tha,t writ1ng words is the best way to learn to write words; and that at last we must lodge in the fingers the memory of word forms. 8. Written spelling. (1) Teaches the forms of English, capitalization, punctua,tion, use of hypheB, apostrophe, capitals, quotation marks, parngraph1ngs, etc. (2) Gives each pupil more words to spell in each lesson. (3) Keeps all tJhe pnpils engaged. (4) Gives a better chance t'O criticise and: correct misspelled words. (5) But takes more t ime for the recitation. (6) Tempts pupils into dishoneSJty. 9. Have no more written work than you have time to correct, be thwt much or little; much writ-

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ing ras certainly fixes bad habits as good ones; hence the absolute need of inspection. Take only a pupil's best work. 10. Develop in pupils the power of self-criticism and correction.
(1) Have pupils correct their own work with open books.
(2) Or check up one another's work similarly. Each pupil corrects his own work. Correction is the aim; not detection of errors by teacher, merely.
(3) Examine the W'Ork yourself only after the corrections of the pupil!l.
(4) Have misspelled words re-written a number .of times by the pupil.
11. Assign spelling lessons occasionally from the day's lesson in Arithmetlc, or Geography, or any of the school books.

IV. QUIZ REVIEWS.

1. State ten purposes in teaching spelling.

2. How teach the use of the dictionary'!

3. State the three elements of mastery of a vocabu-

lary.

4. Wrhi<fu one is usually neglected in teaching spell-

ing?

5. How aim spelling directly at reading?

6. How make spelling aid in the mastery of all the

pupil's school books?

7. State some ways of teaching speiJ.ing which are

not educaltive.

8. State and explain five methods of spelling adap-

ted to Primary Grades.



9. State the purposes of Phonic word-building.

10. Illustrate w.ha.t is meant by Phonic word-building.

11. Stalte six mrieties of written spelling lessons (in

any grades).

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12. St3Jte what is taughot in sentence spelling and dictation exercises.
13. Outline two kinds of observation spelling lessons, (object spelling).
14. State the special educational values of observation spelling.
15. State four uses of dia'Critics. 16. When begin drills in diacritics ? 17. Mark the following words:-(To be selec ted by
teacher) ~
18. State the values of dictating memory verses an<l max.ims.
19. State tlhe ways of making spelling ma.tches valul'.ble.
20. Criticise a spelling match poorly conducted. 21. .State five classes of words usually articulated
carelessly. 22. Pronounce the following words (words com-
monly mispronounced, selected and given by .the teacher). 23. State and explain five forms of written spellini: for intermediate grades. 24. State and explain five forms of oral spelling fo1 intermediate grades. 25. State and explain five forms of SP,!!'lling games. 26, State and illusifrate the three most impo-rtant. rules of spelling. 27. Abbreviate the following words: (to be selected' and given by the teJa:cher). 28. Write sentences for the following words: (to be selected and given by the teacher). 29. Give words for the following suffixes and define. each: -:-er, -ist, -ness, -some, -a!, -sion,. (or others as teacher chooses), 30. How teaC'h pupils the use of -the dictionary? 31. State the uses of oral spelling. 32. State the uses of written spelling. 33. What does each teach that the other does not. teach?

1.5
34. State six cauUons in giving an oral spelling lesson, 35. State six waY'S - of correcting written spellin g:
lessons. 36. State two dangers in written spelling lessons. 37. How avorid each? 38. How decrease the opportuni>ties for cheating in,
written spelling? 39. How use a spelling book wisely? 40. Give opinrion upon th e following ma;tters:
(1) At what st'age in a pupil's CO'Urse would you put a spelling boolt into his hands?
(2) Should a pupil know vhe me aning of every word h e is called on to spell?
(3) Should pupils in writing words in col~ - umns begin them all with capitals ?
(4) Should pupils be allowed to correct eacll other's work?
(5) Should pupils be given rincorrectl y= spelled words to be corrected.?
(6) Sllould we abolish the speUing book'?
V. REVIEW TEXT-BOOKS IN THE COURSE.
1. Penniman's Common Words Difficult to Spell. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.
2. P enniman's Prose Dictation Exercises. D. C. Heath & Co.. Boston.
3. AbernaJthy's Academy Orthrepist. Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York.
VI . REFERENCE BOOKS.
Swett's Methods of Teaching, Chap. III., Part II. American Book Co., N. Y., $1.00.
2. DeGralf's School Room Guide, p. 60. Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y., $1.50.
3. Moore's Suggestions for Seat Work. A. Flanagan, Chicago, Ill., 25 cents.
4. Methods in Re-ading and Spelling, by Branson~ D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.

18
distant from the paper. Erect. (If bent at all let it be from the waist.) Squarely facing the desk. Left hand resting lightly on tlhe paper. Never allow pupil to lean on the left hand W'ith eH.1ow o~ the desk.
b. Pen. Should rest lightly on the side of the second finger, at the root of the nail, and be held in p'Osition by thuiDib and first finger; the latter being bent sUghtly only. Finger tips not less than one inch from the pen point. '11hird and fuurch fingers folded under the palm. Staff crossing knuckle and pointing in the direction of the forearm, and under side of the wrist making an angle of fortyfive degrees with the desk. AvoidGripping the pen; grasping too near the point; a light angle in .the middle joint of the first finger; ink stains on the fing:ers.
c. Paper. In f:rontt of the writer-not to one
side. Lines parallel to the front edge of the desk.
Notes. These positions will be best understood by the class if the teacher will assume them and write in the presence of the pupils. Correct position is of importance and should be emphlasized. The above named are subject to some varillition in different systems, but are in the mruin correct, and are healthful no matter wha,t method is used. !Jlnforcing an habitual observance of good position in September will insure good results in June.

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2. Form. a. Proportion. (Height to width.) b. Curves and Sltraighlt lines.
c. Stems and loops.
d. Spacing.
Notes. Never. allow a student .to make only a part of a letter at a time, having to refer to the copy before finishing. ::)ee the whole-write it, compare with the model, then rewrite, correcting error. Unnecessary to emphasize "joinings." Letters, the essentials to know. Do ndt emphasize any feature not essential to good form.
3. Movement. For beginners, finger movement is best. After the forms are familirur, a combination or the finger and forearm. Movement secondary to good forms. Legibility, then speed.
IV. DISCIPLINARY VALUE.
1. Manual training. 2. ObserV'IIJtion. 3. Memory-by Repetition, Practice, Contrast. 4. Neatness. 5. Accuracy. 6. Taste.
Note.-Besides merely training to write, the .teacher can utilize the Penmanship period for numerous educat ional advantages as here enumerated. An opportune time to form good hal'bits.
V. COPIES OR MODELS.
1. Where books are used. a. Give frequent practice on separate sheers of pltper, particularly for movement, when student is more advanced; also to familiarize with troublesome forms.

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b. Let studerut observe copy carefully, then cover, and write the given sentence withaut referring to the model. Then compare and correct by rewriting.
v. Do not permit careless work. d. Emphasize neatness. 2. Where copies must be supplied or written by the toocher. a. If p!Ossible, -supply each student with a
model, ra,ther than place it on the blackboard. Save e~. b. Sentence copies should be sele<=ted with great care.
Examples.
1. Arrangement of examples in addition, subtra'Ction, multiplication and division.
2. Shlort IJ'hrases and seruten:ces. (Always be sure the sentiment, if any, expressed therein, is pure.)
3. Full line sentences, .each a statement of some scientific fact.
4. Fun line sentences-important da,tes in history.
5. Quotations from oooa authors.
6. Pa,r.agraphs of poetry. 7. Repertition of -one letter, for m-ovement. 8. Business forms.
VI. HOW TO CRITICISE THE PUPIL'S WORK.
1. Let corrections be specific. 2. Bring aut contrtast between student's work and
models. 3. Il-lustrate on the board errors and methods of
correction; form'a!tion ;pf difficult letters; correct and inoorrect proportions; poiruts of beauty -essential and non-essen-tial, etc.


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4. In mentioning points for correction do not fall to note a.Lso poin,ts of excellence, thereby: (1) Giving encouragement for past efforts. (2) .Showing need for fur.t'her effort.
5. Stimulate studei!Jt to strive for: (1) Uniformity. (2) Good proportion. (3) Freedom. (4) Conformity in. general to type models. (5) Speed. (Lastly, a.nJd after student can write well, slowly.)
6. Individuality. Whilst to teach conformity to perfect type forms is necessary and proper, make allowance for, and do not discourage, individuality. It is natural and must not be condemned.
VII. PRACTIOE. .
1. It cannot be too fOrcibly stated that practice in m:aking correct forms is necessary in lltl written, work, and not merely at the writing period. We oannot ,teach or learn to write speedlly by using correct forms rut soheduled w~;iting periods, say 'tJwo or t'hree or five times a week, and incorrect forms, movements, positions, etc., at all ot.lher times. As far as possible, have all written exercises in the "style" taught, and insist on a proper position in all writing done in t'he school room.
2. The regular practice period. (1) Not less thaD' fif.teen miD11ltee in lengt>h for primary pupils. (2) Not less th<an twenty-five minutes in length for advanced students. (3,) Daily. Perlrrups less frequent when more advanced. Use judgment. (4) Just'before morning recess is a good time. Never immediately following.


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3. Make it interesting: (1) By variety.
a. 'Board m>rk.
b. Varying the copies. Don't requira the repeti-tion of one copy too often. The main object of repetition is to memorize forms and familiarize movements. This can be accomplished as effectually by using same letters in qifferent combinations.
c. Wthere b'Ooks are used, vaTy by using separate sheets occas-ionally, as advised above.
4. Use large forms with beginners. They are most natural.
5. Use "single line" paper. Avoids dependence on spacings. Trains the eye independently from the first.
VIII. BOARD WORK.
1. Chalk should 'be held, nat as a pen or pencil, but with a firm grasp 'between thumb and fir~t three finger.s. Should retain always the same position, or angle, relative to the board.
2. Lines should be firm and distinct. 3. The teacher whose boord work is uniformly neat
and legible will gener-ally have a class of good writers. C'haracteristics of t'he te-acher's work, good or bad, aJre refieotoo in the class. 4. Board praJCtice for the class is restful, and is commended.
IX. GE~ERAL SUGGESTIONS.
1. Grade according to iinJI)rovement, general conformity to good forms, correctness of position in class. and ne'atness of work.
2. Teachers should:

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(1) Study closely details thaJt are essential to good form, proportion, etc.
(2) Analyze tornns. (3) Practice. (4) Keep up in-terest to insure best results. 3. Good W'ork cannot be done without good materials. Use black ink, good pens, good paper. 4. Short pencil stubs are ruinous to freedom of movement. Very hard pencils have the same effect. They cause gripping. Avoid the use of both in the schoolroom.

READING.
BY LAWTON B. EVANS, SuPT. OF ScaooLs,
AUGUSTA, GA.
(Copyrighted).
MATERIAL FOR TEACHER'S USE.
1. Nwturnl objects-flowers, inseots, grain, etc. 2. Phenomena-boiling water, growing plant, burst-
ing cocoon, etc. 3. Familiar objects-a ball, a cap, a top, a fan, a
knife, etc. 4. Toys-a horse, a cow, a cat, a donk~y, etc. 6. Pictures cut from Sltory books, magazines, etc. Note.-This ma~teri.311 is n~amed in the order of importance. By all means use .the Ill3itural o.bject itself if it can lle done. Children love nature, and objects of nature excite their oor:i.osity and interest. Use lbhe every-day familiar objects, and teach the things a:bout them tlli!.t a chUd ordinarily does not see. Train him to observe and count. An ear of corn will give a great deal of work in language, reading and nature study.
TEACHING THE WORD.
1. Conversation exercise. The first rthlng to be done is to show the child the rela;tion between the spoken and written word. Show the object to tlhe class, and induce tJhe pupils to talk about it. Call rtheilr attention to the main featurf!S. Lead them to talk by asking questions. Arouse their curiosity, gain their attention and awaken their minds.

2B
Note.-When the l)upils come forward to recite let them stand around the teacher, or sit down, assuming whatever easy allkl natural position they prefer. The things to be insisted oiL in the recitation are atteiLtion, animation, enthusiasm, freedom in speech. If these are obtained, the pupils are in order, do what they will. Do not repress any of the natural activity of the child. Merely require all movemeDJts to be natural, graceful and spontaneous. Books are DJOt needed for sever& weeks. Use the bla.cklboo.rd, slates, wa-iting-paper, etc.
2. The Word Symbol. After the pupils havo discussed t;he o'bject, and named its parts, the teacher can wr1te or print the word on the bla.ck'board, making an intimate connection between the o'bject itself and the word as its symbOl. At the first lesson onJy two or three words should be taught. Pupils should practice naming tihese until they know them without the aid of tlhe object. For seat worll they should 'be requireld to copy the words they have learned.
3. In the next exercise the pronouns may be taught objectively and such simple verb forms as "see" and "'have." AlSIO "a," "'81DJ" and "tihe." Depend upon the child's memory to retain tt.nd recall these word forms. .w~th this preparatioJl the teaclher may proceed at once to teach the realdin:g of simple sentences.
Note.-This method is known as the word method, and proceeds on the principle of first the idea, then the spoken word, then 1:Jhe written or prirruted word. The object is always used in the beginndng, and each word is illustrated and memorized. No account is taken of the letters separately until some thirty or forty words have been memorized. Do not tefJh t~ alphabet. It will teach itself after awhile. TefJh the word.

27
Exercise.
The foHowin.g test is severe, but developing and helpful. Let tlhe pupils be shown some object, say a. halt, and let them name it am.d watch the teacher as she writes in her 1best style on the board the word hat. 'IIhe pupils atterutively regard It until they thlnk they know it. Let them memorize the fO'I"m as best they can. Then let each one, Whenever .he chooses, turn his 'back on the copy and write what he '1"8members of It on tb:e board or on his slatte. The reprodueltion muet 'be from memory am..d not from sig;ht. 'IIhis stimulates intense percept.lon and aids the power of ~ecollectlon. Wonderful results can <be obtained by a patient trial of this form of word-maklng from memory.
TEACHING THE SENTENCE.
As soon as a few words anld phrases have been taught, the teacher should lead rt;he pupils to read writJten or printed senltences. Get to the simple serutence as qllickly as poss1ble. These sentences shouJod be deve'lo.ped by conversattfon, and every word previously studied. The teacher should write or prf.nt them on the 'blackboard in the best sltyle. 'IIhe use of colored crayons adds beauty and variety tJo the exercises. Let the teacher regard the foHowlng rules:
1. The pupil <Is to read Silently all the way through the sentence, aDid be sure that he knows every word before .he tries to read any part of H. He can then g1ve his entire llittention to the manner of expression, and knowing all the words beforehand he can more easily read In a natuml tone of voice.
2. The pupil <Is alW'a.ys to read naturally. He
Should never be allowed to spell b.1S way

28
thrO'Ugh t'he serutence, nor read in a singsong, humdrum, monotonous manner. Reading is thought getting and bhought giving. The mere calling of words in a sentence is uot always reading.
3. In reading a sentence fr01m the blackboard the pupil himself is to use .the pointer. The pointer Is to move evenJy and rapidly along t:he board , under rthe w'hole sentence at one impulse of the hand. It is not to t:ap the board under each word. The pupil reads the serutenee after the pD'in'ter has designated it.
4. 'l'he pupils must be trained .to see the sentence ru:s a whole. T.hey must unde1stand it as con~ taining a thought, a.nJd speak it as a whole.
Note.-The teacher must b~;gin with the first senotence to teach na:turn:lness and to avoid monobone. Have as much care for expresS/ion, for 'Ml easy flow of the voice, and for proper emplhltsis, as for correctness in pronounc~ng the words. In order to accomplish this the eye must be made to go a,head of bhe voice. We can get this by silent reading of the sentence and calling 1-t out from memory. All the work developed on the blackboard may be left there for the pupils to copy on their slates.
Exercise.
Let the .teacher draw a pretty oolored picture on the board of some flower or animal, by using colored crayon, or a blaok'board stencil. Better still, use a butterfly, a beetle, an a.utumn leaf, a bunch of flo.wers, or any other object of Interest tJo children. Develop by conversation six or seven words new to tlhe class, and write these neatly about the picture or object. Thien develop a few sentences and write these below in whitte crayon. Make the effect artistic and pleasing. Teach the words and

29
senken<:es thoroughly, and then allow the pupils to draw the objed and the words and sentences on slates or paper. This kind of exercise will take the place of charts, and has the advantage of variety and adaptation.
11ome-made Ohart8.
If yoU muSJt ha ve a reading chart, make one for your- . self. Get 24 sheets of stout unglazed manilla paper, about 24 by 36 inches in si ze. Paste m center of ea.ch of two or three sheets some bright colored picture of a famili'ar objoot-a dog, a cat, a horse, etc. Print a fe w na mes above it and print one or two phrases underneath. Make each sheet progressive, every few pages have one :for review, have one with sentences only, one with words only. Use charcoal crayon for printing. Use the spare pages for penmanship, colored maps, etc. Bind together at the top between two latJhs, leaving six inches projecl!in.g. Hang up by nails in the wall. This chart will cost you, for the paper, 25 cents, for the cha rcoal crnyon to do the printing, .5. cents, for the pictures, no!thing, for the laths and nails, nothing. Total cost of a ten-dollar chaflt, 30 cents.
PHONIC SYNTHESIS.
Exercise in phonic synt1wsis, that is. putting of sounds together into words, should precede phonic analysis. Ask the pupils what words these sounds make, touching the object at first yourselt, and afterwards having them touch it, viz.: m-ou-th; ch-ee-k; f-a-ce; d-e-s-k; t-ee-th; n-e-ck; b-oo-k; h-a-n-d. Tell the pupils to r-u-n; s-t-a-n-d; s-i-t; j-u-m-p. Point to the b-e-11; c-l-o-ck; b-oa-r-d; ch-al-k; etc., etc.
Pronounce the sounds slowly and distinctly; practise beforehand so as to get it right. Reverse the

30
process and have the pupils give the sounds of lhe word tJhat names some object held in their view, etc.
PHONIC ANALYSIS.
After the pupil has learned the words, has copied them on his slate and can tell one from another, he naturally observes that the words them;;elves are cOIIIlposed of several pal'lts. Phonic syn-thesis has aided him in thiis. The teacher then i:; ready to analyze the words intlo their vocal elements.
1. Let the teacher choose any word that the child knows, as ra,t, and write it on the board and have the pupils pronounce it.
2. The teacher will tlhen pronounce the word very slowly <and separaste it by his voice into the three sound elemeruts, represented by the three letters. As he pronounces each part he touches it wit'h rthe vointer.
3. The ohlldren repeat after Jtim the sounds as nearly as tlhey can. The teacher writes on th{' board the letter r, a;nd gives tJhe proper phonic value, the children repeat !it after him. Th.en he writes the letter a and gives it the proper sound, the children repeating H after him. He does rthe same way with the letter t.
4. The word has been separated into its parts by long pronunciation. The first part, the second part and tlhe third part have been shown and sounded. It only remains for the teacher to tell the cla.ss the names of .the three letters. Let him be careful to draw a distinction between(a) The appearance of the letter. (b) The sound or pbonic value of the letter. (c) The name of tJhe letter.

31
5. At the next lesson the teacher takes the word man, and by treaJting it in tlhe same way as the word rat was treated, introduces two new elements m an<l n. The pupils now h a ve five soun<ls, represented by the letters ,., t, m, 11, and a. These five l~tters should he written on the 'boar<! in tlfe best style. The pupil should copy in ord'er to get the appearance. The teacher should drill in the names and in the phonic values.
6. From the known pihonic elements new words can be discovered. From the above five elements the teacher can construct such new words as
ran, rnat, tan, ant, mm, by leading the puJ)Us to
give the sounds of the letters as he poin,ts to them and by writing them down asgiven until a word is made.
7. In this way the entire alphabet is gTa.dually acquired by the pupils, according to the use of the letters in the words. It may happen that an entire year may pass without t-he pupil learning some of the letters.
Note.-lit is geoorally agreed that time is wasted by tea-ching the alphabet first. The child cannot associate the names of the letters with the pronunciation of the words they spell. There is indeed no connection. On the ot.her hand there is a vita l connection between the separate so und values and the unit'Eld sound value. Th1s phonic analysis should be continued until the child acquires the power an<l the habirt of constructing the ~und of a word for himself. Many words are not subject to the above analysis. Tlhese must be memorized by the pupils both in form and spelling.
Many t~hers complain that they themselves are ignorant of :the elementary anrd composite sounds of the Jan-

32
guage. In order to overcome this diiDculty the following directions are given by Mr. 'E. P. Moses, of Rock Hill, S. C.:
"First, learn to speak accurately the vowel sounds of our
language. They are seventeen, and are a as in mate; e a~ in
mete; I as in pine; 6 as in note; ii as in pure; 11. as in mat;
~ as in met; r as in pin; <5 as in not; i1 as in bud ; a, as in far; a.w as in law; e as in her; 6 as in move; ow as in cow;
oy as in boy; oo as in foot.'' Second, learn the consonant souml.s, of which there are
twenty-four, making wilth the seventeen vowels sounds, forty-one elemenltary sounds in the language.
The biPitlvlz sounds are found 'by noting the names of
these six letters and dropping the final e sound heard in
each. The f, 1, m, n, s, x sounds are found by noting .the names
of these six letters and dropping preceding e sound in each.
The j and k sound are found by noting the names of these two letters and dropping the final a sound in each.
The r sound is found by noting tlhe name of the letler
and dropping the preceding a. sound.
The c, g, h, qu, w, y sounds are found by u'tJtering the initial sound heard in the spoken words cow, go, ho, quit, we, ye.
The ch, sh, th (fl:at), th (sharp) and wh sounds are found by uttering the Initial sounds heard In the words chin> she, the, thin, whip. The ng sound is found by uttering the last sound of the spoken word ring.
The zh sound is fO'Und in the word azure."
PHONIC ANALOGIES.
After the children have learne'd the phonic values of most ~f the letters, the teacher should arrange an exercise designed fur 'the construction of words by adding a letter to a certain termiruastion. This is the arranging of words according to their vocal analogies. Take such terminations as: at, ctn, am, ag, ad, et, en, eg, etc., and placing each aJt the head

33
of a column arrange all the monosyllabic words that 'have that particular termination. Many hundred words can be found and the drill in phonics is made very definite and valuable. The following are given as exa.mples of this clasS' of work. Each one may be called a family: "Mrs. at and her children," etc.

I I I I at I ag I et

en

ill

ad

od

bat bag bet

cat

fag

get

fat

gag Jet

bat

~ag

net

mat Jag pet

nat Jag set

pat mag wet

rat

nag yet

8at

rag etc.

tat

sag

vat

tag

chat wag

that etc.

etc.

den bill fen fill ben gill men bill pen mill then pill when rill etc. sill
till
will chill quill etc.

bad cad fad gad had lad
mad pad sad shad etc.

God hod nod pod rod
sod shod
etc.

THE USE OF THE BOOK.
1. Tea.ch the new words. Before the pupils are called to read, the teacher should find the new words in rthe lesson and place them un the blackboard, and have tlhem thoroughly learned. These new words constitute the advance of the pupils in word knowledge. Use the 'illustrations in the text to develop illlterest.
2. All the puplls read each sellltence. The teacher should hamlole a class so that all get the instruction given rto eaoh. Every pupil is required .t;o read the sentence silently. Hands show when each has finished. One or more

34
can be called on to read aloud. The teacher must have a c111re that every pupil in the class is reading and is prepared to read aloud if called on.
3. The value of expresion. Care must be taken to insure proper expression of the sentence. .Let it 'be rellid over antd over until the pupil~:~ can read as lthey would say irt, LErt. .them read it wi<bhout looking 111t it, A good expression in reading is of asmuch value as coiTect pronunciation of t he words,
4. Word exercises. It is of the utmost importance tJha.t th'e pupils know vhe words at sight, other- wise they cannot read easily and fluently. As the words are learned the .te~~~Cher should write or print them on the b1aclt'bo~~~rd. Every day, use word calling, word finding, word matching. If the child be given a small object or drawing and told to find the word which names it, it will add interest Ito the exercise.
5. Enunciation. The pupils should be requirEd to pronlounoo every sylla:ble and every letter thll.t ougblt to 'be pronounced. Omitting final letters, slurring syllables, running words together are faults that shoul'd be corrected. To induce correct reatUng, t he pupils should not 'be a-llowed to read too rapidly. Time should be taken for enunci111tion, pronunciation, emph:tsis and expression. Most pupils read too fast.
6. Emphasis. Pupils ca;n be taught emphasis by judicious questioning better than by imitation. The teacher may wr~te a sentence on til boord such as, I have a rea top. The pupils are required to read rt'he sentence so as to give answers to such que'Sitions: Who has a red top? What is the 'color of your ttop? What is the

red thin-g you have? In the reading iessoli require tlhe sentences read with a variety of emphasis a.ccordin.g to rthe questions to be answered.
7. Posture. Pupils should stand erect while reading, well in front of the recitation seat or out in the aisle. They should not lean on anything, nor stand up lazily or ungracefully. Let them assume a military posture, standing erect on both feet, head up and shoulders back. The book should be held in the left hand unless the book is too heavy, in which case both hands may be used. The book should be held down below the level of the face, fourteen inches from the eye, at right angles to the line of vision.
8. Correcti'ons. Allow no interruptions while the child is rea~ing. Let him finish the sentence or his paragr'a.ph. The child's attention should not be disrtraoted by other pupils shaking their finger'S or mis1ng their hands. Any criticism that is to be made should be reservoo until the pupil has taken his seat. In all cases require the pupil to pronounce oorreotly the words he has previously missed.
Oaution.-The teacher must not aHow the pupils to come to her desk as indivi~u8ils to have the lesson pointed out to them as they recite. Each pupil should keep his own place. The pupils must rea~ loud enough for the class to hear, wtthout. disrtracting those not in the class. The teacher must not give too long a lesson. A page or half page well learned is far better than a half dozen pages indifferently learned. Remember that in all teaching it is not how much but how well thBit counts. Do no<t allow the b-right pupils to answer all the questions. It is the dull o~ th:ait need the teacher's help.

36
The bright ones Mil teach themselves. The teacher mu~t have a care that the backward pupils be given all the aJttention possible.
Do not allow other pupi'ls to interrupt the te-acher during a recita.tion; time Is wasted and attention 1s distracted. Use a monitor in ungraded schools .to answer questions. Use hand si~als for perm1ssions. Provide seat work to keep pupils busy who a.re not busy at the recitatton.
Exeroise.
"What I see", "Wha.t I think."-Take a slip of writing paper of ordinary size and paste a picture at the top of it and have the pupils write a list of the oll jects in this picture, or sentences of whalt they see in the picture. A story can also be made of what tJhe picture suggfllts to the child. These may afterwards be read in class.
SEAT WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES.
1. Pupils may print or write the lesson. on slates or on paper, copy1ng from .the book or from the blackboard.
2. Pupils may be provided with small cards on each of which is a letter of the alphasbet. With these they can build up on their desks the lessons fbr :the day. Sentences on the board may be copied in t he same way.
3. Small cards witlh wOT'ds written or printed on
them casn be distributed to the pupils, out of which they are to build sentences of their own making.
ITHE I cow I EATS I GRIEEN I GRASS.I

37
4. Cards on which the teacher has drawn one or two-
simple objects and written or printeld three or four short sentences can 'be distributed to the pupils. These they may study at their seats, oopy on paper, and may aJso use in recitation.
5. In the seoonu 'alld .tJhfrd year pupHs may be required to write a summary of the story of the lesson in ae m'llllly senttences as they can remem-ber.
6. Pupils should be a.lloweld to draw simple objects, from drawing cards or from the blackboard, or 'better still, from the objects themselves, color them with cdlored crayon and write original stories. In this way should nature a.nx1 science be brought inrto the schools and related to the language and to trhe IUe of the dhildren.

READING IN ADVANOED GRADES.
Selecting a twt-book.-Atter the third reader in the C'Ourse, the pupils are prepaTed to beg'ln the study of literature proper. By this time they should know 'how to read, and their instruction should regard information and cultivation. The teacher should seloot a suitaJble text which will be
1. Of recognized literary standing. 2. Entertaining to the class. 3. Fun of in.formraitiQil and culture for tlie pupils. 4. Easy enough for them to understand.

Reading tor lnformati<m.-In order for the pupils to

derive plewrure from tJhe reclltation it is best for

the teacher to keep the text-books and distribute

them when the class is ready to recite. Let the

teacher and pupils study together. The followin~

rul~ are to be observ~:



..

,



J







. 38
1. The pupils stand a,s they recite. 2. Each pupil reads until the teacher stops hlm. 3. Corrections must 'be made 'by class at end of ln-
dlv!dual recitations. 4. The mea:ning of new words must be explained. 5. Ea,ch paragraph must be read by several pupils
until! it is read Slatisfu.ctorily as t o elocutionary effect. 6. AU allusions of an h!storical or geographical nature must be explained. 7. Make tbhe leSSIOD: short, but let the study be intensive. 8. Question pupils as to the meaning of what they are read1ng. 9. Let the pupils summarize the story in their own language. 10. Write the very hard words on the 'blackboard ~o be used for spelling exercLse and for definitions.
Note.---one of the main dutl!es of tea.cllers in hig~her grades is to create a,nd cultivate a love for good reading among their pupils. For this purpose every school should have a library, large or small, of b'ooks adapted for children, and the teacher should see tlhat books are giYen the pup1ls to read. When the chJ.ldren are at leisure in school tihey may be allowed to quiet ly read the book they have taken from t he library. They had better be reading than be idle or noisy. The teacher may require of them a written summary of the story, or a composition about some feature of it. The1r reading oan thus be of profit as well as en.rterta!nment. Some ch!ld's book or periodical containing stortes, descriptions, etc., could be read in the school. The teacher 'Could read It al'Oud or t he pup!ls could read aloud to one another. The story &hou1d be reproduced orally or in writing. Resort to every means to make the pupHs fond of reading good books. Show <them whalt good books are. Place them in t.he ll!4ld$ of the pupils and see that they r~!!-d t}leql. After

39
having taught the children to read, let us see that thet read to some purpose.
Readling tor Emp1ession.-The pupils having studied a selection anJd ID'aster.ed the story, understood the words and their meaning a.nd had all .tlhe allusions explali.ned to them, are prepared to study the same selection from a,n.OOher sta.ndpoint. Th:at is the sta.ndpoint of elocution or expression. For this purpose tJhey crunnot know 1Jt too weH, nor study it too closely. The best expression is possible only when the wo,rd<s are in the memory.
1. The pupi,ls stand with especial care .to posture. 2. The Nlite of reading should be adapted to the
piece, never so slow as to be sluggish, nor so rapid a.s to be indistinot. 3. Pupils Slhould be taught the value of rhetorical pauses .and how to determine their use. 4. The quality of the voice is decided by the sentiment of tlhe pieoe to 'be read. Tones must oe joyous, light, grand, solemn, reverent, fearful, acoording to the nasture of the piece. 6. Emphasis is the stlress of voice on one or more words, with referenee to meaning, aml must be taught from the beginning. 6. The force of the voice, whether loud or soft, and the pitch, whether high or low, are indispensable parts of good reading.
Note.-The teacher can give instruction to the pupil in the use of the voice and in breasthing exercises. Every day the pupils should take deep breathing movements. Show them how and when to fill the lungs with air in order to expel 1t with ease and force in reading. Approprlat.e gestures are not to 'be discouraged. If pupils wish to emphasize their reading 'by physica.l movements encourage . them to do so.
-

46
Reading tm duitu1-e.-After the child has iearned io
read fairly well, the time has come for h~m to lay aside the study of tihe mere form, and begin t o study the corutent of the text. The significance of the words, rather than their shapes and oounds, should en-gage :his atterution. He should learn how to read and to enjoy classical literature. The lessons should be short and intensive. Thirty lines of a grealt poem is enough for a day's lesson. Let the mea.ning of every word be understood; every metaphor an1l comparison be studied; every reference be explained; every choice expression be memorized. Let it be trwn.slated into Ms thought and language as though it were a Latin selection. The te~t is no longer to be read, but it is to be studied, and studied intensely, with reference to the beauties of the literature lit contains. A whole year can be employed in the study of the three poems-Evangeline, Enoch Arden, a.nd the Deserted Village. They then become a part of the child's life, his thoughts are elevated, his character en no'bled, his love for high literature culbiva.ted. He is shown how to study ltterature properly, and the key is given him wherewith he can unlock the storehouse of the world's literary treasures.
"Sweet Auburn! loveliest viUage of the pladn, Where health and pleruty cheered the laboring swain, Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid, And part!lng Summer's lingering blooms delay'd; Dear lovely bowers of iniOOCence and ease, Seats of my youth, when every sport could please; How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green, While humlble happiness endeared each scene! How ofte11 have I paused on every charm, The sheltered cot, the cul.Uvruted farm, The never-fa111ng brook, the busy mill, The decent church thast topt the neighboring hill; The hawrthO'l"n bush, with seats beneath the shade, For talking age a.nld whispering lovers made."

41
Where ahd what was Auburn? What was its real name? What made it sweet to the poet? Wha.t part of his life was spent there? Was it a. plain? Wha.t is a ~wain'! What should heal>th and plenty do for every one? Why is Spring called smiling? What is meant by parting summer's? What are lingering blooms? What are bowers? Why were they of innocence al!ld ease? What does loitered mean? What does green meal!l? WhaJt is mear1t by humble happiness? Wha.lt is the significance of paused on every charm? What is a decent church? Note the spelling topt. Describe a hawthorn 'bush. Why .talking age? Why whispering lovers? etc.

SUMMARY OF FAULTS IN ADVANCED GRADES.

'l'eacher to Avoid: 1. Usin.g too hard a text
book. Pupils fil1d no pleasure in severe reading. Err on the side of simplicity.
2. Using an uninteresting text book. It is a great deal easier for pupils to learn when they enjoy learning. It is the same way with grown p.;ople.
3. Giving too long a lesson. It is better to give short lessons and have them well prepared. Not how much but how well is the keynote in education.

T eaclte, to Oonect: 1. Inattention on the part
of the pupils. This is done by calling on them unexpectedly, by using an interesting le-sson, by having them watch for errors. 2. Reading too fast and wi:thout expression. Pupils are in too great a hurry to finish, and read with no effort for effect. Take time <to pro11ounce and enunciate everv word. Do not slur nor elide.
3. Lazy and ungraceful posture. Require the pupils to rise promptly, to stand up well, book in one hand, head up, shoulders back. Posture is essential to good effect.

42

4. Giving too much assistance. Make the pupils rely on their labors, and find out things for t'hemselws. Throw the burden of education on the child himself.
5. Teaching by individuals. EV'ery pupil should get all the teacher's instructions, should read silently or aloud all the Jesson, and be ready to answer all thfl questions. Class work is different from individual work.

4. Monotonous and uniutetrest.ing rel!Jdin~. Thi~ generally shows tht' pupil is not interested in the lesson, or tbat it is too hard for 1him.
5. Fauits in articulalion, enunciation: Lack of knowledge of word meanings, historical allusions, etc.

6. Interruptions while pupil is reading. Let the teacher, the class a-nd the pupil be undisturbed during the individual recl:tati;On. Corrections made a,t close.

6. Ll!Jck of elocutionary effor.t. Pupils must feel they are readin~ to somebody and for some purpose. Let them read from the platform if necessary, by competition one with another.

Some Helps in Teaching Readvng: Cyr's Reading Sl<ips. Ginn & Co., Atlanta. . Pictures of Simple Objects. From amy source. Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw. E. L. Kellogg & Co.,
New York. Word Cards a,n'd Alphabet Cards. Milton Brl!Jdley Co.,
Atlanta.
Som,e Books on Teaching Reading:
Language and Reading-(Anna Badlam.) D. C. Health & Co.. Atlanta.
Primary Read1ng-How to teach it. (Boston Method.) Educational Publishing Co., Boston.

43
Methods of Teaching Reading. (Branson.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta.
How to Teach Reading. (LeRow.) Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York.
Calkins' "How to Teach !'lhonics." E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York.
How to Teach Reaiding. (Hall.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta.
Preparing to Read. (Spear.) New Eng. Pulb. Co., 3 Somerset St. , Boston.
QUESTIONS ON METHOD OF TEACHING READING.
1. Name 'the maJterial, in order of value, for the teachers' use in a primary reading class.
2. What is the first thing to be taughct? 3. How should the word be inctroduced? 4. WhaJt about tohe conduct of the pupils in the recitation? 5. How is the word taught? 6. What principle underlies the word method? 7. Describe t he exercise of WOrd making from memory. 8. How many worrds should be memorized befoTe any ac-
count is taken of the letters? 9. When arnd how should sentence reading begin? 10. What of reading silently before vocalization? 11. What of naturalness in reading? 1.2. How should the pointer be used on the blackboard? 13. How can an exercise be ma de of a drawing, a few
words a nld sentences? 14. Describe the making of a home-made chart. 15. Describe an exercise in phonic synt hesis. 16. How should phonic analysis be int roduced? 17. How many sounds in the word rat and man, and what
other words can a child discover from those sounds? 18. Name t he 17 vowel soun'ds. 19. How ca'll the consonant sounds be learned? 20. Mention the consonant diphthongs.

44
21. What exercises can be arranged in phondc analogies? Construct one.
22. Draw a phonic diagra.m to illustrate variety in the exercises.
23. Whrut should first !Jn taught in the reading lessou? 24. How can every one be made to reaJd the erutire lesson? 25. What of exvress'ion? 26. How should word exercises be conducted? 27. What about enunciation? 28. How should emphasis be taught? 29. Wha.t should be the proper posture in a reading class? 30. W1hen should corrections be made? 31. In conducting a recitation whrut cautions should be
observed? 32. What can you say of seat work in readin-g and lan-
guag~? Wurd cards? Alpha.bet cards? 33. llluslt'!"ate the relatdng of science and language work. 34. Wha.t are the poin'ts of excellence in a text-book for
advanced grades? 35. MenUon some of the rules for good reading in advanced
grades. 36. How can a love of good reading be aroused in pupils? 37. What can y'O'U say of reading . for expression? 38. Mention the six rules for expression. 39. Wha.t of 'breathing exercises? 40. Whrut is meant by rea'ding for culture? 41. How long should a culture lesson be? 42. What sil:wuld be sltudie'd? 43. Mention three poems that could take a year to master. 44. What are some of the faults a teacher should avoid in
advanced grade teaching? 45. What are some of the pupil's faults the teacher should
correct? 46. Mention some helps in teaching reading. 47. ~ention some books on Teaching Reading.

4-5
INSTITUTE PROGRAM ON READING.
FIRST DAY-45 Min'lltes. 1. Material for teaoher's use. 2. Introductory conversation exercises. 3. Teach:lng :the word. 4. Teaching the seDJtence. 5. Home-maide charts.
SECOND DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Exercises in phonic synthe>sis. 2. How to introd'llce phonic ana lysis. 3. Exercises on the vowel and coruronamt sounds. How
to learn them and how to tea.dh :them.
THLRD DAY-45 Mrlnutes.
1. Phonic analogies; construct one or more columns of words according to the analogy of termination.
2. The use of tlb:e fbiook. Teaching new words, enunciation, emphasis, posture, etc.
3. OertaJin caution8 for the teacher to observe.
FOURTH DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Seat work for primary classes. 2. How to relate nature to reading work. 3. Read1n<g in advanced grades. Selecting a text-book. 4. Reading fOT lnform'altion.
FIFTH DAY-45 Minutes.
1. Reading for expression, posture, rate of reading, rhetorical pauses, quality, emphasis and force of the voice.
2. ReadiD'g for culture. Il-lustrated by some selections. 3. Summary of Jiaults in: advanced grade. What should
t he teache r avoid an'd what Shoul'd the teacher correct. 4. Some helps in teach1ng reading and some books <?~
~~a~hin~ readin~.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
BY EULER B. SMITH. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,
STATE NoRMAL ScHOOL, ATHENS, GA. ( Copyrighted.)
PART I.-GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTION.-Language lessons should precede, but not supersede, the study 'Of formal grammar. Language lessons afford instruction in the att of correct expression; grammar is a science as well as an art. In teaching language lessons, the illSitruction is inductive and synthetic; in teaching grammar, the process is both deductive and inductive, analytic as well as S'Yntthetic. Language lessons, then, can no more supply the place of gramma.r than number lessons can afford instruction in the science of arithmetic. "Practice precedes theory, the art comes before the science;" but, as Dr. DeGarmo Slays, "It is a poor art that does nOit leald toward llllld culminate in corresponding science." It would be unwise to discard grammar because it has been poorly taught. Would it be wise to banish from the schools all the common-school branches thrut have been unsuccessfully taught? Anarchy is a poor subs'titute for faulty governmen>t.
Many h ave arg ued that technical grammar'' should not be taught in the publ!c schools. But It will be noticed that every such person, though his education may have been only such as the public school atrords, Is always ready to apply the principles of technical gram mar in the criti cism and correction of errors.-RA.UB.
Grammar dOes not dictate language; it only records the usage of the best writers and speakers, and states the princi ples that un'derIie their use of language. A child uses language long before he 'begins the study -of grammar. If he has always "heard good English, read good English, an-d practiced good English," he doe'S not need to R'tudy
" By tecllnical grammar 1s meant that part of grammar which deals strictly with the science itself, including the technicalities and idioms."

48
grammar in order to speak and write correctly. While it is true that there are eminent w~Lters and speake~s who have never studied grammar, still irt must be remembered toot they have devoted a large pant of their lives to a careful study of standard English. Is 1t necessary to traverse the earth in order to learn t'he science of geography? A favored few have the advantage of <asS'Ociation with those who use correct language; the vast majority are not so fortunate. As a rule, pupils cannot acquire right habits of speech from their associates; an~, unfortunately, not always from th1ir teachers. Practice, of !Itself, does not make perfect. Principles should und.erlie practice. TJlere-
fore the science of grammar should be understood, and its
principles s'hould be applied in the study and use of language. This paper deals mainly with methods of teaching adVl!l.nced grammar.
PURPOSE OF TEACHING GRAMMAR.-The two main objects in teaching grammar should be to aid the pupil (1) in understanding language used by others, (2) in expressing his own thoughts correctly. The immediate aim should be to enable the pupil (1) to recognize the pal'lts of speech, (2) to .analyze sentences as to structure and syntax, l3) to construct senltences properly. BeSii.des irts practical value as an aid in correct iruterpretation and expression of thought, grammar holds a mO'St important place as a disciplinary s'tudy.
SCOPIE OF GRAMMAR-In order to .teach any branch successfully, it is of paramount impor.tance that the lt:acher should have a clear conception of the nature and scope of that branch. The 'teacher of grammar should constantly ask himself these questions: What is grammar? How are its parts correlated? What doos each part contribute to the whole? Knowledge is of little value unless things are known in their elations. On page 49 is presented u bird's-eye view of gr.ammar, showing its divisions and that of which each division tre3Jts. This outline, while intended especially for teachem, will be helpful to 3JdV'!l.nced pupils.

I. ORTHOEPY-Pronunciation of words. Il. ORTHOGRAPHY-Spelling of worde, HI. LEXICOLOGY-M~.anlng and derivation of words.

Noun. Verb. Pronoun.

rl. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

Adjective. Adverb .

I
lV. ETYMOLOGY ~

]

Preposition. Conjunction.

Interjection.

.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Ila. j MODIFICATION OF WORDS..

Num~r.
Gender. Perwn. VCao.icee. .

m~

~lode.
Tense. l Comparison.

r 1. ANALYSis-Separation of sentences into elements{WPhorradse. .

Clause.

1

V.

SYNTAX .

~
,

2.

PAllSIKG-Analysis of

elements

as

to..................

..

....

{ClaslflcatloD. Modification.

l Construction.

3.

1. SYNTHRsiS{2.

CC0o1ll1o.c8atrtviocnti-oAnr-Sryann~taEc'tmiceanlt

relation of el of elements.

ements.

3. Punctuation-Pointing elements and sentences.

VI. PROSODY-Versification of sentences.

50
Gramma.r is vhe science of correct language. Language is spoken as well as written. Correct language demands
then, not only the right spelling of written words, but als~
the proper pronunciation of spoken words. To mispronounce a spoken word is a:s grave an error as to misspell a written word. Language, in order to be correct, a1so requires a knowledge of the meaning of words. Onhoepy, orthography, and lexicology are studied iucidenta1ly in gram!Jllar; because, long before formal g.r.ammar is begun, they have received particuJ.ar aMerution in spelling-books and readers.
Ag>ain, language is expressed in wrse as well as prose; hence prosody claims a place as one of the divisions of grammar. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, partly t.o rhetoric. The mere form of verse (verse-making) belongs to grammar; the diotion of poetry belongs to rhetoric.
Clearing this branoh of its externals, so to speak, we have left the two main divisions of grammar-etymology and syntax. In fact, grammar deals almost exclusively with the etymology of words and the syrutax of sentenoes. 'fo make it plainer still, grammar treaJts of the classification and mod1fioaJtion of words, and the structure of sentences.
Syntax treais of :the structure of sentences. It includes analysis, pa.rsing, and syruthesis. Analysis shows the structure of the sentence by separating it into its elements. Parsing collltinues the analytic process: it is the analysis of the elements of sentences. Parsing deals with words, not as individual words, but as parts of sentences; i . e., in their sentential relation. Synthesis combines elements to form sentences; if views sentence-s'bructure from the constructive standpoint.
Referring to the outline, it will be seen that etymology deals with the word as the unit; syntax, wHh .the sentence as the unit. Whether the sentence br the word should be tlie starting point, is a question still much -discussed. We talk and write in sentences. Rules and principles are proved by reference to the serutence. Elements are parsed according to their sent ent ial use. In expressing thought, wordB are but fractional; the sentence alone is ill'tegral. The true grammatical undt is t he sentence.
The starting point of the instruction should be the simple sentence. Procedure from the whole to its part.. ta.kes precedence of that from the parts to the who!e.-JOHONNOT.

51
METHODS OF TEACIDNG GRAMMAR.-There are two gener8il methods of teaching ~ammar, which I shall call the Sentence Method and the Word Method. In the Sentence Met'hod, the sentence is regarded as the unit; and It ts separ81ted into its elements, which, in their last analysis, are words. After a study of a:nalysis, the cl-assification and modific81tion 8/nd construction of words are considered. The tendency of this mevlmd is to devote too much time to analysis and diagramming. In! the Word Method, which is the one in general use, the word is com>idered the unit; and the sentence is studied syntthetically through its parts. In this method, parsing usually receives undue aJtten<tion; and analysis, 1f >studied at all, is taken up as being last and least.
Of the two metrhods, the Sentence Method is much to be pl"eferred, since it 'begins with the true grammatical unit -the sentence. In the Sentence Method, the procedure is analytic and im:l.uctive; principles and rules are learned through a study of language; there is no foolish attempt .to learn l8inguage through a study of definitions. Laurie says, "Grammar has to be studied in and through SRntences, and to be extracted from sentences by .t,he pupil if it is to be reauv taught."
In successful teaching, the above-mentioned methods should both be employed, thus forming what may be called the Combined 'Method. By tJhis method, the sentence is fil"St separated into its elements; or, in other words, speech is reduced to parts of speech. Then: each pal"t of speech is ciassified aud defined as soon as its nature and use are clearly understood in the anoa,lysis of the sentence. The classific81tion of words should be taken up in connection wt.th analysis, because some elements o!f the sentence are named from the parts of speech. For instance, an adjective cloause implies a knowledge of the 8idjective. On the other hand, analysis aids the pupil in bebter un:derstanding the parts of speech; a conjunctive adveDb is more clearly understood after analysis has shown its use !11 conncting a dependent cl-ause. In the Combined Metthod, as the pupil proceeds wi<th the study of analysis, he is taught the first step in pal"S'!ng; namely, to recognize the parts of

52
speech. After the different kinds of sentences have been analyzed, the pupil takes up the modification and construction of the parts of speech; and be is then prepared to parse elements in full.
pART H.-SENTENCES.
Jt is not my purpose to give a detailed method of teaching the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be too long; but it is hoped that the general plan suggested and the few illustrations given, may be of service. As bas been already suggested, the proper method of teaching grammar is to begin with-
I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Begin with short declarative sentences. Using sentences like DoGs DARK, for example, teach pupils the two essential elements of the sentence-the subj ect and the predicate. When subject and predicate are well understood, introduce the two principal parts of speech-the noun and the 1erb. Now, in the sentence Dogs bmk, substitute they for dogs; and pupils get an idea of the third part of speech-the pronoun. Sentences like DEAD leaves fall QUIETLY, introduce modifiers of the subject and the predicate; and pupils begin to recognize the fowth and fifth classes of words-adjectives and adterbs. The sentence VERY LARGE trees grow VERY SLOWLY, introduces a new form of word elements-the complex form. A complex word element consists of two or more word:~ joined together without the aid of a conjunction. In the last example given, pupils also see the remaining uses of the adverb; namely, to modify adjectives and adverbs.
The book lies ON THE TABLE illustrates a new element, the phrase; and pupils are shown the use of the sixth part of speech-the preposition. Before requiring a definition of a phrase, see that phrases are clearly understood. A phrase*
The word phrau is often used In a wider sense. Under phrases, some grammarians include participle phrases, verb phrases, and various other expresions. The terms used in grammar should he as clear and precise as possible.

53
is an elemoot consist1ng of a preposition ,and its object. A preposition can never be used alone as a word element: it is an inseparable part of a phrase. The sentence He lives IN A HOUSE NEAR TIIE CIIURCH, COntains a complex phrase. A COmpleX phrase consists of two or more phrases joined together without a conjunction. BoYS and GIRLS study AT HOME and AT scHOOL illustrates compound word and phrase elements and gives an idea of the seventh class of words-the conjuncti01~. A compoun'd eleme!lllt con,sists of two or more elements CO!Ilnected by coordinate conjunctions. AH! I am so glad! contains an interjection-the eighth an'd last part of speech. The following sentence cootains all ,the parts of speech:
A h! but vou speak lightly ot sacred things.
The three kinds o complements should be carefully discrimin:ated. Teach pupils thrut a complement completes the 1nOOicate, uot the verb. A subjective* complement relates to the subject by denoting a class or a quality W:>Serted of it; as, Man is an animal; God is good. Pupils frequently have trouble in Q.istinguishing object complements from objective complemeruts. The former is always a substantivet; it denotes that whoich receives the act. The latter relates to the object complement; it may be a noun or an adjective. As a noun, the objective coml}lemerut denotes the class to which the object of the aot is made to belong; as an adjective, it denotes a resultant quality that theobject is made to possess. The following serutences illus:ti'ate the two lastnamed complements: They elected him PnESIDE~'l'; The snow made the ground WHITE. In parsing, the object complement is called the direct object; the Olbjective complement, the factitive object.
Other offices of nouns, pTO!Ilouns, and adjectives should be taken up, the teacher moving by safe gradations from the simpler to the more difficult. Common nouns and proper nouns shoulQ. be discriminated, and the pupil taught to capitalize the latter in his written work. The subclasses
Subjective means relating to the subject. This term is more precise than aU.-ibult! complement. The objective complement deuotes an attribute of the object, just as the so-called attribute com plement does of the subject; hence each of these complements has a right to be called an attribute complement.
tA substantive is a noun, a pron,un, or any element used as a noun.

54

of the other parts of speech should be s'tudt!ed IaJter. After

the pupil Is famiUar with declaraitive sentences, he should

analyze interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory senten-

ceS!.

The pupil shoul-d be taught to classify and gener-alize in-

dt!vldual Jlacts. Then, the process being reversed, he should

be required to illustrate ; that is, give examples (particu-

lars) of <bhe generalizations he has made. Knowledge ol

each new principle and definition should be constantly !l.P-

plied in the construction of sentences. Synthesis should

closely follow a.!llalysis: the pupil should learn to build as

well as tear down. Too little attention Is usually given to

sentence-building. In connection with each element, iti'

punctuation should be taug>ht In order to aid the pupil In

writing his exercises correCitly.



In studying the simple sentence, the pupil has become

famlliar witlh two kinds of eleme!llts; he has learned the

three forms of each; and he has also obtained a knowledge

of the eight pa!'lts of speech, crassified accOI'dting to their

use In the sentence. He is now prepared to understand

that a simple sentence is one t hat contains only word and

phrase eleme!llts; and he knows :that these element-s may be

simple, complex, or compound in form. Beyond naming

the parts of speeCih, no parsing should yet be attempted.

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. If the simple sentence is understood, the tTansitlon to the complex senltence Is not difficult. The tht!rd and last element of sentences, the clause, must now be introduced. By examining the sentence Pupils WHO study will learn, the pupil can see that it has two parts, and that each part contains a subject and a predicate. Develop the definition of a clause: A clause is a part of a sentence containing a l!ubject and a predicalte. The clause tolw study modifies pupils; therefore it has the use of an adjective. It is seen that a relative pronoup. is one used to connect an ad jective clause. When the underlying facts are understood, a definition becomes ln:tellig>ible. Rules and principles are properly learned 'by deriving them from t!he facts to which they
refer. Now, select as a model a sentence like this: We started

55
wiJEN the sun rose. Show that the clause when the sun rose modifies started, and therefore has the use of an adverb. Let the pupil see that when mo'difies rose, and also connects an adverb clause. He is thus prepared to get an idea of the conjunctive adverb. A subordinate conjunction may also connect an adverb clause; as You can learn IF you study. A noun clause is cooba.ined in, the sentence Geography teaches THAT the earth is 1ound. Call attention to the fact that a noun clause, strict'ly speruking, has no connective. It is generally introduced by the subordinate conjunction tllat, but tlhe conjunction is frequerutly omitted, and it need not be supplted in parsing. Require pupils to write exercises illustrating the punctuation of complex sentences, and see that they understand the difference between re-
strictive anu un,restrictive clauses.
Do not accept either of the following definitions: A dependent clause is one tlhat does not make se1U1e when standing alone; A dependent clause is one th<at depends on some other clause tor its m.eaning. The main objection to these statements is, that they are not true; at least, so far as twun clauses 'll:re concerned. In the sentence Bacon says, "KNOWLEDGE Is PoWER," the dependent noun clause makes very good sense; moreover, it does not depend on anything else for 1ts m:eaning.
To determine whether a complex sentence is declarative, in.terrog3Jtive, imper-ative, or exclama:tory, always examine the independent clause. Although the independenil: clause of a complex sentence always decmes the kind of sentence, a final noun clause generally dictates the terminal mark of punctuation. A period is not placed at the end of evf:'ry declarative sentence. Examin'El these sentences: Tha teacher asked, "Who wUZ go1" Shakespeare says, "What a piece of work is man!" Eacfu of the serutences is declarative; the first ends with an interrogative clause; the second, with a.n exclamatory clause.
Let us sum up the facts fhat ha ve been learned in studying the complex sentence. A dependent clause is one that has the use of an adjective, an a:dverb, or a noun. An independent clause is one that does not perform the omce o!

56

a single part of speech. A cornplex sentence is one that con-

tains one independent claus~ an<d one or more dependent

clauses. Three parts of speech a:re used to connect depend-

ent clauses; namely, rel'llltive pronouns, conjunctive ad-

verbs, and su,bordinate. conjunctions. Eacll of these three

connectives is always a p>art of the dependent clause in

which it is used. The in'dependent clause of a complex sen-

tence is necessarily simple in form; a -dependen-t clause

may be simple, complex, or compound. A simple clause

is a single clause; a complex clause consists of two or more

clauses joined by subordinate connectives; a compound

clause consists of two or more clauses connected by coor-

dinate conjunctions. 'Dhe following sentences will illus-

tmte the forms of depentlerut clauses:-

! believe he is honest (simple noun clause).

This is the cat that caught the 1at that ate the malt (complex

adjective clause).

The clock struck when we started and when we 1eturned (com-

pound adverb clause).



III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

The compound sentence contains no new elements: it presents new combinations of elements already studied. A compound sentence is one composed of two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate conjpnctions. These independent clauses, in form, may be simple or complex or compound. The following sentences illustrate the several forms:
Both clauses sirnple-Man proposes, but God disposes. Both clauses comple:t-He who receives a favor should never forget it, and he who does a favor should never remember it. First clause compound- Wrath is cruel, and anger is outrageous; but who is able to stand before envy? The expressions" compound-complex" sentence and" complex-compound'' sentence are misnomers. These terms are very confusing to pupils, and the use of them should be discouraged. A complex sentence is always complex; a compound sentence is always compound; they need no other term to define them. As I have already stated, the clauses of these sentences may be complex or compound. To illustrate, the 11econd sentence in the preceding paragraph is a compound

57
sentence consisting of two complex independent clauses; the third sentence corutaJins one comiXJUrui independent clause and one simple indepenrdenrt clause.
In classifying compound sent~mces as to meanilng, remember bhat independent clauses are of equal rank, and that each clause has its influence in determining .the kind of sentence. The following sentences illustl'ate the principle:-
bnpmative-d.eclarative-Trust men, anrd they will be true to you.
Declarative-interrogative-Knowledge is IXJwer, and who will deny it?
It is seen that a compound sentence consists of two or more simple, complex, or coliiiPound independent clauses. The three kinlds of sente nces may be easily discriminated. If a sentence cantains onlY words and phrases, it is simple; ii it contains only one independent clause, it is complex; if it contains two or more independent clauses, it is compound. A compound sentence may contain a dependent clause; a complex sentence must contain at least one dependent clauJse. The essent ial parts of compound sentences are connected by coordin:rute conjunctions; the essential parts of complex sentences are joined 1by subordinate connectives.
After a study of simple, complex, and coanpound sentences, the pupil should be well prep'ared to cJ.assify sentences as to form and meaning: he slhould understand the three kinds of elements, words, phrases, and clauses; and he should recognize readily the three forms of elements: simple, complex, and compounli. He should 'be able to construct the different kinds of sentences and punctuat e them properly. Punctuation is a much-ooglecte\:l part of synrt>hesis, and inteHigent punctuation is largely depenaent upon a knowledge of grammatical analysis.
ANALYSIS.
Teachers should appl'eCiate t he importance of analysis. If this exeroise is profitable and necesoo.ry in teaching arithmetic, it is still more helpful Mld essential inteaching grammar. The critical analytsis of serutences gives a k.now~-

58
edge of senltence-structure t'hat can never be obtained by a study of mere words. The psychological value of grammatical analysis in troi<ning the pupil's judgment, and developing in him tlhe habit of accura;te thought, cannot be overestimated. .
Analysis should precede parsing. Analysis first resolves t~e sentence into its elemeruts, or parts of speech; then parsing, going into detail, describes each element as to its classification, mol:lificaJtion, and construction. This is the natural order of procedure. Wickersham says: "The botanist analyzes a plarut, and. tiJ:J.en n<ames and desc~ibes its several part,s. Grammar can be studied successfully in no <>'t:her way. Parsing without a preceding analysis can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." In connection wit h analysis, diagrams should be used but not abused. Diagrams are as useful in an<a~lyzin.g sentenceiS as geometrical figures are in demorustrll!ting propositions. A strong argument in liavor of d1agrams is the fact that they show, at t he same time, both the ailla.lysis and the synthesis of the sentence.
Give me a man who can, with full i ntelligence, take to pieces an English sentence, brief and not too complicated, even, and I will welcome him as better prepared for futher study in other languages than if h e had read both Crosar and Virgil , and could parse them in the routine style in which they are often parsed. - WnrTNEY.
PARSING. Parsing is the complement of analysis. Each has its use; teach bO'th; do not make a hdbby of either Grammar should not 1be studied for the sole purpose either of learning to parse or of knowing <how to analyze and di-agram. Too much tdme is usually devot'El:d to parsing. H is not always necessary to require pupils to parse every word in a sentence. When they are familiar with a principle, leave that, and direet their atJtention to somethin.g not so well und erstood. Teach~rs should clearly unde rstand the object of parsing.
Parsing aids pupils in becoming familiar wjth the definitions and rules of grammar, by frequent repetition; and it teaches them to express their knowledge in a systematic manner. It requires pupils to exami n e la ng uage and ascertain the r;ature and relation of words in sentences; aud this not only gives power in t he analysis of language, but cultivates the habit of nb tract thought.- BnooKs.
It seems to me there should be no objection to an occa-

59

sion al exercise in ",false syntax. " If a pupil every day sees and hears errors outside orf school, is it unwise in school to correct e rrors and teach 111m to avoid tlhem? Gr-ammar proper is not inltende'd for small children; a pupil old enougih to study grammar is old enough to appreciate '"wha.t not to do." A grammaJtical "k eep-off-th e-grass" will not lead many astray. Signboards are useful as well as guideboards. Rig'ht is often impressed by contrast with wrong. Should the Too Coonmandmen:ts be taught to a child? They are a ll nega.tivoe except one.
Below are given models for oral analysis and written parsing. One adva;ntage of such models i~ t1hat they secure system ami uniformity in the pupil's work. When the teacher has no plan, it often happens t hat no two pupils of a ciass pars~ or analyze a senrtence in the same ma nD1er. The mod-el fOT written p31rsiillg, while intended for nouns, may be modified so as to serve for the other parts of SDeech.
MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS. 1. Descrlbe 'the sentence as to (1) form, (2) mea ning. 2. If complex or compound, name the cl'auses and analyze
each in order. 3. Give gT>ammra.tical subject. 4. Name modifiers of subject and describe them as to (1)
fol"'II, (2) kind. 5. Give modified subject. 6. Give grammatical predicate. 7. If incomplete, give its complement and name the com-
plete predic3Jte.
8. Name modifiers of predicate and descr ibe them as to (1) form, (2) kind.
9. Give modified predicate . 10. Name and describe connectives and independent elements.

MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING.

CLASSIFWATION .

~ MODH'WATWN.

SYNUX

- - - - Class. Su bclass. Kind. Number. Gender. ~ Case. Coo st~ ~
I

.

r I. DEFINITION-A sentence is the verbal expression of a thought.

I

{1. Simple.



1. As TO FORM ...... 2. Complex.

3. Compound.

II . CLASSES

{ 1. Declarative.

\ 2 As TO MEANING

2. Interrogative. 3. Imperative.

4. Exclamatory.

r1. KIND : Word, phrase, clause.

2. FORM: Simple, complex, compound.

1 THE SENTENCE

1 III. E LEMENTS!

r .1

Pr

InC.lpa1

.....

{

1. 2.

Subject. Predicate.

I

I 3. RANK ~

r 1.

Complementary

j

Subjective complement Object complement.

l 1

Objective complement.

8

I 1I { L2. Subordinate

Adjectival. 2. Modifying.. ....... Adverbial.
Nounal.



{ Conjunction.

3. Connective......... Relatlvepronoun.

I

Conjunctive R~verb .

l 4. Independent.

1. ANALYSIS : Oml, written, diagra mmed.

- - - - - - IV.

PROCESSES {

2. 3.

PARSING : Oral, SYNTHESIS.

written.

.Verbal means in words, spoken or written.

61
pART III.-wORDS.
I. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
In studying analysis, the pupil hlaS learned that words are
classified accorddng to 'their usc in sentences. The 5allltl
worn may be one part of speech in one sentence, another part of speech in another sent'ence. In the following sentences, the word well has tire use of five different parts of speech: -
TIJJ.e u:ell is deep. (Noun.) Springs 1oell from the earth. (Vmb.) Is your father wellf (Adjective.) She sings well. (Adverb.) Well, what shall we do? (Independent adverb.) Well ! I am surpri~ to h'311' it. (Interjection.) In alddi'tion to its geiLeral use, a part of speech has specia:l syntactical uses called its constructions. For instance, a noun is always a name; burt it may have various construc:t1on'S; as, subject, olb]ect of verb, etc. Below are given the eight pal'lts of speech, classifield a.ccord1ng to their sentential use. The terms used in connection with these classes of words Me inrtende'd as con.cise descriptions rather than formal defin:itions:NOUN-Name-word. VERB-Assertine;-word. PRONOUN-Noun-substitute. ADJECTIVE-Noun- or pronoun-mod,ifier. ADVERB-Verb- or adjective- m adverb-modifier. PREPOSITION-Phrase-introducer. CONJUNCTION-Element-connector. INTERJECTION-Feeling-word. While the pupil is studying the a;nalysis of sentences, he learns inciden>tallY some of 'tlhe subclasses of the parts of speech. After simple, complex, and compound sentences have been studded, t.he pupil should take up and ..tudy in detail the subdivisions of t!he parts of speech. The preposition anx:I the interjection are the only classes of words that are not subdividoo. Below are given the subclasses, ltinds1 a~d subkinds of the part of SiJeec:;~.

62
THE NOUN.
I. COMMON .
1. Concrete; as, ttee. 2. A'bstract.
a. Attributive; as, goodness. b. Verbal; as, running, to sleep. 3. Collective; as, class.
II. ..PR OPER . 1. Strictly proper; as, Atlanta, Rocky .Mpuntains. 2. Used as common noun; as, a Daniel, a Cicero.
THE VERB.
I. Foru:r.
1. Regular; as, 1calk. 2. Irregular; as, see. 3. Redundarut; as, hang. 4. Defective; as, beware.
II. UsE. 1. Transit ive; as, Farmers raise corn. Corn is 1aisea. 2. Int l'an&itive. a. C()IDlplete; as, Dogs bark. b. Copulat ive t; as, Snow is white. Marble feels cold.
III. R ANK . 1. Principal; as, He has returned. 2. Auxiliary; as, He has returned.
THE PRONOUN.
!. P ERSONAL P RONOUN. 1. Simple; as, he. 2. Compound; as, lWtnself.
0 A proper noun bns no mean ing: it is merely n distinguishing mark or br8nd . A noun usually p rop'er becomes a common noun when, instead of in d icating n particular ind ividual, it denotes the cZ.tss to which that Individu al belongs. I n this se nse, a Cicero is an orator, not a Homan by that na me. Wh en proper nouns become common , the capitnl lette r is re tained.
t A copulative ve r b is on e that has a snbject1ve comple ment. 'l'ransitlve verbs in the passive voice a re sometimes copulative; as, He was elected 9!1A!R~!All

63
II. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 1. Simple; as. who. 2. Compound; as. whoever. 3. The double r el-aJtive. a. Simple. what. b. Compounld; whatever, whatsoever.
III. I N'l'ER HOGATIVE PRONOUN; a s, who?
IV .ADJECTIVE PRONOUN .*
1. Demonstrative; as, That is mine. 2. Indefinite; . as. Some are scholars. 3. Distributive; as, He gave each an apple. 4. Reciprooa.l; as, The children love each other.
THE ADJECTIVE.
!. DESCR I PTI VE. 1. Common; as, 'sweet. 2. Proper; as, Cuban. 3. Participial; as, charming.
II. D E FINITIVE.
1. Articles. a. Definite, the. b. Indefintte, an (a).
2. Pronominal. a. DemonstraJti've; as, That book ls mine. b. Indefini te; as, Some men are scholars. c. Distoributive; as, He gave each boy an apple. d. Reciprocal ; as, Each child loves the other.
3. Numeral. a. Cardinal; as, three. t en. b. Ordinal; as, thi1d, tenth. c. Mul'tiplicative; as, td.ple, tenfold.
4. Relative; as, Which things contain an allegory. (Gai. lV. 2!. ) 5. InterrogaJtive; as, Which 'book will you take?
Adj ective pronouns sometimes lay aside their subs tanti ve nature, and become modifiers. When used to modify nouns, they a re called pronom ina t (i.e., pronoun) adjectives.

64
TliE ADVERB.
I. SmPLE. 1. Time; as, now. 2. Place; as, hete. 3. Mllinner; as, quietly.
4. Degree; as, very.
5. Gause; as, why, therefore.
II. MoDAL*; as, You surely are mistaken.
III. RESPONSIVE; as, No. (Always independent.) IV. ExPJ,ETIVE; as, There is a God. Well, let us go home.
(Always independent.) V. NUMERAL; as, once. VI. INTERROGATIVE i as, When did you come? VII. CoNJUNCTIVE; as, I came when the bell rang. VIII. CoRRELATIVE; as, James is as old as John.
TIIE CONJUNCTION.
r. CoORDINATE.
1. Copulative; as, and. 2. Alternative; as, or. 3. AdversaJtive; as, but. 4. Illative; as, therefore, consequently. 5. CQrrelative; as, both . . . and. II. 8Ul30RDINATE. 1. Real cause; as, becwuse.
2. Reason; as, tot.
3. Condition; as. it. 4. Purpose; as, that. 5. Concession; as, although. 6. Correlative; as, though . . . . . yet.
II. MODIFICATION OF WORDS. English is, comparatively speaking, a non-inflected language. In a highly infiecte'd la.ngu>age like Latin, every word "has its function as nO'Iln or verb or adverb ticketed upon it;" but English words are seldom labeled, and their classification must be determined by their senten-tial use. The modifications (or so-called inflections) of English words are changes in me'runing and use rat'her than changes
*A modal adverb is one that denotes the manner in which the thought is regarded by the speaker,-whether al/!rmative, negative, or doubtful; as, Veril11 I say unto you. Thou shalt not \{ill. Perhapa he will come.

65
in form. In English, the construction. of words depends more upon relation than upon inflection. It is a narrow view of any grammar, especially of English grammar, to suppose that it should treat of inflect-ion alone. In studying English, the pupil has little to do with telltale forms; he has much to do with the use and relation and arrangement of words. Pupils should study and master the few inflected forms t hat do exist. Following are t!he names of the five infle0ted parts of speech, wilth their modifications:-
NouNs AND PRONOUNs.-Number, gender, person, case. VERBs.-Voice, mode, tense, number, person. ADJECTIVES AND AD VERBS.-Comparison. Number.- The rules for formin~ the plural of nouns should be well understood, and applied in practice. T.he plurals of words like the following are often improperly written: lily, money, hero, tobacco, spoonful, court-martial, son-in-law, pair, fish. The pupil should understand the num!ber anid gender of collective nouns in order that the verbs and pronouns may be used properly. Gender.-Since the ~ender of nouns denotes the sex of the object, t he term ''common gender" is a misnomer. A common sw is uruthtnlkable and a,bsurd. With equal propriety we could say that deer and the pronoun you are common number. In the sentence My pupils arc boys ana girls, pupils is masculine ana feminine. In the sentence He ca~~ea to see a t1iena, t he gender of t1iend is unknown. Person.-It should be impressed on the minds of pupils that person in grammar does not necessarily refer to human beings. In the sentence Fido, come here; Fiao is second person, a lt hough it is the name of a dog. Person (from LaTin persona, a mask) denotes the speaker, tlhe one spoken to, or rthe one spoken of. The same noun, John, in difrerent sentences, may personate these three difrerent relations. Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that have person-forms. Case.-Nouns have only two casfl-forms-one for the Possessive, and one common to ttohe nominative and objective. As far as f orm is concerned, errors in the use of nouns are limited to the possessive case; therefore the :tlormation of the possessive singular and the possessive plural

66
should be thoroughly understood. It is important for pupUa to know the nominative and oojective constructions in order that they may use the proper case-form of pronouns. In the sentence I thought it was John, it is of little value, per se, to know the construction of John. But, when a pronoun is substituted, it makes a difference whether one says I hought it was HE, or says I thought it was HIM.
There are only five words in lt.Jllie English language that have tlwee case-torvns each: I, thou, he, she, and who. ln the declensions of these five words will be found the only nominati'l/e and objectwe ca-se-forms in our language. See that your pupils are thoroughly drilled in .t:he forms and constructions of these few words, which give English-speaking people so much trouble. Most of the rules of construction apply practically to these fourteen words::_
Ewa-r NoMINA'rrvE FonMs.-1, we, t hou, ye, he, she, they, who.
SIX OBJECTIVE FonMs.-Me, us, thee, him , them, whom. Before leaving this topic I must say, See that your pupils are thoroughly familiar with the following principles of grammatical construction :1. 'Dhe su'bject of a finite* vert> is in the nominative case. 2. Every verb consists of two parts-the finite verb and the infinite verb. 3. The finite verb consists of all the forms of a verb except its participles and iii'finitives. 4. The infinite verb consists of tlhe participles and infinitives of a. verb. 6. A ptedicate noun 'is in tthe same case as .the word to which it relates. 6. A predicate noun is always either a subjective comple ment or an objecti'l/e comvlement. 7. The subjective complement of -a finite ver'b is in the nominative case.
< Aftni te v erb [Lat . jlnilua, limited ] derives Its name from the fact that it Is limited or rP.Stricted to a subject; that Is, it cannot be used iu a "eutence unless it b as a subject expressed or impli ed. A pa r ticiple or an infinitive ma11 have a socall ed subject, but we cannct ay that it "uUit ha ve one They are frequently used in a sentence to express action or being in a general way, no subject being expressed or implied.

67
8. The <1bjootive coonplemerut is alway& in the objcctivP. case, because it relates to the object complement (direct object).
9. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 10. The subjective complement of aiil infinitive, when the in'finitive has a sulbject, is in the objective case. 11. Sometimes the infinitive has no su'bject, but has a subjective complement. 12. The subjective complement of an infinitive (or a parLciple) used without a subject, is in the nom-inati1:e case, used abstractly; that is, without any word to which it grammatically relates. Voice.- Voice is that modification of a verb that voices or tells sometJhdn'g concerning its subject. The active voice shows that the subject denotes that which performs an act received by an object. The passive voice shows that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receives an act. A ~transitive venb is not a verb :that may have, but
an a verb that do.es have, object. This object illi the active
voice is t he direct olbject of the verb; in the passive voice it is the passive subject. An illitransi:tive verb is one t;hat does not have llin object. A verb may be transitive in one sentence, amd 1ntT18Jilsitive in a!Ilotber; hence a verb should be paTSed according .to Lts use in the particular sentence under consideratiO'Il. An i:rutransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind b~ows. It 'may be complemented; as, The wind blows co ~d. Be careful to teach pupils that a verb may asse.r.t action, a!Ild yet not be used 1n tho active voice. In the senteMe Hmses run, the verli run asserts action; but the verlb is 1nt'l'ansitive, and consequently has no voice.
Mode and Tense.-English verbs have very few inflected forms. A regular verb has only seven inflections, all told. The verb to be, the most irregular of all verbs, has only eleven inflected forms-am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert, be, being, been. Most of the verb-modifications are formed by an external change; that is, by auxiliaries. A knowledge of the verb demands a careful study of auxiliary
"The object denotes that which receives the act expressed by the verb.

68
t~ verbs. Pupils should be drilled in the proper use of
past tense and past paDt,iciple of irregular verbs. Errm~ like the foLlowing are hea;rd too frequently: Who dOl~ that? The bulfule bursted*. The mlan was hwng. I have uottent my lesson. He lit:t: tJhe lamp. Is it possible that any teacher uses these expressions: "I seen him." "He taken the school"?
As a rule, t..ha imperative mode is used only in the seoond person. Teach pupils that the forms L!Jt me go, Let him stay, aTe not imperatives of the first and the third person. In the expressi()lllJ Let me go, let is imperative mode, second person, agreeing with you implied; me is indirect ()bject of let; the infinitive (to) go is direct object. It is tlie going th'!llt is permittted or allowed; me deD()tes the person to
the whom permiSSiion is gi'!31Ilted. Instead of regular C()lllJStrucvton with let, an idiomatic imperative of the {lrst or the third person is sometimes used, especially in poetry; as,-
Now tread we a measure, said young Lochluvar.-Scott. FaU he that must beneath biB rival's arms.-Pope.
In the exampJ.e just gliven, tread is first per.son and agrees with we; taU is third pei"SSn a.nd agrees with he.
The subjunctive mode expl"e6Ses doubt or suppositiofl. This mode has fom tenses: the present and present perfect, denoting doubt; lthe past and past perfect, denoting suppositi'on. The present perfect i's rarely used. The prt>Sent tense expresses a doubt to be settled :I!Il future time; ns, If he study, he will learn. 'Dhe present perfect expresses a doubt conoerning past action OT being,-a doubt still existing a;t the present; as, If he have studied, he has learned. The past tense expresses a supposition contrary :to fact at the pre81mt time; as, I wish I W6rl! wt home. The pas.t perfect expresse'S a suppooition CO'Iltrary to fact in pa.st time; as, H he had known it, he would h'ave gone. As tar as tonn is concerned, the subjunctive differs from the 'indicative in having no inflection for t'he .thJird person singular, a,nd usually none for t,he second person singullllr.
Bursttd Is not found In dictionaries. t Webster says gotten iB obsolescent. tLigh~d is preferable to lit.

69

In the su'bjunctive mode the name of t'he tense does not In-

dicate the actual time. In meaning each tense is anticipative:

the present tense refers to future time; the present perfect

and the pa!'!t, to present time; and the past perfect to time

simply past.

The indicative mode, with ij, unle88, etc., is also med to ex-

press a condition or doubt: but, in the indicative, the condi-

tion is assumed as a fact, not as a future contingency; as, If

two lines are parallel, they will never intersect. When the

indicative expresses doubt, the doubt is not in the fact itself,

but in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. Examine the fol-

lowing sentences:-



S!Wjunctive-If Mills Dumnt come, give her this book. Indicative-If she is in the room, I have not seen her.
In the first sentence, Miss Durant's coming is doubtful: it is a future contingeney. In the second sentence, it is a fact now that the person referred to either is or is not in the room; therefore it is not a future contingency, and the doubt exists only in the speaker's knowledge of the fact.
In the potential mode the auxiliaries are always notional; in the other modes the auxiliaries, having lost their original meaning, are used as mere tense-signs. Compare these sentences: I have a book, I have lost my book. In the first example, hau means possess; therefore it is notional. In the second example, have does not denote possession: it is an auxiliary, a sign of the present perfect tense. ShaU and wiU, as used in the indicative mode, are mere signs of future time. When shall and will are notional, they are properly auxiliaries of the present potentiaL Examine the following sentences: -

I will go (present determination). He would go (past determination). He says you shaU go (present obligation). He said you 1hould go (past obligation).
Since would and should are auxiliaries of the past potential, it seems remarkable that grammarians have not considered tvill and shall as corresponding signs of the present potential. In the examples given above, does not shall go express present obligation just as truly as should go expresses past obligation? ~,s not shall go a present potential fo.rm, rather than a so-calJeq
future of determination"?

70

,.

III. CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS.

THE NOUN.
I. NOMINATIVE. 1. Subject of finite verb; as, Birds &l.ng. 2. PrOOiicate of finite verb; as, At laruta is a city. 3. Abstract vrooic'ate. of infinH:.e ver'b. (1)With infinitive; as, To be a penmam, requires practice. (2) Wit h p!lirt1ciple; 11JS, No one thought of his bel.ng a tf3acher. 4. ]jn appasition; as, Milton, the poet, was blind. 5. Independent. (1) By ad'<lress; as, Mary, lend me your book. (2) By pleona'S1Il; as, William, he is my son. (3) By exclamation; as, Poor man! he is unfortunate. (4) By inl!cript1on; a'S, Adam B ede (title of book).
(5) By subscrlptiOJI!; as, H. H . Hughes (used
IUJ signature). (6) WLth participle; as, The sun rising, we
started. (7) In appos'ltlon; as, JCYhn, my boy, come here.
II. PossESSIVE. 1. ModtJfler; as, The boy's hat W!IJB lost. 2. In apposition; as, Mlltont. the poet's, life was sad.
III. 0BJEC'l'ITE. 1. Direct object; as, Ring the bell. 2. Indirect:!: object. (1) With lbram.sitlve verb; as, Lend me your knMe.
*By wedicaU is meant. of course. a predicate noun. In analysis, this element Is called a subjective comp!P.ment.
t MiUon I a possessive modifier of lift. Tbe nominative f orm is u sed by enallage for the possessive cnse. Iu E nglish, CAse ls determine<l by construction rather than by form . In thP. expressinn tlvtt ton{l'IUJ of John's, we have the possesive used by enaJJage for the objective. John's is objective. Pose
governed by nf. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or one modflcatlnn for another.
tThe following verbs are frequently use~ with an indirect object: as~. 1/ring; gite, lend, oft:r, pav, seU, send, show, tell, teach, etc.

71

(2) With inrtransitive verb; as, The 'hat lasted me a, year.
3. Factitive object; as, They made him president. 4. Cogna,tet object; as, He lived a useful Ufe. 5. Retained:!: olbject; as, He waiS ofrered a position
(without governing word) . . 6. Object of preposition; as, He goes to school. 7. Adverbial. objective (witb.O'Ilt governing ward).
(1) Time; as, It rained last night. (2) Place; as, We rettur.n.ed home. (3) Direction; as, The sh:ip sailed west. (4) Distance; as, We w-alked a m4le. (5) Value; as, The book is worth a dollar. (6) Weight; as, I paid him tten cen,ts a pound. (7) 'Measure; as, 'Dhiis wine cost a dollar a
quart. (8) Extent; as, he 1s a g.reat ileal better than
he was. (9) Manner; as, The word is pronounced both
WOIJ/8
(10) Specification; as, They bound him hood and ' foot.
8. In apposition; as, I spoke to Miss Davis, the
teacher.
9. Subjectt of infinitive; as, He wamts me to be a lawYer.
10. Predicate of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a
lawyer.

*A factitive object [Lat. jacc-e, to make] is a resultant object. the verb-

being used causatively.



. t()Jgnatemeaus kindred, of similar nature. A. cognate object bas a mean-

ug like that of the verb which governs it. A verb is transitive when It

has a cognate object.

tWhen a verb is changed from the active voice to the passive, the direct

object becomes the subject, and the Indirect object Is retained; as, He of-

fered ME a position, A poaition was offered ME. Sometimes, however. the

in~irtXt object is used idiomatically as the subject; and then the direct

ObJect is carried over to the passive as a retained object. Since a verb in

the passive voice has no governing power, the retained object is without a

governing word.

~Th is objective is sometimes used with nnuns; n.<, His retu rn home. My ~ream last nigh!.. When thus u ed, it is properly called an adi~Xtival object-

IVe. ~he indirect object, the retained objec t, and the adverbial object i ve

are. dtagrammed a.s the base of a phrase without a preposition expressed

of~r~t.mpiied.

The Indirect obiect and the retained obl'ect alwavs modlfv !I

<

-

f

'

72
THE VERB.
The finite verb always constitutes the predicate, or forms a part of the
predlca~e .
1. Used alone as the predicate; as, Horses 1-un. 2. Used with other word or words.
(1) With subjective complement; as, Roses are red. (2) With object complement; as, Boys play ball. (3) With objective complement; as, They chose him
leader. (4) With inseparable adverb ; as, They put out the fire. (5) With several words, the combination forming an
inseparable complex verb; as, 1 was taken care of.*
THE PRONOUN.
Generally speaking, the constructions of the pronoun are similar to those of the noun; there are, however, some special constructions that deserve attention.
1. Him destroyed , all else will follow. 2. Than whom none sat higher.
Him and whom are Miltonic solecismR.t In determining case, construction takes precedence ofjonn. H im [he] is nominative independent with destroyed. Whom [who] is subject of sat implied. The sentence in full is, Than who (sat high) none sat higher. When the comparative is expressed, the positive must be supplied in parsing. In order to justify whom, some authors call than a preposition; but it is a conjunctive adverb denoting comparison, instead of a preposition showing relation.
3. Poor me I wbat shall I do ?
Me is objective by exclamation, a construction peculiar to the pronoun.
4. This Ia a favorite book of mine.
*The words of this group cannot be parsed sepo.rately : the complex verb must be treated as if hyphenated; as, was-taken-care-of. This Is an ldlo matlc passive construction. The sentence He took care of me, when c hanged to the regular pASSive, becomes, Care of me was taken 1>)1 him. In the idiomatic passive, which Is the form generally used, the object of the preposition Is made the subject; and the pa!lsive verb, the retained object, and the preposition are thrown together to form a complex verb.
t A tiolecism is a deviation from established usage in the structure of aen tenc~. Dr. Hill qetlpes soleci~ms to be " CO!lstructiops not Eu~li!lh",

73
Mine is a personal pronoun, possessive case, modifying the partitive objective books implie<;l. Mine is a euphonic form of my, just as the article a is a variant of an. The euphonic forms mine, ours, thine, yoU1s, hers, and theirs, are used when the name of the tliing possessed is not expressed.
5. This heart of mine will break.
Mine is objective case, object of the preposition of. The possessive f&rm is used by enallage for the objective. The possessor is denoted by the possessive form, or by a phrase introduced by of; as, Solomon's temple, temple of Solomon. Sometimes the two constructions are combined: of and the possessive form are both used, and there is formed an idiomatic double possessive. This idiom is used to make the possessor more emphatic and the expression more euphonious; hence, instead of the regular construction of ME, we have the idiomatic form o[MINE. Another reason for using the idiomatic form is, that it often prevents ambiguity. For instance, a picture of MINE does not necessarily mean a picture of ME. The double possessive is used with nouns as well as pronouns; as, that tongue of John's Some authors make a separate class of mine, thine, etc., calling them possessive pronouns. Properly speaking, they are possessive forms of personal pronouns. John's, in the expression ~iven above, is the possessiveform of a .noun; we would hardly call it a possessive(/ ) noun.
6. Bring such a& you have.
As is a relative pronoun, direct object of have. After such, same, and many, as is used as a relative.
7. There is no one but makes mistakes.
But is a negative relative, equivalent to that not. The sentence means There is no one that does n )t make . mistakes. When but is used as a relative, some other -negative word is always found in the sentence.
8. It was from me that he obtained the information.
The foregoing sentence contains two English idioms: 1. The relative that is used after the indefinite it; 2. The relative that never immediately follows the preposition that governs it. The preposition is generally placed at the end of the sentence; as, This is the house that I referred to. That may come after the preposition provided one or more words intervene.
The meaning of the sentence is this: It was I (me) from

74
1chom (that) he obtwined the !information. Since me 1s app'arently the object of t1om, the objective farm is used instead of the nominative. We have here an example of attmction as well as enaUage. Me is nominative case, prt'dicate nominative after was. 1'ltat is objective case, object of tron~.
THE ADJECTIVE.
I. MoDIFIER. 1. Attributive; as, Red apples. 2. Appositive; as, A man, okl land in{inn.
II. PREDICATE ADJEC'l'IVE. 1. Subjective complement; as, He is like* his father. 2. Objective complemerut; as, The dinner made the boy Sick.
3. Used a'bstl'actly after infinite verb; as, To be perteet !is impossible.
THE :ADVERB.
I. MoDIFIER. 1. Modifying verb; as, We wallred slowly. 2. Modifying adjective; as, It is very cold. 3. Modifying pbrase; as, She studies only at home.
II. INDEPENDENT; as, Well, what do you say? III. CoNJUNCTIVE.
1. Connecting a:dverb clause; as, We came wlten the bell rang.
2. Corunec't!ing adjective clause; as, I remember the house where I was born.
3. Corre1at!lve; as, JO!hn is as old as I am.
THE PREPOSITION.
1. Showing relation; as, She goes to school. 2. Merely intro'duCitory; as, Out of sight is out of mind.
* To is implied after li ke used as an adjective or an adverb. Good English condemns the nse of like as a conjunctive adverb. .As should be used instead. S'lfl that pupils avoid su ch solecisms as "like I told you," "like she said."

75

THE CONJUNCTION.
I. Co15RDINATE. 1. Connecti ng wor-ds ; as , J a mes and Jo'hn study. 2. Coolllecting phr:wes; -as, She studi es a.t !home and at ooh'OOl. 3. Co'lllllecting clauses; as, Mary rea.ds, and Bla nche wl1ites. 4. Merely intr-oductory; a.s, And thre Lord sp-ake unto Moses. 5. Correia.Mve; as, Both M!ary and Blanche have gone.
IT. SUBORDINATE. 1. Connecting subordinate clause; a:s, You can learn i f you t r-y. 2. Int roducing subordinate clause; as, That the ear-th is round is a tact.

THE IN'DERJECTION. Always indepooden!l:.

THE PARTICIPLE.

I. DEFINITION .-A participle is an assumi ng form of the verb, h aving the use of an adjective or a noun.

II. CLAS!)ES.

Common form ; as, writing.

1.

rl.
Present~

Active* {

Progressive ing (rare).

fo rm;

as, being writ

I L2. P assive, as, being written.

2. Pastt (active and passive) ; as , written .

Common fol"ln; as, having w1itten.

1. Active P rogressive form ; as, having been

f { 3. Pmj ect

writing.

L2. P assive; as, having been w ritten.

The participles of i ntransitive ver bs arc formed like the participles of transitive verbs in the active voice.
tThe past participle ha s the sam e form i n both voices . This participl e is never used alone in an activt sense: its only use in the active v oice Is With auxiliaries to form compound tenses; as, have wrilltn, had gone.

76
III. CoNSTRUCTIONS. 1. AdjecUve.
(1) Modifier; 'as {The man, rising, started to leave. The sun 1ising, we started.
(2) Predicate adjective. a. Subjective; as, We stood watching the clouds. b. Objective; as, He had his watch num ded. c. Used abstractly after infinite verb; as, To Jreep complainilng is unwise.
2. NO'Un. (1) Nominative. a. Subjoot of finite verb; as, Pic1rting cotton is ha.rd work.
b. Predicate of firuitJe -rel.ib; as, Stealing is taking W'ithout permission.
c. In appos ition; as, Her task, suxJCping the floor, was unpleasa.nt.
d. Independent. (a) Simply inkl.ependent; as, Considering hisadvarutages,he deserves much credit. (b) With a particip.le; as, Talki ng having been forbidden, the children remained sUen.t. (c) By pleonasm; .as, Raising cotton, will it DaY? (d) By exclamation; as, K illing his brother! What a crime he has committed! (e) In appositJion; as, Deligh,tful task, t eachi ng thie younrg!
(2) Objective. a. Object of verb; as, She commenced writing a letter. b. Object of preposition; as, We learn to do by
doinu.
c. Subject of infinitive; as, I want your r ead-
i ng aloud to oo continued.
d. Predicate of inlfinirtive; as, He thought diagr-ammdng senten.ces to be wasting time.
e. Factitive object; as, Some one ~ called silent" reading getting thoughit.

77
f. In apposition; as, I consider this exercise, writ-
ing compositions, to be very profitable. g. Adverbial objective (without governing word) ;
as, The field is not worth plowing. The participle, as its name indicates, always participates the nature of two parts of speech . While it retains all the governing power of a verb, it differs from the :finite verb in lacking power to assert. In addition. to its verb nature, the PA RTICIPLE ALWAYS has the use of an adjective or a noun.
The dog~ . bar king loudly, kept me awake. He supported his mother by ulling papers on the street.
In the first sentence, barking shows its verb nature (1) by assu ming action, (2) by taking the adverb modifier loudly. It shows its adjective use by modifying dogs. In the second sentence, selling shows its verb nature, (1) by assuming action, (2 ) by taking the direct object papers , (3) in being modified by the ad verb phrase on the street. It shows its noun use, (1) by naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition by .
When a participle loses its verb nature, it ceases to be. a participle, and becomes a participial noun or adjective or adverb or preposition. In the sentence The water is boiling hot, boiling is a participial adverb. The sentence Regarding his conduct we have the same opinion, contains a participial preposition. As an aid in distinguishing participles from words that are participial in form, the following suggestions are given:-
A PARTICIPLE WITH THE UsE oF AN ADJECTIVEI. Assumes action or 'being of the word modified. 2. Is complemented in same manner as finite verb. 3. May be modified by an adverb, adverb phrase, or adverlb clause. 4. Usually follows the word modJfied. 5. Is set off by the coonma unless restr.ictive.
A pARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVEI. Denotes a quaJity of the word modified. 2. Has lost its verb nature and can'Il'Ot be compleme'Ilted. 3. Can be moddfied 'by an adverb only. 4. Unless used as PT'edicate adjective, always precedes t'he word modified. 5. Is never set off by the comma.

78

A PARTICIPLE WITHlTHE UsE oF A NouN-

1. Not on,ly names, but assumes action or being.

2. Is complemented in the same manner as finite

vel'b.

3. May be mo'dified by adjective, possessive, adverb,

adverb phrase, or adverb clause.

4. Is not preceded by article OT followed by preposi-

tion.



A PARTICIPIAL NouN1. Simply names, w11t'hout assuming action or being. 2. Doe.s not admit a verb-complemen<t of any kind. 3. Is modified only 'by adjective or adjective phrase. 4. May be preceded by article 31Ild followed by prepo sition:

We, atarting early, arrived in time (participle used as adjective). Running fast is tiresome (participle used as noun ). Our cradle is the starting place (participial adjective). Life is the running of the rnce (participial n oun).

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.

I. DE~'INITJON.-An infiniti ve phrase is one that consists of an infinitive preoo'ded by the prepoaition to.

II. CLASSES. 1. Present.

(l)

A t' {Common form; as, (to) write. c rve Progressive form; as, (to) be writing.

(2) Passive; as, (to) be written.

2. Perfect.

(I)

t ' {Common form; as, (to) have written. .n.c rve Progressive form; as, (to) have been writtng.

(2) P.assdve; as, (to) have been w1itten.

1. Noun.

III.

UsEs.

{

2. 3.

A.diective. Adverb .

*An infinitive phrase Is commonly called au infinltlve,-a form of synecdoche In which a part is used for the whole. The infinitive proper Is an assuming verb-form , used as a noun or an adjective. It is used substantivelr as the base of an Infinitive phrnse; it Is used adjectivallll as a modifier of Its asmmed subject.
In Anglo-Saxon, to was not used with any Infinitive except an inllected form expressing purpose; and the preposition, when thus used, always de noted relation. Now the preposition to, e ven when it does not show relation, is placed before the infinitive as a mere indicator, showing that the following word is an infinitive. To is a aign of the infinitive, not a part of lt. However, do not have pupils analyze the Infinitive phrase: Jet them treat the element as a whole.

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IV. CoNsTRUCTIONS.

1. Noun.

(1) NQIIIlin'a.tdve.

a. Subject of fin1te ver'b; as, To steal is wrong.

b. Predicate of finite verb; as, To hesitate is

to tail.

c. In apposition; as, It is human to err. d. In-dependent.

(a) Simply indepezl'dent; as, To tell the truth,

I was mdstaken.

(b) With a pantdciple; as, To pass through

tbtlifield being forbidden,we,follow ed the road (c) By pleonasm; a:s, To hesitate, that would

be to fail.

(d) By exclamation; as, To drown/ what an

awful death!

(e) In appasition; as, Delightful task, to

teach the young!

(2) Objective.

a. Object of verb; as, He likes to study.

b. Object of preposition; as, They dtd nothing

but (to) talk.

c. Factitive object; as, I regard to hesitate as

to fail.

d. RetaJ.ned Object; a.s, He was allowed to vote.

e. In apposition; as, 'Dhe boy liked his task, to

bring the maiiJ.

f. Objective sulbject of infinitdve; as, To ana-

lyze sentences he considem to be useless.

g. Objective predicate of inlfllllitive; as He

thinks to steal to b e to take without permission.

2. Adjective.

(1-\

-1.~.Iodliiert

{There .is a time to laugh. It is impossible for me to go.

-.-T-b-is_c_o-ns-t-ructlon , as well a s the pecedlng one, I~ rarely used .

, t Notice carefully the u se o! the infinitive phrases in these two sen tences.

O laugh Clor laughing) Is an infinitive phrase. It is used as an adjective,

andd modifies t-ime. To is a preposition, ebowing the relation between time

an fn

l~abuegshe.coLnadusgehoItsenacnei,ntojlnisitavem. erIet

is used as a noun, object otto. prepositional sign: it does not

denote

red!ilton; in fact, it Is not a notional word. 'l'be infinitive go is used

a )ectlvally to modify its assumed subj ect me. Me to go is equivalent to me

gotng (my going).

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(2) Predicate adjective. a. Subjective; as, These apples are to be sold. b. Objective; as, He made me (to) stay.* c. Used abstractly after the infinite verb. (a) With participle; as, His seeming to be innocent was of no avail. (b) With infinitive; as, To appear to know is not sufficient.
3 . .Adverb. (I) Modifying verb; as, Strive to excel. (2) Modifying adjective; as, Appl~s are good to eat. (3) Modifying adverb; as, He is old enough to vote.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.
1. Grammar should not be studied until the minds of pupils are sufficiently matured. Seldom shlnld it be studied by pupils under thirteen years of age.
2, Do not attempt to teach grammar through a study of definitions ; teach definition; through a study of language.
s. Do not allow pupils to memorize definitions and rules that they do not understand. Never ststea principle until pupils are prepared to comprehend its meaning. "First the idea, then the name, then thedefl nition."
4. Induction should precede deduction. A study of individual facts should lead to definitions and principles. "The mind must ever rise'from clear individual to distinct general notions."
5. Deduction should follow induction. After principl e< and rules have been learned inductively, reverse the process and require the pupils to illustrate; that is, give examples (particulars) of the generalizations they have learned.
6 Grammar is comparatively useless unless its principles are applied in constructing, criticiSing, and correcting sentences. Arithmetic is better understood than grammar, mainly because more practice is required in the former branch. "Few rules and many exercises."
7, Make grammar practical by having pupils criticise their own language, as well as the language of others. "For I am nothing, if not critical."
s. Practice what you teach. In the use of correct language, the teacher should be a model. Can you consCientiously say to your pupils, ''Follow me'' 1
,. To of the infinitive phrase is usually omitted (implied) after the follow ing verbs: bid, dare, feel, Mllr, let, make, neetl, au. Sometimes it is not ex pressed after hdp, pleaae, and a few other verbs.

81

REVIEW QUESTIONS

I.
1. What are the main objects in teaching grammar? 2. At what age sh<>uld a pupil begin formal grammar? 8. What Is meant by technical grammar? 4. Name the two grammatical units. Which should be the starting point
In teaching grammar? Why? 5. What are the main divisions of grammar? Ot what does each treat ?

-

u.
6. Define a phrase. Give example of a complex phrase. 7. Name, define, and illustrate the three complements.

8. In parsing, what Is each complement called?

9. Define a clause; a dependent clause.

10. What three parts of speech are used to connect dependent clauses 'I

11. How does a compound sentence dllfer from a complex sentence?

12. How Is a coiLplex sentence cla..."'lifloo aa to meaning 1 a compound sen

tence?

13. Is a period placed at the end of every declarative sentence?

14. Which should precede, analysis or parsing? Why?

15. Should pupils ever be given exercises in " false syntax" ?

III.
16. Name the five English words that have three case.forrus each. 1'1. Since the noun bas but one inflected form, why should the constructions
of nouns be taught? 18. What Is meant by 8Ul!s!anUve 1 finite verb 1 19. Define and illustrate a transitive verb; a copulative verb. 20. Why are personal pronouns so called '! 21. Illustrate in sentences the following constructions : (1) indirect object,
(2) retained object, (3) predicate nominative used abstractly, (4) adverb used Independently. 22. Define a participle. Give an example of (1) a participle used as an adjective, (2) a participial adjective. 28. Give example of an infinitive phrase used (!) as a noun, (2) as an ad verb. 24. After what words is the sign of the infinitive usually omitted? 25. What part of speech Is never used alone as an element of a sentence'!

GEOGRAPHY.
BY E. c. BRANSON, STATE NORMAL Sc.~OOL.
( Copyri ghted. )
CHAPTER I.
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF GEOGRAPHY.
1.-WHAT GEOGRAPHY IS. ( 1) It is a study of the earth's surface, as the home of man.
The word geography means earth-writing. In geography we study God's handwriting upon the
earth. (2) It is, therefore, a st.udy of the conditions that make the
Earth's surface a home for man.
2.-WHAT THE SUBJECT INCLUDES.
(1) Geographical Forms (of land and water). a. As they are. b. Map-language for these. c. The reading of map language .
(2) The Geographical Forces. a. Heat and cold. b. Light. c. Gravitation. d. The vital forces of plant and animal life.
(3} Th e Geographical Agents. a. Air. b. Water. c. Mineral matter. d. Organic forms.

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(4) Plant Life (Surface Coverings).
life Its relation to animal specially.
(5) Animal Life. Its relation to man specially.
(6) Man.
a. .As he is conditioned by all these. b. As he modifies all these.

3.-NOTE.

(l) That Geography study is Nature study-the great infor-

mation study in elementary education.

(2) Tbat it is a composite o! all the sciences; hence the

difficulty of teachiiig it successfully.

(3) That J(etting ready to teach the subject ia a lifetime

work, and furnishes the common school teacher op-

portunity for the most liberal self-culture.

(4) That a good geography fext-book wi-ll have lessons in

sensible proportion, in all the six fundamental sub-

jects named.

(5) That a poor geography will neglect the 2d, 3d, 4th and

5th subjects, and overstress map-studies and political

geography.



(6) That poor geo~raphy-teaching emphasizes man's book

about the earth and neglects God's book about the

earth-the great open book of Nature.

(7) That good teaching in geography opens a pupil's eyes to

the great world outside, and prepares him to under-

stand the Geography book.

(8) That the main question, all the time is, How did the

Earth's surface come to be a horne for man? As,

What did the earth-worm have to do with it? Tbe

frost? The rainfalls? The streams?

(9) That a main purpose in this syllabus is to magnify and

dignify a commonplace subject, and to stimulate the

indifferent teacher to liberal self-culture in a great

field of learning.

(10) That the real teacher can be so stimulated, while the

poor teacher cannot be.

85
4.-WHY WE TEACH. GEOGRAPHY.
(l ) To enrich the pupil's mind with real knowledge by di rect observation of Nature-her forms, forces, processes, and creatures.
(2) To prepare him to interpret and appropriate the accumulation of race-wisdom about the earth.
(3) To equip him with first hand experiences for entrance into the formal sciences later.
(4) To wake up his mind so that he may ~o on to educate himself in studying the world he lives in. Col. Jim Smith is a great farmer because he knows how to study corn and cattle, soil and men. Geography has a practical as well as a cultural value.
(5) To free him from narrow, two-penny notions of man and hie achievements, of policies and measures; to broaden his horizon, and to enable him to see a long way beyond his fathet's corn-crib.
(6) To make him feel at home in the world he lives in; to enjoy it and subdue it for the highest uses, "for the glory. of God and the relief of man's estate."
(7) To make him feel at last that citizenship is partnership in every good undertaking and in all perfection.
(8) To put him into proper relationship with Nature, Human Nature, and God.
5.-INFORMATIONAL LIBRARY IN GF.OGRAPHY.
FoR TEACHERS:-
(1) Shaler's Geology. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. (2) Guyot's Earth and Man. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N.Y. (3) Marsh's Man and Nature. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N.Y. (4) Heilprin's The Earth and Its Story. Leach, Shewell
and Sanborn, .N. Y. (5) Ballard's The World of Matter. D. C. Heath & Co. . (6) Huxley's Physiograplily. D. Appleton & Co., N.Y. (7) Tyndall's Forms of Water. D. Appleton & Co., N.Y. (8) Tr.Jat's Home Studies in Nature. Am. Book Com-
pany, N.Y.

86
(9) Geikie's Physical Geography. The Macmillan Co., N.Y.
(10) , Crosby's Common Minerals and Rocks. D. C. Heatil &Co.
(11) Hyatt's About Pebbles. D. C. Heath &; Co. (12) Newell's Botany. .Books 1 and 2. Ginn & Co. (13) Mrs. Dana's How to Know the Wild Flowers. Chas.
Scribner's Sons, N.Y. ( 14) Hyatt and Arm's Insecta. D. C. Heath & Oo. (15) Longman's Geog. and New School Atlas. Longman,
Green & Co., N. Y . (16) . Grove's Geography. D. Appleton & Co. (17) Martineau's Earth, Air, and Water. George Rutledge
& Sons, London.
FoR CHILDREN :-
(1) Wright's Nature Readers. D. C.Heatb & Co. (2) Ginn's All the Year Around. Ginn & Co. (3) Johonnot'& Natural History Series. American Book
C(). (4) Jane Andrew's Books, Seven !Little Sisters, and others
Ginn & Co. (5) Flagg's ..Ar.Year . with the Birds. Educational Pub-
lishing Go., Boston. (6) Aunt Martila's Corner Cupboard. Educational Pub
lishing Co., Boston. (7) Montieth's Popular Science Reader. American Book
Co. {8) The Natural History of Selbourne. Ginn & Co. (9) Johonnot's Glimpses of the Animal World. American
Book Co. (10) Morley's Song of Life. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. (11) The Zig-Zag Journeys. The Lathrop Publishing Co.,
Boston. (12) The World by the Fireside. Tbos. Nelson Sons, N .Y . (13) Rupert's Geographical Reader. Leach, Shewell &
Sanborn, N.Y. (14) Johonnot's Geographical Reader. American Book Co. (15) Ballou's Journey Around the World. Ginn & Co.

87
Here is a magnificent working library in Geography. i
name them as the very choicest books in my own Geographical library. They can be bad from any general book dealer in the larger cities.
6.-QUIZ REVIEW.
1. What is Geography? Meaning of the word ? In Geography what ought we to be studying?
2. What does the subject include? How are surface forms to be first studied? What is a map? What is necessary to the reading of a map? What is meant by map-reading? What are the Geographical Forces? Name the Geographical Agents? Difference between Forces and Agents? How is Plant Life regarded in Geography? Animal Life? What does Geography tell us about Man?
3. What kind of a study is Geography? What is meant by an informational study? Why is Geography so valuable for the teachers? What is true of a good Geography text-book? Of a poor Geography? . The chief fault of poor Geography teaching? What will good Geography-teaching accomplish? What is the main question in Geography? Illustrate. The main purpose of the syllabus? The mark of a poor teacher always ?
4. Why do we teach Geography? What is ''real" knowledge? How obtained? Source of it? What does good Geography-teaching prepare the pupil to do? The relation of Geography to the formal sciences studied later? What special educative value has Geography?

88
What practical value ? Page calls Geography a "catholic study:" Why? How is a pupil to be related to the world be lives in? What view of citizenship is herein presented ? How does Geography help toward this? How is every man related? Illustrate. How does Geography help in this?
CHAPTER II.
HOME GEOGRAPHY.
1.-WHAT IT MEANS.
(I) It means a geographical study of the child's world of outdoor life.
(2) It is a simple study (1) of the familiar surface form~ of his neighborhood, (2) the changes that these are undergoing, and (3) the relations of Geographical Forms and Agents to Plant and Animal Life.
(3) It is teaching, also, geographical language for the knowledge gained.
(4) Thus, it means, also, but much more than, mapping the schoolroom, the school grounds, and so on, and teaching map locations and.directions.
(5) It is Nature-study from a geographical standpoint-not a book-study at first. It is meant to be a preparation for the geography-book, and a constant accompaniment of book-study throughout the course.
2.-THE METHODS.
(1) A ten-minute .quiz each day upon an orderly eet of topics; the purpose being (1) tu have the children really to see the geographical facts in their o;vn little world, and (2) to think and (3) talk about what they discover.

89
(2) Page would call these "waking-up" studies. The method best suited for the work is completely exhibited in his chapter upon" Waking Up Mind" (Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching). Study that chapter thoroughly, and then, in a similar way, give any of the following lessons.
(3) The teacher cannot do much field-work in geography with the children. What he can teach them about geography in the schoolroom is of small value compared with what he can stimulate them to discover for themselves outdoors.
3.-HOME-STUDY LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.
[See Frye's Child and Nature, and Frye's Brooks and Brook Basins.]
(1) ON GEOGRAPHWA!, J.<oRMS OF LAND AND WATER. (1) Slopes. (1) Develop idea of slope. (2) Then challenge the class to find some land that doeo; not siope. (3) Have children describe their slopes, getting such terms, meantime, as gentle, abrupt, long, short, smooth, rough, bare, rocky, grassy, woody, barren, fertile, bluff, precipice. (4) Thought question: What are the uses of slopes? (2) Hills and Ridges.
(1) Develop the idea ,of a pair of slopes meeting at the top. (2) Have these located outdoors. (3) Call for the term" hill." Give the idea and term "ridge." (4) Have some ridges located and described. ("i) Develop the idea of "water-parting.'' (6) Have hills and ridges modeled in eand (outdoors in the school yard at play time). Expand the ideas of hill and ridge into mountain and range. Show pictures abundantly here. In similar way, introduce the ideas of plateaus, peaks, volcanoes, deserts. Thought question : .What are the uses of hills and ridges ?

90
t3) Valleys. (1) Develop the idea of slopes meeting at the bottom. (2) Get or give the term "water meeting" for the line of intersection. (4) Have such slopes located in the neighborhood, and (5) the water-meeting iden tified. (6) Trace the water-parting around the upper edge. (7) Model the brook basin in sand (outdoors preferably). Study marshes, meadows, swamps. Thought question: How are these formed? Study plains, prairies, llanos, pampas, gorges, cafionR, showing pictures abundantly, and challenging free questions from the children. Use pictures freely. Thought question: What are the uses of valleys?
(4) S hores (coa sts, banks). Study the brook or branch in the brook basin. Bring out the idea of bank or sh ore, flood, plains, cape, promontory, bluff, peninsula, isthmus, island , and have these ident.ified and named outdoors. Have these forms and terms firmly associated. 'l'he land modeling will help, but it ought always to follow a study of the real forms, if possible. Treat the idea of seacoast, beach, coastal plains, marshes, &c., with abundant pictures' and stories. The order always is observation foll owed by imagination and thinking.
(FRYE'S BROOKS AND BROOK BASINS.)
(5) Brook Lessons. Bring out the idea of banks, bed, channel, source, mm :tb, tributary, pool, pond, lake, waterfall, st:ait., bay . Have these found in the neighboring stream, and described. Expand these ideas into river systems, seas, oceans, barbor11, using pictures and stories abundantly. Thought questions: Where

91
does the water in brooks and rivers come from ? What are the uses of brooks? Of Jakes? Of waterfalls? Of harbors ? Of seas and oceans? The teacher's own knowl edge ought to be rich-richer by far than the children can give or get for many years yet.
(~) ON 'fll" GEO G RAPHICAL FORCES AND AGENTS.
(1) Water. (Frye's Child and Nature, Chap. VI.) {I ) How water gets into the air. (2) Forms of water in the air (fogs, clouds, invisible vapor). (3) How water gets out of the air. (Condensation lessons.) (4) Forms of water getting out of the air (dew, frost, rain, snow lessons). Story of the water drop in the air. Thought questions: ,;vhat are the uses of clouds? Of dew? "Of frost? 0 f rain? What becomes of all the rain? Why does water run down hill?
(2 ) Soil !Jfaking. (Ga. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 11.)
What soil is. Lesson on a piece of granite or gneiss. Story of the grain of sand . Story of the pebble. Earthworms, ants, and beetles as soil-makers. Frost as a soil maker. How soil is distributed. Story of the muddy streamlet. What are fertilizers. Thought questions: How did the pebble get rounded? What is the most fertile parts of slopes? Why are pond bottoms ri ch? Lessons in Erosion, Transportation, Deposit-ation.
{3) Drainage. Overland drainage. Underground drainage. Springs and wells. Later, hot springs and geysers with pictures and descriptions. Thought questions: What kinds of slopes wash badly? Why? What helps under-

92
ground drainage? Why do farmers terrace their farms? What good does water do underground? Story of the drop of water un-
der~round?
(4) Heat and Light L essons. Why the blacksmith heats th~ tire before putting it on the wheelframe? Why space is between the rails on the railro1d? Effect of heat on water? Why the woodpile smokes some mornings in winter? Where the water-dust in the air comes from ? Have the pupils observe the water-pan on the stove and a saucer of water set out in the sun. Effect of heat on air? Have pupils observe the draft around a stove or fireplace. What is wind? What sets air in motion? Effect of heat on the baby seeds? When do seeds sprout ? Why? Story of the Baby ~eeds' Royal Visitors (Light, Heat and Moisture). Have children observe seed germination. Uses of clothing. bark, hair, fur and feathera? How is the earth heated? The hottest season? The cold!lst? The hottest part of the day? The coolest? Have children observe the noonday shadow . regularly. Quiz upon it and mark it every fortnight on the floor with the date. Day and night-how caused? Uses of? Longest days? Shortest? 'l'he four seasonsthese to be studied as they come on, and comparisons elicited. (Changes in plant and animal life, appearance and disappearance o th e birds and insects, frogs and snakes, and so on.)
3. DJHECTJONS Al\D MAPS. Tench and drill upon tbe horizon directions (N ., E., S., W., N. E, S. E., S. W., N. W.) Directions of the homes from the schoolhouse; of objects in the schoolbouse from some central object. Map the school-

93
bouse. Teach and drill upon map directions. Map of the town or county. Drills upon map directions. Introd uce the globe again. Teach tbe continents and oceans. " Stories of the Seven Little Sisters" and "Each and All." Characteristic animals of each continent as follows: N. Ameri ca, bison, wolf, bear; S. America, monkey, boa-constrictor, ant-eater; Europe, wild boar, reindeer; Asia, tiger, camel, elephant; Africa, lion, gorilla, ostrich; Australia, kangaroo, paradise birds; Sea life, the whale, the coral animal, the sta.r-rlsh. (Sea Life in Stories Mother Nature Told.-Andr ~ ws.) Bring out th e ideas of zones and locate on the globe. Stories of Ar ctic and Tropical Life. (Agoonack, the E~q ninnu Maiden, and Manen ko, in " Seven Little Sisters.") Why it is so cold around the P oles and so h ot around tbe Equator. Fix the attention of tpe children upon the continents (on the globe) as these descriptions of animals and stories of child life are progressing.
4. PLANT LJFE.
(1) How plants grow. (2) What plants eat. (3) What plants are good for. (4) Lesson s on food plants, medicinal plants, clothing plants, building and furniture woods. (5) Compare plants with our bodies- identifying their mouths, noses, feet, bodies, arms, fingers, skin, blood, &c. (6) Planting seasons. Harvest seas ms. (7) The appearance of the plants during the d ifferent seasons. (8) How plants help und erg round drainage, and prevent washing. (9) Children, E.tudy Nature's Treasure boxes (seed pods), collecting and mounting these on boards. (10) How seeds are distributed. . (11) Plant enemi es . (12) What plants have to do with occupations. (13) Crops in the county; (14) in the State. Make a product map of the State. Wonderful pla nts: The Big Trees of California, th e mosses of arctic North America; the India-rubber tree of South America; the vine-

94
yards of Europe; the date palm of Africa; the tea plants of Asia; the peculiarities of tree life in Australia.
Food lessons 011 mace, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, pepper, mustard, olives, currants, oranges, lemons, bananas, coffee, tea, sugar, butternuts (nigger toes), almonds, English walnuts, dates, figs. Where do they come from? Interesting things about th em? The idea is to invest the continents and countries with interest to the ch iltlren before they come to study the less engaging details and feat.ures of the countries of the earth.
Gray's" How Plants Grow." and "Aunt Martha's Corner Cupbo:~rd" will aid the teacher greatly.
5. ANIMAL LIFE.
(t) Animals useful to men: Food animals, clothing animals, draught animals, scavenger animals. Have these listed and talked about-some one or two in each liat studied in detail. Have the children contrast the cow and the horse; other animals also. Have the children to list the graeseaters, the grain-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the treelivers, the ground-livers. Study bow each kind of animal is fitted for the life it leads. The birds: the scratcheril, the perchers, the climbers, the swimmers. Compare the feet of these kinds of birds. Hibernation: Wbat becomes of the frogs, the snakes, the spiders, the flies, the bears, the cray fi sh, the birds in winter? Useful animals in the different countries. Have pictures and stories for these . Have each located on the globe.
6. HUMAN LIFE.
Child Life in the different zones and countries as already indicated. ;Frye's "Primary Geography," "Child Life in the Different Countrie3 '' (Kellogg and Co., N. Y.), and The World by the Firesid(l (Thos. Nelson Sons, N.Y.), will furnish materials abundantly. "Ten Little

95
Boys," by Jane Andrews is indispensable in giving a historical view at Geography for children. Locate! Locate! ! everything.
Study, with abuudant Pictures, New York, Chicago, ,'an Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Sitka, New Mexico, Rio Janeiro, London, Berlin, Paris, Constantinople, St. Petersburg, Cairo, Johannesburg, Calcutta, Dlmascus, Hong Kong, Peking, 'l'okio, Melbournethese twenty-one cities especially; chief industries, routes of trade, and why; religion, manners and cuetoms.
Ex:cite the children to ask questio n about the pictures. Don't lect.ure-or no m ore than is absolutely necessary. By th is time, say in the latter part oftheThirdReaderyear, th e children can take .a good Primary Geography book.
REVIEW QUIZ ON CHAPTER II.
1. What is meant by Home Geography? It is a simple study of what three thingF? Wh!lt is meant by Geographical language? Why must this also be taught? What is Home Geography not? What relation has Home Geography to book Geography ?
2. How is work on Home Geography to be done? What three purposes are to be kept in mind? Describe Page's "Waking up mind" method? Apply it to some Geographical topic. Why cannot the teacher do much field work with his class in Geography? What is more im- portant ?
3. Write out the six headings for the main subjects in home study lessons in Geography, and list the sub-topics. (1) What are the four things to be taught about slopes? What is the main question? Write out ten uses of the slope. (2) What is a hill or ridge? A water-parting? What are the six steps in teaching hills and ridges? The ideas of hill and ridge can be expanded into what? How? Write out ten nses of ridges and hills. (3) What is a valley? A water-meeting? Contrast ridge and valley.

. 98
What is a brook-basin? How is it bounded? What are the seven steps in teaching valleys? What can be studied in the valleys about home ? Into what can these ideas be expanded ? How? State fou r good thought questions about valleys. (4) What Geop; raphical ideas and terms can th e child get in studying the shore3 or banks of wale~co urses ? d. When s hould sand modeling occur ? Into what can th ese ideas be expand: ed ? How? In what order does the mind work naturally in Geographi cal study ? (5). What ideas of water forms can b e gotten by tbe child in studying a brook or braneh? Into what can these ideas be expanded? State ten good "thought questions" about brooks. What should be true of the teacher's knowledge? (Tyndall's "l!'orms of Water" will help the teacher here.) 2. Name the Geographical Forces. The Geographical Agents. (1) State fou r kinds of Geographical lessons about water. How appeal to the child's fancy ? Why do so? State ten thought questions about the Geographical uses of water. (2) What is soil ? What are the constitul:lnts of granite? Where did the sand cla y come from ? The uses of sand? Clay ? Tell the story of the p ebble. How are earthworms, ants, and beetles soil-makers? How does rain make soi l ? Frost ? How is soil distributed? Which is the richest part of a slope? Why ? Why are swamps and pond-bottoms ri ch ? (3) State two kinds of drainage. The uses of each? How are springs formed? (Show by a drawing.) What kind of slopes wash badly? Why? What helps underground drai nage? How appeal to the ch ild's fancy ? Why? Mention three kinds of work done by water as it flows off over-ground? What is meant by erosion ? Transportation ? Deposition in Geography ? (4) What law of heat is to be brought out simpl y? Give five illustrations of it. State three' thought questions' about wind. State four heat lessons on seeds. How give observation heat lessons on plant life ? How appeal to the ch ild's fancy? Why? Four 'thought questions' on sonrces of the earth's

97
beat? What observation lessons may precede a study of the eeawns? State four season lessons for children. 3. State two kim's of map directions to be taught in Geography. How? How introduce the idea of continentB, oceans, and zones? 'Vhy so? 4. State some kinds of lessons on plants proper to Geography. Compare a plant with your own body. Mention five ways in which eeeds are distributfd. Mention ten plant enemies. What are the ch ief crops of your county? Its chief oc-cupations? Chief crops in the State? Its chief occupations? Make a product map of Georgia. How increase the child's interest in the countries of the globe? Mention some wonderful points of each continent. Mention some interesting l e~Eons on table foods. Tell where the fo llowing foods come from: Mace, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, butternuts, almonds, dates, figs? 5. Mention Rome lessons showing the usefuless of annimal life to man. How give these leseons? How develop the child's faculty of comparison? why? How teach the adaptation of animals to the life they !eat!.? State some lessons in this subject. Study and draw the foot of a hen, a pigeon, a woodpecker, a duck. How is each foot"adapted to the life of the bird? State some interesting facts about.hibernation. Mention some animals speciall y serviceable to man in the differe~t countries. 6. Why present to children chiltl-life in the different zones and countries? Why locate everyt.bing in these elementary Geography lessons? Why teach a few great cities fully instead of thousands as we used to do? How teach these cities to children ? Wbat are some main questions to have in mind in teaching these cities? Why not lecture on these cities to children? What isbettEir? When can children begin to study a Geographical book profits bly?

98
CHAPTER III.
HOW TO ~'EACH THE GEOGRAPHY BOOK.
I-PREFATORY .
The rhances are that you are going to have to use an old time, irrational Geography hook for many years yet. The only thing to do is to do the best thing possible with it as chance offers in the situation in which you fiud yourself. It will be necessary therefore :-
1. To be a scholar in Geography much beyond the book you teach.
2. To know more about the daily lessons with your book shut than the class does with its book shut.
3. To omit the dead, meaningless, and useless details of the book whenever necessary; and to do so wisely.
4. To enlarge, independently, the meager chapters of the book,- -11s those on relief, geographical forces and agents, climate, plant life, commerce and trade routes, for instance.
5. To have a familiar acquaintance with standard profe~sional texts in the subject. (See chapter I.) Chapter III., Part III. of" Swett's "Method of Teaching" is especially suggestive to the Common School teacher.
6. To know that a lesson may be interesting without being educative; but that it cannot be educative without being interesting.
H.-HINTS ABOUT METHODS.
1. BoCJk must not be too hard. Be sure that the geography book is not too difficult fur the class to read. The simplest good geography I know is about as difficult as the ordinary Fourth Reader.
2. The language of the bogk must be mastered. The geography book is first of all a reading book to be read by the child intelligently. Therefore see to it that he learns (1) the forms (spelling and pronun

99

ciations), (2) the,:meanings and (3) the uses of the

vocabulary of th e book, lesson by lesson; also (4) he

must be tau ght to look at a map and to form from it a

good mental picture of the country it represents.

The power to do this will develop slowly in the best.

pupil ~nder the best teaching.



~. Tn tnslale the book by appeals to the familiar.

In order to give reality and meaning to what the child studies in the geography book, call up his outdoor ex periences, for illustration and explanation. Relate what be already knows to what he reads about. Hkill in doing this evidences the true teacher. Read Page'P Theory and Practice, p. 296- 8 (Phelps's Ed.).

4, Develop Imagination. In order to cultivate the pupil's imagination, and makE' living knowledge out of dead information . (1) After finishing the study of a country or city have . the pupil place himself, in fan cy, in a particular place, and tell what be sees. Thus, after finishing Egypt, say, "You may stan d on top of the pyramid of Gizeh, and teU me what you see." It is always an effectivE' and interesting review. (2) Or have t hem write up imaginary journeys through a country that has been studied.

5. School Cabinets. Have the ch ildren to fill a cabinet or museum with all sorts of geographical objects,-treasures from nature's storehouse, leaves presEed, mounted and labeled, minerals and rocks, seed pods, grasses, bird nests, and so on endlessly; articles from the different countries of the eartb,-India-rubber and coffee from Brazil, quinine from Peru, firecrackers and tea from China, ivory from Africa, figs from Asia Minor, lemons from Sicily, and so on. Label each article, showing the country it is from.

6. TP.ach the Pictures in the Book. Pay special attention to the pictures in the geography book. Quiz upon them lesson by lesson, till thev

100
have told their full story. Such quizzing pays. Children usually look at these pictures without seeing all they have to tell.
7. Picture SC!'ap-Books. Engage the children in filling a Geographical Picture scrap-book. A business man's Pocket Letter File will hold a bushel of scraps. Each pocket can be labeled and devoted to the: pictures of some one or two countries. Afterwards, the pictures can be winnowed, and the best Eelected and posted into a scrap book. Advertising cards- especially the A1 buckle coffee cards-the monthly megazines, the railway tourists' books, book catalogues, &c., furnish pictures abundantly.
8. Crayon Relief Maps. Maps and illustrations in crayon reli ef are easily drawn after a little practice. Augsburg's ''Easy Things to Draw in Geography" will help the teacher. The drawing of relief maps is much more important than that of outline maps.
9. Outline Map Drawing. Outline map drawing ought to accompany Geographicel work throughout. Ashmore's notions and instructions about this are the very best. See Georgia Outlines of Methods, 1896, pp. 67, 72. Have the best work:displayed on the wa~ls ,
10. Progressive Outline Jfaps . Learn the use of progressive outline maps. You can buy these, or make them yourself easily. Draw the cuuntry on stiff pasteboard,.cut it out along the outline, and then the pupils use it for .quickly drawing their own outlines on sheets of paper. The idea then is to put into the map the geographical features as
..'. these are st udied day by day. Preserve and display ' the best of these on the walls.
1.1. Saft,d-and-Muciletge Jfaps. The easiest. o.f all relief maps to make are the sand-andmucilage maps. Draw the outline on a lace board

101
(from the dry-goods stores). .Mucilage the surface inside the outline. Sprinkle fine sand on it, and leavd it to dry. Shake off the loose sand, and put more mucilage where the highlands are, and again pour on the sand. When it is dry, build up your plateaus, then your mountain ranges, then your peaks. :Meantime, with your finger, you easily correct any mistakes and shape up the forms before they are completely dried. It will take the best mucilage. Buy your gum-arabic, and mix yourself. (I got this idea from Supt. Noble, Wilmington, N. C.)
12. Production Maps .
Taking the outline maps, made as indicated, shade in the agricultural crops and mineral productions as these subjects are being located in course of the lessons. 'l'he production maps in Redway's Elementary Geography are good. The children easily and quickly do this work. Preserve and display on the walls the best work
13. Dissected .Jfaps:
Dissected maps are easily made-of the U . S., say. Trace upon good pasteboard the large U.S. map in the Geography. Then with a cobbler's knife cut out all the St.ates carefully. The smaller children find good occupation in putting the pieces together to form the whole map.
14. P roduction Map of Georgia.

102

15. An Outdoo1~ Relief Map of Georgia.
In a protected place on the school grounds a large rellel map of the State can be made by the children at their play times. '.rbe teacher outlines the State, directs in building up the slopes, highlands, ridges and mountains. Then be can safely leave the ch-ildren to put in the rivers, railroads, cities and productions by themselves, the teach er merely overlooking and cor recting errors. N. E. Ware's' child ren did this at Hawkinsville interestedly anrl profitably.

1G. Weather Observations. These ought to be recorded on the blackboard regularly twice a day at stated times. The idea is, mind you, to lead the children into noting coincidenc!'s and causes. At the start the thermometer, the direction of the wind and the aspects of the sky (clear, cloudy, foggy, rain, bail, snow) need to be recorded, along with dew or frost, or their absence, as noted earlier. These records can get to be more elaborate later.

17. S chool Correspondences. The teacher can, by letter with some other teacher in the North, or West, or Southwest, start up class correspondences between their pupils upon the geographical surroundin gs of the two classes. This is getting to be a common resort in this country.

18. Locate everything in the HiJJtory L essons. This ought to be a standing requirement in history teach ing, as well as in such reading lessons as require it. The habit of locating what is read, whenever possible, will teach your pupils more geography after awhile than you can possibly do now.

19 .Attend to Current Geographical News.

For instance, post on. the bulletin-board of the school

~. -,:ainnt'eeWres8.tJi?nagpeirnfmoarmp aotfiotnheabKoluotntdhiekecoruegnitornys;,

with brief or of Cuba.

/ "2o. Deal Sparingly ~fiJI, Statistics.

.

l '\/" ; ~r~s, _pqpulati ns, heights, latitudes, longitudes, and

~

. thEI 'likk,JA custom pupils to turning such details

103
into real knowledge by comparison. Thus it is only a little p1'oblem in arithmetic to learn, for instance, that India is about as large as the United States east of the Mississippi river, that France is about as large as South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; that all the people in Georgia would make a city onethird as large as London. It is only by comparison that any kind of information becomes definite. 21. Com.pa1e ! Compare ! ! All the time ! ! ! Every n ew subj ect should be studied by itself and then in comparison with wha t is already known. When the children come to &tndy South America, have th em compare it with North America; the Nile wi th the Amazon; the J apanese Islands with the British Isles ; dry climate countries with moist climate countries ; tropical life with arctic life, and so on endlessly. If yo ur pupils are not comparing, you are not t eaching. Remember that. See the comparisons in Chapter III., Part III., of S\vett. 22. Map Questions. Usually there are entirely too many map questions. In a geography book at my right baud there are nearly 6,000 of them; most of them too, entirely destitute of significant or interesting information for the child. He does not remember all these; he ought not to do it, if he could. The details in geography yo u have yourself forgotten ought to be a hint that the children will also forget them. Why waste time upon matters that neither enrich nor discipline the mind profitably? As a rule, it is best to have the map studies directly in connection with the dPscriptive m'atter, and following it as a special review. 23. 'Topical Study. As soon ns possible, the class should settle down regularl y into topi cal study and recitation upon geographical snbjects; because (1 ) it throws their knowledge into orderly systematic form, (2) provokes independent innetigatil)n, (3} brings all t he old geography books about the home into service and (4) develops in the child a se-se of c0mpleteness.

104
24. Supplementary R eading Books in Geography. Mana ge in some way to have just a few of theEe on your desk for the free use of your pupils. Any of the
willbooks of J ane Andrews or Jobonnot (See Chapter I.) enrich and arouse the minds of your class. 25. Quiz : Don't L ecture too Mu ch . Remember that your class is much more interested in the knowledge they have gained than in the information you have to give them; more in their own recitation than in yours. Suppression on your part; expression on their part; or depression on everybody's part.
III.- DONT'S.
1. Don't forget that the geography book is usually beyond the maturity of the child.
2. Don't make the le~sons too long. Attraction is better than propulsion- leading than driving.
3. Don't fail to draw on the child's own experiences for Hlustration and explanation of the book lessons.
4. Don't overload the child's memory with useless details It doesn't matter much if be doesn't know where Archangel is, or the Chuput river.
5. Don't forget to appeal to observation, imagination and thinking as well as to verbal memory in geography tea ching.
6. Don't fail to exhaust the information of your class before you begin to lecture.
7. Don't neglect local and current geography. 8. Don't expect the child to remember what you have for-
gotten in Geography. 9. Don't expect the child to know more about the subject
with his book shut than you do with yours shut. 10. Don't forget that you are not teach ing at all unless your
pupils are forming the habit of comparison . 11. Don't neglect reviews. Young teachers usually fail just
here. 12. Don't fail to have plenty of map-drawing. 13. Don't forget that relief map-drawing is more important
than outline map-drawing.

105
H.. Don't fai l to have your class draw a map of the State once a yea r at least.
15. Don't make a hobby of map-drawing, and waste time foolishl y.
IG. Dvn't fail to save all the Geo.;: raphy pictures that fall into. our hands.
17. Don't fail to learn h ow to teach Geog raphy from pictures. 18. Don' t hesitate to buy a good p ro fes~ional book on the sub-
ject occasionall y. HJ. Dvn 't forge t that when you kn ow too much about Geogra-
phy for a small place , you' ll kn ow just about enough for a bigge r place elsewhere. 20. Don't fa il to visit the old book stores in th e cities. I bought two good books for my Geog raph y library in them t he othe r day: Captain Cook's Voya~e, 5c, and Davis's 'l'wo Years b efore the Mast, JOe. 2 1. Don't put off p ri vate study in ph ys ical ~c iences as an aid to Geography teaehing (and to en arged scholarship as well ). :?2. Don't forge t that when you have come to be a really competent teac her of Geog rapl1y, that you have acquired a pretty liberal ed ucation. 23. Don' t forge t that Geog raphy books and Geography teach ing are undergoi ng th e most radical changes. 2~. Don't forge t that you'll be stranded hi gh and dry on this subject if yo u don't wak e up. 2.i . Don't forget that there is always room at the top in any depart ment of teachiug. 2G. Don't fail to read the Report of th e Committee of Fifteen on Geograp hy-'l'eachin g. Wri te the Uni ted States Commis ioner of E dJ.lcation, Washington, D. C.
Two th ing in conclu sion: 1. My aim l1a s been to suppleIll nt and not to supplant Ashmore's notes on Geographyteachi ng in the Georgia Teachers' Outlines for 18!)7. That is wh olly admirable . I would not change a syllabl e of it. 2. My own notes have b een made u p und er great hardships-for love, an l not for pay , and I th erefo re era ve, even if I do not de~e rve, th e J.. ind ly criticism of my fellow-teachers.

106

IV.-QUJZ REI. IEW.

I. What are the faults of the cld-t!lne Geography-Look?

What is necessary in order to use a pnor Geogr<iphy-

book wisely? Instance somfl of the useless details of a

poor Geography-book. What is to be done with them?

What are some of the subj ects that are usually treated

meagerly in ordinary Geog raphy-books ? What must

the teache r be able to do ? How is the teacher to get a

familiar acquaintance with the beat methods in Geog-

raphy-teaching ? Is an ed ucati ve exercise necessarily

iuterestiog? Why so?

II. l. Why must not the Geography-book be too difficult?

A1e they usually too difficult for Geograp hy

classes? Primary Geograph ies are about as diffi-

cult as what No. of Reader?

2. What four things are necessary to underata nding the

language of th e boo k 't Which is most difficult'?

Why?

.

3. How is the pupil to get firm hold of the mEaning of the book ? State the illustration in Page.
4. State two ways of developing the imagination in Geography-teaching. Why appeal to the imagination?
5. H ow can school cabinets be filled ? Su)rgest proper objects for a Geog raphical cabinet. The uses of such a cabinet ?
6. Why set the class to studyin g closely the pictures in the Geography-books? Select a picture and gi ve an exercise upon it.
7. What are the uses of a scrap- book of Geography-pictures? How fill such a scrap-book ? Sources of pictures,
8. Why a~e crayon reli ef maps more important than outline maps? Draw a relief map of Georgia.
9. H uw t:an children come to understand what a map means ? (p. 67, Syllabus '97.) The real object of map-drawing ? The aim at first? State how a class is to be drilled in map-d raw ing. (p. 73,1Sylbuus of '9/ . )

107
10. t:tate how a sand-and-mucila)!e map is made? State tlnee adv.mtages this form of relief map has.
11. What is a progressive outline map? How used? How made, easily and abundantly?
12. What ard production maps? How maJe? Why preserve and display t he bedt maps of the class ? Their special value?
13. How make a disseded map of the United States? Its uses?
14. How make a produc~ion map of Georgia? Why resort to such a device ?
15. How make an outdoor relief map of Georg a? Reason for having the children mainly do the work?
16. How record weather observations? Why ? What records might be made?
17. What is meant by school correspondences? How start them up ?
I 8. How take note of current Geographical news? Mention spmeimportant Geographical news recently .
19. How teach statistics? Why ? Size of India? France? How ascertained?
20. How shou~d any subject be studied? Reas.m fur each step ? Illustrate. Contrast N. Amerit-a with S. America. The Nile and the Amazon. The British and the Japan Isles.
2L. What is true of the map questions in most Geography books? What hint does the teacher have ? The best way of teaching map questions?
22. When should pupils begin to study topically? The uses of topical study? Make out a set of topics for Georgia.
23 . The special use of supplementary reading books in Geography teaching? How use them?
24. State the reasons for teaching by questions instead of by lectures ?
IlL 1. Is it true that Geographical books are usually too difficult for the child?
2. Rea~nns for short lessons? 3. Wl1y must explanations be given in terms of the
child's own experiences?

10

4. \Vhat are the dan gers of ove rtax ing the verbal mem-

ory in Geography ?

5. Define Observa t ion; I magina tion ; Thinking. How

appeal to each in Geograp hy teac!.in g?

G. When may a teacher prope rly begin to lecLnre?

-.:

Why ?

7. Reasons for teachin g local a nd current Geog raphy 'l

8. What may yon reasonably ex pect th e child to forget

in Geography 'l What con clusion foll ows?

9. \Vhat reasonable de mand may pupils make of the

teacher of Geography ?

10. Wb e u are yo u reall y teach ing ? Wh e n n ot ?

11. Where do youn g teac he rs us uall y fail ? State two

qualities of a good re vie w in Geograrhy.

12. Why do teache rs omit map -d ra wing ? What do you

con sider prope r moderation in map-drawing?

13. Justify, if it CLn bo d one, th e s upe ri or value of re lief

map-drawing ?

l4. \Vhy have a co unty a nd a "tate map drawn fre-

q ue ntl y ? H o w freque ntly ?

15. What indicates t hat a teac her is making a hobby of

map- d rawin g?

lG. 'rhe uses of Geog raphi cal p ictures ? B o w use them?

17. Select a Geog raphi cal pi ctu re a nd g ive an ex ercise.

18. Why bny a professional boo k on Geograph y tea ching?

10. What advanta ge li es in be ing an expe rt teache r ?

20. Wh y vi it "OldBook Stores" ?

2 t. How do th e pb y. ical scie nces help in m ode rn Geog -

raph y teac hin g? H ow can th e teacher be sc hooled

in th ese? r arn e th e ph ys ical scie nces.

22. What re ward lies in bein g a competent teacher of

Geography ? 'b ow that this is so ?

23. What radi cal changes are Geographi cal books undergoing? What n eglected subjects are being treated more full y?
24. Penalty for neglec tin g a th o rough pre paration ? 25. Who is ge tting poo r pny ? Hig h pa y ?
26. What Report is reco mmend ed ? Where obtained?

NoTE.-Professional com,ses in common school meth o ds (this



course among the otirers) can be bad at the State

Normal 'chool :

HISTORY.
Bt D. t . EARNEST, STATE Nom.tAt ScRoot.
( Cop'!}riglited.)
t. PRELIMINARY,
L History is am a;OOO'Illlt of the actiCJI!lS whkh liave afl'eeteti aivii'imt!i'<m.
2. History is the story of man's evolution. S; Histlocy is. a recortl of 11he march which man has
tnooe t!ofV.nard gO'odnes3 and 'happiness.
4, Hist<YrY is t'he logiCial acroun t Q'( .the 1-nter-action
of man al!ld envfirO'IlmJerut.
5. (Histocy is truth ooncreted in the liie of hu-
manilty. S. HistJOTy is an ll.ccount of -th'ose acti'Ons Qf man
whi-ch d'irootly a fl'ect h'Ls welfare, his destiny, his OiviJi:oa.uon. 7. History- is lilian's VeTSi~n of the life-time O'f the race. 8. \History ls thie eon1triast w:h!ich Fa.Jther Time has dmwn betweel!l RighJt and Wrong. 9. Himory Is the story- wh1c'h WIJ.sdom tells a:bowt the dealingiS of her c'h1ldren with the W'()IJ'IJ'd. 10. HistoTY is the corutriibuti'OIIl of Grealtness to the V'Olume of IAfe. 11. History is the life story of Right. 12. Hist'Ory is the Slt!ory of the struggle for supremacy in the great Brotherh'OO'd of Man.
Which statement albove most nearly defines History ? Combine any of t hese with Y'OUr own thoug~ht into a good definition or description of 'Hist'ory. What meaning has each? What expression of or lack of truth?

110
fl. THE 'l'E'AOHER OUGHT TO HAVE:
1. Hi-storical knowledge, a<:tual, vl!tal, as dls'tingUiished from indl=art:i'on ; obtained from ol'iginia1 s:ources. The V'a!lue of experience and trnvel are incalculaJble. Value books; according to tru'tih :an'd interest.
2. !Jove !loT 'hisbory and its less'orus. Th~s fus the infLuewce thalt inspir'es its kind 'in t he heart o:f the pupil; thds 'is the most pra>ct'ica.l work O'f the tooche:r as the pupil wHl not otlhe:rwfise prosecute h'is studies--.and time in school is rshort.
3. .Enthusiarsm in <study and teaching. This vitlalizes and m akes possible effectlive lab>o<r. How can 2 and 3 be devel'Oped? (1) Select illlteresting sk"eetches, stories and 'b:ook!s, coosu'l.t'ing na:tura!l and acquired rtastes. (2) Repeatedly alttempt to enjoy; remember hi<YW physical taJStes are acquired. (3) Ma ke all persons and lin<cidents real lby use of the picttal'ial imagination. (4) Reme;mlber that in lower stages of devel<opment man is lin>t<ereslted only 'in what has relati'oo to rpeTsona.l expel"iences, personal gain or loss-briefly, in /truth fur his sake, aJitel"ward, when maltured, in truth for its own eake.
4. A<bility to rouse love for :histOI'ical study----essen'tJial, flcYr his :t!ime 'is short, O.Qportuillity meager. A !teacher wi'tlh a strong pe'l'S'onality aflame wHh love Jlor the thing he does and profoundly
conviruccd of its necessity has m<omen:tum suffici<ent to over-Iide method<otogy, but its alid makes power more effecltive.
5. Sk'il l in <so a:ppl)'ling his pupil's energy to histori cal study as to ruttain ibs ENDS.

111
III. PURPOSES AJNrD MANS.
1. To stimulate patrt'otlsm. Love ot country is the
cltizen'<S 11.rst duty; by ilt irs :hon0!1ab'le history ma.de pOS'Si'ble; it Is tlhe mro~ive powrer, the soul of nra:~ionral eX!istence. TO DEVELOP:
(1) Exprarrd the Il!atural lwe 0'! home and the id'ea of home until the pupil comprreheD'ds the Univel'Sall Brotherftmrod of Man.
(2) Oontralst ouT blessinrgs 'Wirth those enjoyed lby rothers.
(3) Cormpare the presenlt with t'hre pastcustoms, laws, privileges, amusements, plea:suTes, oomrtorts.
(4) 'l'ea<ih peJ'IS'OOllal worfth of eac'h pupiJ, the State, the Nation, and the n~es sity for the full performance of the frunratl'on specrially assigned to eac'h.
(5) Bring tJo bear ru1)0n the tender S\lSOePtibilit'ies of tthe puplils 'the 'ioopi'rJng 1nllue!lJCe ()f 'W'Orthy 'example.
2. To teach the onerous burt imperative durties o! citizenShip. (1) Teach the nrature of g>OVernment rarmi its n~essrity. (2) Show h'ow it is mar.inta.lned. (3) Sh'orw how laws are made; if l>()SSible, lby IQIJ'lganllzinog the scrhool into a min1aJture l~islatuTe. Horw wou~d you l'ike ttJo brave some of the Rules thus made? (4) Show effect w.hen good men negloot civtic duty. (5) Illustrate th<e effects rof bad laws and riJiad mren in office.
3. To devel'op W'OJ:'Ithy ddeals. The teacher must :reaFize the vrulue of ran ideal rto ran expanrding character.

112
(1) Show whrut others have don'E!; a.ppooA ro
l!!end'Ilcy to imitate. (2) Have pupi1s select in the cha'Mcleni
s'bUdied quallities which they admire, a:n'd, when alble, 'Vo assign reasons, (3) muSt:rate -t'he W'OTth of the moot ad; mirable tMJits of eruaract~r; show whait is ndbie; true a.nd good, 'bttt do hot ask that it be loved; the tendrils of affoot:ion twine not tar the firugers of e~ther lfurce or reaS'oh. 4. 'Do develiiQIP rt!he love of exoellen100, t'he d.etermirla; rtJion to find the bEilrt a'Ii<l. do ito (1) Ptvpi1 muS't learn the causes of success m ta:Iiure in 11istoric C'hlaraclers.
(2) Questioo as to whether a gqven piafi or
t:ourse was best, and Why.
(3) Ihd:Uoo lj}uopils tJo pLah a. camtpai.gn O'i' a
{!13.T'eer (a suiccessful life) , (4) Have pupil show wlhlat lie would have
d'one an'd otJhoen find 1011t what wouid htave been wisest and be3L
(5) ll!Ustrrute the 'infiilen.ce whioh a con-
sciousness of right has upon vigor and success. 5. oTo develop the Memory. :StaJbi11ity 1s dlosely dependent upon excellenc-e of m.emocy; forgetful people a.re rarely wrse or suocessful. The value of ra:ti>onan memory training is greaJtlY discounted.
Hints:
(1) Arouse a vtiV'id interest and dhaJin the ;aJt'tenti'on-to ma ke the impression strong and clear.
(2) Use devices fur reperuting the im.pression; rev'iew the same fu.cts in VM"ious dlisguis:es that the pupil may not be wearied.

113
(3) Faldts rell!Jted in any way should lbe assodiruted in oonsci'Ollsness.
(4) Lea.d the pupil to ~ the relation of thisltOTiQal knowledge to h'is own interests.
(6) Gradually expect and require m'OI'e and more 'of rthe pupil's merruory.
6. To tralin the C'<ms'truot:lve 'imagiillaltion. Since the 1arger part .of 'th~ hruppineS'S or m iosery of the 1nd'ividtran life ~s tracea:bJe tv this faJouloty,. the nature ()If 'i'ts acti'on is of linesbi mable value. How can its growtth be aided? (1) Pmctlce the mental p kturing 'Of filmilia.r scenes. (2) Sb,ow a picture af 'hisbOO'ic v.alue, then reicall; fol~ow 'tbtis ex-ercise by a dic1Jruteld ltranspoai:tion of ohamcters 1n t'he picture. (3) Pa~nft a vivid word-iplcture ; pupils image and recall!. (4) StimuQate lby reHc, curio and objectJ!ve lllid; puplls tell il'ts story. {6) Lead pupils 'to form menltail pictures o-f persons, places and important events; the teacher oo:rTeC'Ul errors,
7, To acqltlire t)J.alt wisdOIID anod culot;.ure which 1\obs Qllle for a ri<ghtoous and magnammous private and pulbl'ic me. An .enlarged V'iew of life recc gn.izes th<e rights, feelin~. virtues, opinions and knowledge of others and 'generously oon~ cedes tlle existenice and value of trultfh a.n:d ~d beyond one's own rutbalinments. (1). Require t'he use of best judgment in reference to men and measures, c.har11-ct~r ll-ll11 conq\l<:t, <;au~e ~nd effeot.

114

(2) Drn.w oontflaS'ts lbotween the makers of history, the leaners of t hought and action and i:helir opposites; acooun:t forr tbe differences.
(3) Make a. speciall ISitudy rof t he elements of greatness and !;'O'odniess and culture by ciC>ncr ete illuSitrations. DON'T MORAIJIZE.
(4) In 1!hlis sh1dy be sure tile opupil sees the cause and effoot r elation in cha,rncter and success.

IV. THE TEACHER AT THE RECITATION.

1. Be sure the members of the class know what they

are E-xpected to do.



2. -Render sulch aid as c lass must have, niO't too much

1est cllass be rweakented nor .too 'little lest tt.hey

ibe dtisoouraged.

3. Require no 'impossib'ildtlies.; time ~s not m ere

money-it is heart beats. You shorten my life

if you steal my time; lbow differs this from

murder? Get !the pupil's boot; ask no m01re.

Be carefu~ of r eferences; too many; inla.ocoos-

11'ble; dmle1ini:te.

4. ILeaid. oprupps t'o see rellatlions.

5. Tbbroughly 'test t'he preyarntion {)If a ll work as-

signed.

6. 'Live bef'ore tbe cllass the perofedt emhooimerut of

all 'Vha:t :liS ruablrest an:d 'best in 'hi<S~rn;c c'harn:c-

lt.ers; concrete virtues are comoprehensible, ad-

m'irnlble, 'imlitablle.

V. THE PUPIL AT THE RiiDCITA'l'ION.
1. Is ready, bT!ight, iruterested, prepared. 2. Uses 'hlis own la!Ilguruge. 3. Realizes all that he utters. 4. Speaks in fuU sen.tenoos.

115
5. 1States whwt be knows with1011t stimulW! of question.
6. Is not asll'amed to ask questibns or to state 'his viewii! lhlowe~r erJ'()nOOlliS; respe'C!ts the V'i~ df dthern.
7. Draws rough ou'tl:ine map upon 'bOO.rd when dt 'Will aid ex;press.iton.
8. Roodi[y writes slh1ort sVor-ies and detscriiiJitioillS+ on board or at selat IB.S J.anguage work.
9. 1Ex1l'ibdts '<lllltlline 'Of .Jesson or t'opic, previously prepared.
fl1he cMef fault w'ith lt'he ipu'!Jtl is the all'tirficial employment of tblougiht symbldls, 'thJOughlt furms. "WordS without lt'hought n~er to !Heaven go;" still-born they come 1nt o a 'WQrll~ 'Where l'lfe reigns. Th<e teacher's task is to train t'he pwpil to tlrink about what he rela:ds and experiences. The 't:eacller's ak'i!Jl in the art l()lf ques>t'ioning often clearly defines an:d determ!in<es the tpUpil's aetiV'ilty O'f thought.
VI. AIDS AND METHODS.
1. M1APS. A good set of outline 'IIUlJps, purchased 'If possalb'le. tEaJch pU'Pil must 'be aJble to :revrodu~ mpfdly a sketchy map 10f any 1ocal1ty, State or section stmdied-nea't, not IOrlla'te, mere~y ~ndic'at'ing the <J)aJclts diesired. Never
salcrifice here utility to beauty. P'laoo :and eve!lllt s'hould Ire so ru;soC'iated t:hat one recalls
tlhe 'Oither. :Wit'h mlalp before the class give a.n 'OCCasfional review, by ~B.Sking, "Whwt !happened here?" "Whel!'e dlid (any event) ha.ptpen?" Pupils form progressive maps in the study of settllemen!ls, wars, 'OOIIl/l)'aigns, aJCqu'isition of rter:r!itory. Puipil, with podnter glives artl.erly
s'lla.tement; goography and history IB..Te oom-
bine<l in prepaxati'on o'f recitation. l.Jocate great men, greaJt events, great dWies, favuraJble 'all'd un.'faV'Of'8)ble env!ironan<ent.

116
2. Relics a:nd Curios. !Make a coneati-on, 'by travel, ~xchange, correspC>nodence, purchase. Socure ~oans; persona1ly; 'by aid of t he 'PUpils. Be sure to save the llldm1ralble 'Piatures now albundiamlt in lil.algoazin.es, papers lllllJd advertisement\s. '.rhe OOILly cond'i1Ji0Il!s for success are to want them, to look for 'them ; to get them. Urse any'th!lnog wlhdch will rwlis-ely conrentralte a:ttention or telactl augb.lt of whaJt affects civilimtlon.
3. Persons . .A.Vlail Y'oumelf of the siervices fJt any :his!Jor'ic cha.rnoter Whlom Y'Oru ma.y a1~ure to the scllool. C<>lloot penron~l experioences. Have <pupils wrote a 'local hls bory. In this secure t he aJid of the local paper. (What use can lbe made of su<ch mrubter, ;so clipped ?) Assoc:iate wilth those whlo knkYw the past.
4. La'W'S, cll'Sitoms, manners, the 1goo.tle arts .of pea,ce, moral!s, marrtiaJge rites, clot:hing, mdde of treating priscmers, opruupers and msrunoe, and esteem of man !)or rwoma:n, afford ~d.znirab1e topics for ooiiitrnst. Oompa;re different a~ges an:d peoop1es, and -dmw oonoclusi'ollJS aJbout relaJtive developmenrf in civilimtiloo. Study 1nrt1l'eSt ta).{len in pu'bli<c affairs as a test of patri'otism. See whialt inlterest "is !tiaken 'in religion, m()fla.]s and e'ducrution. . Find in monuments t'he esteem i<n which ancestors are held-regard for the pa&t. Nature of school-!hlo>use 13.Illd church shows iegartd for the future. Beoalu:ty anld comfort 'Of h'ouses anrd graunds measure the oare for tt:he presenit-'anrd reverence (or appreciation), unselfi&hness, aspi. ration, are key-IJiotes of c'h:aimcter.
VII. TIME.
1. Beg1n the teoadhling of hist'ocy by te1Jiing stJories adrupted to the ta'Stes, COIDiprehenrsion, a~pper wpotive powers of the pupils,

117

2. Study story teB'in!g, story tellers, eto~Ies; develtop lthe art ami .a~CCumulaste lthe maJterlia.l.
a. Facts in a'ttramive f<mlll aJre lru!ited 'tio the chil'd;
give them-do not expect the child to reason much before the age O>f twelve.
4. :A'PIJ:111 lla.I'gely 'to 'i~ina.tion and memO!rY ifi
primary 'W'OU'k; time for QTganization and deducttions is lin r'iper years.
5. P.iV1olt!al dasteS should ibe taught; these are crises,
turn~ng poinlts; 3Jrlound <thiem may be grouped
causes and effects.
6. Ideas 01! cause and e!Ioo't anoo from immediate
successliotll. '1. Grout> related occurrences into

PERIODS:

I.

Explora~tion:-1492-1607.

11. Oolonization.:-1607-1776.
rn. Revoluti'on:~1776~1783.

'IV. Nta1Jiorua1'izastion: -1783-1789-1861.
v. ~11001:-1861-1865 .

VI. Reconstructlion: -1865-1898.

IW:hen is a discovery vroperly a part of our hiS/tory ? Why teacll about rthe 1:ndiams <8lllld IM'Oun<l 'builders ?

VIII. PLACE.
1. The pictorial imagination must posit its creatiGn!!. 2. Ge~p'hy is best remembered. :when a human
inlterest is 'llliltached; associalte ac1lion a'lld :ro-
'Caltion. 3. Employ maps in preparing each history lesson;
generally 'in rec'ilting.
4. Is ra knowledge or WlHIDR!E pr'Ofimble w1b:e'll the
event cowld have ()CCUTred as well elseWhere? 5. !Study all ~graph'ical agoolales which 'have an
influence over ;civiillirort:iiOil, as-

118
1~. CAtJISE AND EW'ECT.
1. The chief natllNIIl agents 1Ili8trlumenta.l in aiteot
ilng .zn.an's adtivit'ies .are J'd!ouruta.iD.'S, l.Ja'tl~tude1 Soils, !Wa.lters, Minerals, Forests, Climate. 2. OccupatiCl'J11s il.etel'lllllinoo lby environment and in~ diVlidual albHilty to react. 3. In phflOISOP:hlS.ing, aV'Oifd that mJa'teri~alism :wlhlcli. makes man an automaton;. he is not a machi'Ile governed by environmerut; oonsl.der his power of reruction, of ml0idify1ng environmerut, of lbTti:ngting nalture unde r sulbjec'tiOtil, of selfd<etermlin<ation.
Consider the fact th<at those w.h'o m different
l8lg'es have fi'Ved upon tlhe srume soi~ are not al'ike. M'run bias itndlVIidura.ltty, a something lin'Ill!llte, ~rooter lth<an na~ture's ll01rees 18Jbourt; him ; when he was crowned creation's lord, he was told to go forth 3f11Jd conquer. 4. Nl!lltural poliltlieal boundaries are formed by mounttatns aard 'Wlaiem. 5. Effeots of Moti!Il'ti!l:inls (1in rela~tion Ito plruins).
(1) 'Hea'llth. (2) Ooumge. (3) Poverty. ( 4) IsolaJtli'On. (5) 'Independence. (6) Ignorance. (7) C001serva,Usm. 6. 'Is there a dlifferelllce in tlihe ihospitaJlity of those HVli'Ilg in 'CiltY and country, lllJOUnltains .am.d
tpladns, North arud South? Give reasons ror
your answere. 7. 1Wib.y lis moot prog:ress ilound l:n 'the Temtpel1alte
~one?
8. Give all <t!he causes locartling and developing eaiC'h colony inrtJo a stalte; of eruc:h In:ter-Oolon1aJI War; of RevoJ,uUonary War, War of 1812, 'Mexican War, Civtil War. St:alte '!!he e:m.dt ef-

119
feet ~f eac!h IUJPO'Il the bistory of the Untted S1Jaltes. 9. What is the difference between the North and the South? Explain its origin. 10. Wha,t oritgiina.ted am.d deve>}aped the de mand for Ooloni'al Intlependence? For !Abolition of Slavery? @oo- 'I'alriff? For Free Silver? W:b.a't !has been t'he effect of each? 11. HIQIW came !Slavery. t'O produce oo many .aible pol<i!tica.l l~ders?
X. ORGANIZATION.
'I'hfus Is IVhe smnmAtm bonum of rthe teacher's efforts. The materilaJ.s otblta.ined from every poesilble oourc:e axe to be th'oughit upon; this <wl()lrk o-f IVhe mintl must be itihe chfief rom o.f the teacher. AnS'W'er'ing t :he questd~m. How can ltihe ip'U'pil be maide to tt'hlink? i-s the ifirslt 'true success; c:arry1ing tlb.e =~ inrt:o e:recution makes the tea,clhe<r I3Jl educatiooal artist. Fin'd the lthoughrt and feelling of a peop'Je in iis aclbions; ltlhey aJre relaJted as cause and effoot. Wih'ich axe more entluring? Amlid a multiplicity of d etJa.ils find a :basic, a c'ommon prinoiple; find meanings. Spend not so much recitation time in repootluotions, 'but in tralining pupil'S to t:h.'ink. This iS 'imperaJtlive; you OOJnnot teach if Y'OU cannot cause Y'Qur pupHs 'to feel the pride, t he glory of lindivliduaJ, inde penldent t'houglhJt; thtis lis the ul'tlmart!e aJi.m of intellootu'al edu'C'ati'on wh!attever be the subject-matter of invootigation-liQlWe<r alim 'is crime. Searclh for esse:rutia.l truths. The pi-olblem confrontling the eaJrnwt tea,c'her i'S, HOw can I give to his'tJorlic c:haraoters and evenlts, !Jife, heawty IMld mearun;g? The truest answer is the miglh'tiest self-evolution; 'think owt your OIWTI answer-power 1Jo teach is

120
a resu1't of !JOWC'I'fn! tho11g1tt. Wisdom teeds on oounOOI, on reading, on tlhinkintg; :power vo d'o, Ito apply wisdom, is the chlild IOf thougltt.
XI. HINTS.
1. Find lhistory embalmed in Geographical names; tin ~miJll/0'11 W'Ordts; in laws; in cloth-es; in cusrom:s; lin coliniS; in heirlooms; in piobures.
2. Teacll oh:ild lhmv w study.
3. Teach how aJD.id what ~o love and h:ate. 4. Calretully tudy inifl'uellJCtS '11/Ild actiV'1ties of t'imes
of peace. 5. -Make recita:tion alttl'll.cUive, but do not make !it
alJl oploosarut pllay-gmdua ny and skilfully aptpTOilltCh seri'OtliS, hai'd 'W'ork. 6. Review by !bopics; try .Uus brief form far
BIOGRAPHY.
I. AneestTy. II. Birth: Drute; L OJcality.
rn. Eld.uca't:i10n.
IV. Ui'fe: Private; Puib1ic. Effects. V. OharacteT: Religiton; 1ntelleet; Hai.Jtits .
7. Teach Local Histocy; your seC'tion, your s tate. YIOUl' oou.nty, your n>e'i.ghborhood. Whrut is thoe reason :for this?
8. 'l'oocll Current History. (1) Est.:rublds'h lthe hlaibit of re'aldilllg amod thinking upon the news. Glive at least one exeroise each week. (2) P1a'OO your periodioCIIIJ1s amd ptrupterS at the dispooal -of t'he scill'oo.J. Mlamy excellerut ReV'iews are pu'blished: Plat!hflnoder, Public Opin:ion, Literary Digest, Our Times, oaiH in N . Y. Cirty.
Sen'Cl ror sample copy.
(3) Use a Bunetin Board for 'importanlt news items.

121
(4) Elect aJil Editor fo:r weekly paper. (What value 1n the electi'on ?)
(5) Call fm iltems of news 'B:t oopen1ing exercise or on spelei!al <>Oel!Si'Ons; oontr~IJ.Uite something Y'O.urself.
(6) Keep a ch'rc.mloUogioal recoT'd of imporit:arut everuts.
(7) A void. d-iscussions; get fa.ots. (8) Study )'lOUT l'oca1 tOfficlaJI'S:-WhfQ are
your Corm'ty offi~ers, GC>vern'ar, Represen1.atives, ISenl!l!bor, Congressman? How dQ men 1get offioe? What ldn;d of me!ll would y!Ou like VO elect to office? 9. Teach tlhe uses of hist>ocy.
(1) LIDSSONS:
Eoonloony-Fram!ldin ; Poor Ricllrurd's Almanac.
EducaJtion-Adams, di:tehing. Ooll'l'lage--Putlllam; Pickebt's D:ivi-
sion, abc. iHonor-Washlingbo!ll refusing sal
ary ; 'tnlldling !between enem.ies i'll Civil Wa:r. Kintl'llSS-Lee and bird's nest. fu1iteness-Lee. Keeping !Promise, ltrtlLSibw'oliifuiness---~ton'eWialll J wckson. Rel'igi'O'll-W'ashingrt:on; JaJCkSc.m. Faresig;M, wisdom-Jefferson. En611'1gy, aipplicatJion-- Linooln; SteV'ens. 'Jlh!ough:tfu~n.ess-W.ashingtl:lon and bis moth~r.

122
Some lessons 1ioc teachers:
Prompbn~s--iWas hington .
Resoluttioon-The J a.ckso ns. S elf-oonltrol-Was h.in ~ton; the In-
dlian. Gerutle r oosonabl'eness-P enn. 'Ilaict- Wasltimgoon. Hard duty-Hale; Andt tl. Regard for leader-Lee ; J1a.ckson. Magnetli!Sm-Glay. Purity-Lee. Wha:t anecdote illUJSitrrutes these
'traiibs? Nlliiile aruo!Jher illusbmtiton od' the same rtJrai ts. (2) W'htat do Y'<J U a.<J.illlire in WashingtOn; .Jefferson, Grlarut; !Sherman; CleveUand; L ee; Jlacksom; Johruson; l.iongfeJUo:w ; Davis ; Agassiz; P enn; F'rankmn; Oobb; Houston? Why did these men succeed? How rome P enn to 'be so gerutle? Have pupjl give origin of obher traJitts. (3) Who is y>our faV'Orite clhlaraoter in American hJiSl!Jory ? In Gem"gia his1Jo,ry? W'hy? (4) Wlha:t QbjectionaJble tralits are found in thB men named above ? ('Would you ask !this quesbion? Give reaJS'OIIl.) 10. Try rtJo realize some o f t hese bene~fi:t.s: (1) Th~ cure of ooncei.t. (2) Enlargement of menlbal ihmizon. (3) Acquain'tan-ce Wlitlh the motives of men. (4) Oontagioo of rtight motives and h!i&fu purposes. (5) Hiaibli't tod' loolcirug on 'IJiolt:h 'Sides; 00.1amdng motives; inttellligenrt. thimking lalbowt the prdbleli!S of life.

12H
(6) Prevention of bTiitbery. (7) Noon!inaJbi'on aJnd eledti'on of good men. (8) Correction and prevention of official
aJbuses and oOIITUption. Impossihle? N01t if men will ra-tionally use t'he les-
sons of history; teach these and see tllaJt the motiV'eS becOime timpet'lllltJive. 11. Mnemonic al'ds are sometimes v>aluaMe, buJt irt is
a. poor rort tof (hJst!ory 'IJhtaJt is thus '()ljytainted. For an &mergeil'cy, try Jt'hese:
(1) W<aShin.gton and A!dams made many a joke; Van Buren 'hald trouble plenJty Ito fin'd; poor 'ban'k n'otels let J ohnSIOn. ~o 'htome grievin'g and cuming h'ils CQn.feaerate m'antners.
(2) Taylor t'iohly Palid Mexican 'braggarts. (3) Scdtt's vicborties oarried con.viotion con-
cerning oa'pturin!g Mexico. (4) VIne men never make conces5ions re-
ga:rding nice1 ntoted persons, despising ntothd.ng so ~realtly. (5) J. A.M. (6) W. A. G. (7) '75 ' L-exingbon. '76 I-n.depend<nce. '77 B-urgoyne's Surrender. '78 E-vac uaJtion. '79 R-etrifbutlion. '80 T-reason. '81 Y-orktown. (8) '60 S-ecessi1Qn. '61 L-incoln. '62 A-ntiebalm. '63 V-ick<sburg. '64 E-arly's Raid. '65 S-urrender.

124
Explanation.-
Observe <the .inliltials; 1 gives <the Presid-ents; 2 and 3 rra;me t:he ;ooJtJtles of tile Mexican War; 4 names ithe 13 Origm.'al Col:ooilles in order of settlemelllt; 5 gives the ruames of three Presildenit.s wh'O died 'On Ju~y 4; 6 'tells the order of th'e Inter-Colon'ffi.l Wars, follO'Wed illy 't'he French an-d Ind'irun; use 7 and 8 i111 ma.kirug a chart of our ltwo gTea<t W'all"S, placi~ the chllef even'ts before and afiter tlhe suggasilve event o f eaclh y&r.
The~re two relate t'o t-he Presidents:
(9) His <term lost grellltly. (Died in office.) (10) rwe just made men jealous like g1irls
oan. ('Twlo terms.)
This is !'ike many o<t:her devices--<a poor sulbstitute for nm.stery; bull: it may have i'ts ser'V'ice 0111 eJmminartions.
XII. SUMMARY.
The 'WOrk done i111 t'he teachling 'Off lhis<tor.y 1is of three kinlds antl is corusequ'1lltJly divi'ded initio three p eriods : 1. Sense perio'd; 2. Imagj.nn:t!iOIJl period; 3. Refleclive period. The transitiloiJl firom one 'to 'lihe dther shouRl 'be gTadual.
1. SIDNISE TRAINING IN HISTORY. Thi's oorresponids rto oboorva.tlilon 'W'OT'k a.nJd na ture study and is largely f'or the purpolse 'Off preparing tllie pupil 00 coanpreheru:l hli'Sitory by fiUi111g h'is mind witlh that wMch he Wlill need in picturing hisltoo'tic tru'tlh rund putting meanin'g int'O h'istoric la.niguage. . To do <tMs effe0tlively i!lre mintl ml\lSt 'have Jt:halt mta:teri'!rl wlhlich is gained 0111Qy through appl"opriate peTSonal experien'Ce. Study <tlhe F.AiMILY, noting ihow i'ts l'aws a:re made and executed, Jtlhe punis hments, rund the IIIIIUtuail dep'1ldenJCe and !helpfulness. Wid'11 Jt:he oi.~[e :to illlClude the COMMUNITY; :il'lusbl"aate the S'ame points, ISib.O.wing the fuller differenti'a.tion Q<! duty in the omoors of
the law.

125
'I1he SOHOOL-how l!ts teac'hers are elected and pal<d; its lruws, O'r rules, and its punishmenlts.
The PO,LITIOAL MIDETING-hlow otll~ers are noml!ntaJted an'd elooted.
The OHURIORIDS-num'OOr; why d1ifferent; Vlalue.
Different OOCUPATIONIS lllis re<presen!led in the oomiiliUnity; ralltffi"Waro a study of occupations suggested by producits implo'l'lted and used in the hoa:nes.
2. THE PERIIOD OF THE IMAGINATION, THE AGE OF THE STORY.
F'iQ! the mind wl!th PIOTURES; em:lolW a.n IDIDAL BOY with experiences Olf historic facts rwlhklb. you 'desire Jjjo too.clh, thrut is, ruttri'bUJte 'histori~ 1laots to an 11magi!llaJry person; tell sbories of REAL BOYS .AND GIRLS, of !'DE'nand women fW'hlo are ndteld in history. 3. The developmoot of 'tlhe power t'O ltlhink, to reason, I!Jo 1\mderstJaml., crowns t he wor'k. Ful"'llsh 'tlhe oppuf!tun1ilty amd .the motive by origin~! devices ; :tJhe tJhoughlt!uJ, su:ggegljjive question
leads tJhe way. -Train the putpdl w t'lri'nk upoo ifue tfaot:s tW-M~h .he lias, tto see the relaJtions
lbe~ motive antd raotion, crau:se and effect, man and nature.
XIII. QUESTIONS:
1. Wlhatt Vlllllue has a kn'O'Wledge of the purposes of any study?
2. What in your opinion is the most essential and
Ito be aJtJIJalin'<1. in teaching hlistory?
3. What is the <l.ifl'erooce between Legend, Traiditi'on, an'd IHistOII'y?
4. If you were limited t'o twenty facts in U. S. His/tOII'y, what would they be?

126
5. Select twenty-five mQst importanit dates in our h'i&bory.
6. Prepare a list of tlhe ten men who 'have most P<>Werfully affected our civUization.
7. What problem 1h:as our lgQIVern.merut abbem.pted 1~o oolve? IW1halt oultlook fur bhe solution?
8. 1Wh~t is "The Race PrtOiblem ?" Whll!t l'iglht does lhiJs!JoTy tlhrow upon its .so~u'tion?
9. W1ha1t akX!'essions of <ten,iiboory? Hoow have they_ .been -made?
10. Is paltniotiism declining? Give r easO'Il fo r your answerr.
11. 1Nlanne ithe grerut evlils 'Chreaten.ing the safety of ouT government.
12. Whait solution of the prolb1ems of t:he h1our have Y'OU to 'Offer?
13. WihaJt motive actualted tlhe settlemerut of ewclh colony ?
14. Sbalte the motives of lb'otlh Slides in all ouT wa:rs. 15. Wlhtat oauses hoaV'e ooonlt.Tfilbuted fu 'the success of
'Our i'nstituti'a.ns? 16. WhaJt differen()es between t he Un'ilted Sbaites and
'Other Repulbltics? 17. Wlhalt !Work aJre t eachers doing 'to dhange pupils
i.nlto citizens, 1to fit m1en and women for the ser vice of the StlaJte? 18. W'lmlt five 'things -can yQu nm:ne a. chlange in a.ny on'e of IWhi'Ch w'auld !have preven,ted the discovery 'Off !America? 19. Wil:Ualt contdWi1ons are best tor th"e groW!blh d1' great moo? (Arre grealt men evo1 ved or PTOduced by enviro='ent ?) 20. Name an the bli,stor'ical sourees of your patriotic pri'de in Geor~ia ;md tile Unite(! Stt~oo.

ARITHMETIC.
BY G. G. BOND, ATHENS, GA.
(Copyrighted.)
It is not the design of this paper to be a general treatise on the subject of Arithmetic. Its purpose is, (1) to point out the ground wlhildh every teaclher in ltlhe 'CO'IDJIDIOIIl schools of the State is expected to cover, and (2) to indicate some good form for the figure process of each kind of operation. Of oourse .ft ds e:x>pootJed, in every ~ase. rtJhlaJt tile /teacher WliU develop t he to1rn lndu'Cbively, supp]\Y'mrg aili1 needed stimulus in the shape of question and explanation. There are no certain infallible forms, not even the ones herein illustrated. In fact they are submitted more in the hope that they will suggest other better ones than that they will serve as models. But this one point is strenuously urged: when once a rational form has been. adopted, see to it that the ratilocinlllt'ii<m of every puopi1 o1roth'e !itself d!n. otJhis garb un'tiil it becomes so easy fitting that it can be donned and doffed at will. When this has been done, let the teacher drill his class in any short-cut process he can lay his hands on. The cra~y-quilt blackboard work to be seen almost any day in many of the schools of Ge0rgia stands as a perpetual r eminder to the inteU.igent observer that Heaven's first law is a dead letter in that school. In fact in some schools every pupil seems to be a law unto himself in so far as the form of his arithmetic work is concerned. The form work :is simply itfue 'lllllltJhema'tioal sign langua.ge of the problem, the expression of the math ematical thought, and the only way to judge the quality of the thought Is by ills expressilcm. If tlhe expression is dtefootJive the inference is t.hwt. the 1Jh<ough>t must 'be defective also, and the only way to secure predise l'ogi'cal otJ1wu!gfhJt 'is rtJo insfst OIIl goi)d expression. No a:ttempt Jl.as !been mooe to orl'gilmte new methods. Suggestions have been received from both booka

ll8
and teachers. Credit is due Mr. E. C. Branson for the general scheme of Primary Number work, and especially for the use of the story, and seat work devices, though the details are original.
As to the ground to be covered, it is p\ain that ihe beginner must be taught how to perform all the operations with the ben digits beginning as low as necessary, with 4 and sometimes with even 3 and 2. He must be taught how tQ make figures, the use of the signs, formal Addition, including the table, Subtraction, Multiplication, including of course the tab1e, and Division. He must be taught _tjle four fundamental rules in each of the following subjects: Fractions, Decimals, and Compound Quantities. He must be taught the difl'erent cases in Percentage, In.terest and Proportion. Some of these subjects are so simple that they will receive very little attention in this paper, while those 't'haJt usua:Ily gJve tlhre ttealcher 'the greaJtelst troulble rwUl receive the fullest treatment. The teacher who can t each all the above mentioned subjects in such a manner as to stand the test of enlightened criticism may justly claim to be a good teacher of arithmetic.
It has been the aim, in presenting each new operation, to illustrate a teaching unit under that head. The teacher who knows how to teach one addition fact ought to be able to teach a thousand. There has ever been present a conscious purpose to show the teachers of the State, if possible, how to cause another to know something he did not know before without telling him, in other words to discovel' facts and ideas. The mechanical side of this teaching is expressed in the four following propositions:
1. Present an illustration. 2. Elicit the facts wanted by means of question.s. 3. Arrange the facts in the desired form. 4. Give the term. Tbis Is by oourttesy calletl 'iru:luctive tea,chling.

129

PART I.

When the sixyear-old child timidly presents himself before the teacher, a candidate for initiation into the mysteries of Number, the first question that confronts the teacher is, How to begin? He must treat the beginner as he would any other pupil applying for admission; he must examine him to ascertain what he already knows. InRtruction must begin at this pollnt. Beginners usually know 2, but it will be necessary to test 3. Two or three suggestions are offered:
1. Ask the pupil to count 3. 2. Ask 'him ltJo clap 'hds !hands 3 !limes. 3. Show him 3 lines on the board. Erase and ask him to make the same number. 4. Require him to name 3 animals. IJf he passes sa'tiSIJJa{jtJor.Ll'Y 'On 'tlhese te'Sts, rtJhe teacllar may be saitliSified thlrut he kn~ 3 as a whole. He 'Is t'hen reakly
to begin ta sbudy af t'he 'OO!lltenJts at 3, wh:idh are repi'Selllteid
as rolloW's:

The conten!s of 3 : -

(I)
1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
2+1=3.
1 + 2 = 3.

(2) 3-3 = 0. 3-2=1. 3-1 = 2.

(3)
8 X 1 = 3.
+ 1 )~ 2 1 = 3.
1 X 3 = 3.

(4) 3+3=1 3 +ll=1\l) 3+1=3

Of course these abstract expressions must be presented In the concrete, must come In the shape of a problem, and be vitalized by the questions of the teacher. The manner In which this is to be done will be hereinafter shown in a somewhat extended treatment of the number 8.
F igures.-As a :ffirm of seat work It will be well just at this point to teach pupils how to make the figures. This can be done by simply wrUing the figures on the board with white crayon, and allowing the children to take some kind of ooloced CT61yolll and "pamt" tlhem. Their fli'St attempt will be crude enough, but it will not require much time for them to Iear11 to make the figures.

130

The Number 8.

Facts in the number 8.
l. Additi,e :-
+ 1. 7 1;=-.8
2. 6 + 2;:,;;-8 3. 5 +~.= 8
+ 4. 4 + .4.= 8
5. 3 5;= 8
6. 2 +'6 = 8
7. 1+) = 8
II. Subtractive:-
1. 8-8=0 2. 8 - 7 = 1 3. 8 - 6 = 2 4. 8 - 5 = 3 5. 8-4 = 4
6. 8 -3 = 5
7. 8 - 2 =6
8. R-1 = 7
III. Multiplicative :-.
1. 8 X 1=8
+ 2. 7 X 1 1 = 8 + 3. 6 X 1 2 = 8 + 4. 5 X 1 3 = 8
5. , .4 X 2 o= 8
6, :2 X 4 = 8 lY Pivisional:-
1. 8-+-8~1 2. 8 -+- 7 = 1(1) :~ . 8 -+- 6 = 1(2) 4. 8 + 5=1 (R)
5. 8 -+- 4 = 2
6. 8 -+- 3 ~ 2(2) 7. 8 -+- 2=4 8. 8 -+- 1 - 8
V. PartitivE':-
1. t of 8 - 1
2. t of 8 = 1(1) 3. i of 8 = 1(2) 4. ! of 8 = 1(3) 5. t of 8 = 2 6. t of 8 = 2(2)
7. !-of 8 = 4

Facta to be taught. I. Additive:-
1. 7 + 1 =8
+ 2. 6 2 = ;8 + 3. 5 3 = .8
4. 4 + 4-=8

II. Subtractive :1. 8 - 8 = 1 2. 8 - 6 = 2 3. 8 - 5=3 4. 8 - 4 = 4 5. 8 -3 =5 6. 8 - 2 =6 7. 8-1 = 7
IlL Multiplicative:-
1. 8 X l=8 2. 4 X 2 = 8 3. 2 X 4 = 8

IV. Divisional :-

1. 8 -+- 8 = 1

'*2.
s.

8 -+- 4 = 8 -+- 2 =

2 4

8 -+- 1 = 8

V. Partitivt:l:-
1. l of 8 = 1 2. t of 8 = 2
3. ~- o f 8 = 4

Every fact in the column h eaded "Facts to be ta ught"

131

must be taught, and the pupil must be thoroughly

drilled on it before he can be said to know the No.

8. In the same way all the other small numbers, probably

as far as 20, should be resolved into their contents and

taught. A good practice for the teacher wlll be to take the

No. 12 and outllne it as shown above. The question now

is, How to tleuch these tacts 1 And by teach is meant that

the pupil must be led to discover every fact for himself

under the intelllgent and sympathetic guidance of tlie

teacher. The signs should be taught the same as ll.n

operatrlon; but as It would make this paper too long to

teach all of them, It wlll be taken for granted that they

have already been taught.
I The Teaching Unit The pupils ar~ to be supplied with

In

spllnts, toothpicks, straws, or sticks;

. Addition.

or with any kind of object whatsoever.

S:ollnts will be used in these exer~

Cises. Every PUJ>ll is supplied with a

handful.

COLLOQUY.
Tea.oher.-HO'W manry sp1!Jruts in my right 'hanod? (Hold ing up 5 splints.)
Pupi!.-There are 5. Teacher.-How many in my left hand? (Holding up 3.) Pupi!.-There are 3. Teacher.-What ddd 1_ do with them? (Putting them together.) Pup'iL-You pUJt th'em lbolgether. Teacher.-How many are there In all? PupiL-There are 8. Teacher.-Now tell me the whole story.
PupiL-You had 5 splints in your right hand, and 3 hi
your left. You put them together and then you had 8. Teacher.-Why?
+ PupiL-Because 5 3 = 8.
This Is the unit of work In addition. By simply repeat-

132

lng this unit often enough every addition fact can be taught. A little time every day should be devoted to teach-. .tng the tots how to count, so that when they go into formal addition they should be able to count 100 with ease.
Story Work.-Immediately a1ter teaching the above fact, It would be well to have a story drill on it. Have anywhere from 10 to 20 stories, every one clinching, in the
+ pupil's mind, the fact that 5 3 = 8. Let the pupils im-
agine the splints to be birds, marbles, tops, npples, pennies, dolls, etc. This is all class-work, and should be done w;itb;!n a. ten or fiflteen min111tes' reciltlltion. The ISt.O!'Y :mJaY be used in four ways, all so 'Slim-pie :tlh:at 'tlhtey need onlly be suggeste'd to tihe iiiJ.:teJIDgent tea:cher.
1. 'l'he teacher performs the operation with objects and requires the pupil to tell the story.

What the teacher does.

PHuotlsdsa

up 5 splints, more with them,

Holds up all 8 in one hand,

Asks why.

What the pupil says

.

I saw 5 birds on a limb,

And 3 more flew to them,

+ 'fb en there were 8,
Because 5 3 = 8.

2. The teacher tells the story, and the pupil performs the

operation with objects.

What the teacher says. I have 5 marbles,
John gave me 3 more, Then I have (pausing).

What the pupil does. Holds np 5 splints. Puts 3 more with them, Pupil sees the 8.

3. The teacher performs the operation with figures and

requires the pupil to tell or write the story.

What the teacher writes.
5+3= ?

What the pupil says or writt-s.

I had 5 apples, and my

brother gave me 3 more.

+ Then I had 8,
Because 5 3

=

8.

4. The teacher tells the story and the pupil performs the

operation with figureJ.

What the teacher 1:1avs. I bad 5 dolls, and mother ~ave me 3 more, Then I bad how many P

What the pupil writes.
5+3= 8

This storv work is based on the idea that we must go

133

from the slmvle to the complex. The first and second
krDJds rare lnrt:ended tor ()'lla.rss~d!Jiill. The third and fourth
are for seat work.

Seat D1i lls :-
1. With Olljects.-For a few months with beginners gonu results can be had from a liberal use of objects in seat drills. Objects should not ordinarily be continued beyond the No. 5 or 6. Any kind of grain or seed will do.
'1'he teacher makes dots on Pupil with seed on his desk. the board.

+

+ --

01' .. + .. = ?

- +--- - - - ~-

Many teachers get very satisfactory results from peg

boards. They consist of poplar boards, one-half inch

eh j.ck a.nd 6 indhe s square. !Hiol'l:is large enoug1h fur Shoe

pegs are IQIIl one side , ~~'hallf in'Ch a;part. ipurpiJs rure su:p-

pl'i/d rwWh rpeg.s wihiirch rtJhey Sbick in the holes instead at

pla.cing the seed as ShiOWIIli raiblove. PI'oba!Jily 11he greJatest

gain from objective seat-work is that it affords profit-

a:b1e am.d oonlteruted. emplloyment to 1'litJtle 'fellows WlhiO oth'er-

wise would nJot 'be albllre to m10ve a peg rwllithlout tthe 'Constant

pa-eBenrce of rtJh'e tea.cboer.

2. With Drawings.-'l'hese are to be used in Fomewhat

the same manner as the objects, only greater skill is

needed on the part of both teacher and pupil. The draw-

ings at first must be very easy.

The teacher draws on the board : The pupil draws on his slate:

000 + 00

000 + 00

or

00000

0 0 O+ O 0=?

000 + 00=00000

The number of drawin1gs rto rbe used is loimi.ted only by the

ene-rgy an.d ingenuity of lthe <teadher. Twelve kinds are

suggested: 'friangle, square, leaf, fan, cat, pitchfork, bucket,

chair, bat, '.log, outline of face, and books.

134

3. With Figurea.-
The teacher writes on the board: 5+3=? 5-1-?=8 ?-j-3=8 ?+?=8

~he pupil writes on his slate: 5-1-3=8 5-l-3=8 5+3=8
The teacher ean requu'e all manv answers to this as he chooses.

4. With Stories;-
The teacher writes on the board: Write a story for 5 -1-3=?

The pupil writes on his slate:

1 had 5 dollars, Rnd Marv gave me 3 more. Then 1

+ had 8;

.

Because 5 3 = 8

The tea~hing unit! Tbe saine material can be used as in

Ill

addition.

Subtraction.

COLLoQUY.

Teacher.-How many splints have I? (Holding up 8) PUlPil.-You have 8. TeaC'her.----IWhla.t '8llll I d'Oing? (Taking out some or
them. ) PlliP'il.-You are t'aJklng out rome or them. Tea.clher.---lli<l!W manlY d'ild I rta.Jre atWa.Y? PupiL-You took away 3. TeaJcher.-H!dw many 'have 'I left? IPupil.-You lhiave 5 J-e1't. 'l'oooher.--Tel~ mre t'he whole story. Pupil.-You had 8 splints, you took away 8, and you have
5 left. Teacher.-Willy? PupiL-Because 8-3 equal 5. TMs is ltlhe unit of work in s'll'btrac1JiO'll. Just repeaJt thlls
unit as mnny times as there a.re :taot:s to be ta.ugh't. Story Wo1k.- lmmediately after teaqhing the above
tact, it 'WOUld be ;well Ito !have aboult 20 stories rl!old illustmting rthaJt faot. This Is enlough for one lesson. Use the four forms of story drill <rut pleoasme.

135

Seat Work:-

1. With Objects.-The same matedal as in addition

Of course 'the use of objeots must 'be discon!mnued just as

soon as possible.

The teacher writes on the board : The pupil on his desk, putting

down 8 seed and remo\-

ing 3:

00000~~~ =?

00000~~~ = 00000

2. With Dmtoings.~It 'is n'Ot att al'l 'Pl'Obalble t'h111t it w!U 'be

n:ecessrury to oonlt'inue lObe dm'UStrative num'ber work up to

this 'POint. l!t .is shown here sl1l!Jp.'cy 'booaJlllSe thi-s 'is the

proper place in thols seheme to ~Show it. L'ike dbjeots, draw-

~~ must be diS'Cilirded just as SIOOn as the pupil compre-

henldls the number witJwult them.

The teacher draws on the board: The pupil draws on his slate:

= 00000~~~ ?

. 00000~~~ = uuooo

3. With Figures.-

'l'be teacher writes on the board: The pupilwrites on his alate:

8-3 = ?

8-3=5

8-? = 5

8 -3 = 5

?-3 = 5

8 -3 = 5

?-? = 5

ReqUiire 1ih:is 1a'St 'florm tJo be answered severn~! wa.ys. Give

driUs on 'the d'iffereillt kinds of srory work as mustrated in

a ddiltlioo.

The teaching unit! Let the pupms gruther around tlhe

in

teacher's talble just aiS clOEle as tlhey

Multiplication. dan. :If t'here 6~1,.0u,ld b131ppen to be no

de'sk or 'baJble in !I:Jhe 'house, then 'a slate or tJhe fl-oor C8.ll be

used just as w~l.

COLLOQUY.

Teac'her.--iHow ma.ny rilllgs d'i<l I make? (Dra.wing 4
ci rcles .) Pupil.-You made 4 rings. Teacher.-!1 I -put some <iorn in every ring, hJOIW many
pi'les wi'll thea-a be?

136

PupiL-There wm be 4 piles. 'fea.clher.-HoJW many gmins in every pHe? Purp:il.-There are 2. 'l'eacher.-HO'W anlany twos or piles are there? Pup~1.-There are 4. Teaclb.er.--<llow many grains in all? Pup'il.-There are 8. Teructher.---IJ:1hen !ilour ltJWos wre hio~v ma;n.y? Pupill.-Four tJWos are 8.
In some places poplar boards about four by eight incl11 s with holes in them one-eighth of an inch deep ard used. They wre crulloo lh'o.Je boa-rds. Elach child pults the -seed illlto tlhese hol~, instelad of using a e'ir'clle .as d'esCTibe'd albove.
Class D1ill.-lt wil1 be well! 1lo v resent 1:!his same idela in 5-VemJI differen t <forms. @oc lins'l:ia.nce: 'Dake 4 b1I1Ches oc chaim and put 2 pupils 'On each, and !htave class see that 4 X 2 = 8. Or dr11w 4 nests on the board and put 2 Pggs in each. Ask pupils how many ears on 4 boys; how many bands on 4 girls; bow many feet on 4 chickens, how many eyes 4 dogs have; how many horns on 4 cows, etc. But in every case, have the pupil see and say that it is so because 4 X 2 = 8. In the same way all the other mu.tiplication operations in 8 can be taught. Drill on the firat and second kind of story work as illustrated in addition.

Scat Work.-

1. With Objects .

The teacberwriteson the board: The pu_!)il uses objects.

00 00 00 00 = ?

00 00 00 00 = 00000000

or course dbjective numlber work is Jllot corutinued up oo

this poirut. With t he smaHer numlbers, 'however, iJt is 1an

inva!Uialble aid.

2. 1-Vith Drawings.

The teacherdrawson the board: The pupil draws on his slate:

(:) (:) (:) (:) = ?

(: ) (:) (:) (:) = ........

This is a very entertaining and pro:f:lita,])le kind of seat

work. It can be va.r>ied by -draw:in'g apples, -cherries or

leaves on stems, or by puttling the same in buckets.

137

3. With Figures.

The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate:

4X 2= ? 4X?= 8 ?X 2= 8

4 X 2 = 8 4X 2= 8 4X 2= 8

?X ?= 8

A very nice vwilaltion ()! this work ts to begin simple

work in Compound Qulan'bi1Jies >at this juncture, bOth by

't<'aclhlin'g lll.Ild 1n t!he seat work. Teachers could 'a'!Ta.Ilge

dri"lls by having pup"i'ls 'WI'i1te answers to suc:h questi()ns as

the following: 4 gills = ? pints; 8 gills = ? pints; 2 feet = ? in.; 2 yards = ? fef't., nnd so on .
4. With Sto1'ies.-Use ltbe l-ast two forms of the story

work mustrnted !in lalddHion. Th-e :fif'St and secorud rorll)s

are of course iruteruded fm dlaJSs. drilll only.

TEAOHING '11HE MULTIPLIOATION TABLE.

Attar the pupil has been dn school two or three months
,It wm be weN t'<> bt>gin formal study oil' tlh.e multiplication
ltabl'e. T-eacihers lalre ,advli,sed t1o have pupiHs study the tables
by writing them out. !Have pUJpHs -make 2 dots, a nd just
to the right have them write 1 X 2 = 2. Then let them make two g 1oups of dots, two each, and write 2 X 2 =
4. As soon aJS a talb.l'e -i"s !:earned, !have pupE!s write it by
dliY'isio.n. 'llhey can learn the rtlaibles 'bOOb hy mu}ltiplicati:On and division just <aboult as easi'ly as 'One way .al'One. It is unnecessary Ito say t!hlalt tblis wlill pave the 'W'ay 'to sh'ort
divlsl:on.

Teacb~ng Un it l
lll
Division.

COLLOQUY.

Tea:cher.-W1blaJt have I in my ha:nd? splints.)
Pupil.-You lh.ave some spllntG. Teacher.-How many? Pupll.-8,

(Holding up some

138

Teacher.-~W'lu11t am I doing wltJh them? (~lving 2 ap1ece
to EOme boys .) PUIP!l.-You are glV'ing them to the botyls. .Teacller.---,lfuw many to ea;oh boy? P-ulp.fl.-2. Teacher.-.JBoys wl~ lthe splints, please stand. Tea.cber.~It I <llvi<le 8 spllinlts an:nong some boys, g+iving
2 spiHnts Ito eadh 'b<oy, 'hlow many boys will -there be? Pupll.-There 'Will be 4 boys. 'l'elaich'er.-Why? PupiL-Because 8 -+- 2 = 4. Cihe pupil will have to be
helped along by means of quPstions.) Class Dtill.--'Putt 8 gM:tns of com into piles, 8 egtgs into
nests, 8 bOY'S on :rendh.es, ettc. and in every case a-fter the operaltiiOn. requiTe the pupil to say "Because 8 dlvi'<led inbo twos are 4." 'I1ha!t ds, of !Course, the first form of st!ocy work U1ustmted in Add:ltlon. For the seoond form, tell the story and req'llire <the puplil to perfo11m tll'e opertation on !h'i!s desk or Slwte rwilth oojects.
Sewt rwork wlltlh 'draswin'g>g and objects 'is not noocessary When tlle pupil bla;s a;dvanced th:i:s fur.

Seat Work with Ji1igures.-

The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate:

8+4 = ?

8+ 4 =~

8 -+- ? = 2

8 -+- 4 = 2

?+4 = 2

8 -+- 4 = 2

? + '! = 2

'llhere are severe.! tanswers Ito 'the last problem.

The paribHlive problem is O<.IIldttt'ed on 'Pill'POse. There is

a l'Ogllcal -difference between parltirti'OI!lin:g tand divisi'OII, !but

w!lthoult a IO'Il!g explanwtlion, the avel'age tela.Cher i!s apt to

C'Ollrtoun<d tfhe two.

A Fifteen Minute Seat Work Exercise.-
In all<l t'he seatt work shown ltih'lls ~ar lt!he teacher h<as dlolibt1ess noticed <thJait ltJhe answers are a1wtays ltbe same, and b:as pro'balbly been disposed to cri<tici:se the W'ock on this account. Tblis p!an 111~ be(m follQwed in order to show

139

the ddfterenJt lrlnlds of &elllt work tbia.t oa.n be used with each

operation. 1lt Ills now in: :order 1lo give a s~ve seat

WOII"k exerd!se sulitJalble for pupils w'ho bJave just OOIDIPleted

a. study of 1tlhe No. 8.
Every exercise shOuld dnvolve a review of as man~ of !the
foots prevd'ousl~ ta:ughit as possibae.

Tb\e teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate:

5+ 2- ? 7-4 = ? 8+ 4- ? ?X 3- 6 ?+3 - 5 6+ 3= ? ?- 5= 3 4+1 = 6 ? X 4 =8 2 ttts. = ? pts. 1 qt. = ? gs.
. 2 yds. = ? ft.
+ Write !!tory for 4 3= ?

5+2 = 7 . 7-4 ==- 3
8+ 4- R 2 X 3=6 2+ 3= 5 G+ 3 = 2 8-5 - 3 4 + 2=6 2X 4= 8 2 qts. = 4 pts. 1 qt. = 8 gs.
2 yds. = 6 ft. I had 4 sticks of can
dy, and John gave
+ me 3 more. I then
had 7. Because 4 3 - 7

'11he torego'iing de rw\h'alt is ordina.r11y k'n10wn as Grube

Numbers, because a young German teacher by that name first used it. lA moment's refiec'tion wd.11 show the teacher

juslt whalt ground 1s Jto ,be oovered in the Prlmary Number

work, th~n ltlhe 'bOOt pllall lis for him to arrange the details

Qf hli.s 'O'W'll treaJtmenlt. No lbwo systems of Primary Nu<mlber

Work r.we ex<aJC1Jly al~ke, &n:d yet all are essenltially tale

same.

Prinoiples.-1. Since tlhe cMI'd's mind takes the concrete

first, a.nKl g'oes from ltJlm.t lt'o tthe abStract, so the c()ncrete of

a:riJt'b,metic must be presented first.

2. Th'e work muslt be sysl(;em81t'dc.

3. Every fact, a~r .bain1g tarugihlt, must 'be r eviewed until

t'hlorougihlly kn!own.

4. In p1'a'Ilnling the 'WIOrk, g10 from t!he simple to the com-

plex.

140
PART II.
NUMERATION A!ND NOTATION.
'r.Ms is a swbjeot almost entirely negle'dted in lbooks p.rO plosin;g itJo g!ive 'metihods in a'1'1iltlhmetic, and eonsequerutl:Y averl'o'oked lby many teachers. 1lt is impossil:lle I!Jo say just tJo whia!t exrtenlt a puptl's IW'Ork lin wirtJh.metie Jlllll.Y be rertarded
by a. neglect of bhiis su:bject, lbwt 'iit d;oes Mem fund,am.erutan thrut every PUJPi'l slwuld lbe able Ito rea.diJy an1d aceuraltely ree.d a!nd W11ilte figures. Many <ih.ildTen never learn that
'llh:ere axe uillits, 'tens, hun<dTeds of units, unJilts, ierus, hun-
dreds of ~UIS3.Illds, etc., urutil they !lire grown.
Methods.-Thke one box :od' rtJoolthlpicks or one bun<lile O<f splints and five cents' worth of rubber bands; make bundrles of 10. Then 1Jake some of 'the 10 'i>lindles anld make tW1o or 'th:ree 100 lbun<dl~. Thiis oan lbe done lb.y simp1"y fastening ten of the 10 bundles ltoge!:Jh'er. TJle rooth1pircks Me now d'istribuited iruto three kinids oif bu'n<dlles, ones, tens,
hunldTeds. rrare <tela.clher can use 'th:l'ee dig~a~r 'bbxes t'!llcked
together i3S Mr. .Bransom dllustrarted 11~ year, or be {)an mark off three squares on the itia.blle ror fl'aor or an tlhe
ground. J?tut 5 toothpicks dn th'e lfl'l'St box to 'the ri.ght, 'tWo
10 ilmnldles 'in tJhe ruexrt box, .and on:e 100 bundle dn the next. Question as follows:
Tea:cher.-lli!ow .mam.y hUIIldreds hll.ve we? PUipil.->We hllive one hundred. Tea.cher.-Mruke l!:he ifigure one j.ust rubove ltihe 100 box. Tea.cher.-<lfuw m'any /tens rbJa.ve we? Pu'IJ'll.-W'e :ha~ two tens. Teadher.-Make the figure 2 just '31bove the 10 box. Teacher.-H'OIW many single boolthpiicks are there? Pu;pil.-There a:re 5. Terucher.-Make ~he figure 5 just ahove this oox. Tea.cher.-Ncrnr l ook rut the bundles :wd tall me 'l:IIOw many tloot!hpicks ltlhere are in al<l. Pupil.--'l'here '3Jre one hun:dred, 'two terns, anld five.
Tea.c:h:er.--{How many are two tens? PupiL-Two toelll3 aTe twenty.

141
TeaiCher....-.J'f'hen :tell me how many there axe alt:Jog"et'her usi111g twenty 'instead 'Of two ten.~.
Puplili.-Th1re aJre '01lle :lbu!lldred and 1Jweruty-five. Tealclhw.-Thalt lis j.ust whalt the figures 125 say. DrUls.-Ask the pupils to write 124 on their slates. Those who succeed in doing this have followed the teacher. Such as have nOt ~HIOIWe"d -mlay be .made to see t'he poilllt lby repealtiing the IQpernlti<m. Wrti'te 123 on ithe lbiQard anJd as'k pupils ltJo reaxl it. Ask them whaJt the 3 r~reseDits, .tlhe 2, t'he 1. Wll1i.<OO 225 and .ask them 1lo read. 'Ask them to write 226. !Wilth very stupid purpHs, t'he teacher mli-ghlt take ten 100 'buinrd'les to mlak!e 'OO!!e <tlh'Ousand, 1Jhou.g1h, as a ru'~e. it W'il1 not be necessary.
ADDITION.
If all the opertlltions 'Wiith the small numbers have been well taught, there will be only one difficulty in teaching rorma'l add:ilti'On, aJIIJd till!!t ,iJs "carryling." 'l'elachers are asdVlised to C'Olltinue drnls 'On 't'he ladrditlion <table by using some sUICh 'IW'd laiS Bram:son's asdd'i'bion C"al'ds, or dirill 'Cards. Let it be requlired tb add 65 'cln"d 28.
TJJ.e 'beachw wriJtes on the b'oard: 65
+ 28
The :puplls are supplied Wlilth toolthpdclcs or bundles o!
S'tT'aJWS.
COLLOQUY.
Tealclhoc.--class read tlhe figures. Teacher-Is th e 5 in the unils or tl1e ten s box? PupH.-It is in Jthe units lYox. Teacher.-Where are the 6 and 2? Pupi1.-They are in the tens 'b'ox. Teacher.-What is the sum of 8 and 5? PupiL- It 'is 13. Teacher.-How many tens and how many units in 13? Pupil.-There are 1 ten and 3 units.

142

Tea.oher.---can you put tthe 1 ot.en under the units column?

'lmptl.-You odalnndt.

Teac'her.---'Wllere must it go!

Pupil.-Tt must go u'ruder the tens column.

Tea.cher.-'I1hen whlut do we .put unlder t he unllts column?

Thlpl/1.-We 'PU't t'he 3 units.

...

Teaic'her.-Wiha!t do we do 'W!iftili. the 1 ten!

Pupdl.-We adld. .lit it'o rtlhe tens oolumn.

Teia.Cher.--lW!lJBlt is the sum?

IPupdil.-It is 9.

Tea.dher.-It Is 9 wfhat?

P.uPJ,I.-llt ~s 9 tens.

Tea.oher.--'Wlhere does lit go?

Pupl!.--rr't goes under itlhe tens clolumn.

Teax:fuer.-What is the total sum?

P.upil.-llt is 93.
Sometimes br:ig!ht 'PU'Pils wm understand tb!is 'Wiith'Out

lthe obj'ele'ts. In ltihat case !they are superflu:ou:S. Throw

away dbjoots j'llSt as BOOil as you oean. The next operatbion

s'hOUIIIl involve 'bnmldreds.

The lteaclrer writes on the bOial'd:

248

+ 379

The 'Oilly ddfrerence between 1!hlis prdl:Jolem and t'h.e first
one is 11ha't 111: bas three figures, and /the sum of lthe t ens
cdlumn exceeds 10. Let the pUJpHs ma ke .th'e t en ltens into a lhunldred just as rtlhey ma.de t'he units inJto a ten in tlre
first prolblem,
SlJIB'I'RACTION.
The terms tn subtmotlion can be iballlg'ht just a.s any olt!her de1lnllbion. 'If n~esslairy, let the pup'ils 'be su'Pplied wiltJh tooth'P1:Cks Just as .in aldditlion, though it will be better, at course, L'! tlhey C3lll romlow t'he teacher -Wiit h:oult 't'hem. Let it be reqU!ired fu flnd the difference between 80 a!nd 46.
The t eacller writes 1011 t'he /Doa.T'd:
71 0
~0
46

143

COLLOQUY.

Teacher,---<Whiat do !We firud lin the !Minuend?

Pupii.-We dlnid 8 tens anrd no unilt.s.

Teacher.-<'V\~hlalt do we finld in 'the Subtm'henrd?

PupiL-We 'finld 4 tens and 6 unfits.

TeaJOher.---<Can we take 6 UlllLts from no undts?

PupiL-You cannot. Teacher.-Take 1 ten from 8 tens an:d hoiW 1l1Rny are left?

Pupil.- Seven tens are left. (The teacher marks out the 8 and .WJii'tes 7 ju!tt albove I3.Illd rwrflt.es 10 just above the

naught. )

.Tea.c'her.->Hbw many unilts hiave we now lln the Minuend?

Pupii.---<We;liave 10.

'l'eadher.-Ta.ke 6 undts from 10 uDJits and how many are

1e.N.?

PurpiL-F10Uil' are left.

Teacher.-{Four tens trom seven tens are horw many tens?

PupiJl.-T'hTee tens.

It rwll:l 'be seen <that !fit is psycholog1ically and llll81thema.IA-

ca;l1y i'ncorroot fu say "one tJo caJI'TY to 4 ID8lkes 6, and 6

from 8 leaves 3." The alblove example really g~ives the unit

at work lin sll!btm.oti\on. T.here axe, !ho-wever, !two. other

kinds of proMems: tlhe prol)lem 'that goes i'ILto hundreds

o:nd ftlhlouslands, anld the problem thiat 'has oougMs 1n the

minuend. They are mustraJted as toll\:llws:

(I ) 4 5 13
fo ~ 3 -2 7 4

{2)
9
7 J~ 10 ~00 -4 56

il't tl.s not nreceE!S8ll'y Ito sa:y anyrbhing ruoout tlhe first. In the seconid, :develop ilJy means 'Of questions the following
\POints: You ea'Il.Illot take 6 from 0, am:l tfiin~ you have no tens to cha;nge .illl.to units, you IIllllSt '!Jake 100 f1rom tJhe hun-
dreds oo1u.mn: That will 'leave 7 hundred, aal'd Y'OU 1have 10 tens tor tlhe tens column. 'llake 'O'ne at the 10 tens and put it over the units OOIIJ!mn. T.he queStli'On 'llbw Is to otake 456 from seven hundred and ninety ten.

14!
MULTIPLICATION.
Teach terms the same as any other definition. It is assumed thalt When the !pupil reaches this point he knows the multiplicati'an <table, thtough aJS a matter of fact it will be found necessaxy tto continue .reviiewing it for some time yet. N1o ~bten<ti'on. is given here <to pTOblems wbere the product is always less than 10.
Let it be required bo multiply 35 by 3. The teacher writes on the l:YOard:
35
X :-!

105

COLLOQUY.

Teacher.-Five units taken 3 times are how many un1ts?

PupiL-Five 1mtits taken 3 bimes are 15 units.

Teaoher.--'Hlow mruny tens an'<l 'b'O'W many units in 15

uni;ts?

PuplL-Qn.e ten anid 5 uni lls.

r.readher.-Under wih:ic'h column must we put <t'he 5 units?

p.wpiJI.-Unider ithe uruts oo1umn.

Tea.oher.---''PhTee ten:s rta.ken 3 1Jimes are bow marny tens?

PupiL-Three tens baken 3 Urnes are 9 <teDJS.

Teacher.-How man~ <terus dtid we 'have 'Wihen we multi-

plied 'the 5 unibs ?

Pupi J._,We .Jm,d 1 ten.

Teacber.__.Nline ttens and 1 ten are ihaw many <teiliS ?

PlupiL-Nine ttentS and 1 ten ar e 'ten <ten<S.

There are twe ot.her kinds of example, but as the modus

operandi is the same as in the above example, they will not be deve'l'<JII)ed fu1ny. /Let i't lbe Tequired to multitply:

( 1)
86
X 49

(2)
368
X 206

In the fimt examPle, the pup.Jl will have no 'trouble In multivty;ug by 0. Wheu lle begins to multiply by 4, have h'im unldeTstlaind 'thalt 6 un:lts taken 4 tens times are 24 ten,g,

14.5

There are no units. Can fl;ens go under unM.s? No. Where must they g10? Under terus. Of coul'Se tOOnls times tens wli11 g;ive hun!dredls, and if there are more than 10 huml.reds, they booome tlrousa.m:l.s. In the seoon-d example, the 'Only poirnt Ha:l:J.le ltlo clamtSe trouble is the !presence <Yf a naught in the mu/~bipHer. Devel'ap lthe idea 'bh!rut when Y'QI\1 pass over the naugM you are rruultrplyling by 'hundreds, and moot rtfuerefore pUit 1the .r1S'UJ'llt down 'b1ginning W'i't'h the hundrred oolurmn. The rudd:i<ng is ruJ.ways just t'he :satme as in addi-
tion. l'l'he toocher wm have no iroulble lin shrowling pupils
how to rruulltipJy by a muilbiplier en'ding in ruaught.

DIVISION.

'I1h'ls Is orue of !the mrost difficult sulbjects i.n artithanetic, an'<l yet, sbraJnge rt1o say, in aH t he !l:Jiooks on mie'throdrs, and in all the avticles Jn sdholoU journals, tt irs 'hrurdly ever given a.nyltbiing lliike a fu!ll rtreatment. A fine article om the sub.}oot. of (Lbng Division by Supel"intemlenJt Otis Aslhmore, '<Yf Savan111ah, Ga., can ibe fuund irn rtfue May or JUine numl:J.er ot The Soutthern 0ducatilonal Journa:I, AtblantJa, Ga. H the aJvice given on a previous page, that the division table be taught with the multiplication table, be followed, short division ought not to give thto teac her any tJ ouble. There is no roYJall road to long divi'Si'OII. The two wm be treruted rt!ogetJher. Teacll termiS as any other definition. Let H be required to d'ivlide 1452 by 12.
The lteacher writes on the board:

First Process.-
121
12 J !452

or

121

12) 145! 12

25 24
12

12

146
COLLOQUY.
Teadher.-l:fuw .zna.ny twelves ~n 14 P PupiL--Tihere is 1 <twelve in 14. Teacb:er.--'Hblw many are left over? FwpiL-There Me 2 left o~r. Tea.cher.-<How many twelves in 25? !PupiL-There aTe 2 twelves in 25. Teacher.~How .many are rref't over? PUJP'ill.--'J'Ihere ris 1 ieflt over. Teacher.-How many twelves in 12? PupiL-There is 1 lbwelve in 12. This ds not a. scielllt'i:fi.c proeess, but if .ft oan help in the IDialtter or tearch:ing as difficult a subject as long division, use it.
Second Process.-
121 12 ) H52
12 . 25
24 12 12
COLLOQUY.
Teadh:er.-How manlY hundred t!welves in 14 h1mdred? PupiL-O ne. (The teacher writes 1 over the 4.) ri'ee.Ciher.-;One ihuntlTed tlmile 12 are how niany? !Pupil.-Twelve hundred. (Th:e <teacher writes 1200 in its proper place.) Tee.cher.----How .many are lef!t? PupiL-Two ihundTetl 11111d filfty-ltiwo. (The teacher wrdrtes 252.) .Tee.cher.-Htow many 10 ttwelves .in 250? PupiL-There are two. (The teacher write~ 2 over the 5.)
Telllcller.-'llwenrty rtwe1ves axe how mlainy?
P.upll.-Twen.ty twelves are two hundred an'd forty. (The teacher \Trites 240.)

147

TeaJCiher.-4How many axe le~? Pupi1.-There are ltlwellve lett. TeaJCher.-.Jfllow many !twelves in 12?

PupiL-There is one twelve in 12. (The teacher writes 1.) Tea.dher.~How man;y are left? Pwpil.---.N'one. tA.n:ot'her way t'o tealch long ddvlisioo. Is t10 taike a. series of

eXJamples each jll!St a Iiit!tle m'Ore dimoult than ltihe preced!IIIg.

1. 3 J 960 Teach by abort division.

2. 3) 960 Teach by long division.

3. 30 ) 960

,,

"

4. 31 J 960 " " " "
T eache rs oometllmes get good resunts by having the di-
vi's'iton 1:JaJb~e of the ddv'.islo<r up to it'h'e nines WT'ibten on tihe
ooard.

PART III.

FRACTIONS.
The defl.n~tlion of 'FI.ra.ctiOIIlB arul all the term'S must be tallglht 'iD'd:uctlv6ly. They cannot be tlaughlt here tor lack of 'Space. 'Dhe miQis/t dHficult term li:n F":ract.ions, Detnomina~or, w~n lbe tJaugthlt.

Denominator.-

OOLLOQUY.

Tea~dher.-Wlhi!llt have I In my hand? PupiL-A piece of crayon.

TeaJCher.--<What am I doling ;wllth i't? (Brerukin'g it irnt'o 3 piect!s. )

'PupiL- You are breaking H i'ruto pieces. Teadher.-IDJtx> h'OW many pieces? Pupiij,-'IIllt'o 3 pieces.

T ea.c!her.- As nea.r'ly a.s yau oan judge, h'OW d'O tnrey comPare in Size?

PupiL- They are equall in size.

148
Teacher.~ What part is this ? (Holding up 1 piece.) Pupii.--:Jt is one-tMrd.
TOOK:"her.- r wllll wrilte tllaJt on 'tlhe board. (Writing ooethiru.)
1' eacher.-What pArt have I now. (H olding up 2 pieces.) P updl-You 'ha ve tW'O-'llh ird~ . 'l'OOICiher.- 1 will wr He thaJt o n ltJhe 'bDard. (WrH'ing twothirds. ) T e'aJc'her.-InltJo how many pieces d~d w e 'break t he crayon? oPupiQ.-In!to 3.
fl' 1aiCher.-IWIMclh oof oth ese figures slhows t h lllt, t'he one a!bove oor the on e 'bedo w th e Nne ?
Buplil.--IJ'ohe one 'be!OJW t he line. Teacller.-'I'ell m e the n w'halt ~he numiber belD<w the lline s'h'Ows.
!PupiL-It slhOIWS inro 'huw man;y pa'f'bs t !Jle 'Objoot has been d1vtdw.
Toocher.-That number we c'all the <l'enoon.inta!Joor ot a t m ot'i'on. Nloiw tel!! me whalt ~e delniominalllor is .
Pupi1.-The denominator olf a f rncll'on as !th e number be-
. low the !line, and ~'t sh~YWS irubo hOIW ma ny equJal pa:rts tlh'e
w'hole 'tlhing has b een diVlidoo.
1. To r educe fractions! Require pupils t o look at the dinto its lowest terms gram and solve such problems as

t = 116..
u = 4?

I

WHOLE .

!

~

s?
a= ~ u
t = 2?
%=2.

II l+~I I I .H I t

I IJ_ I I t

~G

1 2 T 2"

!

~

3 Etc.

T hese little exa mples a1e t!o be solved by inspecti'on. It

149

will n'OIW be in oroer to determin e a rule for cha ng;ing the form o f a fra ction When ilt is too lra.Tge to be solved by in-
spec t ion .
The pupil has see n th at ~ = S

COLLOQUY.
Teacher.-<How can you chra.nge 4 'inlto tWO'S? Pupil.---<By dividing by 2. TeaC'har.- How can yoo dhange 6 1n!to threes? PupliL- By dJiv,iding by 2.
'I'eiacher .-<Bu't hJo.w d Q!es fuur-s.ixtlhs cOmpare in Value
wath Vw'o-'tlhlros?
\Pu'PiL-'-It i s equa~ tb it.
'l'eac!her.-JH'OIW does it aff'eclt the vallue of a fmction to divlide bolth nuanerat!Or and denominator- by lthe same number?
Pupom.- It does not cha'nge dts value.
Teacher.- H ow could yon change t into t thus wi thout
using t he diagram ? PupiL~By liiJviddng 'bOtlh llllU!lllereibor anti denominator
by 2.
Teacber.- Can yo n change it into a fraction having smaller
t 'il r ms ? PupiL-.You crunn'Ot. Teacher.-Tben ~ is said to be red uced to its lowest terms. Teacher.-.When :is a frtl.ction reduced to its :l'owest !terms? PupiL-When it cannot be changed to any smaller terms. Toocher.~Hiow do you reduce a fraction to its lowest
t erm s?
PupiL- By divdd1ng both numerat'Or a.'ntl denOOninart.lor 'by
any number lth'at wm divi'de them evenly.

To reduce fractions to al
~omm o n-d en o minato r.

Let it be required to solve the foll o win g :

~= f?ii ~ = }.r
- u a = __?:__ a _ ..
16
t = l?6 i= l~

The pupil wri tes answers by inspection .

150
COLLOQUY.
Telacller.--tA wh'01e thin'g equals hO<W ma:n;y sbrteent hs? Pupilll.-sixteen sixteoent'hs. Tea.cher.-One-fourth equalls how many s~teenJtllm?
Pupil.-Onefourtb equals llr
Teacher.-Three-fourlhs equal how m a ny?
Pupil.-Threefourths equal H. Teacher.-To get th e H what was the fi rst thing you d id ?
IPupH.-'I'Ihe ftrSit thing w as t-o odlivide 16 by 4. Teta.Cher.-Whatt 1s !the 16? Pupil.-'11he den'omlina!t!i'on of lthe required fraci.iQil.
Teacber. -How did yo u get the T126?
PupiL-By multipl y ing h b y 3.
'l'eacher.-What is th e 3? (Pointing to the fracti on !j-. ) Pupil.-Ilt is the numemtor of t'he given fraction.
Tea.cher.-How then do Y'OU chan~ one fra.cttio n ' ro
anoot!her wltlhout altering ilts va lue? 'Pupi1.-Divitde 1fue denomin~atror of !llhe required fra.otJion
by the denbminllit.Ofl' of t'he given fm'Otion. and muilJbiplly tlhe quoltient by .tJhe nll1Illie1!1ator. Pll'a.ce the result over ithe required denloa:nlinaJt:or.
Tea.c!her.~In f!lhe exam~ple given above, w'hoat do you n otice aJbout t'he den'<>IILinaltors?
Pupf.l.-They are an the same. ~her.-W'hen fractions are chia:nlged so t'ha't they alll have t 'he saane 'denominoaltor, tlhey are said tJo be redu~ed to a oom.mon denominator. T.he prnotJice of uSing fractfrons 'W'ilth en'Ormb<us 'den'<>mina tors is to be severely condemned. It, however, the teacher sh'Ould be fOrced 1to lhandle large fracbi'Ons, :tale best plan is to find the L. C. M.
ADDITION.
T'he first step is ro r .educe lthe fract ions t o a common de-
IWlilil.na.tJor. lAs t:bis has already been shown, it will 'b'e tlaken far g:ranJted here, 18.Ild the teaclhling wiU begin at t hrs point.

151

Lm it be required to find the sum of ttwo-tlh!rtls, threefourtlhs and one-'h'a.U. The pup'il reduces tt!hese fmctions to a common den'Omin'afur amd gets it in t'his s'hl!.pe: eighttwelfths plus nin'e twelfths plus six oflweH!ths equa~s ?
Let it be required to find the 1:1um of t , t and ~-
The pupil reduces these fractions to a common denominator
+ + and gets it in this shape : 1a, 192 1~.- = P

COLLOQUY.
+ + Teacher.-How many twelfths are t"'I 192 1a, ?
PupiL-H . Tea.:cher.---H'Ow d1d you get lt:Ms result?
Pupil.-'By !l!d'dmg 'tJhe numeratJors and placing the sum
over the 12.

'feacher.-H: ar-e how many whole ones?
I Pupil.-H = llt.
Forms for the figure process.

(2) t+t + ~=?
~= .\
il:=17 ~ = _~J-!%_ = lH
One ~m is as good as aniQftlher. Mlixed n-umlbers Clan. be
reduced to improper fraotiQrnB and a;dded by ooe ot ltlhe

above forms, or they can be added as follows:
14t lOt=? 14-A- = 14,~ lot = 10-h
2-!H-
When once a torm has been adOpted, soo to it that th6

1v1Jrlc uniformly .follows it.

SUBTRACTION.

This subject is so easy t!hat nOOhijng need be done furt'h:er

than 'to su!bmit trw'o forms. Let it be required to swbtract

t from t.

(l)
t-t = 1\- - 1~=-h

.(2)
t-t=? i=1\
t=n
1\-

152

MULTIPLICATION.

l -- -

To multiply a frac- ~ . tion by a fra ction .

JXi}=?

COLLOQUY.

Teach er .-How mauy arcJ 1 X t?

Pupil.- !.
'feacher.-How many are t X %?

Pupil.-1\- Teacher.-How many are i} X %?

PupiJ.- 1li2 Tea.dher.--,H~ ca:n yuu take 2 a.Did 3 and make 6?

PupiL-By mulrt:JLp}ying !them 1:!ogetlher.

Teiac'her.-llilow can yo u ilalre 4 and 3 and make 12?

Pupi'l.---'By muVti'p~y;ing them together.

Teacher.-Tell me tlhen a quic k way to mult:iply a frac-

ti'on !by a fmcbion.

Pupil.--Mullti'ply t he numernitom together and pu't their

product over the product of t!h<e den'Om'in'a'tlors.

'Mixed numbers ca:n be re'd uced to improper fmcttons, and

mdl.tip1ied by !!he rule jus t given.

Oan-ceHaJtlion, Which is jus t -a s'hort process of simplifying

fmcti'ons, should 'be explalined and used whenever vossible.

I To divide a fraction

by a fraction.

t-+-t-=?

COLLOQUY.
Teach er.--How many tim es is t con tined in 1 ?
Pupil.-4 ltimes.
Teach er.- How many tim es are ~- co ntain ed in 1?
Pnpii.-t of 4 or t times.
Teache r.-How many tim es are~- co n tained in t ? Pupil . -%of i} times, ~
'f eacher.-Wbat did you do with 1he t?
Pupil.-Made it t .

153
Teialcher.-That is, Y'OU inverted Ft, antd ~ ~is inversi'on whaJt W'alS done?
PupH.-The "fuac!Jions were mulltip~ied. Teacher.--illow 'then 'Can you divide one fmctiO'Il by anlo!Jher? Pupil.-IIliVert :the divliso~r and pr'oceed as in multiplica-
ffi!Qn.
DEOIM~'LS.
Draw a square on tll~ tboo.Td. oDi'V'ide eaoh sid'e into 10 equa1 paTts a.n.d connoot. 'Ilhis willl glive 1 1axge square divi'ded into 100 smla11 ones.
COl.JLOQurY.
Teac'her.-{Hiow many sql\llares in lthe large one? Pupil.-100. Teadher.--Dn<e 'Square is whaJt part of lt'he 'Wll'dle ftgwre?
Pupil.-rh-. (The teacher writes 1-h on the board.)
Teacher.~Whialt pruit <aTe 4 little squtares? Pupil.-n1>" (The teach er writes y~-u on the board.) Teacher.-(Pdlnting to 1 row of the small squares): How many squares in 'Uhds row? Pupl.J.-10. Teadher.--{)ne ~s w1hla't part? Pupil.-ro. (The teacher writes 1~ on the board.) Tea.cher.-Five tare whlalt paxt? Pupil.-b;-. (The teacher writes 151>" on the board.) Teacher.-I'Il show you another way to write three fracti ons. (The teacher writes H = l, -fo-=.01, l~u - .5, rh= .04.) Teacher.-Whlait do ylou notitce ablou:t !these den'Ominators?
an Pupi~.-'I'hey aTe ei1iher 10 OT 100.
Tea<ihw.-----Budh fraobi"ons are clalled decimlalb:l. TeaJclher.-N!aw tell me wbJa.t is a deldimal fractiQIIl? PupiL-A decimal fraction is one whose numerator is ~lways 10, 100, etc. Addition an!d su'Mr'a.dt:Ji'On of deei.mals are so simple they are omli<tlted on puTq1ose.

154
MULTIPLI'CATION.
'llhe Oill!y d'iffiollllty in .mu1tiJ.)llroabion 'Of declmails ii6 "poinll.-
ing ol'f." ILet tlJ..e telaC'her O'Il~e 'brung lt'he 'PU'Pil to umder-
stan!d this point, tlhen it b'ecomes a m'a!liter o f mere mu;ltiPlloatioo.
The teacher writes on tJhe b'ooxd: .5 5
2.5
COULOQUY.
'l'ea.cher.-Five times 5 tenths are hOIW many tenths? Pupil.-25 tenJtlhs. .Teacher.-25 tenlths are how miany wlhooles? P.upil.-2 whidJ.es an!d 5 !tenltihs. The teacher writes on tbe board :
2.53
X5
12.65 Teacher.-5 times 3 hundredths are how many hundredths? . Pu'Pil.-15 hundredths. ll'eacller.--'HQ<w many tenll.'hs and how many hundredths? P.wpil.-1 terutih 181I1d 5 ihiundredlths. Tea.cher.-5 ltlmeJS 5 ten't'hs are how many lbenths? Pupdll.-25 tenths. Tea.Cher.-Anld 1 t'Emlth rznalres h'OW miany? Pupl:l.-26 tenths. Teadher.-H'ow many wholes and hOIW mlany ten,tlhs? Pupil.-2 wh'Oles ll4ld 6 tenit'hs. Tea.cher.-5 times 2 wholes are hOIW many wholes? Pupf.l.-5 tllmes 2 Wlhloles are 10 whidles. Tea:cher.--<And 2 more Me? Pupll.-12. :After so1V'ing tlwo or three more sucll e:x:tamples, ask the pupil to notice the first example. How many decimals in t he multlplfuand? In the .multiplier? How many in the product? iifuw dbes the nlllmOOr rot deciiiUIJ!s in ltlm product

155

compare 'Wilrth 't'he numlber in ;the multipl1cand a:nd multipl'ier? Hare him discover tJhrut dt is tlle Mme. Have him state otlhe ru1e.
DIVISION.

The figure W'<Jtrk is exladt1y the S31Ille as in ~ong dlivli'Sion,

so no abtention w111 .be pai'd to tJhat .part of ltilie work.

1. When the number of deci mals in the dividend equals the number in the divisor.

5.76 -+- .24 =?

COLLOQUY.

Teadher.-How many times are 6 hundredoths oO'Illbained

in 12 hundredotlhs?

Pulpil.-Twice.

Tea.cller.-Jls .Uhat a decimal or a whble number?

Pupil.~ !Whole num'Uer.

Teachler.-When you d:ivllde 'h'lmdredtb!s 'by hundredths

wth'<l!t does it give ytou?

Bupil.--'Wll10le nuln~Jet1s.

Teacher.--iW'b.oo. you d'ivide 76 'hundredVhs by 24 hun-

dred:ths what kiiild df an. 'amSIW'er wli;lJ you get?

.Pupill. -Wlhloies.

"''ea:cher.---.H'Ow many decimla:ls 1n thle dividend?

PUii>il.-2.

TeaJoher.---lliow mam.y in Jt!b:e <IIVTisor?

Pupil.-2.

Tea.dher.-Whl!Jt klntl Qf a n'll!llliOOr did you get, a w'hl()lle

numlber oor a decimal?

Pupil,--'A 'W'hole numlber.

Teacher.-What kinld of an an'SW'er dlo y'OIU get when the

number of declimals in the dividend equals the num'ber in

t.he divisor ?

Pupi1.-A w!hlole numll:reT.

Require the puptll tb make a 9baJtement.

2. When the number of deci-

mals in the dividend ex-

5. 76 -+- 2.4 II ?

ceed those in the divisor.

156

COLLOQUY.

Teacher.--lW'ha.t Is It/he wh'O[e number in tlle d1vlsor?

Pupil.-2. Teia.cher.--'In lt1re dlviidend? Pupil.-5. Teacher.-H you dlvi'de 5 'by 2 what d{) you get? Pupil.- 2,. ~er.-'Oan !It ble as much as 3? P.up'i~.-It oan'not. Tea.oher.-Tihen w1here mll'St we <put the decimal P'olint in tJhe quotien-t? Pupi1.----,Between the 2 a.nd 4. Teachler.~How matliY decimJals in lthe divfdentl? I'ui:lil.-2. Teacher.-In the diVli'sor? Pupil.-1. Teacber.-By hiOIW much does tlhe numfber in the divt!dend eX'ceed tlJhe n111moer in .the d1ivi!sor? Pupd'!.---,By 1. Teaclher.--;And h!Ow many de:cimals did we point off? 'Purpil.-1. Telac'her.-Then give 1me a rule ~ plointing off when the n111mrber {Jlf decimla:ls in tb.e diviidenld erceeds the numfber in t'he divlisor. Pupil .--'Pdin,t off as m1any d'ooima.ls in Jbhe quotient as the num!ber of d'ecimalls dn lbhe dividend exceeds tlhe n111.znber in the diVisor.

3. When the number of de<:imals in the dividend is
smaller than the number in the divisor.

57.6 --;- .24 = ?

Tlhe only /thing necessary as to annex naughts tJo <bhe deci-

mals in the 'dlividen'd un'tlil there a.'re as many there as in

the divisor. The answer 'then is in whole numbers.

157

COMPOUND QU.AN'NTl!ES.

T.h'is sUbject 1s oompanart:irely easy. rrhe ta:bles wblich were mudied an Primary NU<mbere are IliOW formally reviewed. The onlly I(Jhling necessary is t<o g~ive a good 'florm for eac'h Of the fouT tunda.m~tall operation;s.

ADDITION.

1. Addition.

8 mi. fur. 64
39

40 5~ 3 12 rd. yd. ft. in.
30 7 2 8 15 8 1 9

+ 12in. =1ft.
17in. = 1ft. 5in.
+ 3ft. = 1yd.
4ft.= 1yd lft., etc.

10 6

75 1 5

In writing down <t'h<e problem, care s'h<OuJ.d be <taken to

write the 'C'dlumns far enough a:part to 'keep t:he pupjls from

tblinki'ng they ~represent uni1ls, !tens, eltc. Write <an aib'bTe-

via.tlron Q! the name oveT eacih columiJl. Write or omdt <blre
!lable at will. [f <t'he pupil 'Wr.ites ltJhe taJb'le alt. r ecitlaitd'on,

of douree have Qvim 'd'O so from memory. 1t lis 'be'UteT to

make ~e dhlange or reductions iiJl .e pupil's !ID.Iin.d. If h e

ca:nnot dlo thlis, have 1!hem written: down systemaltlcallly.

2. ubtraction.
1'. 125 80 34

20 4 25

cwt. qr. lb.

5

2 12

15

1 18

10

0 19

COLLOQUY.
TeaidheT.--{}an Y'Oil t!ake 18 lbs. from 12 llbs.? PU!pil.-You damniot. Te3(:her.-'Whalt did Y'OU d o in subtra.c'tfOIJl when you could not take the unit figure in the subtrahend from the UIJl'Lt flgu.re in tJhe mtl.nltlend? <Puplil.-You ch~:~.nged a 10 into units. TeacheT.-1 qr. from 2 qrs. leaves !how ma.IliY? Ptiptl.-1 qr. Tea:cheT.-1 qr. iJS hlaw man.y lbs.? Pupil.-25 lbs.

158

Tea.cher.~How nm.ny llb!il. 'haV'e you alrea'dy? Pup!JI..-12.
'l'eadher.-12 lbs. am:l 25 lbs. are how nm.ny li!Ys.?
Pupl~.-37 Ibs.
'l'ea.ob.er.-18 Ibs. trom 37 l'bs. IJ.eave lh'OW many?
Pu'l,li1.-19. Just TepeiaJt t'h~s unlit wltlh lt'he otJher columns.

MULTIPL'IGATION.

!How muc'h corn in 8 lbloxes, eaidh box containing 5 bu.

3 pk. 5 qlta. 1 p't.?

The teacher writes on the board:

482

bu. pk. qt. pt.

5.

351

X8

COLLOQUY.

Teacher.-lf eac'h !box holds the a!lllOunt named, how nmmy ,f:Jimes t'bat a~mount wiU 8 boxes 'h'old?
Poupil.- 8 times. Teadher.-Then 'how many p!Illtls in 8 boxes? Pu<p'il.-8 pints. Teacll.er.-8 pinJt5 ax~ lhow -many qularts? Pupil.-4. TeaJC'her.---;Any Pints 1eilt? Plupil.-No. ~er.-5 qrtB. 1in 1 :lJiox, how IIIi8.llY in 8 'boxea? PUipll.-40. Tea.cher.~How mi3Jily qts. have we alrea:dy? Pupll.-4. Teacher.--<How many in all? Plu!p'ill..- 4 4 .
Anld so on. If it'he .teadher wish, lhe can put down aU of
tlh~ opemtlioom, lbut .it 'IS best tt'o d'o it a;1ways 1n some p:articulax way.

1.59

DIVISION.

H 1 doz. e1lver spoons weigh 1lb. 9 oz. 17 dwt. 12 gr.,

whait liS Itlhe weight of ea.ch on~?

The teachm- rwrirtes on 1!he \board:

12 20

24

lb. oz. dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr.

12\ ..1 9

J7

12 1

16

11

21 197 132

12 12

12

9 77

12

72

11

5

COLLOQUY.

Tea.cher.--Gan you divide 1 ~b. by 12?

PupiL-No.

Teacher.---~How maJ11Y oz. in one lb.?

Pupil.-12.

Teadher.---How man'Y oz. already?

Pup'il.-9.



Teacller.--{How rm:any in aJll?

i!'ul))iL-21.

Thacher.--How many twelves in 21?

Pupil.-1.

Tea.lchlllr.-1 wlhat, stnce w~ are dllviding oz.?

PupiL-1 oz.

Teadher.-<H'ow many oz. 'left?

PupiL-9.

Teacher.-Can you uivide 9 by 12 and get a whole numher? PupiL-No.

Teacber.-Wh'R.t -can we reduce t'h'e 9 b~~:. to?

BupiL-To piennywe'ights.

Teadb.er.--;How many dlwlt. dn 9 m.?

Pupill.-180.

Teac:b.er.-And 17 more are bow many? Puopil.-197.

Teacher.---JHow nmmy twelves can we get in 197? And so on.

160

PERCENTAGE.

The idea af peree~ is t o be taught in exac1Jly t!he same way IllS decimals. T.he tenns are 'to b'e t'a.ug'ht just as any other defu:litian, t'hat is, by an applidati~n of the four steps ijn i'nductive rteacMng.

1. To find a certain perJ cent. of a number.

Find 5% of 360.

m 100 per cent. = 360

1 " "=

of 360 = 3.6

5 " " = 5 X 3.6 = 18

:. 5 " " of 360 = 18

COLLOQUY.
T'ea.dher.-What per cfiiD!t. !Is 360 of ditse1-f? Purpil.-100. Tea.c.'her.----T.hen 1 per cent. will be what part of 360? PupiL-TAo of it. Teiaicher.-HOIW much is lt'hat? Pupil.-3.6.
Tea.clher.-5 'PeT cent. 'Will oo how manoy times 1 per cenlt.?
Pu'l)m.-5 ti'Ines 3.6, rwlhiCih. wi.l'l be 18.
2. To find what per cent.\ one number is of an 18 is what per cent. of 360 ? otber.
360 = 100 per cent. 1 = ;rh of 100 per cent. = 1".r per cent. 18 18 X 1A per cent. = 5 per cent. .. 18 = 5 per cent. of 360.

COLLOQUY.

Tea.coher.-360 i!s what per cent. of ir!Js'e!.f?

Pu:Pil.-100 per ceD.Jt.

Taacher.-Wilmit per cenrt. will 1 be?

Pupil.-:l" ~1f of Teacller.-Ant

100 per cent.
l 18 wm be

, o1 1A8 per cent. lhoiW manlY !times

as

ma.ny?

Puplid.-lrt will be 18 1limes as m~am.y, or 5 per cent.

161

3. Given a certain peri een t. of a numbeq to :;18 is 5 per cent. o[ what number ? find th e number.
100 per cent. = tbe r<quired nnmhet. 5 per cent. = 18. 1 per cent.= to[ 18 = 3.6. 100 p er cent. = 100 X 3.6 = 360. .. 5 p er cent. of 3GU = 18.

COLLOQUY.

TeaJC'her.~W'hait per cent. equals the number?
Pu'Pil.-100 per cent. Tea.cher.-5 tper 'denlt. are h'<JIW many? Pupil.-5 per cent. are 18. Teacller.-T'hen 1 per cent. "llJI"e how many? Pupil.-1 per cerut. .are 3.6. Teruc'hler.-100 per cent. wibl be 'how many? Pupit-100 per cent. wi11 be 360.

4. To find fl certain num- ber when another, a 1 What number increased bv 5 certain p er cent. great- 1 per cent. of itself becomes 378?
er or lesR. is given . I

+ 100 per cent. = the number.
100 per cent. 5 per cent. = 105.

105 per cent.

= 378.

1 per cent. = Th X 378 = tH.

100 per cent. = tH X 100 = 361.

.. 378 is 5 per cent. greater than 360 .

COLLOQUY.
Teacher.-W'hrut per cerut. is tbe numb"er of iltslelf? Puptl.-100 per cent. Teadher.~Wihlat part 'Of t'b.e numlber is 378? Pupil.~he 'Wihble numlber and 5 per cienlt. m<ore. Teacher.-Then whlalt per cent. of tlhe numlber 'is 378? Pupil.-105 per cent.
Teacher.~rut wm r!Je 1 prer cerut. of it?
Pu pil.-m of 378. Teacher.-Wlli:alt willl 'be 100 per cent. of it?
Pupil.-1QI) X tH, "ll"hich will be 360.

162

INTEREST. Teach terms as needed. Let it be required to find the interest on $120 for 1 yr. 7 mo. and 15 da. <at S per cent.

120 . 08

6 mo. ~
1" t
15 da. ~

9 . 60 int. for 1 yr. 4 .80 " "6mo.
. 80 " " 1 " .40 " "15 da.

15. 60 whole interest.
COLILOQUY.
Tea.cher.~How d o you find ltlhe inrterest tor 1 year? Pupil.--<By mu1tiplyin:g rthe .prlncl:poa.1 by 'tJhe raJte. Teacher.-JHJorw much is rtJhat? 'Pupil.-9.60. Teac.'h.'er.-'6 -months are Wha.t part o'f a yoo.r?
Pupi1 .~n:e-ba1!.
Teacher.-Thlen ifih'e dnterest tor 6 mlonlt'hs wiU be what p!lirt of the Merest far 1 year?
Pupdl.~ne-'balof.
r.rea.dher.-1Hiow much is tJb.att? Bup:IJ1.-$4.SO. 'l'ea~her.--'rhe inlt:.erest for 1 mont'h is TW!h'alt part oof the
interest tor 6 montJb.ts?
\Pupil.~It is ooe-sdxlth oof $4.SO, or SOc. Te~a~eher.-15 days axe wh1aJt pa:rit of a JDIOnth?
Bupi1.~n:e-haJ.if.
Tea;cher.-'l'hen t!he interest for 15 days wtill be what paJrt of SOc.?
'Pupl:l.~n:e-'h:al'f, or 40c. 'l'eai<lhei".--\HIOW can Y'OU get itJhe dnlterest for lt'he erutlire tdme? PU1PH.---d3y akldl:ng tJb.ese amounts together. Teacher.-If you 'b'Orrow $120 from a party, hiOW much will Y10U owe blim aJt tJb.e end oif 1 JIT., 7 m'o. and 15 days? Pupil.-$120 and ~15.60 4ruterest. TEiacher.--'rhrut is oalled .tlre !llmounlt.

163

RlATIO .AND PROPORTION.

The ratio of tW'O lllumlbens 1s t1he mdioaJted quo!Jien.t of
one div1i.ded by lt'he other.
Jf-, 4 are ratios. These are also written, 12:3: 4:1. They
are read, 12 divided by 3; 4 divided by 1. Compare the ratio of 12 to 3 and 4 to 1. What do you observe? The comparison might be expressed as follows: 12:3 = 4: l. This is a proportion, or equality of ratios. There are two kinds of problems under proportion :
1. Pro'I:Jilemi3 lnlWfhiclJ. t'here 1a.Te Olllly 4 qUJa.Dtl<ties (SimP!e).
2. Problems in which there are more than 4 quantities
('OompiOU!Ild).

There is one gegeral law about a proJtortion. The product of the end terms (extremes) is always <'qual to the product of the ins!Oe terms (means). That being true, any 3 of t)?.e 4 terms being gliVIen, the fourt:h can easi1y be found. Irn all p-robiJ:ems of !this .sl<mt, something always causes or produces s'omet:hin.g eliSe. Because of this ~t,
ari'tlh!meticians a;re getn'Eml.l1y 131g1reed 't1hlalt it is a goold plan
to state a universal proportion in the following manner: Frrst cause: SeC'Ond oause equalls First effect: Second
effect. When the teacher meets a prolblem in proportion, aJll he 'has to d'o is to a~mertJain wh'alt is <the first cause, etc., until he finds 3 terms, pu1Jting the blank where it properly belollg'S, and then ma:ke tthe product of the extremes equal 100 t'he produclt Qlf the melans.

I'LLUSTIM.TIONS.

Simple Proportion.-

If 12 cioo.ks can be ma:de ~ 54 ~rds of broadcloth, how m.lallly yard's would it require tor 32 cloo.ks?

1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect.

yd.

yd.

cloak.

54

X

12

Product of extremes = product of means.

12 x = 54 X 32

. 9 16

2d Effect. cloak. 32

H X fJ~
x = - - = 144
Jfj,
~

164

Compound Proportion.-

If 7 'horses eat 21 buslhels of ooltis in 14 dialys, how ma.ny

bushle]s woul'd be reqUJired tlo serve 35 !homes 28 d'ays?

1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 2d Effect.

h

.h}

0

0

7

35

21

X

14

28

Product of extreme = product of means.

7 X 14 X X = 35 X 28 X 21. By calculation :
52
pj) X ~~ X 21
- - - - = 210.
1 X Jjl X X
The same by anaJJ.ySls:

7 horses in 14 days eat 21 bushels

1 " ,, " " 1 ,, ,, 1 "

" "

13 \

,u ,

35 " ,, " " " 3X 35
14

3 X 3 5 X 28

35

" 28 "

" = 210.

14

These two eX'a,mples are ta.ken from Sanford's Hi~er

A!~thmeti<;.

NATURE STUDY.
BY D. L. EARNEST, STATE NoRMAL ScHOOL.
(Cop yrighted.)
"1.'lte Works ot Nature are Thoughts of (}{)d, !"
I. DEFINITION.
The .poet 'has saa'd that i'he meanest flower that blO'WS
htas power oo a.waken ltib..aughlt rt'oo deep for
ttJea.r!s; anlother has seen th'alt rtlhe stars aJre the faz,get-me-n-ots of :the aDJgels; and tlhe 'life of tJhe GTealt TeaJCher forom the 'time wh'en tJhe !:lhepiherds watchetl o 'er their flock by Illiih,t tiln t he crowing of t he cock sug~g6tin.g His beltz1ayall. Hits OOI!lrbinrued use ()f Dl!Jtum1 objects
aJS a means or ma.king cl'ea.T divine trurtJh inlten'doo ror rtme mdnlds or stmrpid humWlli.'ty,
olea~rly slrows t hB:t God has PIBJC'ed lessons for us aJ.l 1n the oom:mon objectli! by which we are sUITOunded. TlhaJt man may properly Uve in h'is envil'O!Ilment, he mu'Sit know it as it is, 'alpperurs reasonable 'to rtJh~ rthoughltfu1 teacher,
yet 1!he world of nature i'S ndt oo 'be studied
primarily from BOOKS. ODJe :smdles at tJhe question so frequently ask6'd lby teachers just bell:inning to realize t'he importa/nce, the necessity of Ntalture Study, "Whait :tJioookB OOill you recommend?" Th!ls is not a study of !books but a direct contact with the works of God. I.Jet books alone until you lhialve answered for YOUirBelf aU the questions wh!ich you oa.n BSk yourself about all the objects, all the forces

166

and processes dlispla.yed by namure for your inspecti'on. Bdoks are specially hfipfu1 in giving names, but 'do n~ UJSe lthem 8IS a source from wh.loh Ito obtain facts wh'iclh you or rthe child m'ay get from nalture.

11. REASONS.

1. God'os work wontlh our whlile.

2. PireiSerVes oonltladt wit h realdt!ies.

3. Teaclles God's goodness.

'

4. Develops esthetic s ense.

5. Develops llil'Oml seD!Se.

6. iAfforos mlalD.y sources 01f pleasure.

7. Rendem tend'elldies p;ractioal.

8. Leads to l\JCcurocy in obsermtion..

9. Trainls the senses, c1<a.Tiofies tohe si)ring from wJJ:ich

.flow our 'lfu.oughlts.

10. rWakes UJI> dormi8.Illt minrds.

11. IEnlli!Sts rthe !ln.dU!erenrt.

12. Devel'ops reaso:n<illlJg power.

13. Develops pmctical judgmenlt.

14. Mlakes realistic rtJhe oontents of books and the

rteacllii.rugs of sages.

15. rProper1y relates mam. <to the two klingdoma to

'Wlh!ich he belongs.

16. Furnash'eJS a foundation for mtore advanced men-

rta.l work.

17. Develops grOOJter reverence.

18. FOOters desire tor umprovem.en:ts.

19. Renld'Eli!'IS one more syiiiliPaithetilc.

.20. ln~ases rthe sum df h'llm.a.n happ1n~.

21. Teadhes economy of mme arud strength.

22. Promdtes heaJlt'h.

23. Dispfis melandholy.

24. CullbiV'ates socla.bility.

25. Renders purer the rpul'pOSieS of life.

26. IN'U1lifies DSsdmlsm.

27. Levels the artificial ranks of society.

167
28. Afl'Ql'lds proftta'ble occll!paltion (and 311DJ\lsement) tto the 1dle.
29. Serves as a center of correlation. 30. ISecll!res better sanitation aJbourt home allld school. 31. IB'allltifre$ OJ..ome, field amJd school. 32. Teadhes universal flaibherhood ot God-in that it 33. Slhows mUitual de<pendence ot a ll created. 34. Induces moral thoughtfulness.
III. PRJ.NCIP!JES.
1. CbiHd is at best an ol'igimlaJl inv~. yert2. Chfi.ld moot -be wis6ly dlirected. 3. Best dbse'l'Va;tdon, like 'best wor-k, Ls wdrtb!out
stress 0'1' strain. 4. EmiU'l<ati'on may ibe safely employed, but5. The rt'eadher m'll!St 'be wise in i:tls use. 6. fl1h131t is 'bhe gn-eatest gOOd Which i!he child acqlllires
unoonscio usly and SI>'O'Ilit&neously. 7. r:rhe cblil'd must be rtmined ~Slowly tbo fix his aJtten-
ttJion on t he unlalbtT'3J()tlve. 8. -Begtn with rsomrefuing Jmteresting; grnduaJHy
widen lthe inteTeSts. 9. 1Prooe1d from :tlhe simple to 'the oomp1ex, tbe near
rto the remorte, the living 'to the non-'liV'ing, the :moving to tlhe fixeld, th~ easli1y appa.rarut tJo lthe drifficulrt and obscure; from play tbo work, :trom oraJl tro wrlrtrten forims,. m:mt ~e .to 'defin:ilte, from thre beautiful to the repulsive, trom a.Otion
oo purpOse, from fact. to deslign, from surface to soul.
10. The 'best results f'()llow freesrt and frulleslt expres-
sioo.
IV. PLANS.
1. The pupil s hould be Induced to see all he can by sponltia.n'elous, delighted observation; he sh01Uld then g1ive a full a.nd yet natul'la!l 8100Qurnt..

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2. The attention of the pupil 1:iliould !be 'Wiselly direoted inlto a,venu-es replete wit'h material, an acquaintance wUh whdch is ~n;tllal to p:roper mental deve11Yp'ID.erut.
3. The first WTiltltetn t.Qrms should 'be free expressions olf hlis own chil'dis'h. tlwug'l\.ts 'Mid slhould n'Oit rbe so closely criticised as to disoournge his exp'allding ~. When candidence in h.imse~f ~ been :in a measure developed, gentle suggeStiOns a.OOut for:m and fl.act m~:ey" lbe kindly given, gradually a;ppl'OO.'Chin.g technical rucculfB.CY. By degrees .tralin pupils to fol101W and tllen prep1are 'forma l outlines.
4. The !best trnillling for the powers of observation in aooura.cy anld OO'IIIJPleteness is olbtalined lby ltihe p001per use 0'! Dmwing in C'o'llnect:ioo witb Nature Study. The chhld delig.hits In pi:ctorii:aJ art and is spooially pleased by 'his ow:n eJfur:ts t:hougih crude iflhey may be. rSimrploe lin.'ealr representations lead gradually to accurate seeing, artistic representa:tion a.n'd ralinemenlt of the es't'het'ic sense. WID.en a child has drawn a tree he does not need to be told the langest limbs are on the sunny side; after he has drawn eyes he knows the ditierence in the direction of tt!he puplills in the eye of a cat and t'he oeye olf a 'CO'W, am.d rto some e:xtenJt may develop the ~ t'O appredarte t'he illlspiri:ng sights fuunld in tlhe window olf the soul. Neglect nbt Drawing as a means of expressian, of Hlustration, olf doevelopmen:t.
5. Things are properly understood O!Il!ly as they a.re comprehended in .their relations fu ot'her thlngs. No one, no rthing, ds olf iltself understood to be efther great or small, in mO'tion or at rest, bappy or miserable, but :by oomparison. UiX>Jl. the ab,Uity to make proper OOI'lllpariSO'llS depends pra.ctl:caJI wasdbm; out of it spring

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ideas, otJhougfh:ts, pu!'lposes. Practice the child in making posst!J.le comparr-ioorus by having him bring ~'n 'Contrast the ~amilia.r objootJs of his enVlironment. Let the illlttention be dlrected to 'bot!h ldkeruesses and differences. It is easieT as well as m'Ore important fur t'he child to !begin with poirutJS of likeness aJS thlis iJS tJhe basis of cl'aJSsifica1ftoo. Begin with that wh.idb. is easily and plea.sa'nltly comprehensible; plli!izle hi'm n:ot wiili such ~ar-fetched e~amplles WI the resemlblance 'between the ;piig and a. peruch tree, thlougib. !.'hilS may later be praperly irutr'dduced.
As am illumrati0111, coi:IlJlll3.l'e the caJt a.nd the
dog, the horse and the cow, llligiht &nd day, wiJruteT and summer, sun and moon a.s fully as
the intelligence and information will al'low. Anramge the piOiints oonJt:raJSted in para~lel columns. 6. Fear not that you may not be a,ble, 'Wihet'he!l" t eadh.ing ifn town or oouiJlltry, to firud a.ppropriart:e materirul.; study that w'hich you find in profusion in the immedialte envlirooment, gra.dua1cry !Widening the 'horizon of in,vestfigation. The c hild at first grasps only morst st:Jriki11J!: features; expoot n'O't thaJt hi'S concePIJiom~ c<ompa.re in wealotJh of detail with YOI\lT O'WIIl, but H is 'Wiise to Show the .pupil t'halt you expeot a
litrtle !better or him thrui he can at present do,
rthat he may 'have 1Jhe incentive of aspi!'laltion. Two mlistJalkes in regard 1lo Nart:ure Study a.re oo1m.rnl0n in Georgi,a; to ignore it alrtogetheT, and t o Sltrlai'll arllter thl!.t wfh!ich is unusual; the cure of tJhe l'atteT is a proper un.derstanding of the best oonditi'Orus for mental development and a proper Uillderstanding of the vaJue i'll t h:e materials at h!i.n'd 'in the attainment of the end desirecl. Wh!a.teveT it may be, bird, lbug, or nloddJng flower, the Sights and sou'llds about

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the country schoolhouse, or in tbe crowdecl city, where one oa'Il SOOJrce ca.toh a gl'impse of t'he lbending iblue of Heaven, let tthe eye reSt on the rtililousa.nd thJilngs ltJhait 'thrill w'!lt'h life or have reful!i\:m to its eX'istence. Wait not for furmaJ plans nor skill in scientific method; train first yourself to know the worth of <the work here S'Uiggested and t hen take h old of !lfue first <t:b.iong art; hand; the ceaseless p~anom!Illa of the soosons rwiU diversify 'the .dull m'On'Oitony whiC'h ihas 'be-
fore made doreary your life as teachm-, and wm give your pwplils and yourself em!plloyment run
of pleasure am.d olf pro.ftt. 7. The lhalppiness chaJmeteriSitic 'Of the spol'ltiive
period orf 'childhood may be easily iu<trodurced illlto the training of -the school'roOm by undertaking Nature Study wirbh the playful soplirilt of a gaJme but with the serious purpose of dloing vaJua:ble, b.iard work. IDhere are those rwiho think rthat t he child .should be prepared f'OT lthe sorrOW'S aD'd d'isa:p'poilllitme'lllts of life's donteslt's by early tn.troducing saidness and UiliPleasant struggle into his school expeliienrces; rth:iB gtives a grim view of th'e stern realities of a sincursed world and sometimes a 'herolic determ:inartfion in making an assault u1p'On lt'hem, 1but betJter is it to develop a character albJe to face the sternest duty and most distastefuJ. laiblor w'it'h cheeriul, even ha ppy, spirit-the noblest soul 'ils tihalt whidh is superior to condliitions Wlhichi depress lh!ld dislcburage. "lJife is real, Iife is earne3t; a serious choa.rndter is 1deal, yet the tea:ns of pain shou1d evm- be ch'S.Sed ruway hy ctJhe pleamnlt smi1es wlh.ich sprlng frOm the consciousn'6ss af duty well done. WllrlQe t'he child is doing serious, serviceable 'W'Oil"k, studying nalture, let his /happy lb.earrt be fiHed

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with thoughts of play; wh!'le 'he think.'!! he plays, em'p-loy 'his IJ'OIWers in arduous labor.
Teadher, 'j .f you wisely love Nature, the child and the work you do, love will make it easy to reach t1he enll you seek ! 8 The schOlar is often aJCcuseod O'f 'belinlg out of rel'ruti'on with h .is times on a<X:Ount of the ab straiCI: nBitUJre of that Ito w'hi'ch his mind is turned; school life should not remove tJhe thoughts from thinrgs-eruch study should have its relations :to .Ji:fe, else as unfit f(}r hum:an thought. Geography is best begun by making acquaintance wi:tJh lt:he fatCts, fOTllliS and forrc es of experience; Htitsoory is best studied by one famili'ar w\itJh the famiHy, ISO'Cial an;d civic relations a:nd functions immedillltely at hand ; Ma'themruti'CS is best opened fu the mirrd t'hTough Touch an'd Slig1ht, dea'lling with realities; Lang;ua:ge, ithe Forms of Speech, cam best be oorreot1y learned by natural.ly expressing 'tlhe t!b.oughts awarkened by sense-activity emp1oryed in proper NiaJture Study. The NEW EDUC!ATION is thaJt roie:nce whiich establishes :a proper rela.'tion bebween t he child amid Na ture so t'hat concrete truth may so react upon _ :powers of mind 'aJs to lead to their developm ent.
V. MATERIALS. (Suggestive.)
1. Animals : dog, oarl:, cow, horse, sheep, goat. Birids '3JCOOI'diing to lOO:a:tion. ii'owls: dhicken, /turkey, goose, guinea.
2. Plants : gwden; potaltlo, CaJlfuag.e, turni'p, onlion, pea, 'bela'Il. Trees; oak, poplar, etc. Flowers; rose, my, violet, hyatCinth, paJnsy, sunflower.
3. P eople: races ; occupations; farmer, merchant , postmaster, doctor, preacher, tea'Cher.

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4. Natura!l features and forces: hill, 'honow (val.ley), mountain, sprllng, brook, oreek, river, pon'<l, J.ake, is lamd, fo'g, c lo ud, sky, srm, moon, stair, Hghtnin'g, ~rain, frost, dew, 'bal!I, snow, tdust, mud, Wlintd, soil and stones. Suggestions :-The forees of n!ature s'holllld 'be seen at work making and remo~g soil; v~eta.tion s hould lbe seen to decay and stones Ito diSintegrate u.n'<ler tlb.e action of the simple agents which n!aiture emrp1'oys 1lo miuluflacture soi~-w'ind a;nd ;walter, .heaJt and cold, oxy;gen an:d aniii.118.l agencies ; even the 'humble work of worm antd ant sbould 'be observed. T'he ellir.th's surface is ever Changing before our eyes; a ohlld may un:derstand tlb.e mean!ing of mud-dy water a;nd kn ow that every sloping 1\ann and hillside mak'es a ppropriate oo:nltribu-. ~!!ion. Study in connection herewith t he effect of 1S'lolpe on dra!ln!age and erOSii.on. The surfaces of stones, the soil of forests, .thoe ba:nkis a:nd bars of streams, the gullies in the fields and ~ong the roadside, tfue gorges and coves and peakis a.m'Onig the mounta,ins are wnnlistakable signs t!haJt nature's fOI'ces have lbeen aJt work t o bring the earth's surface
to its present staJte. Study the operaJtion -at all
rorces n ow oat work in produoing dhang~ and all avaHable evidoence of their operatfion in the .past. 5. Directions. 6. Time: Sunrise, sunset, noon ; Seasons as they pass (heat of sun); week, day of.
VI. TRAIN'ING TO 'rHINK.
1. Set the pace; lth e rouSI!ng power of example. 2. Furnis'h t he food, regarding kind, time, amOI\lnt;
also tastes of pupils.

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3. Show hO!w to take hold; question. in that logical order whkb leads to fiormation O'f new ideas; lead pupils to amalgamate old ideas with new, to see unsuspected relations.
4. Furnish an incentive; pique curiositY, t'he desirtl to kn'OIW; appeal to pride of personal power and the natural activity orf tile mind; employ games and in guise of play secure goold, hard work; recogm~ze value o!f good-humJored rivalry. Show the dignity, the value, the duty of labor.
5. EV'Olve thO'Ugbrts out of penrona.l experience and interests of pupils.
6. Employ ~proper tests of all work assigned-relartJion .of pupil'rs rthourght rto teacher's skill in questioning.
7. Seek rt'he 'facts of nalture and tbedr causes; reason rwaJ.y of common things.
8. Ex;peot it and require it.
"Flower in rthe m'>llinnied Wll>ll, I pluck you out of the cmnn1es; Hold you 1here, root and a.ll, in my hand, LittJ1e fiower---Jbut if I could understand What you are, root and all and all in all, I should know whaJt God an'd man Is."

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.
Bv SUPT. C. B. GIBSON, CoLUMBUS Punuc ScHOOLs.
( Copy.r-igllled.)
ExPr,A NATOHY.-Tbis chapter on School Management is intended to be suggestive merely. It aims at quickening thought among the common school teachers of Georgia and bringing them to consider and discuss in the county institutes questions of vital importance to the successful management of their schools. It is. written with the ungraded rur11lschools in view-the scbools that stand most in need of a better management-and for the purpose of aiuing especially the large body of young, ambition~, and comparatively inexperienced teachers who constitute so large a part of the teaching force of Georgia. The suggestions are not the direct or indirect result of reading and th eorizing alone, but they come from actual a'"d sometimes painful experience in the most rural of rural schools, the semi-graded village school, and the wellgraded or over-graded city school. In one chapter it is impossible to enter into a didactic discussion of the principles laid down or the brief statements ventured. This must be left to the conductor and conducted at the institute.
INTRODUCTORY.
DEFINITION.-Scbool management is the art of properly directing internal and exter ual school affairs.
ScoPE.-Broad enough to embrace all the influences and agencies that operate on the school from within or without. That management whi ch aims at only th e iu~e rnal affairs of the school will fall short of a full measure of success. There is an intimate relation ex isting and a cordial co-operation which should exist between the influences of the home, where

176
the child spends sixteen hours a day, and those of the school, where he spends less than eight hours a dl'y. Sound, rational school management should aim to reach and manage educationally the homA3, the parents, and even the sc hool officials.
BAills.-The soundest educati on al principles. As an art it is the outgrowth and exponent of the science of education.
Rer,ATION TO GooD T EACH! 'G.-The sine qua non; the chief thing needful; absolutely indispensab le. E specially is this true in rural and village schools, where more evils can be traced to a lack of management of the school forces than to any other cause. There are many good instructors in the3e schools, but their measure of success is small because they fail to organize and systematize and manage the educational forces of the community-pupi ls and patrons, material as well as mental reso urces.
DrvrBIONS.- I. School Facilities . II. School Organization. III. School Government. IV. Outline of Work. V. Tests, Records, etc.
. VI. School Hygiene (s ufficiently important to con stitute a division of the subject.)
In this brief article the first three only can be considereLl.
I. -FACILITIES.
I. Building and G1ounds.-lt is a mistake to suppose that these are facilities with which the teacher has nothing more to do than to accept them as he finds them, adapt hjmBelf to them, use them under distressing disadvantages, and when be leaves, surrender so much of the grounds as the rains have not washed away, and so much of the building as the pupils, unhin<'le red, have not whittled or torn away.
These are things with which th e teacher bas to do: 1. As h e fi nds them. 2. As he uses them. 3. As he leaves them. 4. As he is instrumental in supplying them.
First. Statistics from the office of the State School Commissioner show that Georgia has 741!) common schools, and

177

that these are taught in 5207 schoolhouses. Problem: D eter mine th e schoolho use faciliti es for each sc ho ol.
After carefu l in vestig::,lion th e Co mmissioner g ives the follo win g in his repo rt, 18!1-! : "The average number of schoo lhouses, outsid e of th e city, is about s ixty. As re ported by t he co un ty comm issioner d, th e va lu e of a ll the sixty schoolhouses, outside of the town s, is less than $2,000. (Find the avera)!;e. The av e;ao-e value of decent ba rn s for Georgia mules is $ 175.) Of th ose in thi s n umber that are suitable f o1 school pttTpose~ , the aver>~ ge number is not o le rfour o1jive ."
'l'b e natural res ults are:

l. Nine-tenths of th e co untry scho ols mu st be conuucted

during the ho t, s ul t ry s umm er months.

2. Man y of t.h e schools are "kept," and the results are

distressing and diseo uragiog to teacher and patron

alike.



3. Many of th e best citizens are moving from th e co untry

to t h e to wns and ci ti e~ , to hav e the advantages of

good schools .

4. Co nfli cting du t ies on th e farm in summer keep many

children away from school altogether. With a school

i)o pulatioo of 604,971 th e a verage attendance is less

than 250,000 .

Th e teq,che1s of the past and p1esent are largely TeSJ onsiMe f or

this cond-ition of thing.~ .

econd. Th e teacher should be careful how be uses the school building, ground s, and applian ces. lt is th e teacher's duty
1. To see that t he b uildin g is prov id ed wi t h means of protecting t he school proper ty against burglars and vandals, and to keep the buil ding locked when not in use for ed uca tional or oth er good purposes.
2. To replace or repair anything that he mRy break or damage, and require tb e same to be done by pupils, whether the damage be accidental or otherwise .
3. To inspect closely t h e furnitur e and premises at least once a week, and cause amends to be made for anythin g found lobe am i ~s .

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4. To keep in order and ready for use all apparatus and appliances belongin g to the school.
5. To exercise a business care and vigilant supervision over all th e school property- grounds, building, fur niture, apparatus, library, appliances.
Third. If every teacher were careful to leave the school facilities in at least as good condition as be finds them, and all carefully locked and protected, the schools of Georgia would be far better equipped than they now are. No matter what may be the circumstances attending the teacher's Jeav ing a school a proper regar,l for his good name will lead him to put everything in order before going away. His successor, whether he ever meets his predecessor or not, will be sure to form and express an opinion of him. When the schoolhouse door is opened ono sort of impression will be made if the desks are found in disorder and much damaged; an accumulation of dirt on the floor, dirt on the desks, dirt on the walls, dirt everywhere; window paues out; bucket gone or fallen to pieces; dipper rusted out; teacher's desks full of chaotic con fusion; no copy of schedule ; no record; nothing that will help and much that will hinder .
Quite a different sort of impression will be formed if everything is found to be clean and in order, with as much at hand to help the new teacher as can be left by the retiring one.
A duplicate inventory of everything in the building should be left with the county school commissioner.
A few suggestions on leaving a school: 1. Put the teacher's desk in order. See that it containa a carefully prepared copy of you r program, a copy of your rules and regulatione, the school record, and snch information as will enable your successor to carry on your good work. 2. Place in the desk under lock and key such small arti cles as may be easily lost or misplaced. 3. See that no window-panes are out. 4. See that the pupils' desks are clean-within and with out-and in good condition; that the ink-wells are clean and ready to receive ink.

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5. See that the school library (if there be one~and there should be) is arran ged and secured, and a list of the books in the teacher's desk.
6. See that the bucket is scoured and left inverted, or on its larger base, that. the hoops may not fall off; the dip per scoured and dried th@.t it may not rust out.
7. See that the locks are provided with keys properly labeled, the window-sashes are fastened down, the house securely locked, and the k eys left with a proper person, from whom take a receipt.
8, See that the grounds are left in such good condition that they will not be badly washed by rains during the vacation.
Th is done, and your SU!'Cessor will bless forever your name; and, encouraged by the condition of things, will strive diligently to carry on your good work.
Fourth. Statistics sh ow that a large number of our Echoolhouses are unsightly-crushing to the child's natural love for the beautiful; uncomfortable in summer and winter alike; unhealthy, because of the accumulation of filth in and about the building; poorly lighted, p oorly ventilated, poorly heated (even to the danger point),-an abomination to the eye of the consecrated teacher. It is the teacher's duty to use his intelligence and enthusiasm and un ceasing hard work to supply better school facilities to a hitherto indifferent and Apathetic community. If h e is called a b enefactor who causes two blades of grass to g row where one grew before, what shall be said of a faithful teacher who causes a neat, substantial schoolhouse to be erected where a miserable, dilapidated, disgraceful shack stood before? The teacher should be authority -the proper teacher is authority-on educational matters in his community. He shoul d manage the school-sentiment of that community as one of his educational agencies, and mold it for a better schoolhouse. How long would a live Methodist preacher remain in a community without having a n eat, comfortable house in which his people ma.y worship God two hours a month? The live(?) teacher continues to teach school in a miserable h ovell60 h ours a month.
'fbe phool b uiiding 11-nd g~oqpqs 1\>re oft~n ~he greatest ql)s~-

180
cle that th e ambitiou s teach er meets whe n he goes to take charge of a new sch ool. It is a mistak e to try to persuade one's self that th e average co untry schoolhouse i not a hindrance to good teachin g. It is a mistake for t he ne w teacher to express himself in a comm uni ty as con tent with t he schoolhouse as be finds it, unl ess it is wh at. it should be. H is aims and ideals are at .once rated as low, ancl he loses a golden opportunity to impress the importanee of at least repai rin g s ubstantially the old house.
Why should th e teacher insist upon improvements to the schoolhouse?
1. Because it is due th e people th at the teacher place before them and impress upon th em high er ideals o f education and of the facilities n ecessary to carry on the work.
2. Because it is due th e children to be taught that they should be inst ructed in the best house and with the best nppliances, as well as by t he bes t teacher, to be had.
3. Because it is due the teacher himself t ha t he surround himself with the most helpfu l aids, the most useful appliances, the best opport unities for doing good work..
Some s uggestions on securing means of i11.1 proving the schoolproperty :
l. Be not too q ui ck to accept the school with dilap idated buildin gs and co rru gate l g round s.
2. On goiug to a commu nity with a view to teach ing, make a th o rough inspection of the schoolhonse and grounds.
3. Study all the school architectu re you can get your han ls on .
4. Mat ure and prepare plans fo r making the des ired improvements.
5. 'ecu re a meeti ng of P. few leading cit ir.ens. F ire into th em all the s.: hoolhon Re ammu nition with which you a re loaded. In ~ist th a t t hey then and there pledge themselves- their means , or labor, or mat erial, or team s, and lben fix an ea rl y da y for th e improvements

181
6. In carrying out your plans be not shy in asking favors of those good people-from g randsi re to grandson .
7. Keep the question of schoolhouse improvements warm in the community, and on the appointed day, be on hand early and giYe dire~tion to every uetail.
Some points of improvem ent:
l. A substantial plank or pi cket fence, whitewashed or painted, should inclose a su itable portion of the grounds of every schoo lh ouse-only so much of the grounds as can be kept in good order.
2. The grounds should be laid off, walks made, trees planted, shrubbery added.
3. The building should be painted. rothi ng will add more to the community's respect for the school building and pride. in the school than a ni cely painted schoolhouse.
4. The roof should be in good condition; the front steps will probably need attention; the window panes should be in place. Don't wait for a bitterly cold day. Outside blinds are not best; good oil shades mounted on strong sprin g roiJers are better for regulating the light.
5. If the desks are not in good condition they s hould be sandpapered and one or two coats of good hard oil put on them. Thi s can be clone at a cost of twelve or thirteen cents per desk. If the de ks are beyond satisfactory repair, get new ones. How ? 'bow the Board that they are necessary and that the Board bas the right to buy th em. Good, new, modern, double desks can be laid down at your schoolhouse at a cost of $2.30 to 2.75 each . If the Board will not furni s h all the money get it to furnish part; and get up contributions or some entertainm ent for the remainder Count1y schools CAN be 1vell equipped.
6. Every ~cho olroom shou ld have from 50 to 100 lineal feet of bla.-kboa.rds. Enallleled dnck or drilling, tightly stretc-hed, sanJpapcred and coated with slating, makes one of th e be t, most durable and cheapest blackboard s to ue had. The cost is 30 to 40 cents .per yard, ~0 or 50 inches wide.

182
7. Have a Rtove or heater. With an open fireplace you lose from 70 to 95 per cent. of the heat produced by the combustion of your fuel, and therefore find it almost impossible to heat the room so that it is not neceesary for pupils to leave their desks and collect around the fire-a source of perpetual annoyance.
Have a ventilating (not radiating) stove; thereby the hot air is kept in circulation and every part of the room is kept comfortably warm. One of the best ventilating wood stoves for a echoolroom is the "Wonder," made by the Wonder Manufacturing Co., Washington C. H., Ohio. One medium-size ventilating stove in the corner of the room will heat every part of it. Do not place the stove in the center of the room.
Other things worthy of consideration are the library-importance, cost, care of, kind of books; apparatus-cost, means of supplying, school-made, ownership ; maps, globes and charts ; weights and measures; blackboard, erasers, and pointers.
!I.-ORGANIZATION.
Careful, thorough school organization is essential to successful teaching. If a teacher had only one or two children to teach he could afford to regard li ghtly the matter of school organization; but with thirty or forty or fifty children demanding at the same time a part of his teaching force, there must be systemization of school work or ignominious failure.
CLASSIFIOA'riON.-Naturally, the first step towards organization is the classification of pupils. Unless a large draft is made on the teacher's wisdom and firmness the pupils will make their own cla ssification, and the number of classes will equal the number of pupils enrolled. Then if the teacher perform the miracle of making a schedule of recitations, what can he do in a five-minutes recitation period? On the other band, the teacher should guard against the leadiugs of some rural school reformers, who, holding up the city schools as a model, would have them go to the other extreme of making a loose classificatioq yith one-rea~ or two-rear interval~ in all subjec~s ,

183
ln classifying pupils a few principles should goverl.l. 1. Pupils should be classed and promoted upon their ability to do the work. 2. The number of classes, say 5 or 6, should be determined by the length of school day, the course of study, and the teacher's ability. 3. Classes should be divided into two sections, about a halfyearapart, in Arithmetic, Language or Grammar, and Geography.
Whatever may be said of the advantages of the graded city schools over the rural schools in the matter of classification or grading, it must not be forgotten that the rural schools have certain advantages over the city schools.
l. The pupils of the several classes are thrown together in the same room and are not separated by thick walls. Much information is thus bad by the younger pupils that will be useful and helpful in their development.
2. It is not necessary to withhold a pupil's promotion altogether because he is deficient in one study .
Temporary Classification.-On taking charge of a school a temporary classification is necessary. It is unwise and dangerous to undertake to make a permanent classification on the first day of the session. The pupils and the patrons should be made to feel that the classification is only temporary. Much dissatisfaction and complaining may thus be avoided.
To make a satisfactory temporary classification some preparatory work should be done before the session begins.
1. You should have a personal conference with your predecessor, or communicate with him by mail, and go to the schoolroom on the first day with the information obtained from him noted down and classified.
2. A few days shonh.l be spent visiting your prospective patrons. It is always well to form their acquaintance before the school opens, but especially should yon visit them if you are seeking help in making a' good temporary classification. 'Calk with them about what their children have done, what their habits are, what their dispositions are, what':their weaknesses are. Make a record of this information.

14
3. Make the acquaintance of t he pupils; wiu their frien d ship ; find out wh at t hey have stud ied, how they have studied it, bow thE'y like it, wh at books they have used. Two or three days of visiting in a community before opening the school ca n be as profitably spent as any week of the sc hool yea r. It is profi table to the
pupil s t hroughout tu yea r, because it preparee the
teacher to make a n intelligent, a uspicious start. As you will probab ly not be ab le to t.est your pupils thor oughl y in ail s ubj ects on the l:irst uay, it will be best to take about two s ubj ects, preferably Arithmetic and Read ing, as a basis on which to make the tempo rary classification. Have a carefully prepa red plan a nd abundant fres h , interesting material at h an u for testing pupil in th ese s ubjects. Insist quietly and fi rmly tbat eve ry thing shall be clone in an orderly , systematic way from the very beginni ng on the morning of the firs t day. An illustration may lie h elpful to the inexperienced. For s uch the foll owing from Baldw in 's School Management is g iven : 'Teacher.-" All wh o are prepared to read in the Fourth or Fifth Reader may raise their h ands." P ttpils.-Fifteen pupils raise the ir h ands. 'l'eucher. -"Take your Read ers. At s ignals, take places as directed. Ready; rise; pass." (S uc h directions are given as will insure order.) P.upils.-Th e pupils pa s to places at the board. 'Teacher.-"You may write your names on the board. Board; erase; write; ~tte nti o n. " Pupil.s. -Each pupil writes his name, and at the signal, Attention, turns, facing the teacher. Teacher.-" Tum to page 120; read as called." Pttpils.-Each o ne reads a short portion. The teacher, during th e rea !iLl"', makes out a roil of the class from the names on the board , and at the same time notices the reading. Such as evidently be long to a lower clas are told to take places in the class to which they belong. '.l.'each r.- "1'urn to page 30 fo r th e n ext lesoon. You may p repare the first and second paragraphs. Notice the spelling

185

and meaning of each word. At si" nals, take seats. Board;

erase; attention ; turn ; pass .''

.

P upils.-Th e class pass to seats, and prepare the lesw n as-

signed.

Teacher.-"Those who are p repared to read in th e Third

Read er may raise th eir ban ds." T h 3 same conrse is p ursued

with this class as wit.h th e claes in th e Fourth Reader. I n th e

same way the classes in the second and F irst Readers are

organized. Now each pu pil is at work.

Permanent Classijication.-The pu pi ls should k now i n th e

beginning that whil e th e fi r.st cln<sification is te mporary, a

perman ent classificA-tio n wi ll be made at the e nd of t be first

week. Most of the first week shou ld be spent i n testin g pupil s

for the permanent classifi cation, recitat ion INi ng on all t be

while under the tem porary class ificat ion -an d pro"ram, ye t re('i-

tations that are madelargely tests of t he pu pil's ability to ri o

the work of th e clas> under th e permanent class ificat ion_ Be-

yond the second class or grade Read ing .h ould no longer bA

considered a basal study in maki ng classifications, promo

tions, or demotions. By good teach ing a pupil's reading ca n

be strengthened in th e fourth grade as well as in tbe third , in

the fifth grade as well as in th e fou rth. To have har mo nious

progress and development effo rt sho uld be m adA to have t h e

pupil advance with equ al pace in all subjects of h is class, an d

yet if h e be up in five studies an d behi nd in one, h e sh ould

not, and n eed not, be held back in the cou,nlry school on

account of this one study. He should be req uired to give

extra time to t his on e study and make h imself as p rofic ient in

that as in the other stud ies. For a p upil to be all owed t o b e-

lieve th at he cann ot learn any one study is a rt> Election on his for.mer or prese nt teacher, or both.

Aftll r the perm anent clas. ificat ion h as beeu made irreg ular

promotions should be made fr om section to section whenever

the pupil is abl e to do the work of the advanced section in

such basal studies as Arithm et ic, Geography, and Gra mmar

nr Language. In th e fi rst two grade the basal stud ies shoul d

be Arithmetic an d Read ing. Regu lar promoti on s from section

to section sh oul d be made semi-an nuall y , and from grade to

grade annually.

186
Uniformity in the text-books of a school should be rigidly enforced. There can be no classification unless this is done. The school law of Georgia plainly says : "No teacher shall receiye pay for any pupil who is allowed to use any other than .the prescribed text-books." There may be liability somewhere for fraudul ent reports, and liability for money paid out contrary to law. With five-year county adoptions and books furnished through county boards at publishers' wholesale list price, there can be no ground for reasonable complaint that text-books are too expensive to have uniformity in a. school.
Making a daily program is no easy task. It requires earnest thought and careful study. Every teacher should make his own program upon pedagogic principles. Unless the program of another suits your school with its peculiar environments , do not adopt it. A good suggestive program was given in the last Outline of Methods for Georgia Teachers . Several good ones are given in Baldwin's School Management.
THE FIRST DAY--A large number of teachers are young and comparatively inexperienced; all are itinerant. The first day at a school is an eventful one. If a good beginning is to prepare tue way for work that will lead to a good ending, it is highly important that favorable impressions be made upon both patrons and pupils by the end of the firat day. Preparatory to the succe~sful work of the first day, the teacher should spend a few days visiting his prospective plirons, because (1) he should let th e patron s know him, (2) be should have the confidence of the patrons, (3) he should have their willingness to co-
operate, (4) he should let them know how to co-operate, (5) be should know as much as possible of th e children, (6) he should begin at once to manage the educational forces of the community.
He should have a carefully preparerl, definite plan of work for the first day-a temporary program, suitable school tactics, necessary stationery and appliances, chalk, ink, etc. Leave nothing to the impulse of the moment. A hektograpb will be found very useful in preparing busy work. Every teacher should have one. To make one, dissolve a box of gelatine in warm water, mix eight ounces of glycerine; beat gently, and pour over a slate around the frame of which some small strips

17
t:>f wood have been tacked td add depth. A bottle of hekto
graph-ink can be had for ten cents. Be punctual. See that everything is in order, everything
needful provided. Greet pUpils cordially by name, if possible. Any child esteems it an honor to have the new teacher recognize him by name in the presence of his companions. Awaken ih them an interest in the success of thei1 school. Preserve order; prevent jokes; pranks, boisterousness Be most vigilant; but do not nag.
Begin work promptly at the appointed hour, whether thete be five or fifty pupils present Require pupils to move by signals and words of command given in a kind but firm tone. Promptness, positivity and precision will do much to create a faVorable Impression. Announce no rulee until afternoon at the close of school; then give as few as possible. Add to them from time to time as they are needed, but always announce them in a formal, dignified way" at the close of the school-day.
As soon as pupils are seated, somewhat under the tactful uirection of the teacher, have a word of earnest prayer or the Lord's prayer in concert, sing a familiar song, give the pupils a brief welcome-not over :five minets, and at once begin work on your program. Have something for every pupil to do and see that every pupil does something under your direction,- test problems in Arithmetic, copying and memorizing gems, letter-writing, autobiographical sketches, thought questions in History and Geography constitute good busy work for the older ones while you are testing and classifying pupils. For the little ones stencil-d.rawing, color work with bits of worsted, wordbuilding with letter cards, sentence building with word cards, Btick-laying from copy, are all good. Suitable, busy work must be provided; you might as well have it on the first day. Have a number of short quick recitations.
IlL-SCHOOL GOVERNMENT.
The best equipped and best organized school will be a failure without good government. School facilities and organization have to do more especially with the beginning; government continues as long as the school continues; indeed the effects of good government, based on right principles, continues long

ig
after the school bas ceased and the boys and girls are boys and girl s no more. But the good school conti nues no longer than good gove rn ment lasts. That governm ent which aims at produ cing anu sustaining order alon e, in its ge nerally accepted sense, by th e exercise of au thori ty, by th e enforcement of rul es au d regulations, by punishments-in :~ word, by forcing the child to sub mit who ll y, automatically to the will of an other- is vicious and should bu s hunned. P roper School Govemment is such control of school jOJces as will conduce to the best tmining of pupil8 for the duties of l'ife.
'l'h e b est training of p npi l for th e duties of life is characterbu'ild'ing; th erefore, character-building is the end or aim of proper school govetnment. chool government is, however, only one of the means to this end. Many of the strongest characters, many of th e men and women who have discharged most acceptably the duties of life, ltave not had the advantage of gootl school govern me nt; many other characters have been good and strong in spite of certain for ms of school governm ent. The teacher should have a reason for every means or method employed in school work , a cle!ir aim in every under takin g. In matters of school discipline, which, by the way, is not coextensive with school government, there should be clearly in view the developing and strengthening of character of the individu al pup il or of th e pupils of the school. Char acter determines future cond uct ; conduct is guided by directive force within the in dividual. As it is the province of intel. lectual training 'to develop and strengthen the mental facul ties, so it is the peculiar office of school government to develop this self-di rective and seli-controlling force.
Order in th e schoolroom may be the res ult of a very bad school governwent. It is one thi ng to have order by restrain ing th e ph ysical energies, repressing the spirits, cramping and terrorizing the children; q nite another thing to have order by
setting ur high ideals of cond uct, creating a strong school
sentiment in favo r of conduct in accord with the ideals, developing self-control and self-directive force. Nut inconsistent with these latter aims are such means as vigilance, firmness, certain forms of punishment-even corporal punishment.
In a certain schoolroom the author has in mind are thirty

-1 9
pupils from the best homes of the place. The room is eq uipped with good furniture and appliances for teaching. The teacher is a cultured lady of experi ence in teaching. She ai ms at good ord er, but s he must dra w largely on her time and attention from the beginning until the end of the school day if sh e has no mor e than quiet. Til e pupils are listless and indi fferent to th e recitat ion, noisy aud nagging, ready to d rop a book or slate if _the teacher's eye be not on them , r e bellious in their spirits,-in short, yo ung anarchists. If the teach e r leaves the l'OOm, pandemonium reigns. At the e nd of the day:the teacher is worn out; at the e nd of the session she feels like goi ng to h er reward. No wonder she despises teac hin g.
In anoth er schoolroom not far away are forty-six pupils from inferior homes. . The school furniture is poorer, the appliances more limited. The teacller's method s of cond ucting the recitation are perhaps n ot so good, and yet the ch ildren get far more good out of it than in the first school. They freely and yet co u rteously and in the most orderly manner ask qu estion s of t he teache r :md of th e pupil reciting or of any other pupil in the class. A beautiful spirit of harmony and consideration and self-control is manifest. If the teacher l ea1es th e room th e work goes quietly and earnestly on . Ther e is not a con stan t strain on the teache r. At the end of the session she bas e nergy left with which to work rlu ring the vacation . Naturally the teacher loves her work.
Why this differen ce? One bas th e t1ue elements of governing powm; th e other h as n ot. What are the elements of governing po wer ?
LovE......:The easy gove m ment of most sch ools means the control of <1 comparatively fe w pupils of unha ppy dispositions. To th ese tbe teacher must give most attention; why not win their esteem and confidence, bring you rself to take a warm interest iu them, and, as an easy, n atural consequence, love t hem ? It is n ut impossible t.o love even the unl ovely. Th ey a re usuall y t hese who l.J a ye least love at h ome, and are therefore quite susceptible to genuine love of a teacl1 er-not declared but manifested. T.ove is o ne of th e strongest incentives to good, as well as restraints from evil , that can be used .

19
CoNsrsTENdY.- The teacher cannot govern properly without the respect of his pupil . He may have order, but order of a low degree. He cannot have the respect of his pupils unless his living be consistent with his teachings. Pupils are as quick to discover inconsistencies in a teacher's living and teachings as the world is to discover them in the minister of the gospel. Not only will pupils lose their respect for the inconsistent teacher, but the more thoughtful ones will be forced to despise him. A teacher ought to be the embodiment of the high ideals placed before his pupils. Then indeed is it good for a boy if h e is ai lowed only to sit on the end of a log with his teac!Jer. Not only shou ld he be consistent in his living and teaching, but he shoul d be consistent in his daily requirements of his pupils. To be rigid one day and lax the next, makes it the more difficult to be rigid on the day following. Consistency in the teacher is a rare jewel.
CHARACTER.~Unconscious tuition is stronger than eloquent exhortation. Not only should the teacher's character not be smirched with vice and polluted with corruption, but, in its purity and nobility, it should stand out boldly, and impress itself on th e life of the pupils. A stron g moral influence, emanating from a high moral character, will do more to lead pupils into right conduct than all the rods and rules that can be plied upon their backs and brains. Order may be bad by force, but the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life is necessary to secure good government. Character means absolute truthfulness, it means good temper, it means good habits, it means purity of life.
GooD JuDGMENT .-This is the child of common sense and the parent of tact, both of which should be found in every school governor. The ability to handle judiciously, tactfully. skilfully, special cases of misconduct and real or imaginary grievances of patrons is the secret of many a teacher's success in government. Judgment in dealing with the little everyday affairs of the schoolroom is a good preventive of the greater, more serious problems of school government. By finding the pupil's true motive for the troublesome conduct with which be may be charged. and dealing judiciously with him be may be saved from being a rebellious young anarchist,

191
VIGILANCE.-Alertness with eye and ear is an essential element in governing power. The school impressed with the fact that the kind, consistent, faithful teacher sees and hears all that goes on in the sch oolroom, even while having his attention centered mainly on the recitation, will be found to be an orderly room. Constant fault-finding and nagging are not necessarily concomitants of vigilance. Nor is it necessary that the pupils should regard the teacher as suspicious and distrustful of them. If they feel that the teacher is always looking for mischief they may be obliging enough to see that be is not disappointed. If the teacher's vigilance is not seasoned with sympathy and love, there is apt to be frequent occasion for fault-finding. Never should a violation of a moral principle be passed unnoticed. The vigilance of the teacher should extend to t.he little details of the schoolroom-th e condition of the furniture, apparatus and appliances, the seat ing of the pupils-all those things that bear on easy control.
ScHOLARSHIP.-A broad margin of ripe scholarship, giving the teacher confidence in himself and increasing the confidence of pupils in their teacher, will go far towards rendering control an easy matter. If the teacher is able, or undertakes, merely to keep school and incidentally to hear what the children learn from the text-books, control is a burdensome business. Thorough, fresh scholarship and a good store of ready information will awaken in pupils an interest in the pursuit of kno wledge; interest begets application; application drives away mischief. A liberal amount of scholarship is not sufficient unless it be fresh and appropriate to the topics of that day. To keep it fresh and appropriate one must study daily. Daily study means not only increased scholarship, but it means ready and appropriate methods of teaching; and all this makes school government easy.
MINOR MEANS.
Seats and Seating. The seats and the seating of the pupils bear a very important relation to control. The seats as they are found by the new teach~r will probably need repairing, improving, rearranging, adjusting. If through the neglect of the former teachers the desks have been whittled, scratched,

192
carved, soi led or othe rwise abused, it is highly important that you re move th e e vide nces of gross neglec t 011 the part of the teach er and gross d isrespect for th e school on the part of th e p upi ls. These e vi de nces constantl y befo re th e p up il are not only damaging to th e estheti cal in his nature bnt are a strong tem ptation to be disorderly. A carpe nte r's plan e can remove the evidences of th e knife; sand-pape r and hard-oil will then put the desk in good condition .
The seats sh ould n ot be so hi gh that th e pupil's feet cannot rest fi rmly on the floo r and pa rtiall y support the weig ht of the legs. The th igh b on es, bein g so mewhat fl exi ble in ~ hildhood, are ofte n deform e l by all owing li ttl e children to sit for long periods of time wi th fee t da ngling. Besides, th e pressure of the edge of th e seat on certair, nen- es on t he back of the thi gh cause!' irritation and , i f conti nued, considerable pain. The effect on th e good orde r of th at child is e Yident.
If school gove rnm e nt is to be succes ful t h e physical comfort of pupils whil e in th e ~ cboo lroo m cannot be ove rl oo ked. Care must be tak e n th at neit her des ks nor seats art'l to:> high or too low. Adjustable d esks are th e id eal. In the absence of these we mu st try to ad just th e pupil s to the desks by using foot re t and mountino- th e desk on blocks or strips running pa rallel with the row. Th e des ks should be a rrangerl in rows wi th an eye to symmetry and th e proportions of the room. \Vb en once ar ranged properly th ey sh ould be faste ned to the flo or, or four or the desk s should be fa~ te ned to the same pair of stri ps. This will prevent shakin g or noise or tilting.
The pupils should be seat ed wi t h all du e regard to the light and h eat. 'fo avoid in te nse glare and hurtful s hadows the light should be brought chiefl y from th e lPft, some from the rear, and all fr om aB h igh np as possibl e . If s hades are used they should d raw np from be'ow instead of drawing <'!own from abo ve. The matter of light in th e schoolroom is of great importance. Ce rtain eye-tes ts in re prese n tative schools show that from -!0 to 50 p er ce nt. of th e pupil s have d efective vision.
Care shou ld be taken to 1eat pupil s with r efe rence to one another, so as to red uce to a min imum temptations to disorder. In this, tact must be used. L et t he pupil s understand

193
on the first day th:l.t while they are left to select their seats then, the teacher will from time to time seat pupils as, in his judgment, he thinks best. Troublesome pupils should not be left together, nor should they b~ left far from the
teacher. They need the teacher's special attention and help. Esthetic Surroundings. Nothing is too good for the roughest
schoolboy. 'he more attractive his surroundings the better wi!J... be his conduct, other things being equal. If the home should be adorned to develop the better nature of the children who are growing up, why not the schoolroom? The refining influence of beautiful ami attractive pictures on the walls of the schoolllas been felt by teachers who were thoughtful enough to hang them there. Neatness, cleanliness, order, ornaments, all tend to soften the rough schoolboy's nature, lead him to higher aspirations and greater efforts, and develop within him a respect for the school and its surroundings that will prove helpful in government. Where cobwebs are found on the walls, cobwebs are apt to be foLmd somewhere in the inner life of the inhabitant.
Jjfusic. I am aware that this is not a standard aid to school government, and yet I have seen a bit of simple vocal music work so charmingly in reducing a chaotic room to order that I am constrained tl mention it as one of the ,aluable minor means. Young children naturally like to sing. If allowed to bawl instead of sing-, it may become a source of disorder. After a few elementary lessons, which any ambitious teacher can give, a few songs should be taught the school; and the teacher should insist that th~y be sung in soft, smooth tones. Where a school is found in which the pupils are taught vocal music well, and where much attention is given to it, there will be found good order, easy control, and good school government.
Ventilation and Heating. There is no more fruitful source of disorder than poor ventilation. When the atmosphere becomes vitiated to over five-tenths of one per cent., headaches begin, children become indifferent to study or the recitation, they are soun restless and disorderly. Just at that time the teacher, because of the effect o the vitiated atmosphere on him, i~ in a poor condition. to cope, with the~ disorder. The

194
atmosphere in a poorly ventilated schoolroom becomes impure by such slow degrees that it is almost impossible for one shut np in the room to detect it. Whenever a room becomes disorderly, slowly but surely, the teacher should at once look to th e ventilation. No matter what system of ventilation be adopted it is safe to have the windows and doors opened at recess. The fresh oxygen in the pupils' lungs will more than compensate for the temporary reduction in temperature. Two pupils should be appointed weekly to see that the win dows are raised at recess.
However, while the pup il s are seated in the room, ventilation sho ul d not be secu red through open windows. A blast of cold air may bring death within a few days to the strongest. Fresh air may be safely admitted by lo wering the sash a few inches at the top, and using a she! ving board to deflect the cold current upward. The impure air laden with heavy carbon d ioxide falls to the floor and should be drawn off through a ventilating flue or duct operated by the heat from the stove pipe.
While the open fireplace is a good means of ventilating, it is a pOOi" means of heating, and is a source of disorder and annoyance on cold days. Every country schoolroom should be heated with a ventilating stove, located in the corner_ of the room. By such a stove the air is kept in circulation and all parts of the room h eated almost equally. Then it will n ot be necessary for the pupils to crowd around the fireplace or radiating stove, which is apt to heat the atmosphere for only a few feet away. All.parts of the room, up to a height of five or six feet, should be kept at 7Gdegrees Fah renheit.

SYLLABUS
FOR YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE DISCUSSION AT THE SUMMER INSTI TUTES FOR 1898.
ARRANGED BY J. 8. S'EWART.
(Let two hours be devoted to this subject.) I.-THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL READING CIRCLE. I. To cultivate a taste for good reading. 2. To bring children into contact with beauty and truth as
found in the best books. 3. To counteract the vicious influence of detective heroes by
the positive infl11ence of commun ing with real heroes of the race, thus creating higher ideals of life. 4. To awaken an interest in good reading in the home. 5. To put a library in every schoolroom in the State.
!I.-ITS IMPORTANCE. 1. Notice the lack of reading on the part of the young. 2. Notice the dearth of school and home libraries. 3. Notice the vast increase in sales of cheap detective stories. 4. Notice the results of the habit of reading upon the moral
life, upon the ta~tes, upon the social life of a people. To teach a child to read and not to cultivate a taste for
good literature is dangerous.
III.-GOOD RESULTS FROl\1 THIS WORK. 1. Its effect upon the regular studies. 2. Its effect upon the interest in school work. 3. Its effect upon the character of the pupil. 4. Its effect upon the home. 5. Its effect upon the community.

196
IY.-HOW TO CREATE AN INTEREST IN IT.
1. Among teachers: a. By ~bowing the importance and val ufl of the work. b. By discussion in th e institutes. c. By the commissioner creating a rivalry among the schools of his county, as to which can make the best report.
2. Among pupils: a. By putting tbe books within their reach. b. By reading or telling part of the story. c. By using the books in connection with school work, not as additional tasks, but to throw arlded beauty and life into it. d. By offering mem bership cards to all who read two books of the course during the year. The State Educational Department will furnish these upon . the application of the commissioner or superint e nd ent.
3. Among patrons: a. By interesting the children. b. By having the books in the home.
V.-HOW TO SECURE THE BOOKS.
1. By taking small collections from the pupils and purchasing one or more books.
2. By encouraging individual pnpils to huy books. 3. By secu rin g subscriptions from enterprisi ng citizens. 4. By giving entertainments at whieb take up a collection . 5. By trustees purchasing th e books for each school. 6. By donations from the teacher. vVe hope to see the day when every school will have a good library. Will not the teachers who teach in 1898 make a beginning and leav6 behind them, if not a fine library, at least a crackerbox, with a part of the list selected for the year therein ?

197
THE GEORGIA READING ClRCLES FOH, TEA.CHERS AND YOUNG PEOPLE, L897.
Organized by the Georgia Teache1s' Association,
BOARD OF DIRECTORS.
E. C. Branson, l'he State Normal School, Athens, Ga. Term expires 1898.
J. M. Pound, President Gordon Institute, Barnesville, Ga. Term expires 1898.
Jos. S. Stewart, President North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega, Ga. Term expires 1900.
M. L. Brittain, Boys High School, Atlanta, Ga. Term expires 1900.
P. D. Pollock, President Mercer University. Term expires ] 99.
Miss Mamie Bacon, Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Term expires 1899.
Ron. G. R. Glenn, State School Commissioner, e.'!X>.tficio. Purpose.- Recognizing the importance of guiding the reading
of the yonng, and of professional reading on the part of teachers, the Georgia Teachers' Association, in 1894, appointed a Board of DireJtors to select a systematic course of reading for pupils and teachers, and arrange for the purchase of the books at the lowest possible cost. Plans.-The Board requests the County School Commissioner to act as County Manager in each county, and the City Superintendent for each city. To them will be sent circulars for distribution, and they are requested to.push the organization of circles.
The books may be read in the schoolroom as SupplL"'nerttal R eaders, or in little circles organized with president, etc., at home, in special Friday afternoon exercises, or in any way that may suit the circumstances of any particluar loc!llity. The great object is that the books be read. Do not wait for a large circle; begin with the books for one class, or with one set of books for the whole school. :Money can be obtained by small contributions from the pupils, or fr om an entertainment. ~ake a beginning if you can buy one book.

198
BOOKS SELECTED FOR THE YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE COURSE.
First Year PupilsHeart of Oak, No. 1. D. C. H. & Co . ... : . .. .. .. .. .'.$0 25 Burt's Little Nature Stories. G. & Co ...... . . . . . . . 30 Stories for Children. Mrs. C. A. Lane. A. B. Co... 25
Second Year PupilsFairy Stories and Fables. James Baldwin. A. B. Co. 35 Leaves from Nature's Story Book. Ed. Pub. Co. 2 vols., each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Fables and Folk Stories. H ., M. & Co... . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans. Edward Eggleston. A. B. Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Pioneers of the Revolution. Pub. :::;. P. Co . . . . . . . . . . 30
Third Year PupilsOld Greek Stories. James Baldwin. A. B. Co . .. . . : 45 Andrews's Seven Little Sisters. G. & Co ... .. . . . . . 50 Young Marooners. Goulding. J . F . Lester ..... ... 90 Old Stories of the East. James Baldwin. A. B. Co. 45 Stories of Industries. Ed. Pub. Co. 2 vols., each . . 40 Heart of Oak, No.3. D. C. H. & Qo . ....... . ..... .. 45
Fourth Year PupilsSea Side and Way Side. Wright, No.3. C. C. & Co. 50 Short Stories from English Histories. G. & Co. .. .. 50 Stories of American Life and Adventure . Edward Eggleaton . A. B. Co .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. . .. . 50 Robinson Crq::;oe. G. & Co...... ... . ...... . ....... 35 Story of the Greeks. H. A. Guerber. A. B. Co . . . 60 Arabian Nights. A. B. Co .. .. .. . .......... . ... .. .. 60
Fifth Year PupilsStories from Waverley. M. & Co. .. ........ . . . . . . . . 50 Madam H ow and Lady Why. Kingsley. M. & Co. . 50 Franklin's Autobiography. G. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Stories of the Romans. H. A. Guerber. A. B. Co .. 60 Cortez and Montezuma. Ed. Pub. Co ..... ... ... .. . 30 Stories of Georgia. Joel Chandler Harris. A. B. Co. SO

...

199

Sixi~L Year Pupils-

Gods and Heroes. G. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Boyhood of Great Men . H. Bros. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Vicar of Wakefield. G. & Co...... .. .. . . . . .. .. .. 30 Coe's Modern Europe. S., B. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Legends of Norseland . Ed. Pub. Co . . .... . ... . . . . . 40 Two Years before the Mast. H., M. & Co . . . . . . . . . 60

Seventh Yem Pupils-

Surrey of Eagle's Nest. J. F . Lester. Paper . . . ... . . 50

Yonge's Book of Golden Deeds. M. & Co . . . . . . . . . 50

Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare. G. & Co . . .... . . . . 40

Fairy Land of Science. D. A.. & Co . ... . . . . ..

80

Scott's Taiisman, G. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Romance of Spanish History. H . Bros. . . .

t 20

.Advanced-
American Poems. H ., M. & Co. . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . 1 00
The Nineteenth Century. J. F. Lester . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Plutarch'~;~ Livee. G. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 On the Threshold. H., M & Co . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . 1 00 Myths of orthern Lands. H. A.. Guerber. A.. B. Co . 1 50 Tom Brown's School Days. H ., M. & Co .. . .. . .. .. 60 Last of Mohicans. H . & M. Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

BOOKS SELECTED FOR THE TEACHERS' READING COURSE, 1896-97.
Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. A.. B. Co , net, 50 cents; by mail, 60 cents.
White's School Managemen t. A.. B. Co., net, 80 cents; by mai l, $1.00.
Parker's Talks on Teaching. E. L. K. & Co. , by mail 70 cents.
Professional for 1898, - -. Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture. A. B. Co., $1.25. Or, Psychology Applied to Education. D. C. H. & Co., 90
cents. Quick's Educational Reformers. D. A.. & Co., $1.40.

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The State School Commissioner authorizes the Board to state that the questions on Theory and Practice of Traching in the 1898 examination for license to teach will be based upon Page's Theory and Practice and Halleck's Psychology.
The course is well adapted to young men and young lodies in the senior classes of our colleges who are preparing to teach. They need something more than a college diploma.
It is expected that teachers will adopt such plans for reading the course as will best suit their convenience. Some will prefer to study alone; others will unite in county, town, district, or city circlEs; while others will use them in normal classes.
How to Orde1. Send postal order or registered letter, for the books ordered, direct to the publisher, stating that the books are for the Georgia Reading Circles. Otherwise you will not get the reduced price. Where a nnm.ber of books are ordered by express an additional reduction may be bad. The above are mailing prices. The f<;llowing are the addresses of those from whom you can get the several books : American Book Company, Atlanta, Ga. D. Appleton & Co.. New York City. D. C. Heath & Co, Atlanta, Ga. Ginn & Co., Atlanta, Ga. Educational Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. MacMillan & Co., New York City. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston, ~ass. J. F. Lester, Atlanta, Ga. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. E . L. Kellogg & Co., New York Cit.y. Harper Bros., New York City. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. In addition to the regular Professional Course for Teachers
and the Young Peoples' Course, the Board bas arranged with the University Association, of Chicago, to supply you with their courses in History and Literature, the table of contents of which are given elsewhere.
The time bas come in Georgia when the teacher should

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count-for more in his community. We are beginning to recognize the school as a permanent factor in our social life. The pastora should make the churches the center of the religious life of the community and should recognize this department of our complex life. No less should the teachers make the ~chool the center of the intellectual life of the community. They should coordinate with the school, the library, the postgraduate, and university extension of the town, and thus make the school brighten the homes and influence the social life. It is not enough for the school to reach the children; it should arouse a spirit of systematic study on the part of the parents of young men ' and ladies. In a large part, th e school bas failed in these particulars. As a result, little systematic study is done in the home. There is much desultory reading, but little along definite lines, which alone educates. 'rhe t!lachers are largely to blame for this. They either take no part in the community life out of the schoolroom, or they dissipate their efforts by attending every singing class, religious meeting and sociable without directing their efforts along definite lines.
The Readi ng Circle Board, after carefully e.mmining The University Association courses and having tested them in several cities and towns in the State, most heartily and unreservedly recommend them to the teachers of the State as the best, in plan and matter, that me published. The table of contents will give some idea of the scholarly manner in which the courses are presented. Already Marietta, Gainesvill e, Newnan, College Park, Griffin, LaGrange, Atlanta, Macon, etc., have established Circles, and these commend the courses in the highest terms.
The Board desires thatevery village and town in the State will take hold of this matter and, through its teachers, organize a University Center. It will help the scho)l, the teacher, and the commun iy.
When the teacher organizes the Circle, a liberal discount will be allowed for his work. If it is preferred, the Board will send a man to organize the Circle, in which case the discount will go to him, as the Board has no money nor desires to make any. Organized under the State Tenchers' Association, the object of the Board is to promote the study of his-

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tory anrl literatur<l and cultivate the intellectual life of the State.
We urge our fellow teachers to consider these courses, and send to The Univerity Association , Association-Building, Chicago, Ill., for sample copy of the course yon prefer, circulars and certificates. For other information, address Joseph S. Htewart, President N. G. A. College, Dahlonega, Ga., business manager of the Board.
Below will be found the cours ~s of the University Association:
FIRST YEAR'S COURSE-UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
1. Ancient Eastern Nations-Samuel Fallows, D.D., LL.D., Edmund Buckley, A.M., Ph.D., and W. Edgar Taylor, A.M., M.S.
2. The Gree"k Period-John R.. Ficklen, B. Let., Tulane University.
3. The Roman period- Thomas Nixon Carver,- A.B., Ph D., Oberlin College.
4. First Half Middle Ages-William Craig Wilcox, A.M., University of Iowa.
5. Second Half Middle Ages-George Wells Knight, Ph.D., University of Ohio.
6. Sixteenth Century- George Emory Felluws, Ph.D., U ni versity of Indiana.
7. Seventeenth Century-Evarts B Greene, Ph . D., University of Illinois.
8. Eighteenth Century-Frederick C. Hicks, Ph.D., University of Missouri.
9. Nineteenth Century in Europe-Richard Heath Dabney, A.M., Ph .D., University of Virginia.
10. American Hi~tory Prior to 1815-Kemp P. Battle, LL.D., President University of :North Carolina.
11. United States History from 1815 !o the Civ il War-H . W. Caldwell, A.M., Ph.B. ., University of Nebraska.
12. United States History from the Civil War to the Present Time- W. E. Taylor, A.M., M.S. The History of the Norsemen and their Claims to the Discovery of America-Carl A. Swe nsson, Ph.D., President Bethanv College. Assistant editor W. Edgar Taylor, A.M.," M.S., Monmouth College, Ill.

203
INSTRUCTORS FOR SECOND YEAR'S COURSE-UNI-
VERSAL LITERATURE.
1. Egyptian Literature-By Georgtl Ebers, Ph.D ., U niversity of Leipsic.
Babylonian and Assyrian Literature-By Theophilus G. Pinches, M.R.A.S. of the British Mu~eum, Lo.1don.
Persian Literature-By. A. V . Williams Jackson, A.M. Ph.D., Columbia University.
The New Archreology-By W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. , LL.D., University College, London.
2. Mongolian Literature-By Edmund Buckley, A.M ,Ph.D., University of Chicago.
Hindu Literature-By Elizabeth A. Reed, A.M., author of "Hind n Literature," etc.
3. H ebrew LiteraturtJ-By .F. K. Sanders, A.M., Ph.D., Yale U nive rsity; J. C. Quinn, Ph.D., D.D.
Greek Liter,Lture-By .l): . C. Huntington, B.A., M.A., University of .Nash ville.
-!. Latin Literature-By Amos N. Currier, LL D., University of I owa.
5. Romance Literature (Italian, French, Spanish, etc.)-By Frederick M. Warren, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University.
6. Ge rman Literature-By C. Vvn Klenze, M.A., .Ph.D., U niversity of Chicago.
Scandinavian Literature-By Carl A. Swe nsson, Ph.D., President Bethany Coll ege.
7. Russ ian Literature By Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Minister of Public Instruction, Russia.
English Literature-Early Euglish Writers to tbe Co nquest-By Wm. M. Rtskervill, A.M., Ph.D., Vanderbilt University.
From the Conquest t'J Elizabeth-By Is:Lac N. Demm m, A.M., University of Michigan.
S. English Li te rature-(Continued) . The Elizabeth Period by Isaac N. Demmon, A.M., University of Michigan .

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9. English Literature-(Continued). From the Death of Elizabeth to the R estoration of the House of StuartBy C. W. Pearson, A.M., Northwestern University .
From 1730 to 1830-By L, DuPont Syle, A.M., University of California.
10. English Literature- (Continued ). 1830 to 1896-By Samuel Willard, M.D., West Division High School, Chicago.
11. American Literature-(First Half) By ,J. C. Freeman, A.M., LL.D., University of Wisconsin; William E. Huntington, A.M., Ph.D. , Boston University.
12. American Literature-(Second Half) By J . C. l<'reeman, A.M., LL.D., University of Wisconsin; Mrs. E. Taliaferro, Principal North Mississippi Presbyterian College.
Religious Poets and Poetry- By the Rt. R ev. F. D. Huntington, S.T.D., L.H .D., LL.D., Bishop of Central New York.
Eminept Catholic Writers-Maurice Francis Egan, A.M., LL.D., Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. Associate Editor: Elizabeth A. Reed, A.M.