A scenic and recreational river proposal for the great Altamaha swamp [Jan. 1978]

JOE D. TANNER
COMMISSIONER
DAVID M. SHERMAN
DIVISION DIRECTOR

~er:::~la:ng~~::,c~esnurces
Resource Planning Section River Planning Unit
GEORGE BUSBEE
GOVERNOR

JAMES R. WILSON
SECTION CHIEF
KERRY J. DAWSON
UNIT SUPERVISOR

A SCENIC & RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL FOR
THE
GREAT ALTAMAHA SWAMP

JANUARY 1978
PREPARED BY THE RIVER PLANNING UNIT: PARTIALLY UNDER A GRANT PROVIDED BY THE UNITED STATES WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL.

CREDITS A SCENIC & RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL FOR THE ALTAMAHA-- -PRINCIPAL STUDY STAFF, DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES {DNR):
Kerry Dawson, Senior Planner; Steven Berkowitz and Frederick Pariani, Associate Planners; and Tracey R. Dye, Secretary. SPECIAL STAFF ASSISTANCE{DNR): Leroy (Gene) Love, Game and Fish Division; John R. Bozeman, Ph.D., Game and Fish Division; Jerry L. McCollum, Office of Planning and Research; Roy K. Wood, Office of Planning and Research. FURTHER STAFF ASSISTANCE {DNR): Carroll H. Allen; David D. Baird; Lonice C. Barrett; Roland A. Brandt; Harold Coleman; David Cranshaw; Sanford P. Darby; Lillian Dean; Norman Edwards; Richard Gennings; David H. Gould; Carl A. Hall; Roy A. Herwig; Barbara Hogan; Noel Holcombe; Dan Holder; Paul Huddleston; Terry Kile; Leon Kirkland; Lewis H. Larson, Ph.D.; David E. Lawton; Robert E. Lines; Jerry A. Lohla; William Mann; Frederick C. Marland, Ph.D.; Morton R. Mcinvale; Lawrence E. McSwain; Walt Munnikhuysen; Joesph Murray, Ph.D.; Frank Parrish; James Pittman; Bruce Rado; Harold Reheis; Ted Rogers; Ray Siewert; Steven Storey; David Swanson; James B. Talley; Charles V. Waters ; Burton Weerts; Gene Welsh; Drew Whitaker; Dorothy D. Wilson; Melvin Wolfe; Fred Young; Harvey G. Young. ADDITIONAL AID AND INFORMATION:John Adams; Ernie Allen; C.E. Anderson; George Anderson; W.J. Barton; H.J. Belcher; W.D. Burbank, Ph.D.; Sam Cofer; R. Cole; Howard R. Cramer, Ph.D.; Wilbur H. Duncan, Ph.D.; Emil Futch; David Gillespie, Ph.D.; Richard A. Good; Bill Haynes; Tom Howard; Riesley Jones; A. Sydney Johnson, Ph.D.; Hugh and Margaret Jordan; H.O. Kleinhans; Bessie Lewis; Torn Lowndes; Jack T. May, Ph.D.; W. Thad McDimiels; Gordon M. Midgette; Hans Neuhauser; Eugene Odurn, Ph.D.; J. Parker; Druid Preston; T. Poppel; D. Raskin; Preston Rozier; Armond Tomassetti; Derby and Laura Waters; Charles Wharton, Ph.D.; Wayne Williams; and Dean Wohlegemuth. Special Thanks to: the individual landowners, caretakers, hunting clubs, recreation facility operators, and personnel of the six major tinber companies who provided aid and information for this study. COVER PHOTOGRAPHS: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Infrared High-Altitude Photographs (October 1973). STUDY PHOTOGRAPHY: Study Staff (DNR); Office of Information and Education (DlfR); Leo T. Barber, Jr., page 122; and the State of Georgia Archives (pages 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 27)
I I

DOLAN E. BROWN, JR. 1st DISTRICT (Twin City)

PROPOSED TO:
THE BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES
JAMES A. MANKIN 6th DISTRICT (Griffin)

SAM COFER COASTAL DISTRICT (Brunswick)

LEO T. BARBER, JR. 2nd DISTRICT (Moultrie)

LLOYD L. SUMMER, JR. 7th DISTRCT (Rome)

WADE H. COLEMAN MEMBER-AT-LARGE (Valdosta)

ALTON P. DRAUGHON 3rd DISTRICT (Pinehurst)

J. \VIMBRIC \vALKER 8th DISTRICT (McRae)

JAMES D. CONE MEMBER-AT-LARGE (Decatur)

GEORGE P. DILLARD 4th DISTRICT (Decatur)

DONALD J. CARTER 9th DISTRICT (Gainesville)

A. LEO LAIDIAN, JR. MEMBER-AT-LARGE (Roswell)

MRS. MARY BAILEY IZARD 5th DISTRICT (Atlanta)

WALTER W.EAVES lOth DISTRICT (Elberton)

LEONARD E. FOOTE MEMBER-AT-LARGE (Canton)

Mrs. Jennie Tate Anderson Mr. William L. Berry Mrs. Janice Biggers Mrs. Linda Billingsley Mrs. Barbara D. Blum

AND

THE GEORGIA HERITAGE TRUST COMMISSION

Dr. James C. Bonner Dr. Edward J. Cashin, Jr. Mr. Eugene E. Cline Mr. John H. Goddard, Jr. Mr. W.W. Law

Mrs. Eunice L. Mixon Dr. George A. Rogers Mrs. Lena M. Sheats Mrs. Ann J. Singer Mrs. Loraine P. Williams

ALTAMAHA COORDINATION AND REVIEW COMMITTEE
Commissioner's Office: Holly Miller (representing Joe D. Tanner)
Game and Fish Division: c. Edward Carlson (representing Jack A. Crockford) Parks and Historic Sites Division: Denis c. Lovell (representing Henry D. Struble)
Earth and \Jater Division: Arnold C. Ziza (representing Sam H. PiGkering) Environmental Protection Division: Karen Scott (representing J. Leonard Ledbetter) Office of Planning and Research (OPR): James R. ~Tilson (representing David M. Sherman) OPR- Historic Preservation Section: J.R. (Chip) Morgan (representing Elizabeth A. Lyon, Ph.D.) OPR- Recreation Planning Section: J. Britt Pendergrast (representing Robin Jackson) OPR - Resource Planning Section: Lovell R. Greathouse (representing James R. Wilson)
OPR - Site Planning Section: Jon M. Davis (representing Stanley C. Ayer)

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ALTAMAHA RIVER

L
WIWAM BARTRAM THE TRAVELS

PART ONE CHAPTER V

.DURING this recess from the high road ofmy travels, having obtained the

use of a neat light cypress canoe, at Broughton Island, a plantation, the prop-

erty of the Hon. Henry Laurens, Esq.,;where I stored myself with necessaries,

for the voyage, and resolved upon a trip up the A1atamaha.

I ascended this beautiful river, on whose fruitful banks the genero1Js and

true sons oflibcrty securely dwell, fifty miles above the white settlements.

How gendy Bow thy peaceful Boods, 0 A1atamaha! How sublimely rise to view, OJ :

thy elevated shores, yon Magnolian groves, from whose tops the surrounding expans

is perfumed, by clouds ofincense. blended with the exhaling balm of the Liquid-ambel,

and odoun continually arising from circumambient aromatic groves oflllicium, Myrica,

Launu, and Bignonia.

When wearied with working my canoe against the impetuous current I resigned my

bark to the friendly current, reserving to myself the control of the helm. My progress

wasrendered delightful by the sylvanelegance ofthe groves, chearfUl meadows,and high

distant forests, which in grand order presented themselves to view. The winding banks

ofthe river, and the high projecting promontories, unfolded fresh scenes ofgrandeur and

sublimity. The deep forests and distant hills re-echoed the cheering sociallowings ofdo-

c

mestic herds. The air was filled with the loud and shrill whooping of the wary sharp-
sighted crane. Btlaold. on yon decayed defoliated Cypress tree, the solitary wood-peli-

can, drjectedly petched upon its utmost elevated spire; he there, like an ancient vener-

able sage. ~eta birmelf up as a mark ofderision, for the safety of his kindred tribes. The

crying-bird. another faithful guardian, screaming in the gloomy thickets, warns the

feathered tribes ofapproaching peril; and the plumage of the swift sailing squadrons of

Spanish curlews (white as the immaculate robe of innocence) gleam in the cerulean

skies.
Th~ secure and tranc{uil. and meditating on the marvellous scenes of primitive na-

ture, AS YET UNMODIFIED BY THE HAND Of MAN, I gendy descended th~ peaceful

stream, on whose polished sur&ce were depictm the mutable shadows from its pensile

banks; w~.dlyriads offinny inhabitants sported in its pellucid Boods.

The glorious scmreign of day, c:Io.thed in light refulgent, rolling on his gilded char-

iot, speeds to re'risit the westan realms. Grey pcsuive eve now admonishes us ofgloomy

irlght's hasty approeth: tan toUted by care to seek a place ofsecure repose, ere darkness

comes on.



,.

-AJI!tntillyPmr

I V

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION..................... 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE.................. 3 REGIONAL ACCESSIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
CHAPTER 2: NATURAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY 9 NATURAL HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 CULTURAL HISTORY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Indian Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Colonial Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Post-Revolution Statehood Era .. , ......... 19 Civil War Period ........ ,.................. 23 Recons true t ion ..................... , . . . . 24 HISTORIC AND ARCHAEOLOGIC SITES .......... 29
CHAPTER 3: RECREATION AND LAND USE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 RECREATIONAL USE, NEEDS, AND SUPPLY .......... 35 ALTAMAHA RIVER }~RKET AREA ................. 36 PRESENT RECREATIONAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 MARKET AREA RECREATIONAL FACILITIES SUPPLY ..... 44 RECREATIONAL FACILITY NEEDS ANALYSIS ........... 47 LAND USE AND OWNERSHIP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 RECREATION AND LAND USE SYNTHESIS .............. 54
CHAPTER 4= NATURAL FACTORS ANALYSIS.... 59 LANDSCAPE COMPOSITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 River Landscape Description................. 59 Views and Special Features .................. 62 CLI"t-~TE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 64 EARTH AND WATER RESOURCES: INTRODUCTION ......... 67

EARTH RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Non-Marine Sediments ......... , . . . . . . . 70 :Uarine Deposits............................... 71 Marine Shoreline Sediments...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Soils......................................... 74
WATER RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Freshwater Discharges......................... 79 Tidal Discharges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Ground Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Freshwater Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Saltwater Quality............................. 87
NATURAL COMMUNITIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Aquatic Communities ........................... 92 River Swamp Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Hammock and Sandhill Communities ........... 103 Lowland and Upland Flatwood Communities .... 105 Bluffs, Ravines, and Upland Lrainageways ..... 107 Marsh Communities ........................ 108 Developed Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
NATURAL FACTORS SYNTHESIS ..................... 111 Development Vulnerability or Suitability..... 111 Preservation Potential. ..................... 114
CHAPTER 5= PLAN AND PROGRAM FOR RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES .................. 117
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PROGRAl-1 .............. 117 Criteria for Selection of Activities .. ~ ....... 117 Design, Services, and General Considerations .. 118
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PLAN ................... 119 Joint Agreement Recreation Sites ............. 120 State Recreation Sites ..................... 120 Hiking Trailway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 River Buffers (State Management) and Water Trail Buffers (Joint Agreement) ............. 127 Joint Agreement Historic Sites ............ 128 State Historic Sites ..................... 129 Joint Agreement Natural Areas ................. 129 State Natural Areas ...................... 129 Potential Public Hunting Areas (Joint Agreements) ........................... 130

v

1

Additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Proposed Darien/Mcintosh Visitor Center ... 131
CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PLAN ............ 133 JOINT AGREEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Joint'Agreement Recreation Sites .......... 134 Hiking Trailway Joint Agreements ............ 135 Joint Agreement Water Trail Buffers ......... 135 Joint Agreement Historic Sites .......... 136 Joint Agreement Natural Areas ............. 136 Joint Agreement Public Hunting Areas ......... 137 STATE MANAGED LANDS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 . COSTS AND FINANCING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
CHAPTER 7: IMPLICATIONS OF THE RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PLAN ........... 141 RECREATION MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS ........ 141 FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS ....... 142 Earth Resources ...................... 144 Water Resources ......................... 145 Fishery Resources .................... 148 Wildlife Resources ...................... 149 Forest Resources ........................ 151 ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY.......................... 159
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Al APPENDIX A: SELECTED HISTORIC SITE DESCRIPTIONS Al
Lake Bluff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Al Doctortown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Al
Joiners Island................................ A2 Penholloway Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2
Bug Island. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3
Aleck Island and the Sansavilla Bluffs . A3 Fort Barrington............................... AS APPENDIX B: OKEFENOKEE NWR 1974 USE FIGURES A6 APPENDIX C: GROWTH OF RIVER SPORTS IN THE

SOUTHEAST . .......................... A7 APPENDIX D: TRIBUTARY STREAMS A~ID INLETS OF
THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER ............... All APPENDIX E: SIMPLIFIED SUBSURFACE RESOURCES
OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN . . . . . . Al4 APPENDIX F: MAP OF THE EXISTING (1976)
ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA ... Al7 APPENDIX G: GEORGIA SCENIC RIVERS ACT OF 1969 . Al8 APPENDIX H: THE GREAT ALTAMAHA SWAMP: A
HERITAGE TRUST PROJECT .................... Al9 APPENDIX I: FACADE AND CONSERVATION EASEMENT
ACT OF 1976 ............................... A20 APPENDIX J: EXAMPLE FOOT TRAIL REGISTRATION
FORMS 1.22 APPENDIX K: GEORGIA POWER COMPANY: POLICY
FOR HISTORIC SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lD APPENDIX L: STATE CERTIFICATE FOR NATURAL
AREA RECOGNITION ....................... i 25 APPENDIX M: FORT KING GEORGE HISTORIC SITE:
EXISTING FACILITIES MAP ............... 1 ~6 APPENDIX N: HOFWYL-BROADFIELD PLANTATION
HISTORIC SITE: GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN .... 1 ~6 APPENDIX 0: FLOOD HAZARD BOUNDARY MAP FOR
LUDOWICI, GEORGIA ...................... A27 APPENDIX P: SECTION 712, ARTICLE VII, ZONING
ORDINANCE OF GLYNN COUNTY, GEORGIA ........ A27 APPENDIX Q: CHANNEL SNAGGING OPERATIONS:
ALTAMAHA RIVER BASIN: REVIEW COMMENTS ... A28
BIBLIOGRAPHY . .............................. . Bl

PHOTOGRAPHS

J>age

Cover Photograph (Front Right, Altamaha Sound) ... cover Cover Photograph (Front Left, Darien and the
DNR Butler Island Station) .......... , ..... cover Cover Photograph (Back, Boyles Island) ......... cover Detail of the Floodplain Floor .............. ii Detail of the Floodplain Floor .............. ii The River at the End of the Narrows.............. 1

VI

Abandoned Logging Tram on Hammock Ridge ........ 8 Memorial to the Highlanders of Scotland ........ 15 Mary Musgrove and General James Oglethorpe ..... 16 Memorial to the Old Post Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Early Canoeists near Brunswick ................ 20 Coastal Georgia Stern-Wheel Steamer .......... 22 Turpentine Collection .................. 27 Logging Area (Boyles Island) ................... 27 Wrecked Stern-Wheel Steamer near Doctortown ..... 28 Fishermen on the River above the Study Site .... 32 Shrimpboat near Doctortown ................ 34 The Altamaha at Highway 21 ................. 48 Canoeing on Harpers Slough .................. 58 Delta Marshlands ...................... 66 Harmons Bluff (Joiners Island) ............ 79 Lewis Island (Cypress and Freshwater Marsh) ... 81 Altamaha Clam: Shallow Water at Oberry Bar ...... 84 Miller Lake Area (Sand Bars and Islands) ... 89 Swallow-Tail Kite (near Opossum Landing) ....... 90 Oaks on CuddarRidge (Boyles Island) ....... 91 Shad Fisherman (near Old Hell Bight) ..... 98 Gopher Tortoise Burrow (Bug Island) ..... 104 Buffalo Swamp Pine Flatwoods ......... 106 Buffalo Swamp Pine/Hardwood Flatwoods., ... , .... 107 Freshwater Marsh (Oberry Bar) ................ 109 Shrimp Boats in Darien..................... 111 Washed Out Culverts (Boyles Island) .......... 112 Near McFishery Bluff (Old River) .............. 114 Second Water Oak Round/Boyles Island (Looking
South) . ....................................... . 116 Primitive Camp (Satilla River Expedition) .... 122 Hiking the Trailway on Bug Island ............... 123 Boating on the Casino Slough Water Trail ....... 127 White-Tailed Deer (on a Hammock) ............. 130 Duck Hunter (Altamaha State Waterfowl Management
Area) ......................................... . 131 Wood Duck Box (River Swamp) ................... 132 Boardwalk (Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge) .. 132 Trailway on Hammock Ridge ..................... 135 DNR Game Management Section (Turkey Restoration). 139 Wood Duck Nesting in Wood Duck Box shown on
page 132 . ..................................... 140
VII

Cypress in the River Buffer .................... 140 Houseboat (near Altamaha Park) ................ 142 Aerial View of the Beginning of the Narrows .... 159 Shoestring Bar............................... 162 Doctortown (Old General Store) .............. A2 Indian Shell Midden (Eroding from Bank at
Peppel's Old Field)~ ................... A6 Aerial View of Boyles Island (Looking North) ... A16 Twisted Pepper-Vine (Kneebuckle Island) ........ . A21 Beginning of Old River (Off the Main Channel) .. . A29 Feral Pig in Buffalo Swamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A30 Fisherman at Doctortown Landing .............. Bl2
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Historic Sites of the Lower Altamaha River . ........................................ . 30
Table 2: Origin of Visitors to Recreation Areas. 37 Table 3: Altamaha State \-J'aterfowl Management
Area . ......................................... . 41 Table 4: Seasonal Breakdown of Hunting from
Table 3 . ...................................... . 42 Table 5: Estimated Recreation Trips to the
Lower Al tamaha River ................... 43 Table 6: Altamaha River Market Area Population
Projections . .................................. . 45 Table 7: Altamaha River Harket Area Recreation
Supply . ....................................... . 46 Table 8: 1974 Private Sector Recreational
Inventory . .................................... . 47 Table 9: Altamaha River Market Area 1985
Estimated Facility Needs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Table 10: DNR Facility Responsibilities in the
Lower Altamaha River Market Area .......... 50 Table 11: State Historic Site "Theme" Needs ... 51 Table 12: Land Ownership and Acreage Within
the Lower Altamaha River Study Site ............ 53 Table 13: Recreational Facility: Acreage
Requirements (Lower Altamaha River) ............ 56 Table 14: Principal Freshwater Tributaries of
the Lower Altamaha River... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Table 15: SCS Soil Series Types Within the

Soils Hap Categories........................... 76 Table 16: Average Water Quality Conditions in
the Lower Altamaha River......... . . . . . . . . . . 84 Table 17: Water Quality at Selected Stations in
the Upper Altamaha River Basin .............. 87 Table 18: Major Point Sources of Effluent in
the Lower Altamaha Basin ......... ,............ 88 Table 19: Water Quality Conditions in the
Altamaha Delta (1975 Average) ............. 89 Table 20: Spawning Areas and Seasons of Anadro-
mous Fish of the Lower Altamaha River ......... 96 Table 21: Major Finfish of Altamaha River ... 98 Table 22: Estimated Expenditures of Canoeists
Per Trip, Crow Wing River Area, 1966 ......... Table 23: Amount Spent by Hunters and Fishermen
Along the Lower Altamaha in 1974 ........... Table 24: Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge
(1974 Public Use Figures)....................... A6 Table 25: Documented Use on Five Southeastern
Water Trails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9 Table 26: Tributary Streams and Inlets of the
Lower Altamaha River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . All Table 27: Simplified Subsurface Resources of
the Lower Altamaha River Floodplain ........ Al4
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Boundary Limits of Study Site ..... 4 Figure 2: Simplified Base and Location Map .... 5 Figure 3: Regional Access ................ 6 Figure 4: Historic and Archaeological Sites ... 31 Figure 5: Lower Altamaha River Harket Area ..... 38 Figure 6: Recreation Inventory .............. 39 Figure 7: Land Ownership/Land Use ........ 55 Figure 8: The Dick Swift Cut-Off of Kneebuckle
Island . ....................................... . 61 Figure 9: Views and Special Features ....... 63 Figure 10: Growing-Season Precipitation . . . . . . . 65 Figure 11: Brunswick and Glennville, Georgia
Average Monthly Temperatures (1931-1960) . 65

Figure 12: Altamaha River Watershed Average Monthly Rainfall............................... 67
Figure 13: Hydrology/Geology ............... 69 Figure 14: Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 15: Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 16: Gauge Height and Water Discharge at
Doctortown Landing on the Altamaha River ...... 80 Figure 17: Groundwater Recharge of the Principal
Aquifer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Figure 18: EPD Water Quality Monitoring
Stations/Major Point-Source Effluent Dis-
charges . ......................... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure 19: Yearly Fluctuations in the Tempera-
ture, Dissolved Oxygen Content, and Organic Carbons for the Lower Altamaha River at Altamaha Park, 1975 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Figure 20: Natural Communities .......... 93 Figure 21: Altamaha River Floodplain Typical Cross Section................... 100 Figure 22: Development Vulnerability/Suit-
ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Figure 23: Preservation Potential ........ 115 Figure 24: Recreational Activities Plan/Program. 121 Figure 25: Preferred Alignment of the Altamaha
River Swamp Trail Through Cathead Marsh .... 124 Figure 26A: Freshwater Pulses to the Estuary .. 146 Figure 26B: Freshwater Pulses to the Estuary
After Channelization ................... 149 Figure 27: Windrow Construction.......... Figure 28: 1792 Plan of \Ulliamsburg, Georgia... A4 Figure 29: Map of the Existing (1976) Altamaha
State Waterfowl Management Area ........... Al7 Figure 30: The Great Altamaha Swamp: A Heri-
tage Trust Project ... ~ ............. Al: Figure 31: Fort King George Historic Site:
Existing Facilities Map .............. A26 Figure 32: Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation
Historic Site: General Development Plan ..... A2
Figure 33: Flood Hazard Boundary Map for Ludowici, Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2
\

VIII

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to propose a plan for utilizing, while at the same time conserving the natural resources and recreational opportunities of the lower Altamaha River. Although this study represents a new long-range approach to the treatment of the Altamaha's resources, the citizens of the State of Georgia have always recognized the value of the river environment and used it wisely in the development of the State. Most recognize now, though, that the increasing demands of today's society require an approach to the landscape that points out the less apparent; brings to light those steps that must be taken to maintain the quality of life; and makes the task of planning for these goals as economically and environmentally sound as possible.
In terms of economics, the natural resource benefits of the Altamaha River are enormous. Tens of millions of dollars in benefits can be credited directly to the local and state economies. Intangible benefits such as water supply, water treatment, air quality maintenance, and habitat availability are but a few. As an example, the Altamaha basin drains over one quarter of the land surface of Georgia including half of Atlanta and all of Macon. The drainage is so large that more fresh water flows into the Atlantic Ocean from the Altamaha basin than any other river in the south~astern United States. Vast hard~vood river swamps accompany this fresh water and cleanse the river so thoroughly that it has been estimated that the roughly 120,000 acres of river swamp, just along the lower
1

Altamaha and not including its tributaries, could serve as a sewage disposal network for a city of one million people! In comparing the cost of sewage treatment for such a city, it is easy to recognize the no-cost savings.
Tangible benefits such as timber production, commercial fishing, sport fishing, hunting, and general recreation are extremely vital to the local economy. As an example, sport fishing in the lower Altamaha draws approximately 275,000 man days of use per year. By using the standards of the "1970 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting", which attributed an average of $7.02 to each man-day spent fishing, it is estimated that.sport fishing alone, contributed benefits in excess of $2,000,000.
To those who truly know the Altamaha River, these economic benefits come as no surprise. People have been enjoying these benefits for centuries, but somehow, probably through the incredible magnitude of the resource, the river has managed to maintain the use levels.
Today, however, the resource is finally beginning to suffer. The scars of over-use are starting to show. During 1976, the shad fishery had the lowest production in commercial profits that have ever been registered. Houseboats are beginning to proliferate and the fears of a "Hong Kong Harbor" effect have begun to impact the regular river user. Snags from constant dredging of the main channel are building up on the shorelines and affecting much of the esthetic appeal that recreationalists seek on the river.
These are some of the problems and certainly more exist. But what can be done for the resource? How can the benefits be maintained while allowing progress to keep pace with needs?
To answer these questions, a recreation, land use,

and natural factors analysis was made of the Altamaha River Study Site and Market Area. As the analyses proceeded, it became clear that the previously posed questions were related in a fundamental way, and that it would be impossible to realistically construct a plan by answering one without knowledge of the other. The reason for this is that the answers to one question impose certain conditions on the answers to the other. If a beautiful resource exists, then recreational development should not violate the environmental integrity of the area, for if environmental degradation were to occur, land devoted to recreation would be of low quality and not meet use demands. Conversely, if a certain demand for recreation exists, recreational development should not ignore those basic needs. It becomes a circular problem. The resource must be utilized while at the same time it must be preserved so that the original resource is not lost. The inescapable conclusion is that social values and environmental values are identical. No matter what the planning goal, the interdependence and factor relationships between social, economic and environmental values remain the same. To omit any one of those three factors in the planning process is to work in an unreal world and to court longrun disaster. Man and nature are truly not apart.
For the plan to be realistic in terms of recreation, the proper management of the natural resources, which has the potential to support recreation, is a necessary goal. For the plan to be realistic for other land uses, means must be found to compatibly incorporate timber management, industry, and agriculture into the economy of the local area without significantly altering the potential of the Altamaha River for recreation and natural resources management. The Altamaha has the size and environmental qualities to draw national rcognition for "Natural River" recreational opportun:ities. No longer should the benefits of this type of situation be ignored. For if these benefits are recognized,

2

recreation can become an important and integral part of the way in which people use the land.
The objective of this plan is to maximize a combination of social and environmental values. By using both the recreation and natural factor analyses, a plan can be drawn which will accommodate the recreation needs of the people within an enjoyable natural environment. That, simply stated, is the goal of this study.
The value of this study is seen as threefold:
1. It is intended to be a specific plan for the development and management of a scenic and recreational river proposal on the Altamaha River.
2. It is intended to be a plan with limited land acquisition funding and capital outlay but maximum benefits in terms of recreational use and natural resource management.
3. Perhaps most important to the long range future of land use planning in the Altamaha Area, it is hoped that the planning method as outlined in this report will be of value to county governments, municipal governments, The Coastal Zone Management Program, The Altamaha and Coastal Area Planning and Development Commissions, and others in their continuing planning efforts. To that end, more attention has been given to the processes followed in this study than might normally be the case.
.DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE
The portion of the Altamaha River that is under study by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources

flows from the northwest to the southeast in the central coastal region of Georgia. The reach of the Altamaha River within the study site flows through Long, Mcintosh, Wayne, and Glynn Counties. The length of this river section is approximately 76 miles from slightly above Oglethorpe Bluff (north of Jesup) to the Atlantic Ocean. The total area included within the study site is approximately 500 square miles or 320,000 acres (see Figure 1).
This stretch of the Altamaha River is located approximately in the center of a rectangle formed by Jesup (near the southwest corner of the site), Ludowici (in the northwest corner of the site), Sterling (at the southeast corner of the site), and Darien (in the northeast corner of the site) (see Figure 2). On the southern edge of the site are the towns of Gardi, Mount Pleasant, Everett, and Sterling, Georgia. To the north are Townsend and Cox, Georgia.
The length of the study site was determined primarily to insure that a representative sampling of the physiographic sub-regions that are native to the coastal floodplain of the Altamaha River was included. However, access for recreation and diversity in recreational options were also strong factors in determining the length. There are no road crossings between U.S. 301 and Interstate 95/U.S. 17 (see Figure 2) and only limited access to the river throughout this section. Therefore, with limited access below U.S. 301 and with the river segment from Interstate 95/U.S. 17 to the Atlantic Ocean dominated by marshlands and affording little opportunity for planned access, the upper limit of the study site was set slightly above U.S. 301
The width of the site was originally intended to include most of the lands adjacent to the Altamaha River which could be considered as associated river floodplain. However, when this project started, the

3

BOUNDARY LIMITS OF STUDY SrfE

ACRES
lli 1000 2110 50

MILES

FEET

u-1--fl .LD.[L.J....

GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE OF PLANNING AND RESEARCH

THE ALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 1

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[ J MERSTATE HIGHYAYS
D US.HIGHWIWS D STATE ttiGtfWIWS D SECONlARV ROADS
D RAI..R(W)S
u~ ~VtllTERMY (X)LifTY BOLIIWES ~ RIVERS AH> ae:KS -~ MAJOR liVER LANlH)S TOWNS [!] CITES
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ClOIICIA DIPARIMIIII 01 -AlURAl RESOURCES OlftCI 01 PlAIIIii~C AI!O RISHRCH

THE ALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAl RIVER PROPOSAl



FIGURE 2

5

resource information was not sufficient to adequately define these floodplain areas. Therefore, the preliminary width of the study site was placed upon those secondary roads which were closest to the river. The assumption behind this placement was that continuous secondary roads traditionally follow the "edge" of the floodplain. Later, as the study progressed and information was synthesized, the study area boundary (both width and length) was revised for a more adequate representation of those floodplain and buffer areas which were necessary for study.
Until July, 1972, Wayne County was within the planning area of the Altamaha Area Planning and Development Commission (APDC). Since that date, APDC boundaries have changed and Wayne County is now within the Altamaha/Georgia Southern APDC. Long, Mcintosh, and Glynn Counties have remained in the Coastal APDC.
REGIONAL ACCESSIBILITY
In Georgia, more than ninety percent of all leisure travel is by automobile. Fishermen, who represent the largest group of recreational participants on the Altamaha, rate convenient traveltime topmost in judging quality fishing facilities as determined by the Environmental Research Group at Georgia State University.
Although there are relatively few direct routes to the proposed Altamaha recreation resource, the local and state routes provide good alternatives to interstate travel (see Figure 3). Access from Atlanta, 250 miles to the north, is provided by a combination of Interstates 75 and 16, and Georgia Highways 29, 280, 23, and 301. Access from the geographical center of southwest Georgia, approximately 160 miles, can best
6

PREPARED QUARTERlY 8Y
DEPARTMENT OF"'TRANSPORTATION
GEORGIA



STUDY SITE

LEGNO-INTERSTAT STATUS

-

OPEN TO TRAFF"IC

. . . - : ADVANCED SlitoGE OF CONSTRUCTION
:_ _ .= UTI tU 8(GINNl$ STAGE OF CONSTRUCTION "UTURF.. CONSTRUCTION

-

OTHER US HIGHWAYS

------- AVAILABLE: CONNECTING ROUTES

"

REST AI'IEA ~ WITH SANITARY FACILITIES

REGIONAL ACCESS FIGURE 3

be obtained either by Georgia Highway 82 or 84. Access from Columbus, 280 miles west, is possible on highways 280 and 341. The center of the study site can be reached from Augusta, 165 miles north, by Georgia Highways 25 and 301. Interstate 95 and Georgia Highway 17 provide adequate access from anywhere on the east coast.
Enterprising individuals can also reach the study site by two to three-week river trips. From Macon, on the Ocmulgee, it is approximately 236 river miles to the center of the study site. A similar trip from Milledgeville, on the Oconee, would be approximately 186 miles. Many recreationalists enjoy the 196-mile trip on the Ocmulgee from Hawkinsville and river trips can also be made from Atlanta and Athens with portaging at the reservoirs.
The Georgia Department of Transportation, Office of Planning, has established annual average 24-hour traffic flows occurring throughout the state in 1974, for all types of vehicles. This data has been converted to even numbers to account for two-way traffic. For expediency, we have averaged vehicle usage for the thoroughfare in question and have exempted local city use in necessary areas. Highways 301 and 17 receive the heaviest daily usage within our study site. From the Florida state line to the South Carolina state line, Highway 301 receives 4,344 vehicles. Highway 82 from Waycross to Hinesville averages 3,866 vehicles while Highway 341 from Hazelhurst to Brunswick receives the least amount of traffic of the roadways examined, having 2,838 vehicles per day.
Projected annual average 24-hour traffic for Interstate 95, when completed, has recently been

computed by the Georgia Department of Transportation. Average Annual Daily Travel (AADT) for that portion from Florida to South Carolina is as follows: 1980/ 31,944; 1990/38,118; and the year 2000/44,810. The Champney, Butler, and Darien Rivers (Altamaha delta branches) are to have the following numbers of crossings: 1980/34,576; 1990/41,284; and the year 2000/ 48,516. In 1970, Interstate 95 was said to have 21,076 crossings for the Altamaha.
Georgia Traffic Trends were determined with the data collected from forty-six continuous count stations throughout the state. The outcome revealed increasing usage from 1972 to 1975 as computed by the Georgia Department of Transportation. 1972 AADT was 12,406; 1973 AADT was 13,012; 1974 AADT was 12,738; and 1975 AADT from January to June was 13,219. These figures were obtained by noting average day of the month counts. The June 1975 computed average day of the month reflects a positive 5.5 percent change from 1972, a positive 0.4 from 1973, and a positive change of 2.2 percent from 1974.
Currently Highways 301 and 17 and Interstate 95 are the only thoroughfares crossing the Altamaha in the immediate study area. Furthermore, there are only five highway and two railway crossings over the Altamaha's entire 126 mile length.
There are approximately 18 access points within the study site on the south bank and 11 on the north bank. Many of these are limited to 4-wheel drive vehicles and are subject to periodic inundation. In addition, limited access is provided on tributary streams which then lead directly to the river.

7

8

CHAPTER 2
NATURAL AND
CULTURAL HISTORY
History provides the mechanism for determining how a particular natural environment came to exist in its present state. Cultural history provides much the same mechanism from the standpoint of how the influence of man has interacted with the natural process. The problem of combining both to etch out a picture of the past has intrigued and challenged some of the world's greatest minds, each from a variety of perspectives (i.e. geology, paleontology, archaeology, and history). It is increasingly realized in today's world that natural environments and human welfare are indeed linked. By looking at the relationship between the natural development of the Altamaha and man's use of this area, it is possible to fully appreciate the mutual interdependence that exists and gain a real understanding of the meaning of the Altamaha "environment".
NATURAL HISTORY
All rivers form by a similar process: when more water falls on an area of land than can be absorbed, the excess must run off. Even with a slight slope,

the water will flow in a specific direction and soon a channel will form in the earth's surface. As the flow continues, the channel will connect with other channels and a system is formed. All the land area drained by a given stream system is referred to as its watershed and the extent of any watershed, the number of channels, and pattern formed by the channels depends on the amount of rainfall and the nature of the surface and sub-surface through which it flows. Thus, the watershed and drainage pattern of the Altamaha River is the result of millions of years of interaction between water and the land surface.
The Altamaha's channel as it exists today, can be traced back to Miocene time, over twenty million years ago (Ross Cramer, Emory University, p.c. 1975). However, the rocks that underlie the channel have a history dating back over 20 million years. In the beginning of Paleozoic time, over 500 million years ago, Europe and North America are thought to have been a single continent, each a part of a separate "plate". The most recent theories state that all land masses are part of continental plates that literally float over the earth's crust. In the time period between 50 and 200 million years ago, these plates parted and collided at least three different times. When the plates separated, the edges of the basin in-between (i.e. the Atlantic Ocean) became filled with thousands of feet of sediment, carried by rivers from the adjacent continents. One piece of evidence used in support of the Continental-drift theory was the identification of fossils, in Georgia sedimentary rocks, that closely resembled life forms common to eastern European estuaries. When the plates moved back together, the sediments and sedimentary rock between them buckled up, folded, faulted, and metamorphosized. This is a very much simplified explanation of the origin of the Appalachian Mountains.

9

Today, the c.ontinental plates continue to spread away from a zone in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The rocks of the Appalachians continue to be eroded and sediments are deposited in the Marine basins off the Atlantic or Gulf coastal plains. The Paleozoic-formed rocks are still exposed in northwest Georgia, while south and east of the Fall Line zone, more recent sedimentary deposits, laid from 135 million years ago to the present day, cover them over.
The most recent significant natural event in the geologic time scale is the period of glaciation during the Pleistocene, 3 million to 11,000 years ago. While the glaciers never got closer than 300 miles from Georgia, their secondary effects had major consequences. As water was taken up into ice, the sea level dropped and conversely, when the ice melted, the sea level rose. During the Pleistocene, at least three important glacial advances and recessions occurred, the last receding only 10,000 years ago. To further complicate the process, the earth's crust sagged under the weight of the glaciers, which were typically one mile thick, and rebounded gradually after the glaciers melted (New England is still rising today). All this combined to create a fluctuating depositional environment along Georgia's ~oast and largely determined the nature of the present lower coastal plain (from about 60 miles inland almost to the ocean).
The current theory states that raised sand dunetype formations developed at the land-sea interface every time the sea level shifted. The remnants of these are evident in the distinct sandhill ridge lines that parallel the coast in the lower coastal plain today. If the sea level subsequently rises after a particular dune has formed, it becomes a barrier island and the basin between the mainland and the island fills with sediment, supporting an extensive salt-marsh community. Such a process has been occurring for the past hundreds of years and accounts for the physical and

cultural isolation of Georgia's "Golden Isles" (see Geology).
The coastal plain section of the Altamaha spanning this study's area of concentration is marked by two important river features: the floodplain and the delta. Both were formed .due to complex interactions between the river and its watershed (see Hydrology). The Altamaha's floodplain has long supported a river swamp ecosystem and delta which in turn have supported flora and fauna life forms for over 50 million years in Georgia. During the Pleistocene (3 million to 11,000 years ago) a great abundance and variety of higher mammals were present. Many mammals that previously lived in the northernportions of North America apparently migrated south in front of the advancing glaciers. The climate was colder in Georgia during this period, but much more hospitable than the icy north. Besides the existence of still common species such as rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, small game and deer, the fauna was dominated by some incredible creatures: giant elephants, mastodons, lions, saber-tooth tigers, giant sloths, armadillos, beavers, rhinoceros, tapir, bison, camels, horses, dire wolves, and peccaries.
Man is suspected to have first entered North America from Asia 20,000 to 30,000 years ago, and thus, must have initially co-existed with these animals. However, near this time, many of the larger mamma: s began to disappear, and most were extinct by 3,00 B.C. Although this period witnessed great climat c changes associated with glaciation, man is suspec ed of being a contributing factor in the decine of t ese species. Some of these species, like the bison a.:.d wolf prevailed in Georgia up to the time of European settlement. The Altarnaha River swamps may have harbored the last of the dying prehistoric species and probably supported mastodons, mammoths, and ground sloths until as recently as 3,000 years ago.

10

.i

CULTURAL HISTORY
The word "Altamaha" originated from the Indian town Tama, located near the forks of the Oconee and Ocmulgee. It has been suggested that the river was originally the Altama, meaning "the way to Tama country". However, the Altama variation may have been devised by Oliver Goldsmith for his poem "The Deserted Village"; a lament over the emigration of folk from Auburn, Scotland, "The loveliest village of the plain" to Georgia.
"Through torrid tracts, with fainting steps they go, Where wild Altama murmurs to their woe Far different there from all that charmed before."
An entirely different explanation for the origin of Altamaha is given in Georgia's Landmarks, Memorials, and Legends:
"'Altamaha', according to Colonel Absalom H. Chappell, is derived from the Spanish expression 'altam-mia', signifying a deep-earthen plate or dish. The name may have been suggested by the character of the lower end of the river, perhaps the only part which the Spaniards saw before the christening and which looked to them like a dish kept full to the brim by tidal impulses from the sea rather than by hidden sources of supply from an unknown interior."
Samuel Taylor Coleridge also put the river to verse in his love poem, "Lewti". Both Goldsmith and Coleridge were influenced by William Bartram's ecstatic accounts of the "Altamaha" in his "Travels", published in the 1870's:

"How gently flow thy peaceful floods, 0 Altamaha. How sublimely rise to view, on thy elevated shores, yon magnolian groves, from whose tops the surrounding expanse is perfumed, by clouds of incense, blended with the exhaling balm of the liquidambar, and odours continually arising from circumambient aromatic groves of illicium, myrica, laurus, and bignonia.
0 peaceful Altamaha! gentle by nature! how thou wert ruffled! Thy wavy surface disfigured every object, presenting them obscurely to the sight, and they at length totally disappeared, whilst the furious winds and sweeping rains bent the lofty groves, and prostrated the quaking grass, driving the affrightened creatures to their dens and caverns."
The spelling of "Alatamaha" was connnon during the nineteenth century, but Frances Anne Kemble writes in her 1838-39 Journal that the second syllable wasn't pronounced. Thus, the pronunciation was and is still "Al-to-ma-ha" with the accent on the first and last syllables.
INDIAN ERA
Man first appeared in the Altamaha basin 11-15,000 years ago. The lives of these early people (PaleoIndian Period) closely followed the natural cycles and physiography of the land. A predominantly hunting and plant gathering group, they undoubtedly were attracted by the large concentrations of wildlife along the Altamaha. Piles of flint-flakes throughout the basin indicate where temporary hunting camps once existed.

11

The earliest known relics in the study area came from the Sansavilla Bluff area on the south bank of the Altamaha. Thousands of Indian sites along the Georgia coast have been identified by archaeologists, often located by large piles of shells (shell middens and shell rings). Abundant shellfish beds and fishing in the Altamaha delta were probably an important reason for some tribes to settle near the coast. Coastal tribes were able to depend on a given area's resource supply for longer periods of time than the wandering inland hunters; therefore mqre permanent settlements occurred here.
The permanent settlements had more free time, thus pottery making was first practiced by coastal tribes about 300 years ago (early Woodland Period), later spreading up the river to interior settlers. Broken pieces of pottery, called sherds, can be found upon most Altamaha bluffs, although archaeologists discourage amateurs from making any site disturbances. The earliest pottery was "fiber tempered", a mixture of clay with bits of vegetation added for strength. Remains of the Deptford, Swift Creek, Weeden Island, Savannah, and Irene eras (covering from 4000 B.C. to the arrival of Europeans) have been identified in the Altamaha basin. Unfortunately, many of the old coastal habitations lie under the ocean, the sea level having risen since the recession of the last glacier.
Indian paths along the Altamaha closely follow the geologically-determined topographic features of the region. East-west routes followed the high bank on the south side of the Altamaha and the sand-ridge terraces on the north side. North-south trails followed remnant shoreline ridges and crossed the river at nearby shallow reaches with the Doctortown and Fort Barrington areas as the most important river-crossing spots. But the river itself was the most important transportation medium. Down river in dugout cypress canoes came parties bearing tools, copper, mica, flint, and pottery to trade with the coastal tribes, for whelk

shells, conch shells (to make hoes, drills), sting-ray spines, oyster-shells (to make chisels), and other items of seaside origin. Trade between interior and coastal tribes must have been considerable, for many artifacts obviously displaced from their place of origin are found in both areas.
The development of agriculture in the Altamaha basin spread opposite to that of pottery: from the west down river to the coast. Around 900 A.D. a tribe of highly advanced people from the Mississippi Valley moved near today's Macon on the Ocmulgee. Gardens and small farming processes usually involving domesticating of wild plants like sunflowers and march elder had already started in the late Archaic Period (1000 B.C.), but the Mississippians brought a highly developed agricultural technology. Crops such as cotton, corn, peanuts, tobacco, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, and field beans (important Georgia crops today), all originated with these early farmers. The pine barren region on both sides of the Altamaha between the seashore and upper coastal plain was probably least populated during this period, as the Indians relied more on agriculture and sea-products than the deepforest wildlife.
Hernando de Soto crossed through the southeast in 1540. Nearly all tribes living in the area were directly or indirectly affected. This marks the beginning of rapid change in aboriginal culture, and the use of the Altamaha. Disease alone, introduced by early European settlers, spread like wild fire ar.1 many tribes were completely destroyed.
The Spanish called the coastal Indians in Gf-:>rgia "Guale" (pronounced "Walley"). They were a Musk< seanspeaking people related to the Creek Tribes of tl e interior parts of Georgia. Old Spanish maps sho' the Altamaha as "Rio de Talaja" and mark the Indian owns of "Talaxe" on the south bank of the Altamaha anci "Tolomato" near Darien. Tolomato at this time was

12

identified by the Spanish as the principal seat of the Guale chiefs. This was also confirmed in 1562 by the French explorer Jean Ribault. Ribault and the Hugenots visited and traded with the Guale on the Altamaha ("Loire" on their maps).
From 1565-1686, the Spanish attempted with varying degrees of success to set up missions up and down the Georgia coast to convert the Indians. Indians would boat down the Altamaha, alternately to trade with or attack the new settlers. The Spanish stayed near the coast, both because the farming was better and the escape route easier. A number of suspected mission sites exist on the lower Altamaha, but the site on Lower Bluff near Fort King George in Darien is the only positively identified mission site.
When England's Charles II granted to Carolina all American lands south to the 29th parallel in 1663, the Altamaha became the focal point in a four-power struggle (Indian-French-Spanish-English) that was not resolved for 150 years. English and pirate ship attacks led to the final retreat of Spanish missionaries from Georgia to Florida in 1686. By this time, the lives of the coastal Indians had been completely disrupted and few settlements remained. Some went north, lured by the generous-appearing British and others south to join Spanish friends. However, many attempted to regroup and organize against the white threat which led to the famous Creek Confederacy.
Perhaps the greatest influence the early traders had on the Indians was the incentive to hunt for trading purposes. Indians returned to customs abandoned centuries past and roamed the countryside in search of game. Old paths into the wild swamps and woods near the Altamaha again became worn, and down-river came canoes filled with skins to meet the eager traders on the coast or traders at the int~rior trading posts (arrived at in flat bottom boats called periaguas).

The short-range benefits of trading were good for the Indians but, unfortunately, the long-range benefits of the agricultural-based village of the southeastern Indian were ended forever.
Early in the eighteenth-century, rumors began to
spread through the Carolina settlements that the French ,
well-established in the Mississippi Valley, were planning to start colonies on the banks of the Altamaha. The English were aware of the French "Grand Design of Encirclement" to crush the English colonies, and already the French had connected colonies in Canada with the Mississippi Valley holdings. Settlements on the west~east flowing Altamaha would complete the circle. After the Creeks attacked Carolina in the Yamassee War of 1715, Carolinians became increasingly concerned over their precarious position. Many thought the Indian attack was French-inspired (actually, this was only the first of the Creeks' plan to rid themselves of the settler's menace once and for all). They next planned to attack Florida and then Louisiana. But the defeat of the Creeks at Yamassee signaled their ultimate downfall. Colonel John Barnwell ("Tuscorora Jack") and Joseph Boone were sent to England to present to the Board of Trade a plan for a line of forts designed to stop French expansion. Funds permitted only one fort at the onset, and on July 13, 1721, Barnwell, Indian guides, sawyers, and a band of province scouts landed at Lower Bluff near the north branch of the Altamaha and began construction of Fort King George.
Musket-proof cypress planks taken from the Altamaha River swamps were the principal structural components. (It is interesting to note that today few cypress trees extend this far oceanward into the Altamaha delta, yet cypress stumps can be found beneath the marsh grass. Apparently, sea level increase has been great enough to cause the marsh to expand inland during recent times.) The completed fort contained a 26-square foot, three-storied gabled blockhouse.

13

surrounding parapet and palisades, and several palmetto-roofed huts and barracks. From the lookout window high up in the blockhouse, a good view was afforded of the numerous rivers draining the Altamaha delta and of St. Simons Island in the distance.
Fort King George was actively manned from 17211727. Though built solely to prevent a French takeover of the area, the fort was menaced primarily by Spaniards and Indians. The Spanish saw this as a direct invasion of their territory and demanded the fort's removal through diplomatic channels and military measures. The hardships of fort life were many and 140 men died during the short occupation time. The military cemetery there is believed to be the oldest graveyard in America where British soldiers are buried.
The soldiers never enjoyed life at Fort King George. Aside from the constant fear of attack, the dense swamps, alligators, snakes, buffalo, bears, tropical fever, and disease provided a constant threat. Their complaints, combined with the need for more direct protection of South Carolina settlements, led to the removal of troops to Port Royal in 1727. Two lookouts continued to be stationed here until the creation of the colony of Georgia.
COLONIAL ERA
In hopes that a secure buffer zone would be established, South Carolina agreed to cede her claims to lands between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers and in 1732, the 13th colony, Georgia, was created by royal charter. In 1733, General James Oglethorpe, Georgia's principal trustee, started the first settlement of the new colony in Savannah.

Oglethorpe was quite successful in dealing with the Indians and completed a treaty with them ceding to the English all lands from the ocean inland "as high as the tide flows". Many of these original European settlers in Georgia were debtors and unfortunates granted a new beginning in America. Ogle~ thorpe soon realized new measures must be taken to make the colony the military outpost it was originally intended to be. In 1735, he arranged for a group of sturdy Highlanders from the town of Iverness, Scotland, to come settle on the Georgia frontier. Subsequently, in 1736, the town of "New Inverness" was established in the Altamaha delta, about one mile west of Old Fort King George. The town was soon christened Darien, in memory of previous attempts by Scotsmen to establish a colony in the Spanish Isthmus of Darien (now Panama). That same year, Oglethorpe expanded with another settlement at Frederica, down river on St. Simons Island.
The Highlanders of Darien were an industrious group and quickly built up the settlement, established the new outpost of Fort Darien (its exact location is unknown), cleared the land, planted crops, and built Georgia's first highway: the road to Savannah (approximately Route 17). John Mcintosh Mahr, the first of the important Mcintosh clan to settle in the New World, was appointed military leader of Darien by Oglethorpe. Legend has it that the Scotsmen and their Indian neighbors lived together in peace, and would even try their strengths and skills against each other in friendly games and contests. The settlement progressed well, but the Spanish threat was ever-present until 1742.
The trail mentioned earlier that crossed the Altamaha near where Fort Barrington was later built, was of considerable strategic importance during this period. Spanish marauders would travel up "Augustine

14

Trail" with their Indian allies to intimidate the settlers. In 1742, the Highlanders marched the 12 mile trek from Darien to cross the Altamaha at this ford (following today's River Road) and proceeded overland to join Oglethorpe's Frederica troops, helping defeat the Spanish in the decisive "Battle of Bloody Marsh". After this, the Spanish threat subsided and settlement pressures in the area began to increase.
The importance of trading posts, not only for the goods they brought in but also as the key to maintaining good relationships with the Indians, was wellknown to Oglethorpe. Perhaps the most important post for a time was Mount Venture, on the Altamaha River. Although archaeologists and historians haven't agreed on its exact location, and there probably was more than one post under the same name, sufficient evidence seems to point to Aleck's Island on the south bank of the Altamaha near the Sansavilla Bluffs as the probable first location of this important post. Oglethorpe commissioned Mary Musgrove to establish Mount Venture around 1740. Mary, a half-breed, was for a time an extremely valuable ally of Oglethorpe and the colony. She served as interpreter at nearly all Oglethorpe's important meetings with the Indians, and was largely responsible for the success of these dealings. Mount Venture was just above the extent of the tidal influence; on the edge of the Indian-White border; south of' the Altamaha and thus across from the boundary of Georgia; and just upstream of where the important St. Augustine Trail crossed the river. The site was obviously an area of critical importance and records show that in 1741, Oglethorpe stationed Jacob Mathew and 20 rangers at Mount Venture to protect this spot and the settlements on the north side of the Altamaha.
A transition period of nearly .200 years finally
15

was ending as the newest settlers began to concentra\ e on the utilization and development of the vast natural resources of the Altamaha delta after 1741.
The settlers used shellfish beds, not so much for food, but in a cement-like mixture called "Tabby", a major material used in early buildings. The wildlife of the river-swamp was hunted, and the open pine-barr en expanses of the interior used for pasture. As early as 1736, the potential use of the river delta for rice cultivation was realized. A ten-mile sti etch along the lower Altamaha and delta branches met rice requirements perfectly: to be far enough upstream to receive only fresh water, yet close enough to the ocean to be under tidal influence (useful for controlled flooding and draining procedures). This land was to later support the most profitable rice plantations of the south.
The charter of early Georgia prohibited slavery, and when settlers began to petition the law's repeal, the independent Scotsmen of Darien signed a counterpetition. The petition was probably the first recorded protest against slavery in history, warning: "Introduce slaves and we cannot but believe they will one day return to be a scourge and a curse upon our children or our children's children." As discussed later in this chapter, the prophecy proved painfully true. In 1752, the trustees relinquished control of Georgia to the crown, and restrictions on land ownership and slavery were lifted (many planters illegally owned slaves prior to this time).
With settlement in the Darien area and the whole Georgia coast increasing, tensions along the Indian border also increased. Spaniards continued coming
16

up the Augustine Trail to incite Indians to attack and even attempted, often successfully, to induce planters' s.laves to escape and join forces with the Spaniards and Indians in St. Augustine. In 1751, the citizens of Darien petitioned for a port to be built along the western border near the important river crossing. Lieutenant Robert Baillei was commissioned to build "Fort Barrington", named in honor of Lieutenant Colonel Josiah Barrington, a military colleague of Oglethorpe. Financial difficulties slowed construction, but by 1762, the post was described as follows (from the colonial records):
"a square fort about 75 feet each way with a Caponiere in it and barracks. These works are not yet finished, the money taken by the province not being sufficient. What is done is in good condition, and is garrisoned by 25 of the rangers."
Baillei was stationed at the fort in the early 1760's, patrolling the entire Indian border, preventing and avenging plundering by Indian and Spanish marauders and occasionally tracking down runaway slaves. During less dangerous periods, farmers used the fort as a market place, selling their produce, purchasing agricultural implements, and buying and selling black bondsmen.
The Treaty of 1763 set the Indian-White border about thirty miles further west from Fort Barrington. By the late '60's, this boundary line was firmly established and the tension in the Barrington area eased considerably. English settlements along the lower Altamaha began in earnest and from 1760 to 1775, 72,000 acres of land along the Altamaha were deeded in 143 separate grants (average lot size was 500 acres).

For a period of time, both South Carolina and Georgia laid claim to the lands south of the Altamaha. In 1763, the Governor of South Carolina granted much of this land to South Carolina planters. Georgia protested and the lands were finally transferred to her, though the South Carolina grants were held as valid. This was an important factor in the area's rapid growth into prominence. The South Carolinians had over one hundred years of river-delta living experience to draw upon.
}fast of the names still applied to the islands of the Altamaha delta date from these grants under the crown. Samuel Lewis, John Weriat, Thomas Camber, Mark Carr, and James Wright were all granted plots that included their namesakes today.
The Bartrams spent a good deal of time in the the lower Altamaha region during their famous southern travels. Their Journals have left us with some of the earliest and most detailed descriptions of early America. William Bartram canoed about 50 miles up the Altamaha around 1773, and wrote ecstactically about the river's wild beauty in the Travels of William Bartram.
The Bartrams travelled frequently down through the coast following the Old Indian Trail from Savannah to the river-crossing near old Fort Barrington (called the Post Road after 1763, the date of the first postal service south of Savannah), either crossing the river en route to Florida or turning east on the River Road toward Darien. Historians today are carefully researching the exact route of the "Bartram Trail". During an early trip down the Post Road, the Bartrams made a wrong turn and ended up not at the Ferry, but at a point surrounded by swampland some four miles

17

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down river. It was near here that they discovered the new tree which they christened "Franklinia Alatamaha", after Benjamin Franklin (from Travels of William Bartram, page 369):
"It is a flowering tree, of the first order for beauty and fragrance of blossoms . We never saw it grow in any other place, nor have I ever since seen it growing wild."
This plant has a particular significance to Georgia, not only because of its rare beauty, but also by the fact that it has never been collected anywhere else in the world, except where the Bartrams

found it on the Altamaha. Even more astounding, ::. t has not been found growing anywhere in a wild stat: <! since 1790! A popular cultivated tree planted throughout the world today, every one in existence origir:ated from the seeds of plants collected on the Altamah<. Naturalists continue to search the area in hopes hat at least one wild specimen of this lost gem may s ill be living.
Military concerns once again became dominant in the lower Altamaha region during the Revolution. The strategic importance of the Fort Barrington area was again recognized, and the fort was soon refurbished under its new name, Fort Howe. For much of the war, this fort served as the military headquarters for the southern Department of Operations. Darien was aL;o an important troop and supply concentration point and soldiers daily trekked the 12-mile stretch of the River Road between the fort and town. Controlling the only sizable passage across the Altamaha below the Ocmulgee and Oconee, the fort was seen as indlspensible in assuring the smooth northward flow of soldiers, foodstuffs, and artillery for the Continental Army.
Fighting in Georgia generally wasn't extensive during the Revolution, but some battles did take place here, and in these, Fort Howe played a major role. In the winter of 1777, Fort Mcintosh, 30 miles to the south was taken by a Tory-Indian force. General Lachlan Mcintosh expressed his concerns: "and (I) expect they will advance on our settlements. Therefore, for God's sake, be expeditious to prevent their crossing the Altamaha, if possible." The fort did hold out then, though some records say it was at some time in British hands. The Tories had a large following in Georgia, but some of freedom's strongest supporters were found in the settlers along the Altamaha and the parishes to the north. Henry Laurens from Broughton Island was the president of the Second Continental Congress, and many of the Mcintosh clan,
18

particularly General Lachlan Mcintosh (who resided on General's Island across from Darien), were proven war heroes.
POST-REVOLUTION STATEHOOD ERA
This is what the American settlers had been waiting for: a country of their own; the Spanish and English threats all but completely gone; the Indian border sufficiently removed from the coast; and slavery permitted, making readily available the large numbers of laborers necessary to subdue the final obstacle, the land.
Plantations thrived in coastal Georgia, based on the production of rice, indigo, sugar, and, after Whitney's cotton gin in 1793, cotton. While nearly all river-delta land owners cultivated rice, it was the South Carolinian grantees who established the most famous plantations. To the Altamaha River they came with the technology and experienced slave manpower required to build and run massive operations. Major Pierce Butler even hired engineers from Holland to install a system of dikes and canals on his property on Butler's Island which placed his land preparation costs close to $1000/acre. The most important riverplantations were developed in the early 1800's and lasted through the Civil War. These were Butler's Island, Hopeton-on-the-Altamaha, Grantly, Evelyn, Elizafield, and Broadfield (name later changed to Hofwyl.)
Frances Leigh explains in detail the rice growing process (from Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation, page 265-267):
"Operations may be said to commence towards the end of the fall, after the first frost, i.e. about November. The fields are first

burnt off, that is to say, the dry grass, rice stubble and reeds are in this manner cleared off; the ploughs are then put in, and the ditches and drains are cleaned out and the banks made up."
"I ought, perhaps, to explain more fully the configuration of a rice plantation. Round the whole of it, as I have said, a high bank is thrown up, to protect it from high tides and freshets or floods; the land within this embankment is divided off into fields by checkbanks and face ditches, and each field, which is about twenty acres in size, is subdivided by smaller ditches, called quarter drains. Through the length and breadth of the plantation generally run two or three canals, which serve to drain the island, and also to convey the flats or large flat-bottomed boats for harvesting the rice."
"Well, the land having been burnt off, ploughed, and ditched, the harrows are put on in early spring, and the seed is planted in time, if possible, for the first high tides in March. As soon as the seed is sown, the water is let on to the fields, and kept on eight or.ten days to sprout the rice; this is called the first flow. About three weeks afterwards, the second flow is put on, and kept on from ten to thirty days The third or harvest flow is put on about the end of June, and kept on until the middle of August, when the crop is ready for harvesting."
The Altamaha indeed dominated the lives of all delta inhabitants. During winter and early spring, the river's rise was carefully monitored, for toohigh water could wreak havoc on the dikes and delay planting. In summer, the river was used for moonlit boating parties, fishing, shrimping and crabbing expeditions. River travel was taken quite seriously and boat builders, crews, and boat pilots were among

19

the planters' most respected hands. Sir Charles Lyell in 1846, describes his ride up the Altamaha toward the Hopeton Plantation (from Travels in the United States, A Second Visit, 1845-1846):
"For many a mile we saw no habitation and the solitude was profound: but our black oarsmen made the woods echo to their song. One of them taking the lead, first improvised a verse, paying a compliment to his master's family, and to a celebrated black beauty of the neigh~ borhood, who was compared to the 'red bird'. The other five then joined in chorus, always repeating the same words."

Singing accompanied most excursions, probably a mechanism by which the crew could take their mindE off the arduous work. It has been said that each plat :ation's crew developed their own series of chants c 1d an arriving boat could be identified by the oarsmt 11 s song. Boat racing among each plantation became a najor event and drew spectators from up and down the eastern seaboard.
Development of lands bordering the river further inland proceeded more moderately in the late eighteenth century. Many land grants are recorded and evidence of some post-Revolutionary villages in this region still exists. A small village called St. Savilla is shown on early maps, near the Old Mount Venture s:Lte. The Sansavilla Bluffs were included in the South Carolina land grants and in 1792, the town of Williamsburg was incorporated there. Roswell King (who later founded Roswell, Georgia) was one of the town's first commissioners. The town, however, was shortlived and did not survive past the early 1800's.
Further to the west, near today's Doctortown, was the Indian-White boundary line set by the 1763 Treaty. Another trail connecting Savannah with Florida crossed the Altamaha near the boundary. To protect this crossing and the White settlements downriver, the state established a stockade here soon after the Revolution. This post, called Fort Defense, was under the command of Captain James Armstrong in 1794.
Even after the Indians were forced out of the state, the piney woods of the interior lower coastal plain of Georgia developed quite differently from the coast. Small farms with few, if any, slaves were the rule. It was all that a family could do to clear enough high land to support just themselves. The swamp-forests of the Altamaha became the settler's open pastureland.
The development of the Georgia interior and wellbeing of the coastal area became increasingly dependent

20

on the Altamaha in the 1800's. The complicated channels of the shallow estuary and sandbars, swirling currents (sucks), and eddies up-river, had been impediments to extensive navigation. However, both ocean and river pilots began to improve their knowledge of the area. In the early 1800's, the Doboy pilot, Domingo Tedoir, was the first to widely publicize the advantages of the Altamaha, guaranteeing his expert knowledge of estuarine channels to prospective river travelers. In 1806, Mr. A. Miles was first to successfully navigate a flat-bottomed boat from Boat Yard near Milledgeville to Darien, 230 miles down river, reporting no major difficulties. The expanding tobacco and cotton plantations in the upper coastal plain and piedmont became totally dependent on the Altamaha and its tributaries for bringing their goods to market. Flatboats, called "cotton boxes", "arks", or "Oconee boxes", commonly traveled down river with over 100,000 pounds of cotton and 60 "hogsheads" of tobacco in the 1810's. The return trip by pole boat took about a month with the boat weighed down under 40-50,000 pounds of supplies.
During this same early nineteenth century period, timber in the Altamaha basin became a serious enterprise. The lumber potential of the region had been realized from the day John Barnwell sent men into the cypress swamps to fetch wood to build Fort King George. The Scotch Highlanders paid their servants in lumber, finding "sawing timber the only way that we have to subsist in Darien". A tide-powered sawmill was operated near the old fort site beginning around 1806. Live oak growing extensively on the sea-islands and bluffs near the Altamaha was known as "the most durable wood in the world" and .St. Simons live oak was used in the construction of the most famous American fighting ship, the U.S. Frigate Constitution, later called "Old Ironsides". However, it was not until steam sawmills were built in Darien that lumbering became substantial.

The year 1819 was of great importance to the growth of Darien and the entire Altamaha basin. In April, the steamship "Georgia" made the first successful trip up the Altamaha and Oconee to Milledgeville. (The Altamaha played an important role in the general development of steamboat travel in America. William Scarborough, the famous steamboat engineer, tested out on the Altamaha an improvement in steam machinery that revolutionized the industry). That year also marked the beginning of large-scale timber operations on the Altamaha with the construction of Darien's first steam sawmill on Upper Bluff near the Cathead Creek - Darien River junction, west of town. Its capacity, 40,000 board feet per day (its engine "perhaps the best in the United States"), was a much larger amount than woodsmen working with water-powered mills were accustomed to having. In 1820, the Eastern Sawmill Company erected an even larger steam mill at Lower Bluff, replacing the tide-powered operations there. Its location, close to the ocean, soon made it even more important than the Upper Bluff mill.
The Altamaha was the only means by which timber could be transported to supply the Darien mills. The timber-rafting operations which ensued and lasted nearly one hundred years became one of the country's most unique activities. River running developed independently and quite differently in the south compared to the occupation as practiced in the far northern states. The river was used here in many other ways, so log "jamming" was impractical. Instead, the timber was bound into a raft and floated down to Darien, where it was sold and dismantled for milling or shipment. During these early days, the hardwoods closest to the river (cypress, ash, oak, poplar, and sweetgum) were the first to be logged. Early newspaper advertisements in the Darien Gazette explained the proper curing procedures:
"To get cypress timber with ease, the trees

21

should be deaded one yea beforehand, by peeling the bark off 8 or 10 inches wide when it strips well; the best time to peel the trees is the full moon."
This drained the sap, either killing the tree, or at least rendering it light enough to float.
Altamaha lumber achieved a nationwide reputation for its superior quality. It .was used for the railroad bridge built across the Isthmus of Panama and for the dry docks in Brooklyn.
The growth of the Bank of Darien symbolizes the harvest reaped by this town as a consequence of river commerce. Opening its doors in 1819, it became the largest and most prestigious bank in Georgia and for a while was second only to the Bank of Philadelphia. Branch offices were located in Milledgeville (State Capitol), Savannah, Macon, Augusta, Auraria, and Dahlonega. In 1823, its total assets were $2,883,540.96 and at one time the U.S. Treasury had $1,400,000 on deposit with it.

During these years, the stern-wheel steamboat became popular. Designed for passenger service only, the engine filled nearly the entire boat bottom, giving the vessel a very shallow draft. The location of the paddle-wheel in the rear aided navigation in the upper tributaries, where the river becomes narrow with tortuous bends. Remains of one old stern-wheeler wreck still lie in the Altama~a near Doctortown Landing (see photograph on page 28) .
Nature brought inconveniences as well as prosp ~~rity to the coastal plantations and town of Darien. Inf !Ction and disease festered in the swampy lowlands, perhaps to some extent made worse by the rice-harve :ting procedures (from Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation, page 267):
" .. owing to the swampy state of the fields and the great heat of the sun, the malarious atmo-

The use of the Altamaha was by no means limited to commerce. During the prosperous period of the 1830's, passenger travel up and down the river was quite common and considered a luxury (from the Savannah Georgian in "So Sings the Mighty River"):

"Who will say that Darien is not holding her head up as high as any of her sister cities, when the enterprise of her citizens creates such steamboats as the Ocmulgee and Tomochichi? Boats that cannot be surpassed in magnificance or speed, and we believe, from their construction in safety, by those of any river in the south. It is indeed with no common pride, that we witness these floating palaces on the Altamaha, which afford at once an evidence of the industry of the people, and a guarantee of the future prosperity that will attend their exertions."
''

22

sphere makes it dangerous for any white man to stay a single night on the plantation.1'
The black slaves had some degree of immunity to these diseases. Thus, during the late spring and summer, few, if any, of the planters and their families stayed on the plantations. They instead, retreated to their townhouses farther north or summer homes in the healthful pineland interior. This left the plantations to the overseers which contributed to the development of a black culture in coastal Georgia unique in America. In few other areas did the black community evolve under so little direct influence from colonial culture. Many native customs brought over from Africa survived more intact here than anywhere else. The influence of the "Geechee Negroes" on American folk culture extends far beyond coastal Georgia.
The increasing prevalence of disease led to a decline in river use and the prominence of Darien, late in the 1830's, and a complete recovery awaited Reconstruction after the Civil War.
CIVIL WAR PERIOD
The lower Altamaha did not play a big role in the War Between the States, though life here changed after the war as significantly as other areas of the south.
The Highlanders' 100-year old prophecy, as mentioned on page 16, did in fact come true. On June 11, 1863, a regiment of ex-slaves attacked Darien and literally burned every building in town to the ground.
The Doctortown area played a key role during the conflict. In 1853, the Savannah, Albany, and Gulf Railroads (now the Atlantic Seaboard Coast Line) started from Savannah to Waycross and beyond. The railroad bridge built at Doctortown was the first of any type

to span the Altamaha (crossing near the ancient Indian Trail ford). This crossing had a strategic importance during the war. It was a principal means of bringing foodstuffs from the interior, north to the battlefronts. The old barracks of Fort Defense were refurbished and occupied, to protect the bridge. During Sherman's devastating "march to the sea" toward the war's end, he attempted to take the bridge (from the Georgia Historical Marker, "The Defense of the Altamaha Bridge"):
"On the 16th (December, 1864), General Sherman sent Hazen's Division, 15th Corps, to destroy the railroad from the great Ogeechee River to Mcintosh, and Mower's Division, 17th Corps, to destroy it from that point to Doctortown. By the 19th, the work had been completed as far as Morgan's Lake when Mower, under previous orders, moved back to rejoin the forces closing in on Savannah, leaving the task of destroying the Altamaha Bridge to Atkin's brigade of Kilpatrick's calvary division which, with the first Alabama calvary, had been covering the infantry's working parties. Atkins succeeded in destroying the trestle work past Morgan's Lake, but could neither capture the bridge nor cross the river and attack the Doctortown battery from the rear. Unable to dislodge the Confederate defenders, Atkins finally withdrew, marched through Hinesville, and rejoined Kilpatrick at the great Ogeechee River."
In 1838, Pierce Butler, a plantation ovmer, brought his new wife, Fanny Kemble to live on his famous river plantation on Butler's Island in the Altamaha delta. At the time, Miss Kemble was a brilliant actress at the height of popularity in her native England. Miss Kemble did not enjoy her year's stay in Georgia, and her Journal is filled with long exposes criticizing the institution of slavery. The Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation, by Fran~es Kemble Butler, was published in 1863 and had considerable impact in Europe.

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Some historians believe England's subsequent decision to fully support the abolitionists caused the turning point of the war.
RECONSTRUCTION
Life along the lower Altarnaha and use of the river were altered by the Civil War. The delta rice and seaisland cotton plantations which flourished before were completely devastated. For many years in the late 1800's some planters tried to refurbish and maintain their river plantations. Frances Butler Leigh, Fanny Kemble's daughter, told of her family's struggle to restore the Butler Island rice fields in Ten Years on a Georgian Plantation. For a while, it seemed like they might be successful, but willing and skilled labor needed for the difficult tasks of maintaining the dikes and canals and nursing the crops through harvest could not be secured. Planters even tried importing Irish and Chinese workers, but eventually gave up. A hurricane in 1878 destroyed the Butler Island rice fields and the crop was never replanted. Others held out longer, but by 1900, rice cultivation in the lower Altarnaha was a thing of the past.
It was during these years shortly after the war that people turned to the Altarnaha's natural resources with great intensity. Darien rebuilt itself rapidly, and, with capital brought in by Altarnaha lumber, it soon became more prosperous than ever before.
Down river carne the rafts once again. By 1868, Darien timber exports topped 20 million board feet, and by 1874, they shipped out over 100 million board feet. In 1874, the Darien Timber Gazette was started and an early article reflects the renewed enthusiasm in the budding town (from "So Sings the Mighty River", page 9):

"The sites of destroyed mills h~ve been rehabilitated by mills of greater capacity, daily distributing to the ships that await it, hundreds of thousands of feet of lumber, while the long line of booms that stretch their length along the shores of the Altamaha, teem with the seemingly inexhaustible supply of timber that this river and its various tributaries furnish to the needs of the world."
The Altarnaha lumber again became known throughout the world, and Great Britain, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Italy, Germany, Portugal, and Brazil established consulates in Darien. The sight of large ocean-bound sailing vessels was a common one and is still nostalgically recalled by older residents.
Darien gained a reputation as a cosmopolitan town, and a visit here generated much excitement. Indeed, raft trips down to Darien played an integral part in piney-woods Georgian's lives. A boy's first trip down river was one of the initiation rights towards adulthood. Early river rafters were usually back-woods farmers, running the river only during the winter/spring wet season. During the cool weather of late fall and early winter, trees were cut. The sap was down and they could be most easily felled. By this time, the large cypress nearest the river had mostly been removed, and lor.g-leaf yellow pine, of which there was an "inexhaustible supply", was the principal tree sought. As the wc.:er rose in late March, the logs were bound into rafts and pushed off on the crest of the flood. This is explained in "So Sings the Highty River'', in a song:
"Timber cutter cuts the logs. He puts it in the water. He floats it down to Darien town To get his little quarter."
The trip down river must have been exciting,

24

especially for an inexperienced farm boy. A good description of such a trip can be found in Brainard Cheney's River Rogue. Professors George Rogers and Delma Prestley of Georgia Southern College had extensive interviews with old raftsmen, and Bessie Lewis, a Hcintosh historian, with Professor Carlton Morrison of Brunswick Junior College researched the old articles from the Darien Timber Gazette. From the words of these people, it is possible to get a feeling for the river-lore of the timber era.
A raft was normally manned by two men, with the bow and stern oars used primarily for steering. The most experienced oarsman took his position in the bow. The trip down the lower Altamaha was probably the most adventurous part of a log-rafting trip. The following description will give some idea of what this trip would be like:
Just before Doctort0wn, Bugg's Bluff is reached on the "Injun" side of the river- a tradition carried over from the days when the Altamaha formed the White-Indian boundary. Rather than say "go right" or "pull left", a rafter shouts "bow Injun" or "pull to the White" to indicate his intent. A first-timer was often fooled here by a common prank (from River Rogue, page 18):
"He bet Ratliff a dollar of the money they would get for the raft that he couldn't throw his knife up on top of the bluff. It didn't look so hard to do but when they came past, the raft swung right under the top of the bluff. Ratliff lost his knife and dollar too."
A few miles down river, Hannah's Island (actually no more than river swamp surrounded by the river on three sides) is cautiously passed (from River Rogue, page 18):
"That night Poss told him about Hannah's Island. He said a bunch of soldiers camping there during

the war had a woman. They had all had her and she died. Her name was Hannah and they called the island after her, because her ghost haunted it Old Uncle Cicero Jackson had seen her, Poss told him. He had been fool enough to try to tie up there one night about dusk .. He said that just as he went to jump ashore with his rope, he looked up and there she was, standing in the edge of the swamp, as white as a scraped hog and smoke pouring out of her belly. She said, 'Throw me the rope, raft hand!' Cicero didn't throw her the rope. He made Darien before he threw anybody that rope."
Just below here starts the famed "narrows", the wildest section of the Altamaha today. The river has a much steeper gradient here than along other stretches, and runs full, fast, and deep. Rafters know by heart each of the 36 "points" in the crooked narrows, and here is where their developed skills from previous weeks on the upper river, were really tested. Sometimes a raft was washed into the swamps and would not go anywhere until a steamship passing by offered a tow. Two of the Altamaha's largest "rounds" (meanders where the river bends back on itself) are found within the narrows. Here, raftsmen docked at the upper end and could converse freely with those at the opposite end, though two miles of river separated the parties.
Near the end of the narrows (marked by the Penholoway Creek junction) is the most popular landmark, "Rag Point" (Rag Round on today's maps), on the north side of the river. Bessie Lewis describes an 1878 writer's description of this site (from "So Sings the Mighty River", page 13):
"Rag Point .. is an odd-looking place, being a point of land jutting out into the river with a thick growth of bare bushes upon its surface. Bare did I say? No! Indeed it is not bare. Every conceivable article of clothing ever worn by male or female hangs in promiscuous confusion

25

on every limb and branch of the miniature forest on the point.

only slammed the point and roused some wasps in the bushes. He didn't mind the stings."

An odder point or more ludicrous view never presented itself to mortal eyes. Old breeches, coats, jackets, drawers, socks, hats, caps, shirts, and chemises, all adorn the limb and branches on the point. The explanation of this is simple.
It has been customary ever since rafting was first inaugurated upon the river, for every person making his first trip down the river to hang a rag upon 'Rag Point', under penalty of being dunked in the river and docked, after reaching Darien, to an unlimited extent for drinks."
One had to be constantly on the lookout for snags in the river, which could easily rip an entire raft to pieces, as well as being wary of the bights and sucks around each point. "Had-Dog Point", "Box Point", and "Old Hell Bight" were some of the most difficult spots.
Further down river come two spots with an interesting name origin (from Life and Lore of Timber Raftsmen in Southeast Georgia, page 7):
"Several raftsmen we have interviewed chuckled when they referred to 'Old Woman's Pocket' and 'Devil's Shot Bag' (also 'Old Han's Shot Bag'). The first name originated when an old woman was asked how deep the river was where she crossed it. 'Come up to my pocket,' she replied. After an old devil (old man) crossed, he answered that the river came up to his 'shot bag' . "
Old Woman's Pocket was also a renowned danger spot (from River Rogue, page 19):
"He was surprised, but heartened when they got by the pocket without losing any timber. They

The influence of the tides is also felt. The raftsmen often had to hold up, usually at Swan Lake or Couper's Bar and wait for the tide to turn before proceeding on to Darien. This might be the first time a raft would be stopped since the float trip's beginning. The men would ride the river all day and all night (from Raftsmen of the Altamaha, page 36):
"One pilot, regaling others around a campfire, bragged that he knew the river so perfectly that he could tell where he was even on the darkest night by tasting the water."
River baptisms were a common site to raftsmen along the lower river. A black tradition retained from Africa, baptisms took place only during the ebb tide, so one's sins were washed out to sea.
Other boats continued to ply the river during this time as well. Steamboat captains were the most respected men in town. River travel was not without danger and wrecks were frequent. Continuous effort was expended to maintain a clear channel and remove river obstacles. The river's primary use, logging, also brought on the most serious obstruction problems. In 1877, a major cleaning operation took place between Macon and Darien and in 1885, the federal government was petitioned to maintain a three-foot channel along the entire route.
The 1890's brought the last of the boom years to the lower Altamaha. In 1900, the highest annual timber export was reached: 112 million board feet. Steamship freight and passenger cruises also peaked in t1e 1890's. The decline in river use was not until thE twentieth century, although the inevitable decline 1ad been predicted many years earlier. Many factors combined to bring this about. For one, much of the "inexhaustible forest" near the Altamaha and her tributaries began showing serious signs of depletion.

26

It took bigger floods and more effort each year to bring down enough timber to meet the demands in Darien.
Railroads undoubtedly proved the determining factor. Railroad lines were rapidly rebuilt after the war, with major routes from Macon to Brunswick and Savannah to Waycross and points south. A train could travel in a day the same distance it took rafts three weeks. That river-logging lasted as long as it did, attests to the importance of the Darien Port. Later, narrow gauge railroads, called "Tramroads," were connected to the main railroad lines and Darien, too was bypassed by the major railroad companies. The shallowness of the port added to disadvantages and Darien, after nearly 200 years as a key coastal town, was forced down from its position of prominence.

27

In .the twentieth century, lumber became big business throughout the lower coastal plain of Georgia. Lumber and lumber products were the principal exports of all the interior towns that sprang up along the railroad lines near the lower Altamaha (Jesup, Doctortown, Johnston Station - later becoming Ludowici, Gardi, Pendarvis, Mount Pleasant, and Sterling Station

are all timber and railroad-related towns).
The Georgia Gazetteer (1883-1884) claimed Jesup as being "the center of the finest lumber region in the state" . Some of these towns had sawmills powered by water from the Altamaha. As the timber lands were cleared, farms began to crop up on a larger scale. But farms were not very successful in the unproductive soils of the lower basin and tree companies began buying large pieces of land and planting tree-farms on a wide scale. This is the principal use of the Altamaha study area today.
Steam travel on the Altamaha out- lasted lografting. J.C. Hadden (who claims to be the last of the licensed river pilots) tells about these final days of river running, on the Macon-Savannah line (from Georgia Rivers, "The Altarnaha", pages 26-27):
"The last line in operation was the Macon-Atlantic Navigation Company, which owned the steamboat 'Greater Macon' and the diesel 'Ocmulgee', that I ran. The round trip took two weeks, so we had a boat at each terminal port once a week, and the middle river had the service of two boats a week.
We ran work barges, not fancy packets. My only passengers were occasional fellows who went along for the adventure. We could carry 200 to 300 tons, and we were nearly always loaded. There usually was more business than we could handle. In Savannah we took on groceries, hardware, sugar, and fertilizer; and put off cargo at Darien, at Doctortown, which was the port for Jesup and Ludowici, and at Lumber City, Jacksonville, Hawkinsville, and Macon on the Ocmulgee, and at Mount Vernon and Dublin on the Oconee~ Then we loaded cotton, naval stores, and lumber for the return trip. We carried a lot of local freight from the railroads to big farms along the river.

It wasn't unusual to tie up to the bank and set out 200 bags of fertilizer. In the prohibition era we'd sometimes set off a couple of hundred pounds of sugar.
The railroads never hurt us. In fact, we worke.l together. But when the highways were paved, motor trucks put us out of business in 1934."
In recent years, the inherent values of the lo~ !r Altamaha's natural and historic resources have begur. to

28

be appreciated more than ever before. Some areas of the river-delta have been set aside for wildlife management, natural area protection, and historic interpretation, and many are beginning to rediscover the aesthetic va~ue associated with the Altamaha's wild beauty.
Today, the river environment is more primitive than it has been for the last 200 years. The grand scale of the natural environment is significantly less than what existed before the western settlers came, but more than what existed after the extensive logging and "taming" of the land took place. The land is on its way back and the recovery is enough to allow many of us to look upon the Altamaha as a river similar to that of our forefathers.
HISTORIC AND ARCHAEOLOGIC SITES
"Tread softly here, white man, For long ere you came, strange races Lived, fought, and loved."
Rock Eagle Monument, Georgia
When the last of the Creek and Guale Indians disappeared from coastal Georgia in the nineteenth century, a history was left behind that included ten thousand years of the "strange races". Since that time, settlers from all over the world have come to Georgia, and they too have left evidence of their occupation and use of the landscape.
The information contained in the Historic and Archaeologic Sites Map (Figure 4) is a summary of information drawn from many sources. Historical texts on the Altamaha River were reviewed and interviews were held with local historians. Past archaeological surveys (such as the 1896 report by Clarence B. Moore) were screened for historical or archaeological site locations and descriptions (see Appendix A: Descriptions

of Selected Historic and Archaeologic Sites) and refined with information and surveys from Georgia state historians and archaeologists.
The legend in the upper right-hand corner of the Historic and Archaeologic Sites Map is a key to several types of information. The quartered circles indicate the locations of historic settlements that were occupied in one or several of the following historical periods: Indian, Colonial, pre-1860, and post-1860. Historic areas that have markers lo~ated on the site are indicated by the historic marker insignia. National register sites have a star while various symbols denote Indian trails, the Bartram Trail, historic roads, historic (lumbering) trams and railroads. Descriptive place names are areas along the main channel of the Altamaha River which have received descriptive titles from the older days of river travel and commerce.
Most of the historic sites are partially explained through the preceeding history text or Appendix A. Also, the sites listed in Table I can all be referenced in the Historical Texts of the Bibliography and further referenced through the Historic Preservation Section of the Office of Planning and Research, Georgia Department of Natural Resources. Table I is an historic listing of twenty-four settlements, ten plantations, seventeen travelways, ten river landings, twenty-three forts, and a small sampling of river place names. Historic sites that contain a Georgia Historical Marker; are listed on the National Register of Historic Sites; or belong to the people of Georgia as an historic site, have an asterisk notation.
The information from the historical survey has been incorporated into the planning process through an overlay procedure which allows the historic sites to have an equal emphasis with recreation and land use analysis (Chapter 3) and the natural factors analysis (Chapter 4) in determining the form of the Recreational Activities Plan and Program (Chapter 5).

29

HISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
Aleck Island Ashintilly* Cannon's Point Carteret's Point Clark's Bluff Couper's Point Darien Bluff Doctor town Fishing Lake Hampton Point Hird Island Hughes Old River Jesup Joiners Island Joiners Old Field Lake Bluff Lawton's Field Lower & Upper Sansavilla Ludoici Morgan's Lake* Oglethorpe's Bluff Paradise Park Reid's Bluff The Ridge*
HISTORIC PLANTATIONS
Altama* Broughton Island Broadfield*** Butlers Island* Elizafield* Evelyn Generals Island* Grantly Hofwyl*** New Hope

HISTORIC TRAVELWAYS

HISTORIC STRUCTURES

Aluchua Trail Barnard's Trail Barrington Ferry Barrington Road Bartram Trail* Blue's Reach Road* Doctortown Path Fort Barrington Road Ga. Coast and Piedmont RR Grants Ferry Road King's Road Oglethorpe Bridge Old Barrington Road Old Post Road River Road Shell Road Wire Road
HISTORIC RIVER LANDINGS
Brown's Lake Clark's Bluff Holland Honeygall Joiners MacFishery Oak Old Still Opossum Ox Lot

Bank of Darien* Bethlehem Church Brunswick/Altamaha Canal* Clayhole Church Cox Cemetery Darien Presbyterian* Dixie School Dixie School Church Evelyn Mounds Laurel Grove Site* Little St. Simons Mounds Lower-Bluff Mill* McClendon School Midway Church* Mount Venture Old Meeting House* Penton Hill Church Spanish Mission* St. Andrews Cemetary* St. Andrews Episcopal* St. Cyprians Episcopal* Townsend Mound Union Church
HISTORIC FORTS
Fort Barrington** Fort Darien* Fort King George***

NOTE: * Georgia Historical Marker ** National Register of Historic Sites
*** Georgia State Historic Site

TABLE 1 HISTORIC SITES OF THE LOWER ALT&~A RIVER

HISTORIC RIVER PLACE NAMES
Alligator Congress Bar Room Blackbeard's Creek Box Point Boyles Island Brian's \-Jood-yard Round Bug Bluff,Suck & Island Casino Ridge & Slough Cathead Creek Clark's Reach Clayhole Creek Couper's Bar Deadman's Point Doctor's Creek General's Cut Half-moon Bluff Hannah Island Harper Slough Honeygall Creek Kneebuckle Island Johnson's Lake
Lewis Island & Creek
Mad-Dog Point Miller Lake Cut-off Old Hell Bight Old Man's Shotbag Old \>loman's Pocket Penholoway Creek Pico Island Rag Point Rifle Cut Sister Pine Round Spill-over Bar The Narrows Wateroak Rounds (1st & 2nd) Webb-Stump Bight \>lestley Horn Wreck-of-the-Louise

30

' ' ()OGA.f ll10fW III.Ufr

' .,.J " -

-.~ -e ~t(_S Ot.O RIVER

... ~

\

!

. ,... ..,.,..

l

I I I ' - # a .._.,. 1 ......,. ...-.. - - ' ,....... -. ._.. . . . . . , . _ - - -
INDIAN ~ COLONAL ~ PRE 1860 ' ~ POST 1860 ~
1M GEORGIA HISTORIC MARKER
NAT10NAL REGISTER ~
--- DESCRIPTIVE PlACE NAMES ~ INDIAN TRAI.S .. ~ .... ~ BARTRAM TRAIL
ROADS
TRAMS AND RAILROADS
'-.

ACIU

- MIU..5...,. .

- --- FUI

o )006

;)

ooo

CEORCIA DEPARTMENT Of NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE Of PUNNING ANO RESEARCH

THE ALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 4

31

32

CHAPTER 3
RECREATION AND
LAND USE ANALYSIS
The lower Altamaha River is a truly unique recreational resource of major importance to coastal Georgia. The selection of the area for study by the Department of Natural Resources is based on this importance and the growing knowledge that a major recreational resource like the Altamaha gains importance every day. Very few areas in the southeastern United States can come close to the diversity, magnitude, and wholeness that the Altamaha River floodplain encompasses.
The closest comparable area to the Altamaha, in terms of recreational use, is the Okefenokee National wildlife Refuge. Surveys by the Department of Natural Resources show that the Altamaha Study Area had more visitor attendance than the Okefenokee during 1974 (January 1, 1974 to January 1, 1975). The Altamaha had slightly over 400,000 recreational trips in 1974 (see present recreational use discussions) compared to the Okefenokee with slightly over 300,000 (see Appendix B: Okefenokee N.W.R. 1974 Use Figures). Amazingly, the popularity of the Altamaha River exists with limited facilities and public ownership, and without much publicity as a place to go.
In the Georgia Scenic Rivers Report by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (1970), the Altamaha placed third when ranked with fifty-three other rivers

and streams in the state as to scenic value, with recreational floatability being a major criterion. The rep~rt stated that "The superlative fish and wildlife habitat of the Altamaha is unexcelled by few, if any, southeastern rivers; immense cypress swamps, hardwood forests, tidal marshes, and islands provide high diversity".
Under the general recommendations of the 1977 Georgia State Parks and Historic Sites Systems Plan, it was recommended:
"that rivers be examined closely by DNR as resources in high need of protection. Rivers appear in both the natural areas and recreation parks as needed: under natural areas as a preservation need and under recreation parks as a water recreation need. Riverrelated sites should receive a high priority for acquisition."
The Altamaha offers the largest river-swamp ecosystem in the state that is so well-suited for scenic and recreational use. It possesses outstanding value for education. The U.S. Department of the Interior stated in 1962 that "Wetlands of all types have a high intrinsic value for education and research purposes because of the great number and variety of life forms they support. The biological, intimate associations of plant and animal communities present in marshes and swamps represent an important resource for teaching and study. They are especially valuable to the researcher interested in tracing the intricate relationship of plants and animals under an everchanging environment".
Charles Clement, in his 1971 coastal recreation study The Georgia Coast: Issues and Options for Recreation foresaw a doubling of demand for recreational activity along the Georgia coast during the decade of the 70's. According to Clement, "Georgia residents

33

visiting the coastal areas presently outnumber visitors from other states by a ratio of ten to .one .. Interstate 95, however, will increase greatly the volume of travelers from other states passing through the region. This change will generate additional demand for services and enroute recreational opportunities." The lower Altamaha, lying approximately fifty-three miles from St . .Harys and sixty-three miles from Savannah, enters Altamaha Sound and the ocean in the geographical center of this region.
The Georgia Environmental Corridor Study (1976) by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources examined twenty-eight major river corridors in Georgia. On a graduated scale, the Altamaha rated excellently for both environmental quality and human use. On a scale of five (high) to one (low), the Altamaha's scenic river rating was four, the major river rating was four, the intrinsic value rating was four, and the extrinsic value rating was three. This placed the Altamaha in a high preservation/high use category described as, "the most vulnerable to conflicting uses and requiring the greatest amount of development controls and management systems. These conflicting uses will also require the most detailed efforts in land resource planning to resolve such conflicts".
Recently, the Department of the Interior recognized the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area as a growing influence on the eastern flyway. In November of 1976 at the "Man in the Landscape" Conference, the National Park Service presented a plaque dedicating the Lewis Island Natural Area of the management area as a National Registered Natural Landmark. A few years ago, .the Department of the Interior recognized the historical value of the Altamaha by placing Fort Barrington and Fort King George on the National Register of Historic Sites.
The Altamaha River has also been designated by local Area Planning and Development Commissions and the State
34

of Georgia as a recreation resource of statewide and regional significance needing protection and preservation. The 1972 State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan stated a need for the development of river corridor resources with diverse types of environments to assure the opportunity for a wide variety of activities: "The increasing demand for outdoor recreation makes it imperative that sufficient waterways be preserved to meet future needs." In 1976, the Georgia Office of Planning and Budget urged all local Area Planning and Development Commissions to list their top two or three community affairs issues. Oneof the top priorities cited by the Altamaha/Georgia Southern APDC was: "Give serious consideration for a state park.. on the Altamaha River in Jeff Davis, Appling, or Wayne Counties." The Coastal APOC has consistently urged more state development of scenic and tourism resources. The Coastal APDC, with the aid of the Coastal Management Program, has been involved in a study to improve the scenic qualities of Highway 17 (the Altamaha WMA being rated one of the most scenic areas) and a feasibility study of a possible visitor information center for the Darien/Mcintosh/ Altamaha area.
County governments, city governments, and the local citizens have long respected and understood the unique qualities of the Altamaha. A primary objective of Mcintosh County has been to improve citizen access to the Altamaha's public lands. Long County sponsored a public boat ramp on the north side of the Highway 301 bridge while the Wayne County Jaycees are developing an access park on the south side. Glynn County operates the only fully-developed park on the river at Everett City.
The local citizens of the four counties which border on the lower Altamaha have been the most persistent in stating the virtues of the Altamaha as a great natural river that is well-suited for abundant recreation. Their first conference was called "A Rally

for the Protectionof the Altamaha River" and was held at the Mcintosh County Courthouse on July 30, 1971 (see Bibliography). The second conference was held in the late fall of 1976 and was called "Man in the Landscape" (see Bibliography). Speeches and papers were presented at both along with boat tours and guided walks.
Support for natural river recreation has also been expressed by timber companies and others owning land in the study area. In 1973-1974, the largest landowner, ITT Rayonier, freely cooperated in a moratorium on logging in lands that are valuable for the success of the Recreational Activities Plan and Program (Chapter 5). Their cooperation since has been commendable. The Union Camp Corporation is the second largest landowner on the Altamaha and first stated support for natural river recreation as a response to a 1973 DNR scenic rivers survey. Brunswick Pulp and Paper and all other landowners have indicated cooperation and support.
It seems as though all of those who have learned to know the Altamaha or those few who have always lived with the river, have a respect for the resource. It is an alluring place, and this is what makes the Altamaha so important, so unique.
RECREATIONAL USE, NEEDS AND SUPPLY
A knowledge of recreational use, future needs, and existing supply is an important tool in assessing the recreational potential of a proposed recreation area. Basically, the concept is to determine the present and future potential recreational use which an area will receive (use), then to assess the recreational facilities that will be needed to serve the expected use (need), and then to compare the needed facilities to present facilities

35

in the area to determine the amount of facility needs that is being provided by existing facilities and what facilities are needed (supplied). The difficulties in this process lie mostly within the use analysis. Methods for assessing present recreational use are varied, expensive, and generally not concise. A further complication is that needs and supply data rely heavily on the present use assessment. Needs and supply involve the generation of information, but the information analysis is easily obtainable through standards and compiled statistics. Assessing use, on the other hand, is usually an information-gathering process based upon subjective analyses of information which has to be generated by the researcher.
Recreational assessment is a function of the size and socio-economic characteristics of the population in the market area, the percentage of that population which seeks recreation, the preference for types of activities, the number of days people go out for recreation, the travel modes employed, and the capacity or supply of areas on which the desired activities can be carried out.
In a recreational area like the Altamaha, there are inherent problems in the process of assessing the meaning of the recreational data collected. For conventional activities, use is conditioned by supply constraints. Consequently, measured attendance which merely represents past behavior may not adequately reflect present consumer desires or the future demand for new or experimental types of activities. Many types of outdoor activities are often subjects of faddism. Thus, the difficulties of projecting future probable demand for outdoor recreation are not due primarily to the method used, but to the nature of our past experience and to the probabilities of future change. If trends, tendencies, and influencing factors are identified and good recreational use, needs, and supply information is added, the complications of analysis can be minimized.

For this process to work, it is necessary to determine who the users of a potential recreational resource will be, where they will come from, and ,7hat their preferences are for recreation. This is coamonly accomplished by formulating and analyzing the market area of a recreational resource from whicr prospective recreationists will originate.
ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA
The Altamaha River market area is defined as that region from which the overall majority of users of the lower Altamaha River resource would originate. In other words, it is the geographic area and population that primarily would be served by the develcpment of the lower Altamaha River corridor into a seen: : and recreational river resource.
The origin of visitors to recreation areas in Georgia is presented in Table 2. The average visitor comes from a relatively nearby area; approximately 80% travel 50 miles or less. Because the percentages represent an average for all recreation areas in Georgia, they must be applied with care to visitor projections for the Altamaha. The influx of travelers along Interstate 95 (which traverses the study site) and the growing popularity of the Altamaha will surely bring more non-market area visitors.
The graph indicates that, on the average, 67.6% of the visitors come less than 25 miles to a recreation area, 12% travel 25 to 50 miles and 20.4% will come from further than 50 miles. All of the coastal cities of Georgia (Savannah, Brunswick, Darien, St. Marys) fall within this 50-mile radius from which most of the recreational use will originate as do the inland towns of Jesup, Baxley, Douglas,

36

Pearson, Hinesville, Claxton, Waycross, Ludowici, Folkston, Statesboro, Pembroke, Nahunta, Hazlehurst, Springfield, Blackshear, Sylvania, Alma, Metter, Mount Vernon, Vidalia/Lyons, Reidsville, and Glennville. These inland towns are the county seats of all counties within the Altamaha River market area (see Figure 3). A convenient aspect of the Altamaha River market area is that it basically corresponds to the coastal planning regions which were researched for recreational information in the Department of Natural Resources' State Parks and Historic Sites Systems Plan. Figure 5 shows the Market Area.
PRESENT RECREATIONAL USE
The Altamaha River is well-known to those around the state who are active fishermen and river enthusiasts. The Altamaha, being 126 miles long, provides the recreationalist with opportunities for boating, water skiing,

canoeing, and swimming. Extended trips or weekend and day use are easily available, aided by the large amount of sand bars and bluffs throughout the river's course which accommodate campers very well. Hunting, fishing, and shrimping are consistently rewarding to both the recreationalists and the Altamaha's commercial industries. The diversity of natural communities provides a great potential for habitat preservation.
The Recreation Inventory Map (Figure 6) shows the location of all existing recreational lands and facilities associated directly with the Altamaha River within the study site. The left column of the title blocks shows all public and private boat access facilities, camping facilities, and rental cabins. The column on the right is a key to all lands with public access.
A survey of recreational usage along the lower Altamaha was done in 1974 by the River Planning Unit to determine recreation participation figures for a one-year period. Campground owners and caretakers,

TABLE 2 ORIGIN OF VISITORS TO RECREATION AREAS*

Distance to Home of Visitor

Percent

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Walking Distance Less than 5 miles 6 to 25 miles 26 to 50 miles 51 to 100 miles 101 to 150 miles 151 to 250 miles Over 250 miles

32.5

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 1972 Georgia State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP).

37

LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA
FIGURE 5

cumberland island

20
38


40

e REFUGE or AUTHORITY
A. national seashore B. national wildlife refuge C. state wildlife refuge D. state waterfowl management area E. state authority F. public hunting areas
G. waycross state forest
e NATIONAL MONUMENTS 1 fort pulaski 2 fort frederica
eSTATE PARKS 3 crooked river 4 general coffee . 5 gordonia alatamaha 6 laura s. walker 7 richmond hill 8 skidaway island 9 stephen c. foster
e HISTORIC SITES 10fort king george 11 fort jackson museum (leased) 12 fort me allister 13sunbury/ fort morris 14 hofwyl- broadfield plantation 15 midway museum 16wormsloe 17 santa maria

RuECREATION INVENTORY PRIVATELY OWNED BOAT FACILITIES

BLACKBEARO ISlAN)

NATIONAL WILDUFE REFUGE

0 PUBLIC BOAT RAMPS

EGG AND WOLF ISLAt-ll NATIONAL WI.DUFE REFUGE

D TRALER CAMP SITES

SAPELO ISLAND WILDLIFE REFUGE

ESTUARINE SANCTUARV

6 TENT CAMP SITES

ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA

LlO CABIN SITES

BRUNSWICK PULP AND PAPER PUBUC HUNTING AREA

A PROMINENT SANDBARS

HOFWYL- BROADAELD PLANTATION

FORT KING GEORGE

au
[b.

nn

I r-' i\ I

b-.- -

lOa.

~

t OM

CEOICIA DE PARTMENT- or NATURAL RESOURCES
IFFICE OF PUNNING AND RESEARCH

THEALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 6

.. ..._,.. .I...
39

. .. ~. . ,., .-
;!'_. - -

._,_. :-- . ,r "1.
. -- :.:: :-- "' ' L..i-.. _:._ --..._ .
. .. ' -.rr 4~ ,. ' ... - J

.....

fish camp proprietors, and boat salesmen provided factual data and offered records of usage. Area recreation planners gave a general picture of activity along the river. Residents using the river for 20-40 years proved helpful in understanding the history of usage.
Since 1946, the Altamaha has undergone a phenomenal rise in water-related recreational activity. Recreation facility supply has not increased on a scale with use and therefore, existing functional facilities are overburdened.
Year-round recreation activity is readily apparent on the Altamaha. The peak months extend from May to September. Hunting and fishing occur most from late summer through December. Northern vacationers and commercial fishermen extend the usage from January to April.
Altamaha Park (a Glynn County park) reports a conservatively estimated 5,000 monthly users beginning in May and extending through the summer months. The park served 1,500 to 2,000 visitors on July 4th (1974) weekend alone. Labor Day was likewise filled beyond normal capacity. These figures represent total activity use including registered campers, day users, and those people using only the ramp and boat facilities. Two hundred registered campers were recorded for the period from January 1 to November 6, 1975.
Exposed sand bars in the vicinity of the ten-acre park become virtual campgrounds during summer months. Visitors camping at the park average visits of one week. Some stay as long as six months out of every twelve, Campers from Waycross, Macon, and Atlanta, Georgia; Florida; Virginia; New Mexico; and Canada were noted in the park.

Privately-run travel trailer campgrounds located in Jesup average five to ten campers per night. These facilities cater to tourists and during winter months accommodate as many as 200 trailers on a given de.y. Vacationers from Eanitoba, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, for example, use the area as a rest station while traveling Highway 301. Three days is an average length of stay.
Water skiing and boating are daily activities through out the summer along the Altamaha from Oglethorpe's Bluff to Doctortown. A local retail boat salesman, in 1975, experienced his most profitable year of sales in ten years of ownership. He has averaged 20 sales of complete outfits per month and an estimated 20 to 25 percent of customers are purchasing boats for the first time.
Exposed sand bars and bluffs are also utilized for camping along this stretch. Students are the most prominent participants in this activity and most often are on the river for the weekends.
Sundays see extensive use for all types of waterrelated recreation along this popular seven-mile segment. A total of eight boat ramps and additional boating facilities exist in this area, two of which occur on the Long County side. Combining and averaging usage for these facilities reveals an annual average of 20 boats per day. This figure accounts for the fact that some ramps receive limited weekly use due to poor access and disrepair and other popular facilities receive 75-100 boats during peak summer weekends and holidays.
From Doctortown to the coast there is an abundance of hunting, fishing, canoeing, and camping. The Creel Survey conducted in 1972 by the Region VI Fisheries Section of DNR indicates extensive fishing pressure

40

occurring at the privately-owned boat ramps at Doctortown Landing, Paradise Park, and Sansavilla Bluff.
Headcounts and interviews conducted at the Doctortown Landing have determined the average annual daily usage to be 25 persons, 80% of whom either hunt or fish. Atlanta fishermen with recreation vehicles are known to camp yearly at the landing for periods of up to 2 weeks. Doctortown is used often as a "put in" point by canoeists embarking on downstream journeys; some to Darien (public ramp), a short three days away. Four separate counts taken on random days, within the period from July to November 1975, included three groups of canoeists who had utilized the landing.
During the weekends of April, May, and June of 1975, an average of 30 persons per day used Paradise Park. One hundred sixty persons used the park during the first weekend in May. The third, fourth, and fifth of July average 218 people per day. During the next two weeks, the river level rose to more than four feet above its normal level, and consequently, only 16 people used the park. This directly represents how water levels influence productive fishing and therefore river usage. An annual average of users in Paradise Park is 75 persons per week.
Oak Landing (private) and the Sansavilla site receive approximately three-quarters of the volume shown at Paradise Park. When the river levels are conducive to good fishing, both these landings will have a marked increase in usage.
The most undisturbed portion of the Altamaha's swamp occurs below Doctortown. Consequently, the heaviest hunting pressure occurs down river. All hunting and fishing clubs recorded in the study site, with one exception, own or lease land in the area from Doctortown to Lewis Island. The 55,000 acre public hunting area is the exception which the state leases from Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company. The area extends from the Wayne/

Glynn County line to Clayhole Creek and is shown in Figure 6. Fort Barrington, in Mcintosh County, is also a center for hunting, fishing, and boating activity.
Usage figures for the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area are from information obtained by the Area Supervisor, Gene Love, and surrounding county rangers. Activities measured in man days (one person participating for one day) for the 1971 to 1972 season are represented in Table 3. Seperate figures have been totaled for the lower Management Area and Lewis Island.

TABLE 3 ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA

Annual Recreational Trips September 1, 1971 - February 28, 1972

Activity

Lower Management Lewis

Area

Island

Total

Hunting Fishing Camping Bird Watching

9,399 22,000 1,000
2,000

17,120 20,000
600

26,519 42,000
1,600 2,000

TOTAL Source:

34,399

37' 720

72,119

Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division.

Table 4 is a breakdown of the seasonal hunts for game species. It is interesting to note the partial diversity of habitat that Lewis Island brought to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area when it was included. The lower portion, or the old waterfowl management area was lacking in squirrel and deer habitat because of a dominance of salt water marsh. Also, the hardwood forests and brackish marshes of Lewis Island have increased the potential for wood ducks and migratory fowl management.

41

TABLE 4 SEASONAL BREAKDOWN OF HUNTING FROM TABLE 3

Game Season

Lower Manage'- Lewis

ment Area

Island

Total

Migratory Waterfowl Dove Clapper Rail snipe Rabbit Squirrel Deer

2,169 800 880
1,810 2,140
800 800

1,040
80 8,000 8,000

3,209 800 880
1,810 2,220 8,800 8,800

TOTAL

9,399

17,120

26,519

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division.

The period examined in Tables 3 and 4 contains 181 days and received 72,119 recreational trips. Although Table 3 reflects trips for the primary hunting and fishing seasons, other activities such as pleasure boating during the warmer months, keep the usage levels high. Throughout the year, but especially during the fall and winter hunting and fishing seasons, riverrelated recreational activities in the areas adjacent to the Management Area will increase in approximately the same proportions as usage within the Management Area. Campers at Altamaha Park, Ft. Barrington, Two Way Fish Camp, and Shellman's Bluff all utilize the Altamaha State Waterfowl management Area in addition to the recreationalists within the Management Area.
Boating, fishing, and camping continue all year at Altamaha park near the Upper Lewis Island

end of the Management Area. Both the Tarpon and Sea Bass Tournaments are conducted yearly at Two Way Fish Camp near Highway 17 in Glynn County. These two events repeatedly draw a multitude of fishermen. College and university researchers travel to the Management Area on a year-round basis for scientific and ecological study.
Annual field trips to the Altamaha are conducted by classes from the University of Georgia, Georgia Southern College, Georgia State University, AbrahamBaldwin Agricultural College, Emanuel Junior College, and others. Students from Emory University in Atlanta and Columbia University in New York conduct water quality analysis projects in the lower Altamaha River on a continuing basis.
Since 1972, the Eckerd Foundation has sponsored annual canoe trips on the Altamaha for its three camps in Florida. The Foundation also uses the Chattahoochee, Flint, and Suwannee, but prefers the Altamaha, in conjunction with the Ocmulgee or Oconee. This is because an Ocmulgee/Altamaha trip or Oconee/Altamaha trip provides the three weeks necessary for their therapeutic counseling. Five to six groups, comprising ten campers and two counselors, float the river yearly. Conservation, ecology, water-flow dynamics and pollution are studied during their trips. The river journeys have proven to be an invaluable tool in camp therapy and are to be permanently incorporated into their counseling process.
Recreational activity along the Altamaha during 1974 is compiled in Table 5. These figures represent an tual average participation, measured in recreational tri 1s, for 1974. Also, the figures were compiled mostly f om existing records which were considered to be conser rative in assessing the number of recreational participants. A trip was defined as one person engaged in one major

42

TABLE 5 ESTIMATED RECREATION TRIPS TO THE
LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER*

Hunting Fishing Pleasure Boating Canoeing Trailer Camping Tent Camping Primitive Camping Hiking Swimming Historic Site Visits Nature Study Sight-Seeing

70,000 275,000
10,540 1,400
11,91{) 7,265 1,952 785
12,200 5, 723 3,446
13,205

TOTAL

403,456

* Measured in individual man days for 1974

activity for one day. People who are pleasure boating may also swim or fish, but for the purposes of a simplified survey, recreationalists were only counted for their most pursued activity.
The number of recreational trips to the Altamaha for each activity was derived by collecting recreational use figures from those recreational facilities within the study area which had kept records. All state and federal facilities had use records. These included the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area, the Wolf and Egg Islands National Wildlife Refuge, the Brunswick Pulp and Paper Public Hunting Area (DNR records), the Fort King George State Historic Site, and the Hofwyl Plantation State Historic Site. Glynn County has some figures on attendance at Altamaha Park and some figures

are available for the public boat ramp in the city of Darien. Information for trips on private lands that were owned or leased by hunting and fishing clubs was made available through the respective club or property owner.
During 1974, monthly trips were made by staff of the River Planning Unit to randomly sample recreational use along the entire corridor. The sampling periods were for several days and visits were made to all recreation sites in the corridor. Several visits were made at each site to observe and record activities at various times of day, week, weekends, and holidays. The purpose was to fill gaps in information which would be available at the end of the year from facilities which kept records. The following is a list of all recreational facility sites which were visited (including on-river surveys): Fort Barrington/Mcintosh County Boat Ramp, Darien Public Boat Landing, Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area Public Boat Landing, Two-Way Fish Camp (private), Sansavilla Bluff Boat Ramp (private), Paradise Park Fish Camp (private), Oak Landing Boat Ramp (private), Doctortown Landing Boat Ramp (private), Jesup Jaycees Park Boat Ramp, Oglethorpe's Bluff Public Boat Ramp (Wayne County), Long County Boat Ramp, and Hughes Old River Fish Camp (private).
Base information was gathered for: sand bar camping; boats traveling into the study site from access areas not within the survey boundary (the Sapelo Dock, for example); small groups using non-public, non-commercial landings; and for commercial fishermen not considered recreationalists. Eight of the 13 above-mentioned sites had no records of use. Therefore, samplings were made of all eight for the purpose of collecting use and activity estimates.
The three private fish camps and the Glynn County Altamaha Park keep records of boat launches, camping fees, cabin fees, boat rental fees, and supplies sold. Therefore, these four sites did not require use counts.

43

Only activities and activity group size were goals.
The Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area was the sole river facility with adequate recreational use information. The Game and Fish Division of the Department of Natural Resources manages the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area and plans to further upgrade the level of information on the Altamaha by conducting a creel survey of the Altamaha similar to the excellent survey which was produced on the Pine Mountain Region of the upper Flint River. Study samplings at the Flint River survey sites were so frequent and well-controlled that the probability of error remained low while the gathered information was highly expandable. The proposed creel survey of the Altamaha should be available by 1980.
As a note of interest, the 400,000 annual recreational trips to the Altamaha makes the river the fourth largest recreational area in the state of Georgia behind Lake Lanier, the Chattahoochee River in Atlanta (the annual Raft Race is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the largest recreation event), and Six-Flags Over Georgia (an amusement park near Atlanta). However, the trips to the Altamaha are without organized publicity or improvement to encourage recreation.
MARKET AREA RECREATIONAL FACILITIES SUPPLY
Since outdoor recreation planning revolves around use of facilities by people, a basic planning tool is a determination of the supply of outdoor recreation facilities available to residents of a region. The Altamaha River Market Area basically corresponds to coastal Georgia market areas previously established by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, and the DNR state parks and historic

sites system plan. The Savannah economic area is used in its entirety together with that portion of the
Jacksonville economic area which is in Georgia. The resulting market area is comprised of 25 Georgia cou1 ties lying within an appropriate 70-mile radius of the st\dy site center (50 miles from either end). The Altamah<. River Market Area will be used to examine population trends and recreational supply; both of which directly relate to present r~creational use.
Population projections for the State of Georgia were compiled in July, 1975 by the Office of Planning and Budget, Division of State Planning, State Data Center. Projections for the Market Area Counties were extracted and tabulated in Table 6.
The total population for the study site area (Long, Wayne, Mcintosh, and Glynn) is expected to increase by an average of 7.5% from 1974 to 2000. Long County is the only county which will show a decrease in population for this same period.
The total population for the 25-county market area should increase by an average of 24% from 1974 to 2000. Atkinson, Candler, Chatham, Long, Tattnall, Toombs, and Screven Counties could result in a total average decrease of 14% in population.
State and national recreation areas for the twenty-five counties of the Lower Altamaha River Market Area are shown on Figure 5. Acreage and attendance figures for the recreation areas have been compiled in Table 7.
The supply of additional recreational facilities offered by private enterprise is available from the National Association of Conservation Districts. Table 8 shows that supply which is available in the designated market area.

44

TABLE 6 ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA POPULATION PROJECTIONS

COUNTY

1970

1980

1990

Appling Atkinson Bacon Brantley Bryan

12,726 5,879 8,233 5,940 6,539

14,800 5,500 8,400 7,900 8,900

16,900 5,200 8,900 9,800
11,200

Bulloch Camden Candler Charlton Chatham

31,585 11,334
6,412 5,680 187,816

34,600 12,300
6,000 6,000 179,700

39,000 13,800
5,800 6,200 186,200

Coffee Effingham Evans Glynn Jeff Davis

22,828 13,632
7,290 50,528
9,425

26,300 18,600
8,700 51,700 11,100

29,900 24,900
9,800 55,000 12,300

Liberty Long Mcintosh Montgomery Pierce

17,569 3,746 7,371 6,099 9,281

18,400 3,300 8,000 6,400
10,200

22,000 3,100 8,600 6,500
11,000

Screven Tattnall Toombs Ware Wayne

12,591 16,557 19,151
33,525 17,858

12,000 15,300 19,200 33,600 19,200

11,600 14,400 19,400 34,800 20,700

TOTAL

529,595

546,100

587,000

Source: Georgia Office of Planning and Budget, Division of State Planning.

2000
18,500 4,700 9,000
11,500 13,300
42,200 14,900
5,300 6,450 186,900
32,600 30,400 10,500 56,600 13,100
24,800 2,800 9,000 6,400
11,400
10,800 13,000 19,000 34,800 21,600
615,750

45

%INC/DEC
45.37 -20.05
9.31 93.60 103.39
33.60 31.46 -17.34
9.15 .48
42.80 123.00
44.03 12.01 38.99
41.15 -25.25
22.10 4.93
.22.83
-14.22 -21.48
.78 3.80 20.95
24.00

TABLE 7 ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA RECREATION SUPPLY

State Parks

Acreage

Annual Use

Crooked River General Coffee Gordonia Alatamaha Laura S. Halker Phillips Tract Natural Area
Richmond Hill Skidaway Island
Stephen C. Foster

500 1,480
'205
306 800 190 480
80

178,990 48,127
281,028 437,365 Recently Opened
67,788 Recently Opened
135,379

State Historic Sites

Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation 1,268

Ft. Jackson Maritime

Museum

8

Ft. King George

13

Ft. McAllister

30

Ft. Morris/Sunbury

9.4

Midway Museum

7

Wormsloe

822

Recently Opened
Leased 18,811
6,125 28,477 Recently Opened
6,940
Not Open

State Wildlife Management and Public Hunting Areas

Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area
Brunswick Pulp and Paper

18,570

80-100,000

Acreage

Company Public Hunting
Area Bullard Creek Wildlife
Management Area R.J. Reynolds Wildlife Refuge Waycross State Forest

55,000
20,000 18,000 37,500

Annual U e
6,000
14,000 28-30,000
8,000

National Historic Sites
Fort Frederica Fort Pulaski

209 5,500

168,542 293,332

National Wildlife Refuges
Blackbeard Island Harris Neck Okefenokee Savannah Tybee Island Wassaw Island Wolf Island

5,618 2,687 412,000 13,169
10,064 5,126

8,637 10,347 270,917 24,668
613 6,578 2,295

National Seashores Cumberland Island

40,500 Recently Opened

46

TABLE 8 1974 PRIVATE SECTOR RECREATIONAL INVENTORY

Facilities

Day Camping

443

Resident Camping 146

Transient Camping 353

Vacation Camping 527

Hunting Areas 569,173

Fishing Areas Picnick Areas Picycle Trails Hiking Trails Horse Trails Boat Facilities Boat Rentals

3,608 75 23 miles 22 miles 35 miles

National Scenic

Area

200

Historical/

Archaeological

83

Facility/Accomodation
1488 people 715 people 519 vehicle sites/
159 tent sites 543 vehicle sites/
455 tent sites Big game, small game,
waterfowl
165 pond & lake acreage
351 tables
54 ramps/741 slips 339 boats/42 charter/
12 canoe
10 sites

It is evident that the State of Georgia is only responsible for supplying a portion of the necessary recreation facilities in a given area. The private sector, federal government, county, and city government have substantial responsibility.
Presently, the Altamaha River Market Area is adequately supplied in some facilities while greatly deficient in those areas for which the Altamaha is best suited. There is an adequate supply of trailer camping, tent camping, overnight cabins, and boat launching

facilities, but upon examining these facilities, one must remember that a considerable number of them are poor or in disrepair. Others receive more activity during peak periods than their design can sufficiently handle while others never reach their capacity because of use only by select groups of individuals. There are, for example, only two boat lifts within the study site's boundaries, one of which is usually reported to be out of commission. No properly marked canoe trails are offered on any Georgia coastal river. Limited designated picnicking and primitive camping is offered, but very few trails or paths for bike, horse, or foot travel exist.
The provision of adequate recreation supply within easy access of an area's population is a goal of both the federal government, as stated frequently by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, and also by the State of Georgia in the 1972 State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan. The Altamaha Scenic and Recreational River Proposal has the development of recreational supply for the Altamaha River Market Area as a primary goal, but the proposal also considers the potential supply demand for the I-95 tourism corridor and examines the potential under the needs analysis.
RECREATIONAL FACILITY NEEDS ANALYSIS
The need for recreational trips represents the amount of possible use which would be present if enough of the correct recreational facilities existed within the market area.
Needs both in recreation trips and facilities have been determined for the year 1985 in the Altamaha River Market Area with information based on the Georgia State Parks and Historic Sites System Plan (Coastal Planning Region) and from recreational usage figures compiled

47

by the DNR Game and Fish Division on present hunting and fishing activities in the Altamaha River Market Area and by the use of Bureau of Sports, Fisheries, and Wildlife projections for future hunting and fishing trends for the southeast.
Table 9 is a summary of collected market area information on the present supply of recreational trips, the potential recreational trips, and the proJected 1985 unmet needs in recreational trips (converted to facility needs on right). Sixteen different recreational facility types are shown which are considered to be well-suited to the Altamaha recreational resource. They represent those facilities which are also considered to be in the recreational role of the Department of Natural Resources. The figures, however, represent needs which are to be met by all recreation suppliers, not just the State of Georgia.
Table 10 shows the percentage of responsibility that the Department of Natural Resources assumes for the provision of various recreation facilities.
It is quite feasible for the Department of Natural Resources to supply facilities for sightseeing (over 6,000,000 recreational trips by 1985) and interpretive education (almost 600,000 recreational trips by 1985). Some facility responsibility for both of them could be easily satisfied near the Altamaha. Passive outdoor recreation can enhance any recreation area while providing much education and enlightenment. The Altamaha offers one of the most exceptional areas within the Coastal Region for interpretive canoeing, sightseeing, wilderness hiking, and primitive camping.
The only facilities so far not considered are historic and archaeological sites. At developed facilities, over 800,000 recreational trips are possible in the Altamaha River Market Area. With more development of historic site interpretation in the market area, the

unmet state percentage of responsibility could meet the 1985 projections of facility requirements. Those projections are 967,634 potential historic site visits which is above supply by 300,000 visits. This woulj put the deficit of historic sites or historical int ~r pretation facilities at eight. The Georgia State P:trk Systems Plan lists 29 subthemes/major themes for the future state development of historic site facilitie -l. These themes are listed in Table 11.
Within the Altamaha River Market Area, there : ; a greater need for primitive camping sites than ter : camping or trailer camping sites. There is a tremc~ dous need for swimming areas, foot trails, freshwater fishing habitat, saltwater fishing habitat, waterfowl management habitat, and upland game habitat. Canoe trails, picnic sites, bike trails, and horse trails are growing in demand while significant increases are occurring in the demand for boating areas.

48

TABLE 9 ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA 1985 ESTIMATED FACILITY NEEDS

Facilit~

Present Supply in Recreational TriEs

Swinnning

2,298,537

Trailer Camping

828,325

Tent Camping

505,470

Designated Primitive
CamEing Cabins

12,906 232,725

Picnicking

591,260

Water Skiing Areas

365,450

Canoe Trails

14,100

Boating Areas

368,840

Walking Trails

20,000

Bike Trails

234,000

Horse Trails

35,000

Freshwater Fishing Habitat
Saltwater Fishing Habitat
Waterfowl Hunting Habitat

1,667,823 496,075 47,520

Upland Game Hunting Habitat

2,381,413

1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985

Potential Recreational TriES
7,161,192 8,594,359
446,957 527,078 281,256 331,674 191,736
265~814
75,459 96,960 2,181,311 2,526,800 860,944 1,033,245 41,773 51,442 2,489,854 3,066,099 5,388,185 7,115,800 2,968,326 4,887,000 1,703,156 1,967,712 8,543,490
10,399~215
3,120,464 32792,300
606,211 848,696 5,924,351 6 2594,290

Unmet Needs in Recreational TriES
4,862,655 6,295,822
-381,368 -301,247 -224,214 -173,796
178,830
252~908
-157,266 -191,358 1,590,051 1,935.540
495,494 667,795
27,673 37,342 2,121,014
22697~259
5,368,185 7,095,800 2,734,326 4,653,000 1,668,156 1,886,431 6,875,667 8,731 2392 2,624,389 32296,225
658,691 801,176 3,542,938 4,212,877

Need Converted to Facilities
540,295 square feet 699,535
-726 sites -573 -773 sites -599 1,262 sites 1 2677 -2,096 beds -2,478 4,676 picnic sites 5,692 3,303 acres 4,451 3,340 acres in 4,501 trail buffer 21,210 acres 26 2972 6,315 miles 8,348
448 miles 817 1,191 miles 1,360 57,291 acres
722643 16,345 acres 19 2111 25,721 acres 28,206 152,120 acres 183 2972

49

TABLE 10 DNR FACILITY RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER MARKET AREA

Facility

DNR Responsibility as a Percentage of Su~~ly

Swimming

15%

Trailer Camping

16%

Tent Camping

25%

Designated Primitive Camping

50%

Cabins

9%

Picnic Sites

21%

Canoe Trails

60%

Boating Areas

33%

Walking Trails

35%

Bike Trails

4%

Horse Trails

13%

Freshwater Fishing Habitat

26%

Saltwater Fishing Habitat

71%

Waterfowl Hunting Habitat

46%

Upland Game Hunting

38%

Habitat

1974 1985 1974 19'85 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985 1974 1985

DNR Responsibility as expressed in
Recreational Tri~s
1,074,178 1 289,153
71,513 84 332 70,314 82 918 54,778 59 165
6,791 8,271 458,075 530,628 25,063 30 865 699,935 890 095 1,885,864 2 490 530 518,733 595 480 221,410 266 998

DNR Responsibility of Facilities
119,353 square feet 143,239
-136 sites -161 -242 sites -286
631 sites 838 -91 beds -148 1,347 sites 1,561
84 miles 103 6,999 acres 8 901 3,143 miles 4 151 100 miles 115 158 miles 172 14,896 acres 18 887 11,604 acres 12 869 11,832 acres 12 975 57,745 acres 69 809

50

TABLE 11 STATE HISTORIC SITE "THEME" NEEDS

Major Theme
1. Agriculture 2. Georgia Ways of Life 3. Revolutionary War 4. Development of the English Colony (Political) 5. Commerce and Industry 6. Political and Military Affairs 1783-1830 7. Literature, Drama, and Music 8. Political and Military Affairs 1830-1860 9. Education 10. Political and Military Affairs 1865-1914 11. Science and Invention 12. Spanish Exploration and Settlement 13 . Indian Meets European 14. Transportation and Communication 15. Political and Military Affairs 1914-present 16. Internal Expansion 17. English Exploration and Settlement 18. Frontier Trade 19. War of 1812 20. Intellectual Currents 21. Social and Humanitarian Movements 22. World War I 23. World War II 24. Spanish-American War 25. Explorers 26. Engineering 27. Painting and Sculpture 28. French Exploration and Settlement 29. Environmental Conservation

Subtheme
(Georgia at Work) (Society and Social Conscience) (Major Georgia Wars) (Development of the English Colony) (Georgia at Work) (Political and Military Affairs) (The Contemplative Society) (Political and Military Affairs) (The Contemplative Society) (Political and Military Affairs) (Georgia at Work) (European Exploration and Settlement) (Original Inhabitants) (Georgia at Work) (Political and Military Affairs) (Georgia's Expansion) (European Exploration and Settlement) (Georgia Expansion) (Hajor Georgia Wars) (The Contemplative Society) (Society and Social Conscience) (Major Georgia Wars) (Major Georgia Wars) (Major Georgia Wars) (Georgia's Expansion) (Georgia at Work) (The Contemplative Society) (European Exploration and Settlement) (Society and Social Conscience)

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, State Parks and Historic Sites Systems Plan.

51

LAND USE AND OWNERSHIP
The Altamaha used to flood regularly to Ludowici and beyond before U.S. 301 and the dams were built. The dams on the upper Ocmulgee and upper Oconee Rivers greatly reduced flooding.
The whole upper area was big stock-raising country. Cattle roamed all over the uplands and swamps. Each year rangers would burn out the undergrowth to enhance conditions for cattle-feed. This was before fire protection was practiced and before there was a fence law. Cattle would roam through the center of towns and people would not notice. As tourist traffic increased and the number of accidents with out-of-state drivers increased, the need for control became apparent.
In 1956, the Georgia Fence Law in Georgia was passed by the Legislature, though Long and Mcintosh were among the few counties not to vote in favor. In 1957, the state voted to enforce it locally. That marked the beginning of large-scale timber management.
Many of the large landowners and timber companies have leased out the hunting and fishing rights on their lands in the past, but in many cases, this has caused problems. When land is so leased, the public, which heretofore could hunt anywhere on the property, is fenced out by the lessee. If the lessee group is a local group, it is not as bad, because locals already have unwritten agreements among each other on where each group will hunt. However, when non-local groups become lessees, prohibiting local use of an area, trouble often results. It is common in this situation for some individuals to start forest fires on the forbidden land. Many of the paper companies realize this and will not let any new leases. There are no leases on Union Camp lands near the river. However, ITT Rayonier leases all of its down river

floodplain properties. Hunting leases can run as high as $10,000 per year. The Altamaha Hunting Club reserved hunting rights when they sold their land near the Al tamaha to Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company. Much of the scrub oak on the sand ridges in the area has been cut and planted in pine. Brunswick Pulp and Paper currently does not lease hunting rights.
Land in Long County on the river north of 301 is in large private estates, and includes some of the most protected game management areas in the county. The Parkers and Howards have shown great concern for protecting wildlife over the years and thus their properties have quite high wildlife value. The Parkers lease their lands to hunting clubs.
The hardwood lands south of U.S. 301 are not noted for large numbers of game wildlife, though they certainly have the potential and are improving with time. At one time, the property had extensive uncontrolled hunting as well as excessive timber cutting.
The Doctortown Mill and Mentor Naval Stores (qld Rayonier land owner) logged most of the accessible hardwoods in the Altamaha swamp below U.S. 301. Cutting in the swamp at one time was so extensive that people feared the effect on the river and perhaps these effects are not yet fully realized. Cypress stumps can be found deep into today's marshlands.
Previous land use in the marshlands and delta was predominantly confined to the rice plantations and early settlement as discussed in Chapter 2.
Darien, being the only town fronting the river and the center of commercial boating, has shared the delta with the Altamaha River for over two hundred years. The town has always shown respect for the power of the river, and instead of constantly initiating efforts to "develop" the floodplains, the town has wisely based the majority

52

of support for the local economy on the utilization of renewable natural resources: timbering, recreation, and commercial shrimp/fishing. Towns with this type of economic base are well-known all over the United States as pleasant areas for vacations, retirement, or recently, an enjoyable life style.
Present land ownership and land use along the lower Altamaha River is shown in Figure 7. Total acreages for each landowner category are shown in Table 12.
The left-hand column of the Land Ownership/Land Use Map notes the various landowner categories shown on the map and the right-hand column shows corresponding land use. The eight landowner categories are urban, private/ absentee, private/homesite, corporate timber companies, hunting clubs, nationally-owned land, state-owned land, and lands that are not recorded (marshland/islands).
Privately held lands with absentee ownership represent 29.3% of the acres in the study site. These lands are largely family estates and plantations used

for timber production and hunting and fishing leases. Development and investment companies are included, with most of those being real estate holdings occurring in Glynn County around the delta. Out of the study site, north of U.S. 301, private lands predominate and are usually leased to corporate timber companies.
Lands with privately-owned homesites comprise only 8.4% of the study site but range in size from one-half acre to 15,000 acres.
Urbanized areas total 2.2%, represented largely by the city limits of Jesup, Ludowici, Darien, and the few small towns on Highway 341. Subdivisions and parks add a small amount to this category. Boys Estate, having its own town mayor, is included, as well as lands owned by railroad, telephone, and gas companies. A limited number of suitable industrial or commercial sites occur adjacent to the river. High ground necessary for extensive development is found mostly beyond the flood prone study site. The ITT Rayonier Mill on U.S. 301 is located on the only bluff occurring on the river that is large

Land Ownership
Timber companies Private/absentee Private/homesite Hunting club Urban State National Not recorded
TOTAL

Long 70,072 13,031
8,283 6,200 1,621
99,207

TABLE 12 LAND OWNERSHIP AND ACREAGE WITHIN THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER STUDY SITE

Wayne

Mcintosh

27,508 30,774 12,296
2,901

27,693 16,210
1,543 1,709 1,165 25,400 5,126
833

73,479

79,679

Glynn
22,935 33,554
4,811
1,275 1,294 2,325
66,194

Total
148,208 93,568 26,933 7,909 6,962 26,694 7,451 833
318,558

53

enough to accept a major industrial complex. The physiography of the river swamp is inadvertently helping to insure its potential for recreation.
2.5% of the total area is owned by hunting and fishing clubs. This is a small figure, but a significant amount of land is leased to hunting clubs by timber companies and private owners.
State and nationally-owned lands equal approximately 10.6% of the total. This category includes Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge, Glynco Naval Air Station, Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area, Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation Site, and Fort King George. The public hunting area being leased from Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company is recorded under the Timber Company category.
Corporate timber lands in the study site are maintained for pulp and paper production, nurseries and experimentation, and leased hunting and fishing privileges. Fully 46.5% of the land within our study site is corporately owned. Timbering is a prospering industry throughout the south and is quite evident in the vicinity of the Altamaha.
Surprisingly, present public, private, and industrial ownership have not resulted in three incompatible uses of property. Land sales and values indicate that efforts to develop lands in the lower Altamaha River Floodplain have generally not proceeded past the planning stazes (see Bibliography: Fountainhead Company). Ownership turnover has been sporadic, but in general, stable. The consensus of local tax department officials is that land values have been and are rising, though not at a rate that suggests expectation of excessive investment speculation. Exact values for land are difficult to determine because tax assessments do not always reflect current worth, but an average value for the area.would range from one hundred to three hundred dollars per acre.

RECREATION AND LAND USE SYNTHESIS
A synthesis of the recreation and land use research material leads to several major assumptions which, when combined with the natural factors synthesis, forms a framework for development of the recreational activities plan and program for the lower Altamaha River (Chapter 5).
The major assumptions involve the need for facilities to support present and future recreational activities. Close to one-half million people use the lower Altamaha for recreational activities at the present time. Adding the average growth rates for river sports in the southeast (see Appendix C) and the recent growth rates for selected recreational activities in the comparable area (see Appendix B: Okefenokee) to the projected increase for population within the Altamaha River Market Area and the projected increases in traffic for U.S. 301 and I-95, it can be expected that over 600,000 individual recreation trips will be made to the lower Altamaha River area in 1985.
By dividing the expected 1985 recreational use figures into demands for separate activities, the totals for each activity can be expanded by the addition of facility requirements (see Table 13) to reveal approximate facility and land needs. This was accomplished by using standards developed by: the DNR State Parks and Historic Sites Systems Plan; the DNR Site Planning Section; and the DNR River Planning Unit; and by using carrying capacity as an average of general land use suitability in the lower Altamaha area. Both figures were necessarily subjective due to the difficulty of assessing land needs on a non-site-specific basis, but are fairly reliable in that the possible sites for recreation are limited along the Altamaha (see Natural Factors Synthesis).
The National Recreation and Parks Association has recommended that 25 acres of recreational land be pro-

54

LAND OWNERSHIP
URBAN COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIA PRIVATE ABSENTEE OWNERSHI PRIVATE WITH HO ESITE TIMBER COMPANIES H NTING CLUBS NATONAL STATE NOT RECORDED

D

LAND USE
PROCESS PACKING MINING RAILROADS, SUBDIVISIONS
SETTLEMEN S, TOWNS , TI BER LAND~._~RICULTURE
HUNTING AND r~ING LEASES
REStOENCE, SUBSiSTANC
TIMHBENRTIHNAGRAVNEDSTF1l;:~,n1iNNUGRLSEEARSIEESS
HUNTING AND ASHING
WILDUFEFORRETFSU,qN~A1 .VHAISLTBOARSIEC
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT NATURAL AND HISTORIC
PRESERVATION

CEOICIA DEPARTMEIU- OF NATURAL RESOURCES IFFICE OF PLANNING AND RESEARCH
ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL
FIGURE 7

55

TABLE 13 RECREATIONAL FACILITY: ACREAGE REQUIREMENTS
LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Hunting Fishing Pleasure Boating Canoeing Trailer Camping Tent Camping Primitive Camping Hiking Swimming

10 acres per person 2 boats per acre 3 boats per acre 4 people per mile 6 sites per acre 4 sites per acre
1/2 site per acre 3 acres per mile
225 square feet per person

vided for every 1,000 residents. Based on this proposal, current acreage figures of the State Parks and Historic Sites System Plan show the coastal region to be in deficit. Acreage needs based on 1974 population estimates and 1975 park acreage show that an additional 2,725 acres are needed to obtain a ratio of 12.5 acres per 1,000 residents. A total of 6,109 acres are needed for a ratio of 18.75 acres per 1,000 residents and 9,493 acres are needed for the recommended ratio. When 1985 population projections and 1975 park acreage totals are used, the resulting acreage needs are not drastically higher, but a total of 10,083 acres are needed for the recommended ratio of 25 acres per 1,000 residents. These calculations show that between 9,000 and 10,000 acres are needed in the Coastal Planning Region immediately and that with Skidaway Island to the north and Crooked River to the south, a new site should be in the central coast.

The total recreational synthesis revealed that the total land need that could be considered by DNR for inclusion in state recreational facilities along the lower Altamaha/central coast portion of the Altamaha River Market Area is approximately 15,000 acres. Of

the total, approximately 6,000 acres will be required for intensive recreation (state park facility); 700 acres will be required for river access (boating ramps, parking, and access trails); 2,000 acres will be necessary in additional waterfowl habitat (delta marshlands); 1,700 acres will be needed in additional hardwood 1abitat (Lewis Island area); 1,200 acres will be required for natural areas and 400 acres will be required for historical sites; 3,000 acres will be necessary for rive~ recreation buffers (linear greenbelts along the river wh ch connect boating trails and provide primitive campi g opportunities); and approximately 80 miles of the ower Altamaha River channel will have boating, intensiv fisheries management, intensiv~ waterfowl management, and water sports as the primary land use activities.
Although the responsibility of the federal government, local governments, and the private sector for recreational facilities in the Altamaha River Market Area has not been met, it is generally felt that t .1is responsibility would best be met in areas of the coast near the coastal cities. The local government exceptions would be the Glynn County (Altamaha) Park and the proposed Mcintosh County (Altamaha) Park. The federal government should accept the responsibility for 100 acres of historic site preservation in areas registered by the Department of the Interior. Private sector recreational development can range from the redevelopment of existing facilities to the improvement and expansion of existing facilities.
The State Parks and Historic Sites System Plan, in the interests of increasing visitation, reducing gcquisition and operation costs, and organizing historic interpretation, recommended that DNR develop comprehensive historic interpretation centers in eight historic regions of the state. The plan recommended that the "colonial" center should be located in the Savannah or Darien region.

56

The State Parks and Historic Sites Systems Plan also stated that there are public historic site deficiencies in the future interpretation of these interpretive centers. The following types of historic sites in descending priority were recommended for acquisition: a cotton plantation; a Revolutionary War site; a black community history site; an industrial site; a political history eenter; a cultural museum on literature, drama and uusic; an educational site; a science and invention site or center; a Spanish settlement site; a European exploration museum; a transportation-communication site or interpretive center; a Georgia expansion and frontier ~rade site or interpretive center; an English expansion and settlement site; a War of 1812 site; and an intellectual history museum.
The plan placed a priority on the protection of two >riority types of natural areas. These are: a blackwater !reek ecosystem and an oligohaline creek (brackish or low 3alinity creeks emptying into tidal rivers) ecosystem.
Also, the systems plan put the coastal region (Altamaha River Market Area) in sixth priority in terms ~f statewide facility needs. The plan stated that "the following should be accomplished by 1985":
First, develop day use facilities on new acreage to include: hikingt nature, bicycle, and canoe trails; picnic sites (575); unspecified amounts of open space for outdoor games, exhibits, and dramas; birdwatching and other environmental education; and horse trails. Second, develop limited stay use facilities on new acreage to include unspecified amounts of primitive camping. No additional trailer group, or tent sites should be built at this time due to surplus sites. Third, new sites should be purchased in the central area first. Fourth, water-oriented sites should be a high priority due to large demand for canoeing, swimming, and other water-related

activities. Fifth, priority should be given to establishing an ocean beach in the Parks System.
Other assumptions of the recreation and land use synthesis are that the existing and future characteristics of land use along the study site indicate that development is proceeding at a slow pace and is mostly in the form of expanding recreational facilities, increased timbering, limited industrial expansion at ITT Rayonier and commercial development in Darien, and increased river channel maintenance. This would indicate that recreation has been, and will continue to be, beneficial and complementary to the other land uses along the Altamaha. Furthermore, the indications are that in the immediate future there will be more of a necessity for scenic and recreational river development to preserve the environment for recreation and to acquire acreage while land values are low.
Assumptions concerning the future recreational use of the Altamaha are as follows:
1. The majority of visits to the natural river park will occur during the recreation season (MaySeptember), although the mild climate of the area will allow for greater use of the park during the non-recreation season than those areas with less hospitable climates.
2. The various activities that visitors can undertake can be broken down into three basic types; day use, weekend use, and extended stay use. In addition, the activities may be engaged in by individuals, small groups (e.g. friends),
. or families. Day use activities will predominate, supplemented by a very significant amount of weekend use, and a small amount of extended stay use. Hunters and fishermen represent the majority of river users, with

57

boating and camping use taking up most of the remainder. Individual visits will be relatively small in number.
3. At least 70% of the visits will occur on weekends.
4. Peak days will be the Fourth of July and Memorial Day weekends.
5. The peak months will be March through July and November through January.
6. The development of the Altamaha River Scenic and Recreational River Proposal will, in itself, be a recreational "draw" for the river.
7. The decrease in attendance at coastal recreational facilities during 1975 (caused by a combination of the energy shortage, economic recession, and the opening of I-95) was a short-range phenomenon, and recreational attendance will, in general, continue to increase over the long-range planning period. However, a change in the visitor mix can be expected which could increase the percentage of users coming from within the Altamaha River Market Area (presently calculated at 78%).
8. It can be expected that more accurate information on future needs will be available through the improved format of the 1977 SCORP and through the DNR Wildlife Systems Plan. Both plans preliminarily note the gr~at need for natural river-oriented recreation, and the expected ability of these plane to apply information to this need will further improve the knowledge on the recreational use potential of the Altamaha.

(

58

CHAPTER 4 NATURAL FACTORS

LANDSCAPE COMPOSITION
Over a hundred years ago, Fredrick Law Olmstead, a pioneer American landscape architect, wrote about why he wanted to help in the creation of Central Park in New York City.

ANALYSIS
If many chains are woven together, a chain whose link is cut will be supported by the rest of the network, but the entire interlocking system will be weakened. So it is in nature. In general, as individual links of an ecosystem are cut, the entire system becomes less stable and more susceptible to change, with additional stress being placed on each link to compensate for damage done elsewhere. The link can be a particular forest species, a community of organisms, a floodplain, or an entire river hydrologic system. When it is cut, all the related natural systems are weakened and their functions change. However, the link-cutting process cannot be carried beyond a certain point, for at this point, the fabric of the system will break down completely. The purpose of the natural factors analysis which follows is to better understand each of the chains that make up the environment of the lower Altamaha River Corridor.
The natural factors have been grouped into five divisions: landscape composition, climate, earth resources, water resources, and natural communities. The analysis of the natural factors from these divisions provides the information which is overlaid to produce the natural factors synthesis which, with the recreation, land use, and cultural synthesis, forms the basis for the recreational activities plan and program.

"The main object and justification of (Central Park) is simply to provide a certain influence in the minds of people. The character of this influence is a poetic one and it is to be produced by means of scenes, through observation of which the mind may be lifted out of moods and habits into which it is, under the ordinary conditions of city life, likely to fall."
The Altamaha River is not a central park within a large metropolis, but the characterization is applicable. Most Georgians live in developing areas and the scenic beauty of the Altamaha River landscape composition can be one of the most rewarding experiences that can be encountered within a few hours of home.
RIVER LANDSCAPE DESCRIPTION
The Altamaha River floodplain is 89 miles long (137 miles by river) and from one to six miles wide with approximately 170,000 acres of area. With the addition of the Oconee and Ocmulgee Rivers to the Altamaha, the combined floodplains are nearly 700 square miles, or 5% of the total Altamaha basin. The Altamaha River study area includes the most extensive part of the river floodplain which is over 125,000 acres. The average width of the floodplain of the lower Altamaha is about five miles. It is suspected that the river must have carried a larger volume of water in the earlier times than it does

59

today to have carved such a large floodplain.
At the beginning of the Pleistocene, 2-3 million years ago, the Altamaha channel is thought to have been miles north of where it is today. Since that time, the river has migrated many times over the floodplain in the travel south (Hoyt and Halls, 1964). Old river channels are evident throughout the river swamp in the form of sloughs, old rivers, and oxbow lakes.
The main channel of the Altamaha is rarely in the center of the floodplain. On each turn, the river current sweeps toward the outside of the bend and erosion occurs. If land exists above the floodplain swamps, bluffs are carved.
At the same time, the slower current on the inside bend causes suspended sediments to drop, forming sand bars. The heaviest deposits 'ccur on the down river side of the bend where eddies circle and sometimes flow upstream. In this way, the river erodes one bank while building up the opposite bank.

eleven miles downstream from Highway 301 where the old river and Harpers Slough rejoin the main river.
Slightly above the end of the narrows is an oxbow lake called Bug Suck Lake. Bug Suck is one of severa.:~ old bends in the channel of the old Altamaha River tl tt were abandoned years ago. The old channel remains cc .1nected to the river but is a side lake which has con~ tinually filled with sediment. Mark Twain explained Ln Life on the Mississippi that when the cut-off occurs: the current of incoming water is slackened and heavy loads of sediment are dropped. All of the oxbow lakt and major sloughs of the lower Altamaha River have m~ Ln entrance on the downstream end. The upper end of Knc:\buckle Lake (two miles below Highway 301) is heavily laden with sediments, but U.S. Army Corps of Engineer surveys show that the cut-off occurred in the late 1800's. The lake is still river channel, but the slackened current is not enough to make a pole-boater's knees buckle as occurred frequently in the mid-1800'~. Figure 8 is a simplified version of the cut-off of Kneebuckle Island.

The narrows area was feared by timber rafters and steamboatmen for its numerous points (sharp river bends), bights (long bends with up river eddies) and sucks (low lying, oxbow lakes which siphon water from the main river). The narrows starts in the vicinity of Boyles Island (five miles downstream from Highway 301) where the river begins to descend at an average of 1 to 2. 8 feet per mile, as opposed to 0.7 feet per mile above Highway 301. The river also spreads far over the floodplain in an area that was once a lagoon/marsh sequence between two ancient coastal barrier island formations (see Earth Resources). Substantial flood waters leave the main channel (on the northeast side of Boyles Island) and flow through the Old River/Penholoway Creek (southwestern border of Boyles Island) and Harpers Slough (in the middle of Boyles Island). The narrowest portion of the main river channel
in the narrows area closes to 130 feet from an average upstream of 200 to 500 feet. The narrows ends about

Within the floodplain swamps of the lower Altamaha, drainageways and small water bodies are numerous. Due to the flat topography (and beavers), water can become ponded easily. In the freshwater reaches of the lower Altamaha, there are only three tributary streams that are over 10 miles in length. They are listed and described in Table 14.
A few smaller streams have developed channels between the barrier island remnants. In the northwest portion of Wayne County, streams often cut through bluffs bordering the river floodplain to reach the Altamaha. This forms deep ravines which have the most topographic relief in the study area.
Banks along the lower Altamaha are usually apparent only by the hardwood river swamp forest line. During

60

Downstream Erosion with Cut-Back Eddy

THE DICK SWIFT CUT-OFF OF KNEEBUCKLE.ISLAND

Dick Swift Cut-off Forms

Main Channel Diversion Occurs

Seditnents Form Oxbow Lake



EARLY 1800's

LATE 1800's

EARLY 1900's

LATE 1900's

FIGURE 8

low water in fall, the river swamp and willows are exposed enough to show the edge of the floodplain in the form of perpendicular alluvial banks and broad sand bars.

the floodplain. The height, frequency and velocity of the floodwaters determine terrace levels in the floodplain which roll gently out from the levee.

There are some small natural levees which form along the river swamp when the larger sediments fall from the slackened current of river floodwaters washing onto

The terraces are only interrupted by the upland hammocks, or sand ridges which bluff the floodplain. The height and visual impact of this bluffing along

TABLE 14 PRINCIPAL FRESHWATER TRIBUTARIES OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Main Tributaries Penholoway Creek Doctor's Creek Goose Creek

Fall Rate (feet/mile)
2
3
10

Drainage Area (Sq. miles)
220
46
60

Length (miles)
24
16
11.5

Average Flow (in CFS)
230
43 56

61

the lower Altamaha is dependent on the type of geologic formation that the river has contacted. The large bluffs on the river were carved from old barrier islands, and the smaller bluffs were carved from isolated hammocks and sand ridges in the northeastern broad floodplain of the lower Altamaha.
The Altamaha splits into a number of meandering channels in the tidal zone as it enters the delta. These channels are well-developed although the banks are less apparent when the tide is in. The first place upriver where the normal tide is visually perceptible is at Fort Barrington where a one foot fluctuation can be observed. During the freshets, the tide is not evident until the Seaboard Coastline Railroad Bridge at Altamaha Park. At Lewis Island, water flows in both directions with the tides during low water. During high water~ flow is always towards the ocean even below Darien. The mean tidal height of Altamaha Sound is 6.4 feet.

body decreases. When access is possible, hiking the swamps or hammocks can bring the natural environment of the lower Altamaha to levels of detail that would surprise most observers.
The Altamaha responds well to seasonal variations in the visual experience of recreation. Gray winter mornings with mist rising from the main channel can be almost as enjoyable as exploring the swamps on a flooded spring morning. Late summer into fall is noted for low water, broad sandbars and color changes. The changes spread from willows to swamp hardwoods over a pleasantly long period.
Figure 9 is a map which shows the areas where views of the river floodplain are most critical and where special features occur. The views that are shown are all from elevated bluffs which overlook the river or back-swamp major sloughs.

The Altamaha floodplain east of Altamaha Park provides a fine example of the tidal impact on the upper delta. The tides can be viewed as a dam against the fresh water, slowing down the descent to the sea and forcing it to spread over the floodplain. The widening of the floodplain in Buffalo Swamp is probably due to tidal effects pulsing into the lagoon/marsh lowlands behind the old barrier island that Darien is built upon.

Views on the river are not shown on the map, but are typically long and expansive with limits based on upstream and downstream turns. The river views are of a broad channel with hardwood river swamp and willow borders and occasional accents of large cypress, loblolly pines or tupelos. The views from the river are very dynamic during low water when broad white sand bars and river grasses are exposed.

VIEWS AND SPECIAL FEATURES
The scenic beauty of the lower Altamaha River is totally dependent on the section of the floodplain which is being experienced. There are long views up and down river from the broad channel of the upper Altamaha River, while in the delta, the views reach almost panoramic proportions over broad water and marshlands. On the sloughs and oxbow lakes, small details enter the experience as the size of the water

Several river bluffs and back-swamp slough bluffs are mapped on Figure 9 as disturbed. There are three ,, highway crossings shown for the lower Altamaha and two ~ railroad crossings. Most are on river bluffs along with three major Georgia Power lines. The City of Darien is built on the last river bluff toward the ocean and at the upper end of the study site, Jesup cit~ development extends along the river bluffs on the southwest side of the river near Highway 301.
At Darien, the waterfront consists largely of docks for shrimp boats and light commercial development. Also, residential and industrial development
62

-.~ .......... ~ ....... .-- - .. --- - - - - - - -
Primitive Bluff~
Disturbed Bluff Primitive Back-Swamp Bluff
Disturbed Back-Swamp Bluff lx>
e Major Side-Channels, Sand Bars & Islands
Major Back-Swamp Oxbow Lakes & Sloughs at River
Bridges & Development 0
Back-Swamp Bridges & Development o
Boatwrecks & Barricades @
Areas of Marsh Panorama ::

ACIU
lli

GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE OF PLANNING AND RESEARCH
THE ALTAMAHA
ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 9

63

are visible from some areas of the Darien River.
At Jesup, the ITT Rayonier plant and settling ponds occur below Highway 301 and parks, boat ramps, and residences line the bluffs above Highway 301. On Sansavilla Bluff, the only visual intrusion is the Georgia Power line.
Altamaha Park (the Glynn County Park near the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad Bridge) is constructed in the floodplain and represents the largest developed pocket of structures on the river below the Rayonier Mill and above Jesup. Paradise Park Fishing Camp on the Old River/Penholoway Creek and Hughes Old River Fishing Camp are the only disturbed back-swamp bluffs.
Two visible ruins occur in the river channel from historical shipwrecks and barricades. A MaconAtlantic navigation company sternwheeler wreck is located near the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad Bridge at Doctortown. Also, large wooden pilings in the narrows (lower Boyles Island) are all that remain of Civil War barricades built by Confederate soldiers to prevent Union ships from traveling upriver.
CLIMATE
The climate of Georgia is primarily influenced by its latitude, and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The latitude puts the state in the Southern temperate zone with warm summers, cool winters with occasional cold spells, and a cool to warm spring and fall. The proximity of the Gulf and Atlantic has a moderating effect upon temperature and provides precipitation and humidity for the area as moistureladen air masses move over the state. Georgia generally

has a long, warm, frost-free period of weather from mid-spring through summer and well into fall.
In general, it can be said that the weather patterns of the lower Altamaha River are generally conducive to year-round subtropical recreation. Horace Carter said about coastal Georgia in The U.S. Climatic Summary of Resort Areas: "Outside recreational activities such as golf, tennis, hiking, and boating can usually be enjoyed during the coldest times of year. Many winter days are warm enough for outdoor swimming."
The Gulf Stream, a large and very warm current, dictates weather patterns throughout most of the southeast (Kendrew, 1953). The effect is especially evident in the lower Altamaha/coastal area where offshore thunderstorms rumble inland most summer afternoons. Southwest winds bring the Gulf Stream's warm, moistureladen air masses in contact with cooler continental air. In the winter, the warm air movement is weaker (with lower pressures) and the colder continental air prevails.
The Altamaha River study area is a coastal envir ,nment which is very dynamic in the diversity of plant and animal life community zonations. A variety of weather factors (principally precipitation) partially determines the length of growing seasons and zonation: at various points inland on the river. This is demonstrated graphically in Figure 10 which represents the average fall growing-season precipitation (measured in inches) for 1931 through 1960.
A comparison of weather figures from coastal stations and inland stations was completed on the Nor.th Carolina outer banks in 1962 (Burk). Burk discovered that "the growing season on the banks may be as much as two months longer than that thirty miles inland". The coastal plain of Georgia has less

64

gradient than the North Carolina coast, and Dr. John Bozeman (in his dissertation) pointed to the difference in the mean "growing season" for the Brunswick Coastal Station which is 38 days longer than the Glennville Station (50 miles inland). This relationship is shown in Figure 11.
GROWING-SEASON PRECIPITATION Normal Total Precipitation in Inches (September, October, November 1931-1960)

Bozeman also stated that "temperature extremes affect the growth and distribution of plants, and the occurrence of these in the spring when growth has started can be critical In Georgia, many coastal
BRUNSWICK AND GLENNVILLE, GEORGIA Average Monthly Temperatures 1931-1960
90

80 Brunswick

~
~

t<1
~

70

c~ :;o:

t<1

60

Source:

The National Weather ~ecords Center, Environmental Data Service, Environmental Science Services Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.
FIGURE 10

50
J F MA MJ J A s 0 N AEAp Auu u E c 0 E NBRRy NL G p T v c

Source:

The National Weather Records Center, Environmental Data Service, Environmental Science Services Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.
FIGURE 11

65

plain species are found nearer the coast as one goes farther north and eventually, their northward distribution becomes limited even though suitable habitats exist".
The inland hardwood swamps areas of the lower Altamaha River have a humid and sub-tropical climate. Summers tend to be hot and winters are mild and short. Precipitation reaches the maximum in the late summer from afternoon thundershowers. Summer temperatures usually do not vary from day to day and rarely reach the 90's, but long periods of late afternoon summer heat are avoided by the frequency of summer showers (Carter, 1971). Freezing temperatures rarely last more than a month.
Spring has periods of very unpredictable daily weather with alternative temperatures moving quickly into the warm summer. Fall, however, is characterized by long periods of sunny weather with mild nights and pleasant days.
The delta lowlands of the Altamaha River have a climate which is moderated greatly by the Atlantic Ocean. Small micro-climates exist beyond every barrier coming inland and warm water temperatures move inland with every tide. On clear, windless nights, the variation in minimum temperatures is quite large within short distances (Carter, 1971). Readings adjacent to, or upon any of the delta water bodies may reveal temperature readings which are several degrees higher than the swamp hardwoods further inland. Summers are similar, but with higher temperatures occurring as one moves from open water.
Summers are hot, but are almost always under 90. The outer coast is the only part of the state south of the fall line with a mean maximum temperature this low. Cold spells are short (usually less than three days). The record low temperature of l3F occurred in February

of 1895. The mean length of the freeze-free period is

260 to 310 days. Sleet and snow are generally a rare

occurrence, although recently (January 1977), light

snow fell over the whole delta.



A refreshing sea breeze is usually present yearround in the delta. High winds can occur in conjunctior with summer thunderstorms and gale-force winds frequently accompany heavy rains. Most of the warm season rains are of short duration and one-third last less than an hour. Less than 10% of coastal rains last longer than six hours (Carter, 1967).

Atlantic tropical storms usually veer to the north before reaching the latitude of the Georgia coast, but ten damaging tropical storms were reported from 1901

66

through 1955. Tornadoes occasionally touch down in the lower Altamaha River area and water spouts are frequently spotted near the delta.
Floods in the Altamaha Delta are related more to rainfall in the upper Altamaha watershed and the tide than to local weather. The "freshets" (spring freshwater floods) arrive in late spring from the upper Altamaha watershed (see Figure 12: Altamaha Watershed Av~rage Monthly Rainfall) and drop off in early summer. Figure 12 also shows that local rainfall is higher in summer than spring and therefore, a high spring tide (caused by a tidal rush against the freshets) maintains well into the summer.
The Georgia coastal region has a moderate amount of fire weather. Although forest fires are very numerous, they tend to be low in acres consumed (99% are less than 1,000 acres). Low relative humidities with high winds are the characteristics most favorable for fires and the days on which these characteristics are most prevalent are in early spring. 25% of most local forest fires occur on less than five days of the year (Hagerty and Croom, 1970). Though fire in the Altamaha River floodplain is less prevalent than the coastal uplands (because of usually abundant fresh water), the fires that do occur have the characteristic dry days and times of the year.
EARTH AND WATER RESOURCES: INTRODUCTION
The lower coastal plain of Georgia is underlaid by 4,000 to 4,500 feet of sedimentary deposits laid upon Pre-Cretaceous formations (over 135 million years old). The upper 1,500 feet contain both the wateryielding sediments and the most recent deposits which currently affect and are affected by the present Altamaha River environment. These deposits are laid

ALTAMAHA RIVER WATERSHED Average Monthly Rainfall

8

Lower

Plain

7

6

Piedmont

5 ///~',..'\.....

'... ;:-,
~
I (

4 //

"'.,. :.:.:.:J.

3

2

1

0~----------------------------------------
J F MA MJ J A s 0 N D A EAP Auu u E c 0 E NBRRYNL Gp T v c

Source:

The National Weather Records Center, Environmental Data Service, Environmental Science Services Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.

FIGURE 12
on lower sedimentary rocks plus a lower level of cretaceous and paleozoic rocks.
The DNR Earth and Water Division has found evidence that during Eocene time (40-55 million years ago), the Earth's crust in southeast Georgia started to sink toward the Atlantic Ocean. It is also felt that the sunken anomalies in the depositional surface of the

67

southeast Georgia embayment might be the most important geological control in the lower Georgia coast because thicker deposits accumulated in Georgia than anywhere else on the east coast.
Abnormal warping, raised basement areas (saddles), sunken areas (embayments), and the migration of sand from north to south along the barrier islands have all been associated with continental plate movement. Also, southeastern coastal plain rivers appear to be slowly migrating south, drawn towards the embayment center at a point near Brunswick. As this migration proceeds, the river cuts deeply into the southern part of the floodplain, creating high bluffs.
Older floodplain deposits and river terraces to the north have become modified by wind and erosion to form sandhills. On photographs, these sandhills form a series of curious dune-like formations which are surprisingly similar in size, shape, and alignment. They may be wind-created dunes, formed with sands carried from river point bars. The DNR Earth and Water Division found that the Georgia coastal plain is the only place in the world where such a series of parabolic dunes has been identified.
The existence of low-lying ridges parallel to the coast has been known since the mid-1800's. One of these ridges, Trail Ridge, is responsible for the creation of Okefenokee swamp by blocking the drainage routes to the Atlantic Ocean. Trails frequently followed these ridges and many stories were told as an explanation for their origin. However, in the 1960's, John Hoyt developed the theory that each ridge and the trapped lowlands behind, are remnant barrier islands and lagoon/marshes.
Hoyt first developed an explanation of how barrier beaches form, based on detailed studies of Georgia's present coastal islands. He wrote that sand dunes can

form on the landward side of any beach through wind action. If the sea level rises, the dune becomes a barrier island and the back-lagoon toward the mainland will fill with sediments. A salt marsh community will develop while the width of the lagoon will vary with the rate of sea-rise, the slope of the mainland, the rate of fill and erosion. The process ends when the s~a level completely drops.
Seven Pleistocene barrier island and lagoon/marsh formations have been identified in the Georgia coastal plain. Each barrier island/lagoon/marsh sequence is identified by a particular elevation and represents a different sea level period during the Pleistocene. The highest and furthest inland units are the oldest. The fossil burrows of the "ghost shrimp" (Callianassa major) are used as one indication of these former sea levels. Today, the shrimp lives above the low tide near the beach and therefore, fossil burrows found at high elevation indicate older sea levels.
The Hydrology/Geology Map (Figure 13) graphically illustrates the hydrologic and geological processes and formations which support the landscape of the lower Altamaha River. The left portion of the Figure 13 title block keys the major water bodies (creeks, river, and ocean) to the dark blue color on the map. Also, solid asterisks mark the landward extension of tidal influence (visually noticeable) and hollow asterisks mark the landward extension of salinity (near Doctortown but not visually apparent). Tributary streams of the Altarnaha are shown with connected triangles (streams originating outside of the floodplain) and swamp sloughs are shown with connected dots (loops off the main channel). Designated river mile markers are indicated along the river as are developed mineral resource sites for sand, peat, and heavy minerals.
The right hand portion of the Figure 13 title block keys various geological formations which underlie the lower Altamaha River. Quarternary alluvium

68



ICIII
[...h,...

_.,

Jm

~Hi kCL[LJ_

ClOICil DEPARTMENT Of NATURAl RES UIICES lfFICl OF PlANNING AIID IIESUICII
THEAI

ASCENIC&RECREATIONAL RIVE PROPOS

FIGURE 13

69

OlJATBINARY' ALU.JVl.N OA

'\'Oli'IGEST

SHOREL.IE COMPLEXES HOI..OCEJE tL '
Sll..VBt BU.FF sa

PRINCESS ANlE PA

PAMJC0 PM

TALBOT TB ~y PNI

OLDEST

WICOMICO WC

MARSHmD
HOLOCENE MARSH
A.OOO~
Pl.IOCEJE/ Pl..BSTOCBIE FORMimON P-P NEOGeE U"DFFEREN11ATE FORMATION N-U
~ f'ORIWIJ1()NJ c-o

refers to those sediments which were deposited in the Pleistocene and recent times (the older underlying sedimentary rocks are shown in the lower title block as PP, MU, and CD).
The shoreline complexes represent sediments that were laid down in the process described earlier by John Hoyt as a barrier island/lagoon/marsh sequence. The seven complexes are listed on the legend and shown on Figure 13 . . The oldest complex is the Wicomico, while the youngest is the Holocene (including the present). The Holocene (recent) marsh is shown in light blue, while the Holocene (recent) floodplain is shown in light brown.
Specific aspects of the Hydrology/Geology Map are discussed further in the following sections on earth resources and water resources.
EARTH RESOURCES
As previously explained, the Coastal Plain of Georgia can be viewed as composed of a series of sedimentary wedges which are inclined and thicker toward the east. These sediments lie atop PreCretaceous crystalline rocks.
NON-MARINE SEDIMENTS
The neogene or variously-aged deposits from Miocene through Pleistocene times are dominant in the upper Coastal Plain of Georgia and extend into the western portion of the Altamaha River Study Area. The Pliocene-Pleistocene formation shown in Figure 13 is actually a thin cap over the Neogene (Huddleston, p.c.).

1..
These formations consist of silts, sands, and gravela deposited by streams and rivers under non-marine conditions. Noegene deposits underlie much of the study area, grading into estuarine sediments toward the coastline. Most of the exposed portions of these deposits are under cultivation.
The Altamaha river swamp is underlain by alluvium: silts, clays, sands, and gravels deposited in the river's floodplain. These sediments vary considerably in thickness and composition. Most of the area is frequently flooded and the older deposits are shifted and new sediments are laid down. Also included are older river-sand deposits that have subsequently been reworked by wind and are developing a stable soil structure (the sand hills north of the river). Most of the presently developed mineral resources of lower Altamaha are contained within these sediments. Conditions appear to have been excellent for the concentration of phosphates in offshore sediments during the Miocene in Georgia. Phosphate was supplied by decaying marsh plants and benthic algae and incorporated into the limestone substrate. The most important phosphate concentrations known to exist off the Georgia coast have been located in the Hawthorne formations beneath Chatham County, near the Savannah Beach.
The sand and gravel deposits of the lower Altamaha have always been recognized in the coastal area. The material presently mined is primarily used for concrete aggregate in road construction. Mining operations tap the deposits in the floodplain as well as the channels. These take the form of open pits in the higher floodplain and floating dredges in the channels.
Concentrations of heavy minerals in the Pleistocene sands are known to exist throughout the Altamaha River study area. Heavy mineral-containing sands are predominantly quartz and derived from the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Piedmont.

70

The minerals heavier than the quartz include ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite, staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite. Test holes, showing a concentration that is greater than 1.5 percent heavy minerals, are located on the Hydrology/Geology Map.
Peat deposits are scattered throughout the lower coastal plain of Georgia. The Okefenokee Swamp contains one of the largest peat deposits in the world, covering approximately 412,000 acres. Peat forms from partially decayed vegetation that collects in ponds or swamps. Many depressions and bogs in the flatwoods and sandhills north of the Altamaha in Long and Mcintosh counties contain peat, but rarely in quantities that could be considered economical for mining.
No commercial production of petroleum or natural gas has been reported from Georgia (DNR Earth and Water Division Bulletin #87, 1974). However, exploration wells are being sunk in Georgia. Beneath the lower Altamaha, sedimentary rock associated with the Southern Georgia Embayment (both on and offshore) are considered of some potential. However, coastal plain sediments reach their greatest thickness and potential in offshore areas where the possibility of fossil fuel accumulation is highest.

MARINE DEPOSITS
The Charlton-Duplin formation is the oldest exposed deposit along the lower Altamaha River. It is shown on the Hydrology/Geology Map only in the Doctortown vicinity: at Buggs Bluff, Buzzard's Roost Bluff and Doctortown Bluff. The Charlton has been described as a lightcolored calcareous clay and impure limestone and the Duplin as a mixture of shells and sand (Cooke, 1943). Both were formed from sediments deposited in a predominantly marine environment. The Doctortown area outcrops are probably Duplin and have been found to be rich in fossils (Ross Cramer, Emory Univ., p.c.).
An older Miocene formation, often called the Hawthorne, underlies the Charlton-Duplin and younger formations. Though no outcrop areas are mapped, early investigators did identify Hawthorne and other Miocene outcrops at Oglethorpe, Linden, Buggs, Buzzard's Roost, Doctortown, Lower Sansavilla and Upper Sansavilla Bluffs.
MARINE SHORELINE SEDIMENTS

In 1838-39, construction took place on a canal to connect the South Altamaha River directly with the Turtle River near Brunswick. The canal was never finished, but while excavating in the Six-mile Swamp north of Brunswick, bones of several large mammals dating to the Pleistocene were discovered. A renowned natural historian, James Hamilt9n Cooper, lived nearby on the Altama Plantation and saw to it that the collection was carefully preserved. Other dredging, mining, and highway building operations near the Brunswick area have revealed additional fossils, making the region one of the most important vertebrate fossil sources in Georgia. The only other known outcrop of fossiliferous rock along the lower Altamaha is the Duplin Marl near Doctortown.
71

The older marine deposits of the barrier island/ lagoon/marsh sequence (See Figure 13) are (from youngest to oldest): the Holocene shoreline complex, the Silver Bluff shoreline complex, Princess Anne shoreline complex, the Pamlico shoreline complex, Talbot shoreline complex, Penholoway shoreline complex, and the Wicomico shoreline complex. The elevations that appear in the following shoreline descriptions can be referenced to Figure 14: The Relief Map.
The Holocene is the youngest shoreline complex on the Georgia coast. Near the Altamaha, much of Blackbeard Island, Little St. Simons Island, and the

outer portions of Sapelo Island are included in the Holocene barrier island sequence. The Holocene shoreline complex includes dunes, beach and offshore sediments that are mostly fine to medium-grained sands. The sand dunes range in height from 10 to 30 feet above sea level. The Holocene lagoon/marsh sequence includes nearly all of the present tidal marsh (salt and fresh) and much of the tidal river swamp uplands of the Altamaha Delta. The Holocene complex is completely filled with sediments with the possible exception of deep tidal creeks and estuaries. The sediments include sand, clay, silt, and fine gravel. At present, the sea level is gradually rising and Holocene barrier islands are eroding. The lagoon/ marsh surficial sediments are constantly reworked and redistributed by tidal actions and partially for this reason, the area supports one of the most unique marine ecosystems in the world.
The bulk of Georgia's Golden Isles, including St. Simons and Sapelo which are near the Altamaha, are of the Silver Bluff complex. Estimates place the age of this complex at 24,000 - 40,000 years. Sea level during the Silver Bluff submergence was about 4. 5 feet higher than it is today. The SilverBluff lagoon/marsh sequence is generally covered by Holocene sediments of varying thickness.
The Princess Anne shoreline complex tends to be about 12 feet above sea level and not prominent. The example of the complex north of Darien is one of the best-developed on the coast. The Princess Anne lagoon/ marsh sequence is a thin strip that is 15 feet above sea level and separates the Pamlico complex from th~ Princess Anne barrier island sequence.
The Pamlico shoreline complex encompasses a wide strip through the center of the Altamaha River study area. The barrier island/lagoon/marsh sequence runs

parallel to the present coastline, but is not prominent. Sea level, since the formation of the Pamlico, has only changed by approximately ten feet. The sea level decrease between the Pamlico and the later Princess Anne period was relatively slight and therefore the elevation change on the eastern edge of the Pamlico complex is small. The Pamlico lagoon/marsh sequence is quite wide and a dominant terrace-like physiographic feature. It erids abruptly at the Talbot escarpment.
The Talbot shoreline complex is quite noticeable in the Altamaha River study area, particularly south of the River. East of Route 341, the Talbot is marked by a rapid rise in elevation near Mount Pleasant. The Altamaha River cuts the Talbot complex at Sansavilla Bluff. The Talbot dunes are over 60 feet above sea level and the lagoon/marsh sequence forms a thin strip between the Talbot and the Penholoway complex.
The Penholoway shoreline complex developed when the Pleistocene ocean was about 75 feet above present sea level. This complex is particularly well-preserved south of the Altamaha, with remnant dunes reaching an elevation of 85 feet. Bluffs along the Old River near Paradise Park have good outcrops.
The sea inundated the Georgia coast in late Pliocene or early Pleistocene time, causing the first Pleistocene shoreline complex: the Wicomico. The Wicomico shoreline complex is best preserved on Trail Ridge in southeastern Georgia. The great Okefenokee Swamp formed behind Trail Ridge over Wicomico lagoon/marsh sediments. Near the Altamaha, the Wicomico is present only south of the river, near Jesup. The ancient dune remnants here are 100 feet above sea level, compared to an altitude difference of over 170 feet on Trail Ridge. The absence of this complex north of the river is attributed to non-deposition or subsequent erosion.

72

!IJII I\ f )

f(tl

GEORGIA DlPART NT OF NATURAL RSOURCS OHIC OF PLANNING AHO RSARCH
THE ALTAMAHA
ASCENIC &RECREATIONAl Rl VER PROPOSAl

FIGURE 14

73

..............
ELEVATION (IN FEET) ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL ZERO TO TEN
TEN TO TWENTY TWENTY TO FORTY
I I FORTY TO SIXTY I I SIXTY TO EIGHTY I I EIGHTY TO ONE HUNDRED I I GREATER THAN ONE HUNDRED
. ...
/

SOILS
The soils of the lower Altamaha are derived from alluvial sediments transported by the Altamaha from the piedmont and upper coastal plain; organic sediments; and marine sands, loams, and clays deposited in conjunction with Pleistocene sea level fluctuations. Due to the low topography and high water table of the region, moisture content is a dominating factor influencing most soil types. The soils are uniformly high in acidity (pH 4-5), except for beach and tidal marsh types. In general, the soils of the lower Altamaha are relatively sterile. Cultivated lands occur only in the pre-Pleistocene sediments of the northwestern portion of the Altamaha River study area.
Figure 15 is a map depicting the soil types that exist along the lower Altamaha River. The information for the Soils Map came from the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) information. Thirty-seven series types have been mapped by SCS in the lower Altamaha area, but for simplicity's sake, the soils have been reduced to eight categories based on soil textural properties (see Table 15).
The texture of a soil is determined by the proportions of clay, silt, and sand (finer to coarsergrained particles). Sands are loose and pass water readily. Clay particles are more compact and are more impermeable to water. The eight categories are mapped on Figure 15 as: deep sands, sand over sandy clay loam and sandy loam, loamy sand over sandy clay loam, sandy loam over sandy clay and sandy clay loam, sandy loam and clay loam, clay (freshwater and tidal marsh), clay and clay loam (saltwater and tidal marsh), and variable soils (alluvial river swamp and disturbed lands).
Soils included in the deep sands category have shown little change since the deposition of their parent material. Included here are sands deposited on old

barrier islands and on the sand hills north of the Altamaha. The Lakeland soil type dominates the category in Wayne and Glynn Counties, with concentrations corresponding to the Pleistocene shoreline complexes. The sands near Darien are mapped in the Galestown . series and correspond to the Princess Anne and Pamli6J shoreline complexes. The sand hills north of the Altamaha in Long and Mcintosh Counties are mostly Kershaw with some Lakeland soils. These are younger than the sands south of the Altamaha River.
On the eastern part of the study area, the coas al beaches on Wolf Island and Little St. Simons Island and the sand dunes on Little St. Simons Island account for the remainder of the deep sands. These sands are the driest soils in the Altamaha River study area and most are extremely permeable to water. They may even represent areas of recharge to the shallow groundwater aquifer.
The sand over sandy clay loam and sandy loam ca ..egory includes poorly drained upland areas which are particularly extensive in Wayne County and eastern Glynn County. Leon and Rutledge soils are the most important series under this category, but wet depressions within the Long and Mcintosh County sand hills and behind the dunes on Little St. Simons Island are also included. These soils are low in natural fertility, are extremely acid, and have severe use limitations. Large areas of these soils, particularly in Wayne and Glynn Counties, have been recently planted in pine monoculture.
The loamy sand over sandy clay loam category includes the best-developed soils in the lower Altamaha region. Although there is not a very large amount, the largest concentration of the category is adjacent to the river in Wayne County near Mount Pleasant, Gardi, in the northwest corner of the study area, and in Mcintosh County near Cox. These upland soils are moderately permeable and have low to moderate shrinkswell potential and moderate to high strength and

74

SOILS
DEEP SANDS SAND OVER SANDY CLAY LOAM AND SANDV LOAM
LOAMY SAND OVER SANDY CLAY LOAM SANDY LOAM OVER SANDY CLAY AND SANDY CLAY LOAM
SANDY LOAM AND CLAY LOAM CLAY (FRESH WATER &TIDAL MARSH) CLAY AND CLAY LOAM (SALT WATER & T1DAl. MARSH) VARIABLE (ALLUVIAL RIVER SHAMP & DISTURBED LANDS)

nn

L'-~

0 lOOe

900e

.. ..

CEOICII DEPARTMENT OF NATURA L RESOURC ES fFFICE OF PUNNING IN D RESEARCH

THE ALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 15

75

..

.

...

...

.
'

-
.

-

.

. :.. . . .:. . - ~ l .,. ...... .

. ~ .. ' "'-

... . ; r:. ,.,- -

TABLE 15 SCS SOIL SERIES TYPES WITHIN THE SOILS MAP CATEGORIES

.Deep Sands:
Chipley fine sand Coastal beach fine sand Dune sands Galestown fine sand Kershaw Lakewood Kleg fine sand Lakeland sand
Sand over sandy clay loam and sandy loam:
Leefield loamy sand Leon fine sand Olustee sand Rutledge sand Mascottee fine sand Albany fine sand
Loamy sand over sandy clay loam:
Ellabelle loamy sand Fuquay loamy sand Irvington loamy sand Lucy loamy sand Lynchburg loamy fine sand Pelham loamy sand Rains loamy sand Stilson loamy sand Tifton loamy sand Gilead-Lakeland-Sawyer sandy clay loam

Norfolk loamy sand
Sandy loam over sandy clay and slandy clay loam: Bladen fine sandy loam Craven loamy fine sand Dunbar sandy loam Meggett loam Sunsweet sandy clay loam
Sandy loam and clay loam: Bayboro loam Johnston sand loam
Clay (freshwater tidal marsh): Freshwater tidal clay
Clay and clay loam (saltwater tidal marsh): Salt-marsh clay Capers clay loam
Variable (alluvial river swamp and disturbed lands): Swamp Fill

76

stability. Most of the soils included in this category have only moderate to slight limitations for uses such as building-sites, roadways, septic tank fields and active recreation.
The Bladen soil-series type is the principal soil mapped in the sandy loam over sandy clay and sandy clay loam category. Extensive areas exist in Long County and the western portions of Mcintosh and Glynn Counties in the Altamaha River study area. These soils are prime components of the broad, poorly drained flats that are typical of the lower coastal plain of Georgia.
Only two soil-series types are included in the sandy loam and clay loam category: Johnston and Bayboro. Both are found in very poorly-drained areas. Johnston soils are common along the tributary streams draining the uplands of Wayne County south of the Altamaha. They formed over alluvium that originated in the lower coastal plain. Bayboro soils are found in flatwoods, drainageways, swamps, and very poorly drained flats called bayheads. These are closely associated with Bladen soils, though wetter. Bladen soils are common in the Long, Mcintosh, and Glynn County flatwoods and in drainageways behind the sand hills near Cox and Ludowici. Both Johnston and Bayboro soils are strongly acid, contain large amounts of organic matter, flood frequently and have severe use limitations.
The soils associated with clay (freshwater and tidal marsh), clay and clay loam (saltwater and tidal marsh), and variable clays (alluvial river swamp and disturbed lands) in the lower Altamaha are described together because of similar properties and use limits. The Altamaha River is the primary agent responsible for depositing these soils. The Altamaha, heavily laden with sands and silts from upstream, deposits a portion of its load on the floodplain floor.

When the river overflows its banks, the largest and heaviest sediments are deposited immediately. Sediments are carried further into the floodplain and some are deposited in the back portions of the swamps. Flood waters yearly flow over most of the swamp floor so only the smallest particles are carried to the tidal zone. The sloughs that drain the back swamps retain the larger particles. The floodplain contains numerous small areas of sandy soil that are less frequently flooded.
Most soils in the swamps are extremely acid, but there is a definite acid gradient from the river channel to the back swamp. Soils closest to the Altamaha and most influenced by its floods are least acid (pH 4.6- 5.5, John Bozeman, p.c. ). Further into the back swamps, the influence of alluvial river flooding decreases and the amount of blackwater flow (sediments draining entirely within the lower coastal plain) increases. Organic accumulation is higher and the soils are thus more acid (pH 4.0- 4.5).
The general acidity of the freshwater river swamp, backswamp and blackwater swamps is due primarily to decomposition of organic matter. Clay particles in the muddy Altamaha have bases attached .to them that can exchange with hydrogen ions and thus lower the acidity of the soils that they contact (such as those nearer to the main river channel).
The swamps east of Altamaha Park normally experience at least a one foot tidal fluctuation twice a day. The slope of the land here is less than in the swamps upstream, allowing the finer sediments to be deposited. These soils are infrequently flooded by salt water and their salt content gradually increases towards the ocean.
Most of the area which is mapped in the clay

77

(freshwater and tidal marsh) category was forested before the timber clearing in the 18th and 19th centuries for rice cultivation. The soils are similar to those in the tidal portion of the upland river swamp, with an increased salt content and a predominance of smaller particles: silts and clays.
Salt water affects soil acidity because of the high concentration of sodium and other basic elements. This results in a pH gradient from an acid 4.5 in the upland river swamps to a nearly neutral 6.6 in the salt marsh (pH of 7 is neutral). The soil pH ranges in the freshwater marsh include both these extremes (H.J. Perkins, University of Georgia, p.c.).
The saltwater tidal marsh contains a variety of soil types. Some of the finest particles transported by the Altamaha River are deposited in the tidal marsh along with materials from barrier islands and offshore sandbars. The surface of the salt marsh is a highly fluctuating environment. Here the tidal influence is strongest. The upper soil layer is 50-70% water at high tide (Johnson, et. al. 1971). Soil deposition is slow, but continual, and the marshes gradually increase their sediment. Thickness varies considerably from 0 to 6 feet in depth over the underlying Holocene and Pleistocene sands while some tidal creeks erode deeply enough to expose the ancient Pleistocene sediments.
Most salt marsh soils are near neutral (pH 6.4 6.6), but have the potential to become extremely acidic when artificially dried in open air. These soils, called 'cat clays', normally contain large amounts of partially decomposed organic materials under anaerobic conditions (little oxygen). Under these conditions, the sulfates in sea water become precipated and sulfides settle out into the soils while mixing with the organic material. If the soils are subsequently dried and aerated, both the organic

matter and sulfides become oxidized, with hydrochloric acid as one of the end products. The soil pH drops precipitously (becomes more acidic) and often kills all plant life in the area. This is the principal reason why most salt marshes in the Altamaha delta were not developed. Even extensive liming cannot reclaim such soils.
Four principal clay soil types dominate in the salt marsh zone. The first is the low marsh where smooth cordgrass dominates the vegetation. These soils contain large quantities of accumulated organic matter, normally in excess of 20% decomposing marsh vegetation, and are under water most of the time. The second clay soil type occurs in the higher needlerush marsh and has been recently classified in the Bohicket series by the Soil Conservation Service. It is sandy, has a high sulfur content, and less organic matter (4-8%) than the lower salt marsh. The third is the Capers soil type which is found high in the salt marsh. The fourth soil type is the pockets of sand which are sometimes thinly covered with marsh-mud and crop out often in the salt marsh. These are possibly immature barrier island remnants.
WATER RESOURCES
The Altamaha Watershed lies totally within Georgia and includes all lands drained by the Altamaha River and tributary streams. The watershed covers 14,530 square miles (U.S. Study Commission, 1963), making it the second largest watershed on the Atlantic coast of the United States. The Altamaha River is formed by the confluence of the Ocmulgee and Oconee Rivers, 137 miles upstream from the Atlantic. The Ocmulgee flows 241 miles from Lake Jackson (4,750 acres), where the main tributaries unite (the South, Yellow, and Alcovy Rivers) to the Altamaha. The Ocmulgee River

78

drains 6,080 square miles or 42% of the Altamaha's watershed. The Oconee River drains 5,250 square miles (36% of the watershed) and flows 148 miles from Lake Sinclair (15,330 acres) to the Altamaha. The upper portions of both tributary rivers drain the upper piedmont portion of the Altamaha watershed.

This is the largest water discharge south of Chesapeake Bay. However, the rate of flow is by no means constant.

Macon (Ocmulgee) and Milledgeville (Oconee) mark the approximate location where the lower piedmont falls into the upper coastal plain (fall line or end of shoals). The Ohoopee River is another major tributary of the Altamaha River, draining 1,340 square miles or 9% of the total watershed. The Ohoopee originates in the coastal plains and is a typical blackwater stream. The Ohoopee flows approximately 110 miles from its headwaters to the confluence with the Altamaha (near Reidsville State Prison).

The lower 75 miles of the Altamaha River which are included within the Altamaha River study area contain about 1,200 square miles of the Altamaha River watershed. However, only 10% of the fresh water carried by the Altamaha into the ocean originates within that area.

There are nearly 250 miles of waterways (major channels and tributary streams) along the lower Altamaha. About 130 miles of the waterways are under the influence of the tides while 35 miles of waterways are under significant saltwater influence (concentrations over 2 parts per thousand). Appendix D is a listing and description of the tributary streams and inlets of the lower Altamaha River.

FRESHWATER DISCHARGES

The Altamaha, on the average, transports about 3.2 trillion gallons of water to the Atlantic every year.

79

Broad fluctuations occur during the year in response to varying rainfall patterns. Smaller fluctuations are evident on a weekly or even daily basis, in response to both rainfall and water release schedules from Lake Jackson and Lake Sinclair. The U.S. Geological Survey has been recording river levels and streamflow at Doctortown since 1925.
Figure 16 shows the average monthly water discharge of the Altamaha River at Doctortown Landing during the five-year period from October 1968 to September 1973. The greatest flow rate was from December to April because rainfall is greatest over the piedmont and upper coastal plain during spring. An average of 21.5 inches of rain falls on the Altamaha Basin during these months and approximately 40% reaches the ocean (the remainder is retained or evaporated within the basin). During the May-November period, about 26.1 inches of rain occurs in the Altamaha basin and less than 20% of this total is discharged to the ocean.
The maximum flow ever recorded at Darien is estimated to have been 300,000 cubic feet per second, 2.2 million gallons per second or 190 billion gallons on January 23, 1925. The river stage was 14.6 feet. The peak annual flow normally ranges from about 50,000 to 90,000 cfs with the river stage rarely exceeding the eleven foot to twelve foot level.
Many rivers overflow their channels and spread over their floodplains infrequently or for short periods during the year. This is not true for the Altamaha and other southeastern coastal plain rivers. Nearly all of the Altamaha floodplain is inundated from 4-12 months every year, with most under water for over eight months.
High tides (saltwater being denser than freshwater) will move as a wedge beneath arriving Altamaha freshwater. Therefore, during a spring freshet, freshwater (because

GAUGE HEIGHT AND WATER DISCHARGE AT DOCTORTOWN LANDING ON THE ALTAMAHA RIVER
(Highs, lows, and mean averages of October 1968 to September 1973)

45,00

s("::') 40,00 nt...T... 35,00

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FIGURE 16
of high volume and velocities) can flow over the saltwater wedge as far as Doboy Sound and St. Simons Sound. There the saltwater regains dominance, but not until Altamaha floods have influenced twenty square miles of

80

brackish marsh.
The lands periodically flooded by the Altamaha extend over a great area. Every three or four years, the Altamaha floods are large enough to overflow into the flatwoods swamps in the eastern part of Mcintosh and Long Counties. Floodwaters pour over Blues Reach Road and across Youngs Swamp and eventually reach the Sapelo River. The South Newport River in the north end of the county is reached by Altamaha floodwaters by way of Bull Town and Big Mortar swamps. Some overflow waters return to the Altamaha Delta through Cathead Creek (near Darien), McClendon Creek, and the Snuff-Box Canal. Buffalo Swamp (in Glynn County) drains to the Turtle River watershed northwest of Brunswick. These are all tidally-influenced streams.
TIDAL DISCHARGES
The daily tidal range in Georgia is the greatest in the southeast, ranging from about 5 to 8 feet. Tides occur twice a day and regular fluctuations occur on a bi-monthly basis. Tidal range and currents are greatest during the spring tides. These occur during new and full moon periods (every two weeks). The more moderate neap tides occur during the first and third quarter lunar phases. The wind and amount of fresh water influx can also affect tidal range.
Tidal reach (see Figure 13) indicates where the salt concentration is no longer readily detectable (less that 1-2 parts per thousand (ppt) salt; sea water is about 35 ppt salt). When heavy winds combine with a high spring tide and the river flow is low, measurable amounts of salt water can extend well up the river and floodplain to Altamaha Park.
81

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers defines the extent of tidal influence as the area that would be covered by tidal reach water during a mean high tide. This zone has been found to extend up the Altamaha to mile 42, at the Long/Mcintosh County line. This occurs most frequently during low river flows and at high spring tides. Storm tides have been reported as far upriver as Doctortown, but the delta usually acts as a buffer. Offshore sands help to decrease the energy of incoming waves (the wave energy level in the Georgia coast is relatively low, which has allowed for extensive dune formation) and barrier islands protect the marshes and mainland from most potentially destructive waves.

GROUNDWATER RECHARGE OF THE PRINCIPAL AQUIFER

Recharge

Area Pri~cipal

Aqu1fer

11 1 I

Hawthorne Cap

Artesian Pell
t
~,.."../, .

Ocean

GROUND WATER
Three layers of rock beneath the lower Altamaha are considered significant sources of ground water. The most important is the upper Eocene "Ocala Limestone" which is the main component of the principal artesian aquifer. It is one of the most productive aquifers in the United States and in coastal Georgia, the water yield is about 280 million gallons per day (see Figure 17).
The principal artesian aquifer does not respond quickly to changes in hydrologic conditions at the coastal plain surface. Little, if any, water filters through the 500 feet of silts, clays and sands overlying the aquifer. Because of the artesian pressure in the Ocala aquifer, water in the aquifer will tend to seep upward in some places. The quality of water from the principal artesian aquifer is generally good, except where slightly contaminated. The groundwater of the lower Altamaha is generally hard to very hard, alka-

FIGURE 17
line, and has moderately high dissolved solids. For most common uses, it can be used without treatment.
The sands of Pleistocene and Pliocene times form a second aquifer of importance in coastal Georgia. In general, this aquifer is thickest and thus has its greatest potential near the coast and probably, the Altamaha floodplain. Floodwaters from the Altamaha may be an important recharger for the area's shallow groundwater aquifer.
This aquifer is not used extensively at present for large water supplies due to the quantities of ground water in the principal artesian aquifer. Wells

82

exist, however, for individual homes and small municipalities.
The third aquifer of importance beneath the lower Altamaha is the Oldsmar Limestone. Very little is known about this aquifer because most wells that are drilled along the Altamaha do not go deep enough for encounter. Wells that have tapped it have yielded water of good pressure and quality.
FRESHWATER QUALITY
The high quality and peculiar virtues of Altamaha River water were long ago recognized. In A Journal of Residence on a Georgia Plantation (1838-1839), Fanny Kemble wrote:
"Certainly the mud of the Altamaha must have some most peculiar virtues I have never any where tasted such delicious tea as that which we make with this same turbid stream, the water of which, duly filtered of course, has some peculiar softness which affects the tea in a most curious and agreeable manner."
Today, the Environmental Protection Division (EPD) of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources is in charge of monitoring water quality in all Georgia rivers, formulating use-related classifications of each river and determining permissable levels of point and non-point pollutant discharges that will insure maintenance of water quality at the level required by each use classification. All channels within the Altamaha River study area have been classified as fishing streams. This means that the water is usable for purposes of: "fishing, propagation of fish, shellfish, game, and other aquatic life; or for

any other use requiring water of a lower quality" (from the 1972 rules of the Georgia State Water Quality Control Board).
EPD annually publishes Water Quality Monitoring Reports that include information from permanent sampling stations throughout the state (physical and chemical measurements are usually taken monthly and biological samples are taken annually). Recently, River Basin Reports have been published for every watershed in Georgia which summarize water quality conditions. Table 16 shows the average water quality conditions along the lower Altamaha River that are recorded in the Altamaha River Basin Study, for the U.S. 301 station and the Seaboard Coastline Railroad station. Figure 18 shows the nine Environmental Protection Division water quality monitoring stations that are located in the Altamaha River study area.
The waters of the Altamaha can be described as silicious, moderately hard, low in oxygen-demanding material, low in bacteria counts, near neutral pH and high in dissolved oxygen concentration (near saturation). Turbidity is moderate and color (some derived from tannic acids leaching from the swamps) is moderate to high. Organic matter content is high and nutrient levels: total phosphorous, nitrates and nitrite are moderately high.
The temperature of the river water closely follows the mean temperature of the atmosphere. But water has a greater specific heat than air, so it takes longer in the spring to warm up and longer in the fall to cool off. During any one day, the river temperature may fluctuate only a few degrees while the air changes 10-15 degrees. The air/water temperature difference is responsible for frequent eerie early morning fogs over the river. Yearly fluctuations in the water temperature of the lower Altamaha River, along with

83

TABLE 16 AVERAGE WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS IN THE
LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Chemical Data

Average

pH (pH units) Dissolved Oxygen (MG/L) 5-day Biological
Oxygen Demand Total Organic Cargon Nitrite and Nitrates Total Phosphorus Turbidity (JTU's) Total Hardness
(Mg/L CaC03) Fecal Coliform Color (PCU' s) Chloride (Mg/L) Calcium Irqn Magnesium Manganese Sodium Potassium

7.20 7.60
.60
7.50 .21 07
23.00 22.00
289.00 62.00 4.90 7.20 1.10 .80 05 11.00 1. 70

Range

6.90- 7.70 4.90 - 11.20
.40 - .90

3.00 .05 .05 -
5.00 14.00 -

16.00 .35 .10
33.00 36.00

72.00 - 930.00 5.00- 140.00 3.50 - 7.10

Source: Lower Altamaha EPD Water Quality Monitoring Stations.
dissolved oxygen and organic matter, are shown graphically in Figure 19.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations fluctuate opposite to water temperature. Cold water has a high capacity to hold oxygen and oxygen peaks in the fall after the temperature cools. Total organic matter peaks in the summer and early fall. Organic materials from the river swamp leach out faster when it is warm.
84

Major Point-Source Effluent Discharges

ACIU
lli 1000 214 ...

IUS

FEET

~ .LDlU...

GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE OF PUNNING AND RESEARCH

THE ALTAMAHA

ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

FIGURE 18

85

YEARLY FLUCTUATIONS IN THE TEMPERATURE, DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT, AND ORGANIC CARBONS FOR THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER AT ALTAMAHA PARK
1975 Average

~ 90

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85

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75

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FIGURE 19

Sir Charles Lyell was one of the first to observe and discuss the problems of increasing water quality degradation in the Altamaha River Basin. In his Travels in the United States: A Second Visit, the following quote appeared on pages 256-257:
"So late as 1841, a resident here could distinguish on which of the two branches of the Altamaha, the Oconee, or Ocmulgee, a freshet had occurred, for the lands in the upper country draining one of these (the Oconee) had already been partially cleared and cultivated. So that tributary brought down a copious supply of red mud, while the other (the Ocmulgee), remained clear, though swollen."
Today, approximately 125 million gallons of sewage effluent (municipal sewage and industrial waste) are discharged into the Altamaha basin streams every day. This includes the whole Altamaha basin and cities such as Macon, Milledgeville, Athens, and Atlanta. Selected problem areas from EPD stations in the upper Altamaha River Basin, near these cities, are shown in Table 17.
The ITT Rayonier cellulose-pulp plant at Doctortown is the largest single waste discharger in the Altamaha basin. Shortly after the ITT mill opened in 1956, commercial shad fishermen began complaining of "slimes" fouling their nets downstream of the effluent. This prolific growth of fillamentous bacteria was attributable to the high BOD of the cellulose wastes (wood sugars). ITT was encouraged by the state to place secondary treatment in operation in 1964. An aerated lagoon was installed in 1969 (Rayonier spent $7.2 million on water treatment facilities). The lagoons cover 244 acres of land, and treatment is now vastly improved. ITT now carries out a regular monitoring program to assure the state of compliance with water quality standards. Table 18 shows the relationship of the ITT Rayonier
86

TABLE 17 WATER QUALITY AT SELECTED STATIONS IN THE
UPPER ALTAMAHA RIVER BASIN

Ocmulgee River

Oconee River

EPD

EPD

Station II Water Quality Station II Water Quality

0500500

poor

0303500

poor

0501500

fair

0303600

fair

0501600

degraded

0304500

good

0501900

degraded

0304600

poor

0501900

good

0305100

good

0502500

good

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division.

discharge to other major point sources of effluents in the lower Altamaha River. Figure 18 notes the location of the point source effluents within the study area.

SALTWATER QUALITY
Altamaha estuarine water bodies include channels directly connecting the river with the ocean and tidal creeks draining the brackish or salt marsh areas. These have an intricate network of tributary channels and are very much a part of the marsh system. Even within the salt marsh zone, freshwater flow in these creeks can be large, from either spring water or

precipitation. Most of the Altamaha River delta water reaches the Atlantic Ocean through Altamaha Sound. The remainder flows primarily through the Hampton River to the Atlantic Ocean below Little St. Simons, and through Darien River and Rockdedundy River to Doboy Sound.
The nutrient budgets of the Altamaha estuary have been carefully studied by researchers at the University of Georgia Marine Institute on Sapelo Island. Inorganic phosphorus was found to be higher in the mid-portion of the estuary than in the Altamaha River or Atlantic Ocean. Great quantities of phosphorus and other nutrients such as zinc are stored in the estuarine sediments, and biological processes in the marsh determine how much will be released to the water. The Altamaha, rather than acting as the major source of these nutrients, dilutes the estuary and forces nutrient-laden estuarine waters out to the oce~n. The resultant offshore primary production levels equals the high rates present in the salt marsh.
This phenomenon was examined by J.P. Thomas (Master's Thesis, University of Georgia) who concluded:
"The pulsing action of discharges from the Altamaha River spread nutrients from rich estuarine water to offshore areas. This results in more effective use of estuarine nutrients by phytoplankton, since in the estuary, there are more nutrients than can be used for photosynthesis. An important natural balancing system is the varying levels of discharge. Low discharge levels allow the estuary to produce nutrients which are then flushed out at times of higher discharge."

87

Estuarine waters are known to be rich in vitamin B-12 which is suspected to be produced by bacteria and fungi attached to suspended particles in blackwater tributaries and organic debris at the heads of tidal
creeks. The positive role of B-12 in ocean productivity is currently suspect. Other important estuary nutrients are more dependent on the Altamaha as a source (i.e.

magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, iron), but further research is needed. Particulate matter (debris) and dissolved organic matter may be extremely important nutrient and energy sources in estuarine waters, but little definitive research has been done. Organics are known to be in high concentrations in the Altamaha delta as supplied by river water and as export from marshes.

TABLE 18 MAJOR POINT SOURCES OF EFFLUENT IN THE LOWER ALTAMAHA BASIN

EPD Effluent II

Effluent Type

and present treatment

Receiving Stream

Design Flow (in million gallons
per day)

Haste Load Allocation Haximum Permitted (in BOD lbs./day)

2331 1267
2461 2336 3563 3464

Ludowici municipal treatment Jones Creek

.02

plant. No treatment now.

ITT Rayonier Industrial Waste. Settling tank and aerated pond.

Altamaha

70.00

Jesup municipal treatment plant. Activated sludge.

Little McMullen Creek 1.10

Darien municipal treatment

Cathead Creek

.03

plant. No treatment now.

I-95 rest areas. Activated sludge polishing pond.

Kings Swamp

.045

New Hope municipal housing project. Waste stabilization and polishing ponds.

Wally Leg

.034

50.04 22,300.00
61.16 undetermined undetermined undetermined

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division, Altamaha River Basin Study

88

The most important saltwater quality considerations is the fresh/salt water gradient. The landward extent of salinity (shown in Figure 13) is approximately where salinity averages 1 to 2 parts per thousand during low river flows. Brackish water extends from the landward extent of salinity, down-river to the western edge of Egg and Wolf Islands in Altamaha Sound, and to the center of Rockdedundy Island on the Darien River. The Atlantic Ocean beyond, with salinity of around 35 parts per thousand, then dominates.

Numerous other factors affect the water quality of the Altamaha delta. These include various ocean currents, wind-formed currents, tidal, longshore and .density-created currents; and the river flushing factor. Due to the turbulence of these interactions, the water is always well-mixed, with no vertical chemical gradient. Turbidity is generally high, as is water-sediment chemical interaction. Table 19 includes chemical data from the four main delta branches .of the Altamaha River at U.S. Highway 17.

TABLE 19 WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS IN THE ALTAMAHA DELTA
1975 Average

Chemical Data

Darien River

Butler River

Champney River

South Altamaha River

Mean of All Four

Temperature Dissolved Oxygen B.O.D. Turbidity Color pH Alkalinity Chloride Average Chloride Maximum Coliform

19.8 6.6 1.1
27.0 90.0
6.9 32.0 795.0 6,000.0 585.0

19.5 7.1 1.3
24.0 84.0
7.0 28.0 62.0 470.0 112.0

19.7 7.1 1.1
24.0 84.0
7.0 28.0
79.0 700.0 161.0

19.9 6.9 1.0
22.0 86.0
7.0 29.0 64.0 660.0 228.0

19.7 6.9 1.1
24.0 86.0
7.0 29.0 250.0 6,000.0 272.0

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division, Altamaha River Basin Study

89

NATURAL COMMUNITIES
It would be misleading to discuss any botanical or biological species as if it were independent. They all have major linkages with each other and with outside systems: much of the fresh water in the Altamaha is influenced by the properties of the piedmont, 200 miles upstream; salt marshes are, of course, linked to oceanic systems; species on the Altamaha sand ridges are closely associated with those on sandridges that extend from the Gulf of Mexico to North Carolina; and migratory waterfowl make use of this area for short periods and connect the Altamaha with other natural systems throughout North America.
To present an understandable discussion, each major natural community must be covered, but linkages with other systems will be emphasized when possible. Figure 20 is a map of, the natural communities of the lower Altamaha River. , The primary mapping source was U-2 infrared photographsfrom October 1973 (fall) and April 1974 (spring). Soils series information from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service correlates well to some community types and the freshwater and saltwater marsh mapping was aided by marsh research at the University of Georgia Marine Institute on Sapelo Island. All communities were field checked for accuracy in the mapping procedures and professional botanists and biologists were consulted during the entire data-gathering process.
The discussions that follow are an explanation of each community and the relationships of neighboring communities. The aquatic communities are discussed first and shown on Figure 20 as sandy areas and water bodies. Next, the river swamp communities are discussed and listed -as the gum-cypress river swamp (wet year-round) and the hardwood river swamp (dry
90

six months of the year). The hammock and sandhill community includes three categories from Figure 20: the evergreen hammock (areas slightly above normal flooding), the deciduous scrub sandhills (above hammock in elevation and well-drained), and sandhill depressions (usually a clay pan which is a cypress pond or at some later successional stage toward a bog or a savannah).
The lowland and upland flatwood communities are discussed and shown on Figure 20 as: pine flatwoods (mature pine), pine-hardwood flatwoods (mature pine and mixed hardwoods), pine-hardwood scrub flatwoods (scattered canopy with scrub or savannahs), flatwood depressions (bayheads, pans, and high back-bays), and pine plantations (recently timbered, early regeneration, or monoculture plantings).
The bluff ravine and upland drainageway communities occur from local drainage outside the Altamaha floodplain and from river erosion on bluffs. They are discussed and shown on Figure 20 as alluvial upland drainageways (tributary creek floodplains), bluff-ravine forest (river bluff or tributary stream bluff ravine), and upland vegetated ponds (depressions on pelham and rutledge soils).
The tidal marsh communities are discussed and shown on Figure 20 as the smooth cordgrass marsh (Spartina sp.), needlerush marsh (Juncus sp.), mixed salt-brackish marsh (Salicornia sp., Scirpus sp., and Spartina sp.}, mixed fresh-brackish marsh (old rice plantations with pickerelweed on edges) and giant cut-grass marsh.
The developed areas are discussed last. They are shown on Figure 20 as cleared uplands (agriculture) and urban areas (residential, commercial, or industrial).
91

AQUATIC COl1MUNITIES
At the bottom of the food chain are the primary producer organisms capable of capturing the energy in sunlight and synthesizing energy-rich organic chemical compounds (photosynthesis). The most important primary producers in the Altamaha channels are algae classified as periphyton. They are attached to the channel bottom and particularly to organic debris: snags, leaves, etc. The most complete survey of the periphytic communities of the Altamaha is being undertaken near the Hatch Nuclear Power Plant for the purpose of monitoring environmental impact. Periphyta are some of the best indicators of altered conditions for they reflect the extremes rather than the means of water quality parameters. Studies indicate that a diverse and healthy population is evident.
Dr. Wharton (1975) reports that floating substrate: logs, debris, overhanging willow branches, etc., may support greater periphyton communities than stationary habitats. The floating substrates keep the attached plants close to the surface at all times, while stationary substrates can be periodically inundated by turbid waters that block out vital light. The periphyton of oxbow lakes was also surveyed near the Hatch Plant and preliminary results indicate production levels are much greater than in the main river channel. Other important habitats include clay banks on the outside of turns, sandstone outcrops around river mile 39, swamp-lakes and temporary pools.
Next up the food chain are the secondary producers, the herbivores and detritivores. The macroinvertebrates are the principal members of this group and the key link between the prime energy sources and tertiary energy consumers such as fish and wildlife. In the main river, macroinvertebrates dominate snags, overhanging branches and fallen trees. The Environmental Protection Division reports that the macro-

invertebrate community at the U.S. 301 sampling station above Doctortown is diverse and well-balanced.
Macroinvertebrates provide some of the best examples of adaptation to the environment. Every conceivable habitat and energy source in the river is utilized. Some organisms live in periphytic algal mats, having a readily available supply of food. Others are streamlined for a life in fast current, grazing on periphyton off the substrate. The mayfly prefers to burrow into the clay banks on the cutting edge of meanders, forming a home for an entire micro-community of organisms (their holes are readily apparent during low water). Another major source of food is small particulate organic matter flowing down river. Many invertebrates are adapted to filter out this "detritus" (dead organic matter). The caddis fly and black fly build nets and situate themselves in the fastest waters for filtering.
Most of these aquatic invertebrates are insects, living their lives in water as larvae and pupae, emerging for a brief period as adults to mate, lay eggs, and die. Recent research by Dr. David Gillespie along the Satilla River indicates that the numbers and biomass of filter-feeding invertebrates on river snags may be much greater than for invertebrate forms on other habitats (river bank, algal mats, etc). They may be the most important secondary producers in the river channel.
One of the primary components of particulate organic matter floating downstream is macroinvertebrate drift. Organisms both on channel substrate and the floodplain floor are continuously dislodged and carried into the main river. To compensate for this continual downstream displacement, most adult insects fly upstream before laying their eggs. Georgia Power has done a considerable amount of research on drift in the Altamaha near the Hatch Nuclear Power Plant, providing much new information. A new invertebrate

92

NATURAL COMMUNITIES

BLUFF - RAVINE FOREST

GUM -CYPRESS RIVER SWAMP

UPL AND VEGETATED PONDS

HARDWOOD RI VER SWAMP

SMOOTH CORDGRASS MARSH

EVERGREEN HAMMOCK

NEEDLERUSH MARSH MIXED SALT - BRACKISH MARSH

DECIDUOUS SCRUB SAND HILLS
D SAND HILL DEPRESSIONS

MIXED FRESH - BRACKISH MARSH
D GIANT CUTGRASS MARSH

PINE FLATWOODS PINE - HARDWOOD FLATWOODS

D SANDY AREAS

PINE-HARDWOOD SCRUB FLATWOODS

acau
[h
. . . U O IO
CEOIC:IA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES ' DFFICE Of PUNNING AND ..RESEARCH
THEALTAMAHA
ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPO SAL
FIGURE 20

93

species was collected from the drift by Dr. Wallace of the University of Georgia. It was named Spineosus wallacei. Another interesting find was that drift is much higher (ten times) at night than during the daytime. Subsequently, fish which feed on the macroinvertebrates tended to be abundant during the drift and this improved the fishery samplings.
Snails, clams, and crustaceans along the lower Altamaha are abundant. One significant species of snail is the Vivipara georgianus. It is important as the principal food of the rare limpkin or "crying bird". Dr. Charles H. Wharton reported large piles of this snail in the Altamaha swamp above the Seaboard Coastline Railroad bridge across from Altamaha Park in Mcintosh County. The sand bars of the Altamaha provide clams with an excellent environment. Six species have been identified that grow nowhere else in the world. The endemic species are: Elliptio hopetonensis, Elliptio dariensis (rare), Elliptio shepardiana, Alasmidonta arcula (very rare), Canthyria spinosa (endangered), Anodonta gibbosa, and Lampsilis dolabraeformis. This large number of native species is one indicator of the relative age and size of the Altamaha.
The Asiatic clam, Gorbicula manillensis, is causing concern among stream biologists throughout the country. It was probably introduced in the western part of the United States in the 1930's and has been spreading eastward ever since. The Altamaha was the first Atlantic seaboard watershed to become populated. It was first reported on the Ocmulgee (in the upper watershed), and later in the lower Altamaha River by James Siclel, a graduate student at Emory University (Sickel, 1973). It has rapidly spread throughout the basin and is a dominant species down to the landward reach of salinity near I-95. It has subsequently spread northward as far as Pennsylvania.

Crayfish "chimneys" can be found throughout the swamp floor in summertime. Crayfish diets include detritus, which is unpalatable to most other species and thus important in the decomposition cycle. The Game and Fish Division has documented the importance of crayfish in the diets of the larger fish on the Suwanee River (Holder, 1970, Wyatt and Holder, 1967). The Georgia Power Company has found this to also be so on the Altamaha (Woodhall, P.C.). Crayfish populations were measured to be 19/100 ft.2, or 38.2 g/ft.2 on the Altamaha floodplain. In addition to the utilization of crayfish by larger fish, they are also important to the diets of mammals and birds such as the raccoon, otter, and the barred owl.
The primary producers in estuarine waters are the phytoplankton: free-floating algae. They contribute a significant percentage of the marsh production. High turbidity limits light penetration, and thus photosynthesis to the upper six feet of water. However, at high tide, production increases because of the greater surface area available (Johnson, 1971).
Higher forms of life, the secondary and tertiary producers, are numerous and diverse in the estuarine habitat. Each exists in the habitat where the combination of salinity, temperature, quantity and quality of food source is optimal. Studies at Sapelc Island Marine Institute have shown that organic detritus is the principal diet component of this phytoplankton.
The smallest invertebrates present in the estuary are the zooplankton which may reach high concentrations. Most of the available estuary information pertains to invertebrates of commercial importance: oysters, shrimp, and crabs. One of the largest oyster reefs (nine feet high) occurred along the lower Altamaha estuary south of Wolf Island in the 1920's. Today,

94

an eroded pile of shells is all that remains (Burbank, 1971). Once an important industry in Georgia, oyster harvesting has been seriously compromised by pollution. After a short free swimming larval stage, oysters set a spat and are stationary for the remainder of their lives. They depend on tidal currents to bring water from which planktonic organisms can be filtered. Their stationary position leaves them very susceptible to pollutants. Sewage can literally smother them. Oysters also can concentrate pollut'ants in their tissues. At one stage, oysters need a certain amount of fresh water to ward off the oyster drill (a parasite).
Shrimp is the most important commercial fishery in Georgia with two species, white shrimp and brown shrimp, most important. The marsh-estuarine system is preferred nursery area. Growth-rate and survival are dependent on a complex interaction of many factors. Freshwater input is one of importance. It is claimed that the best shrimp seasons come during the wettest years. The winter of 1977 was cold enough for freeze damage.
The Altamaha River fishery reaps the harvest of the lower forms of life and is the major link between the energy producers and man. Fishing is the oldest and still greatest use of the lower Altamaha. The river channels, oxbows, sloughs, tributaries, and swamp lakes have provided some of the best fishing in Georgia.
Fanny Kemble, in A Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation: 1838-1839, wrote:
"We had a species of fish this morning for our breakfast which deserves more glory than I can bestow upon it. Had I been the ingenious man who wrote a poem upon fish, the white mullet

of the Altamaha should have been at least my heroine's cousin. 'Tis the heavenliest creature that goes upon fins."
Fish represent the major link between the aquatic and river swamp natural communities of the Altamaha, plus a key link between freshwater and saltwater systems. Five major species of anadromous fish spawn in the Altamaha, returning to where they were born after maturing in the Atlantic. Many do not confine themselves to the main channel, but travel the innermost parts of the river swamp during high water. Oxbows and back swamp lakes are favorite haunts.
The anadromous fish of the Altamaha are attuned to the river's seasonal fluxes. When the river is in full flood, during winter, the fish begin their journey upstream. On a good year, runs are heaviest in January and February.
Spawning ususually begins in early March, as the water temperature approaches l2C. Each species has a particular zone in the basin where spawning is preferred. Some spawn in the main channel while others spawn in the oxbows or over the swamp floor. As the water temperature begins to warm, eggs are laid. A short while later the eggs hatch and the larval fish move to their preferred nursery areas and again, these areas are different for each species. By late November, all have returned to the ocean, not to return until ready to start the cycle once again.
The DNR Game and Fish Division conducted extensive research on the spawning of major Altamaha anadromous fish in the late 1960's. The results are summarized in Table 20. The species discussed are the American shad, hickory shad, blueback herring, striped bass, and Atlantic sturgeon.

95

Species American Shad Hickory Shad
Blueback Herring Striped Bass Atlantic Sturgeon

TABLE 20 SPAWNING AREAS AND SEASONS OF ANADROMOUS FISH
OF THE LOWER ALTAMARA RIVER

Preferred Spawning Area
River Mile 60-120, but use whole river. Spawn only in main channel.
R.M. 41 to 60 and 121 to 137, but use whole river. Spawn mainly in oxbows, sloughs, and tributary streams.
R.M. 100 to 130, but use whole river. Spawn only on floodplain floor where their eggs adhere to debris.
10 to 30. Prefer back-water, swamp sloughs and quiet pools under tidal influence.
Tidal area preferred, although some spawning evidence exists in the upper river.

Preferred Nursery Area
R.M. 20 to 40 and 100 to 130, use whole river. Prefer fast currents adjacent to sand-bar.
Estuarine waters.
R.M. 10 to 30. Prefer quiet spots in lower river. Return to main channel as flood recedes.
Probably whole river basin in backwaters.

Leave River Late October
Return to estuary with receding flood waters soon after hatching. In offshore waters by September. Offshore by November.

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division.

96

The shad fishery is probably one of the oldest continuous commercial fisheries of the Atlantic coast and in the early 1900's was considered to be the most important commercial fishery of the lower Altamaha. The fishery has suffered dramatic declines in production, decreasing from 50 million pounds in 1896 to less than 6 million pounds in 1966 (Atlantic coast figures- Godwin, 1968). The relative importance of the Altamaha shad fishery increased during this period, until 1968, when it accounted for 67% of Georgia's total shad production. Since the early 1970's, the shad fishery has been on a puzzling decline.
Alewives (herring) are of major importance ecologically as a forage fish (Carl Hall, P.C.), but are not commercially taken in Georgia. (They are sought commercially in every Atlantic seaboard state except Georgia.)
The Atlantic sturgeon is not heavily harvested but is always a popular catch. A favorite spot is the "sturgeon hole", at the mouth of Penholoway Creek. The sturgeon is the largest fish in the Altamaha. Nets used to land these lunkers have a regulated mesh size which will take only adult sturgeon. Striped bass prefer to spawn within the tidal reach, above the salinity level, but where regular tidal currents will wash across the eggs.
A number of other estuarine fish come to the Altamaha's fresh water to feed. These include the striped mullet, southern flounder, Atlantic needlefish, hogchoker, gizzard shad, threadfin shad, and the shortnose sturgeon. The shortnose sturgeon, on the federal Rare and Endangered Species list, enters just the lower portion of the Altamaha. These fish are acutely aware of water-level fluctuations and when it begins to fall, they return immediately to deeper channels. Some return to the river, others to sloughs and back-swamp lakes.

The Georgia Power Company has made the most complete surveys of Altamaha fish populations near the Hatch Plant, and a species list from this area is provided in Table 21. The most abundant fish are the lpngnose gar, gizzard shad, carp, spotted sucker, and channel catfish. Sportfish present (besides the anadromous fish) include large-mouth bass, crappie, redear sunfish, bluegills, redbreast sunfish, warmouth, bullheads, white catfish, and chain pickerel.
The Game and Fish Division did a preliminary creel survey of the Altamaha during the summer of 1972. Channel catfish, redbreast, bluegill, and largemouth bass were the most sought after fish. Catfish were most frequently caught in the mainstream while bluegills were taken mainly from oxbow lakes.
Marine mammals are abundant with frequent visits in the delta by porpoise and pilot whales. Also, Florida manatee sightings have been increasing in warmer seasons. The lower Altamaha River is considered by some to be critical habitat for this threatened mammal. The right and humpback whale occasionally visit Altamaha Sound as they migrate along the eastern coast.
Sand deposits (sandy areas) add a major dimension to the aquatic communities. Some are covered during high water (river sand bars), but others are exposed year-round (ocean sand dunes). Sand dunes are mapped on the seaward edge of Wolf, Egg, and Little St. Simons Islands. They are the areas most under the influence of tides, salt water, offshore winds, and storms. The loggerhead turtle, a very unique species, nests where the foredune meets the beach. Johnson (1971) reports a population of secondary importance on Little St. Simons.

97

TABLE 21 MAJOR FINFISH OF ALTAMAHA RIVER

Atlantic Sturgeon Shortnose Sturgeon Tarpon Gizzard Shad Threadfin Shad American Shad Hickory Shad Blueback Herring Chain Pickerel White Catfish Channel Catfish Yellow Bullhead Brown Bullhead Flat Bullhead Black Bullhead Striped Bass Largemouth Bass Black Crappie Warmouth Bluegill Redear Sunfish Channel Bass Sea Trout Southern Flounder Redbreast Sunfish

Acipenser oxyrhynchus Acipenser brevirostris Megalops atlantica Dorosoma cepedianum Dorosoma petenense Alosa sapidissima Alosa mediocris Alosa aestivalis Esox niger Ictalurus catus Ictalurus punctatus Ictalurus natalis Ictalurus nebulosus Ictalurus platycephalus Ictalurus melas Roccus saxatilis Micropterus salmoides Pomoxis nigromaculatus Chaenobryttus coronarius Lepomis macrochirus Lepomis microlophus Sciaenops ocellatus Cynoscion nebulosus Paralichthys lethostigma Lepomis auri tus

Source: Geurgia Power Company, Edwin I. Hatch Nuclear Plant Environmental Report, page
III-4.

98

RIVER SWAMP COMMUNITIES
The river swamp communities comprise the greatest amount of land in the Altamaha River study area. On the Natural Communities Map (Figure 20), the river swamp is divided into two categories: gum-cypress and hardwood. The differentiation shown here is based on elevation and wetness: the gum-cypress dominated swamp occupies the lowest, most frequently inundated part of the swamp, and river swamp hardwoods occupy the slightly higher and drier locales.
The difference between these two types of river swamp is graphically shown in Figure 21 which is a typical cross-section of the Altamaba River floodplain in the vicinity of Boyles Island. Along with river swamp, Figure 21 also shows the typical location of some of the other natural communities of the Boyles Island area which are discussed later in this section.
A vegetational gradation can be observed across the swamps south of Ludowici, from the predominantly alluvial-influenced back swamp, to Jones Creek Swamp which is primarily black-water affected. Cypresstupelo dominate the alluvial back-swamp, while the more black-water influenced swamp further from the river contains more black-gum, Tupelo-gum, and pond cypress.
Willows mark old river channels and oxbow lakes as the lakes fill in with sediments in the first stages of river swamp succession. This is also true for developing sand bars except for the presence of more alder. Behind sand bars and on older sand bar sediments, river birch, sycamore, red maple, Tupelo-gum, and Carolina ash become established. Ash may grow vigorously in almost pure stands in these areas. Two such stands are on Boyles Island upriver from Bug Suck Lake.

A thin margin of river-swamp hardwoods is mapped along most of the Altamaha channels. This is the levee or riverside raised terrace. This strip has a greater percentage of overcup oak, ogeche lime, tupelo, sweetgum and faster-growing shrubs than the interior hardwood river swamp forest.
A series of terraces and flats often occurs for approximately one mile on both sides of the Altamaha River. On Boyles Island, this type of situation is well developed. The terrace nearest to the river, the levee, is sometimes the highest and is usually well-forested.
The terraces and flats of the hardwood river swamp are forested with overcup oak, water oak, water hickory, swamp tupelo, swamp chestnut oak, water elm, blue beech and spruce pine. Overcup oak, water hickory and water oak dominate the lower elevations while the higher terraces are primarily covered by elm, sweet gum, water oak, and hackberry, with an understory characterized by palmetto and hornbeam.
Most of the lower Altamaha hardwood river swamp has been selectively cut, but many virgin or nearvirgin stands still exist. They include portions of Lewis Island above the Seaboard Coastline Railroad, large areas around the Miller Lake area on both sides of the Altamaha River, and the most extensive stands are on the northeast end of Boyles Island ~ear Steamboat Cut. A number of extraordinary swamp chestnut oaks and overcup oaks exist in the Bug Suck area. On Champney and Wrights Island, stands of blackgum with some cedar are growing in abandoned rice fields (Gene Love, p.c. ). In Buffalo Swamp, the hardwood river swamp appears to be young, but in the center of the swamp, the community is well-developed and similar to the hardwood river swamp further up river.

99

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(\IVa( SWAMP

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ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN
100

I
pnmary habrtal- For
upland wridltflt
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION/ FIGURE 21
-~===========================================-~-~====~====~ . - - --- - - - 101

The waterways and sloughs in the river swamp are dominated by water tupelo and bald cypress. These retain flood waters the longest and vegetation exhibits extensive buttressing. Cypress knees are often numerous with the height indicating mean high water levels. However, river swamp depressions do dry during some periods, because even cypress seeds require dry soils to germinate.
Logging for cypress and Tupelo-gum has been considerable in the past. The only virgin stand that remains is on Lewis Island in the Altamaha waterfowl management area. However, a few large trees that were not suitable for timber still exist along sloughs, oxbow lakes, and the main river. On Lewis Island, the overstory canopy is predominantly bald cypress up to 1,300 years old. They are spaced far apart, allowing light to enter and support a diverse lower canopy. The Tupelo-gum are as old as the cypress, but have been more crowded and their growth is slightly depressed. The Lewis Island River swamp dominates I-95. Gum-cypress originally extended further into the delta, but most were cleared for rice culture in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The secondary canopy on Lewis Island includes water tupelo, sweet gum, black gum and swamp tupelo, water oak, ash, and red maple. The understory trees and shrubs include young cypress, laurel oak, red bay, swamp privet, viburnum, elm, sweet gum, sabal palm, American beauty bush, trumpet vine, greenbrier, lady's eardrop, climbing hempweed, pepper vine, Virginia willow, poison ivy, possum grape, lizard tail, and holly.
The fauna here includes coastal species such as fiddler crabs, mud moles, rainbow snakes, king snakes, deer in abundance, otter, and a wide variety of bird species. Fiddler crabs by the hundreds can be observed swarming out of massive cypress roots during low tide.

The large areas mapped as gum-cypress swamp on the Natural Communities Map (Figure 20) north of the river in Long and western Mcintosh County are backswamps. These differ somewhat from the sloughs in that ponding is a major factor. Normally separated from the main river by sand-ridges and hammocks, the areas drain poorly and usually retain water throughout the year. A similar situation may occur at the mouths of some tributary streams where sediments carried into the swamp increase while ponding creek waters behind.
The swamp, in conjunction with the hammock, sand ridge, and bluff communities, provides the diversity of habitat required to support large populations of deer, wild turkey, foxes, hawks, owls, and many other forms of wildlife. The large size of the Altamaha swamp sloughs, lakes, and depressions make it a refuge for such rare species as the American alligator, osprey, limpkin, and the bald eagle, as well as more common species such as the white ibis and Georgia's native wood duck.
Small forms of wildlife include cotton mouse, short-tailed shrew, opossum, beaver (extensive beaver populations are reported), and raccoon. Whitetailed deer is the dominant big game species. Wildcat and black bear are also reported. Common waterfowl and songbirds such as heron, egrets, warblers, and vireos are abundant. A patient observer may sight a rare Mississippi kite, limpkin, or swallow-tail kite (see photograph on page 90).
The swallowtail kite is one of the most beautiful birds along the lower Altamaha. It is a relic from the past when groups of hundreds were reported over the river swamps. The limpkin, or "crying bird" is extremely rare. Before Wharton discovered the species on the Altamaha (above Altamaha Park in Mcintosh County), it was

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previously thought to exist only in Florida and possibly the Okefenokee.
The southern red, mud, and dwarf salamanders dominate on floodplain depressions with the redspotted newt and spotted salamanders on the terraces and drier flats. Tree frogs can be found in flooded back swamps along with rainbow and mud snakes. The red-bellied and brown snakes are common near the river, while the banded water snake is frequently seen basking on the river bank. The cotton mouth is well adapted for floodplain life, preferring small, slowly flowing back sloughs. Lizards include the green mole and beautiful 5-lined skink.
HAMMOCK AND SANDHILL COMMUNITIES
Hammocks and river sand hills occur along the north side of the Altamaha River floodplain (see page 68). These hammocks and sand hills are discontinuous, but biologically connect with the more extensive ancient barrier island sand hills, and finally, the fall line sand hills. Dr. John Bozeman explains that this has permitted plant species common on the fall line sand hills to extend their ranges down the river sand hills toward the coast, as well as allowing typically coastal species to extend inland. Due to the size of the Altamaha floodplain, these include extensive back-bay sand ridges that tower above the hammocks in the lower floodplain.
The evergreen hammock represents the climax vegetation that will develop in the Altamaha floodplain over areas that are slightly higher than river swamp and protected from fire and manmade disturbances (Bozeman, 1976). Isolation is the key factor and more extensive evergreen ham-

mocks exist along the lower Altamaha than in any other southeastern coastal river floodplain.
Vegetation in the evergreen hammock is like the live oak forests of the coastal islands. However, the evergreen hammock that has developed on the rear dunes on Little St. Simons and on the mainland near Darien and I-95 south of the river (on the Princess Anne shoreline complex) contains more cabbage palm and saw palmetto. Dr. Bozeman also feels that a further separation might be by species if a difference is recognized in the live oak of a river hammock and the live oak of a coastal island.
Characteristic trees of the evergreen hammock are the live oak, laurel oak, pignut hickory, southern magnolia, spruce pine, American holly, and swamp chestnut oak. Also common are red bay, wild olive, witch hazel, blueberry, paw-paw, greenbrier, dogwood, horse sugar, resurrection fern, sabal palm, and beauty bush. Elliottia racemosa is a very rare tree of the inland evergreen hammocks of Georgia. A stand is located on the state-owned Big Hammock Natural Area in Tattnall County which is located on the northern side of the Altamaha River floodplain below the confluence of the Ohoopee River and another in Long County slightly above the study site.
The evergreen hammocks of the lower Altamaha floodplain are essential high-water refuges for wildlife. When the surrounding swamp floods, deer, turkey, wild pigs, and other non-aquatic species concentrate on higher ground. Foods are abundant in the form of acorns, berries, and other vegetation. Field observations were made of the red-spotted newt, blue-tailed skink, armadillo, gopher tortoise, black racers, several banded water snakes, cotton mouths, deer, turkey, ibis, egret, swallow-tail kites, and barred owls.
The evergreen hammocks that are most accessible

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in the Altamaha floodplain have been cut over and converted to pine (see Pine Plantations on Figure 20). The least disturbed areas extend along a series of isolated ridges from Boyles Island to Fort Barrington.
These hammocks contain immense live oaks that are estimated to be 200 to 300 years old and are four to five feet in diameter. Rare orchids grow in the rough bark of thesa live oaks; and American holly, approaching two feet in diameter, are scattered in the understory. Oth~r large trees include: magnolia, sweet gum, and the swamp chesnut oak with acorns that are nearly two inches tall and thickly cover the ground.
The deciduous scrub sand hill community develops on sand ridges in the back-swamp. Fire occurs frequently and has a marked effect on the flora and fauna. Only species that can tolerate extremely dry, sterile conditions and are adapted to fire will develop. Examples extend along the lower Altamaha River and well into the middle coastal plain. The Ohoopee River sand ridge connects to those along the Altamaha in Long and Tattnall Counties which are quite extensive.
Dr. John Bozeman has estimated that fires occur naturally on the average of once every 5 to 7 years in scrub sand ridge communities. They are mainly short-lived brush fires that move quickly through the fire-maintained, light understory. Five-year fires remove much of the undergrowth and eliminate non-fire-tolerant species, but are suitable for turkey-oaks and longleaf pine to sprout above low fires. Bozeman feels that if regular fires were prevented in these areas, natural succession would be toward an evergreen hammock.
The dominant trees of the deciduous scrub sand ridge are turkey oak, longleaf pine, scrub post oak, bluejack oak, and mockernut. Shrubs include saw

palmetto, gopher apple , huckleberry, and blueberry. The open canopy permits a variety of herbaceous plants to develop, including grasses, cacti, and many beautiful flowering plants. The trees, shrubs, and vines are often dwarfed or gnarled with clumps, thick leathery or woolly leaves, and other adaptations to a harsh environment.
Rare plants of the scrub include rosemary (Ceratiola), Dicerandra odoratissima, the legume Petalostemum feoya (reported by Wilbur Duncan on a ridge south of Ludowici), Bartonia verna, and the trailing milkweed (Matella pubiflora). Also, the back edge of the lower Altamaha sand hills, where they drop off to back swamp, is suspected by Bozeman as the habitat where John and William Bartram discovered the famed Franklinia alatamaha in 1765.
A fauna of predominantly burrowing species exists on the sand hills in a very sensible adaptation to a harsh and fire-maintained community. Dwellers in-

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elude the gopher tortoise, gopher frog, rattlesnake, indigo snake, wolf spider, the tumble bug that shares holes with the red-tailed skink, the fence lizard, armadillo, and the extraordinarily well-camouflaged oak toad. Birds frequenting the area are the towhee, blue jay, brown thrasher, wild turkey, and quail.
The sand ridge community is not uniformly high and dry, but contains many pockets and depressions which are poorly drained, accumulate organic matter and support wetland species. Soil series types are mostly Rutledge or Leon. Sand hill depressions increase the species' diversity of the sand ridge and add greatly to the resource value. They provide nesting areas for waterfowl such as the wood ibis and egret that are well-secluded in the midst of a sand ridge. The vegetation around these areas can be so thick and dense that it can be difficult to locate some ponds.
Cypress ponds are the most frequently occurring depressions in the sand hills and are almost completely dominated by pond-cypress (which is fire resistant). Mixed pine species can be intermingled and common shrubs are the dahoon, titi, and fetter-bush. Ponds with Litsea as the most common shrub are numerous on the ridge (Bozeman, 1964). These areas often contain open water pools that hold water much of the year. Such pools are known to exist on Miller Lake Hammock.
Small peat bogs occur throughout the sand ridge. A good example (John Bozeman, p.c.) is in the sand ridge about one mile east of Fort Barrington in Mcintosh County. These contain sphagnum moss (accumulations of about two to three feet), the sedge Carex walteriania, aquatics on floating mats of sphagnum, and are usually surrounded by a dense ring of fetter-bush, bamboo, briar, and loblolly bay. Pinckneya pubens and Sarracenia sp. occur in bogs on the Barrington Sand Ridge, and Dr. Wilbur Duncan reports

that the rare Burmannia sp. also grows abundantly in these depressions.
The deciduous scrub sand hills along the lower Altamaha have been more disturbed than the isolated hammocks. Those nearest to Ludowici have been cut, windrowed and planted in pine (mapped as pine plantations on Natural Communities Map). Undisturbed examples of the deciduous scrub sand hills in the study area are located near Hughes Old River and on a strip of sand ridge from Doctors Creek in Long County to just west of Cox in Mcintosh County.
LOWLAND AND UPLAND FLATWOOD COMMUNITIES
The majority of land in the lower coastal plain of Georgia is part of the flatwoods. The flatwoods are covered almost completely by pine forests: longleaf, loblolly, and slash. When Europeans first reached Georgia, the upper coastal plain harbored an expansive longleaf pine climax or near climax forest. Though few stands of original flatwoods exist, pines continue to dominate. Fire is a primary communitydetermining factor. However, intermingled among the flatwoods are hardwood swamps, bays, and drainageways where surface waters are stored and filter through en route to the sea.
The areas mapped pine flatwoods include some even-aged and cultivated stands that were undifferentiated from naturally-seeded stands. Plantations sometimes include longleaf, loblolly, pond cypress and scattered water oak and red maple that occur by natural regeneration.
The pine flatwoods north of the river in Long and Mcintosh Counties grow mainly on the Bladen soils series type. Natural pine flatwoods contain slash, longleaf, loblolly, pond pine, sweetgum, blackgum,

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some water oak, southern red oak, pond cypress and an undergrowth of myrtle-bush, wiregrass, vernonia, sawgrass, and the rare Fothergilla gardenii. The pine flatwoods southwest of Ludowici, partially surrounded by river swamp, is said to grow some of the best timber in Long County (Emil Futch, Long County Forest Ranger, p. c.).
Dr. Sidney Johnson is making a wildlife survey of the flatwoods just north of the study area near Townsend, Georgia, for ITT Rayonier. The report is not yet complete, but preliminary data permits a rough comparison of the wildlife values to be made between the various flatwoods habitats. The overall deer population was found to be low, 2 to 3 per square mile, attributed to low-carrying capacity and excessive hunting pressure (much illegal). The lack of swamps makes hunting with dogs particularly efficient in the area. A low-to-moderate turkey population was present which was somewhat surprising considering the poaching pressure. Flatwood depression and pinehardwood flatwoods were considered of prime importance to the deer and turkey population. Songbirds were found to be clearly more diverse and productive in the pine-hardwood flatwoods. The rare northern parula warbler, hooded warbler, and Bachman's warbler (very rare) were found restricted entirely to the pinehardwood flatwoods and depressions. Small mammal populations were not abundant but occurred more frequently in naturally re-generated pine flatwoods than pine plantations.
Pine-hardwood flatwoods occur where natural regeneration of hardwoods has been permitted or where soil wetness favors the mixed vegetation. Willow oak, water oak, and cypress can be found mixed with loblolly, slash, and pond pine. Common shrubs present are huckleberry, staggerbush, wild azalea, blueberry, and American holly.
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Some of the pine-hardwood flatwoods appear open with grass, savannah, and scrub. These are mapped as pine-hardwood-scrub flatwoods. Grasses and sedges are abundant and cypress is present in wetter sites. The largest area of this community t yp e is located in Wayne County north of Highway 301 where the vegetation is similar to that which occurs on the scrub-sand hills in Long County. The difference, however, is that rather than a continuous layer of deep sand (Kershaw Sand Hill), the sand acts as a cap about 4 feet thick above a clay hardpan. The soils fit into the Lakeland and Fuquay soil series types. The vegetation that develops is intermediate between the sand hill community and the flatwoods over older Miocene clay soils typical of the middle coastal plain.

The oveistory has turkey oak and longleaf pine as dominant and the understory contains dogwoods, persimmon, and bluejack oak (John Bozeman, p.c.). The rare red-cockaded woodpecker utilizes the mature and isolated stands of these flatwoods.
Flatwood depressions are drainageways, wet flats, and swamps in the flatwoods. The soils are very poorly drained and include the Bayboro, Pelham, Rutledge, and Leon series. There are primarily two types of drainageways included: the black-water swamp community and evergreen bayheads. Both develop on Bayboro soils as well as along streams draining the back sides of the sand ridges. Broadleaf evergreen trees and shrubs form a dense thicket of tremendous value to wildlife. Most common is loblolly bay, sweet bay, red bay, titi, and fetter bush.
The areas mapped as pine plantation are areas recently planted in pine (within 5 years) where either windrows or uniform young stands were easily detectable. Slash pine is the principal species cultivated. However, during the past few years, a hybrid loblolly called the super pine is being planted in increasingly greater numbers. This tree. reaches a commercial size for pulp in 12 to 15 years.
BLUFFS, RAVINES, AND UPLAND DRAINAGEWAYS
The uplands on the south side of the river, particularly .in Wayne County, are separated from the river floodplain by a steep bluff. Elevation differences of 20 to 50 feet are common, and some small tributary streams, particularly north of Doctortown, cut through this bluff creating deep ravines.

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Since many of these bluffs face north, the soil stays moist, the temperature stays slightly cooler than surrounding areas, and a forest develops more typical of mesic communities further north in Georgia than the coast. This particular forest type was studied in the south by Quarterman and Keever and named the Southern Mixed Hardwood Climax Forest. One of their sites sampled was Oglethorpe's Bluff in the study area. Other prime bluff areas along the Altamaha are at Buggs Bluff, Doctortown, Paradise Park, and particularly at the Sansavilla Bluffs.
One of the major functions of deep ravines is similar to that of the hammocks in providing a river swamp buffer that, during high water, is a refuge which shelters and feeds swamp wildlife. The importance has been heightened by the conversion of substantial hardwood sites to pine on the adjacent uplands. T9o steep to cultivate, this thin bluff forest has been permitted to develop to climax.
Dominant trees here are southern magnolia, white oak, river birch, red maple, beech, spruce pine, laurel oak, water oak, and sweetgum. Shrubs include holly, hawthorne, witchhazel, hornbeam, blueberry greenbriar, sassafras, and others. Northern species such as mountain laurel have been recorded at Oglethorpe and Sansavilla Bluff. A large stand of the rare beauty, Magnolia pyramidata, one the the trees noted by William Bartram, was recently discovered by Margaret and Hugh Jordan of Jesup near Paradise Park along with loblolly bay, holly, pinckneya, ar1d Virginia willow.
Near Ludowici, the terrain drops off steeply from upland flatwoods to river swamp. The bluff community is developed on the Lucy soil series type. The bluff faces south and does not have a moist, northern-like microclimate. Thus, the vegetation is not like mixed hardwood community on the bluffs facing north, but is most likely a mixed pine-hardwood forest.

Alluvial upland drainageways occur along welldeveloped tributary streams, mainly in Wayne, but also in Long and Mcintosh Counties. They were mapped on the Johnston soil series or the old wet alluvial sand series on the Wayne County SCS Soils Survey. The characteristic trees are pond cypress, bald cypress, slash pine, black gum, Carolina ash, water ash, red maple, sweet bay, red bay, willow oak, ogeche tupelo, water oak, and a dense understory of titi and fetterbush. These areas are typically black-water swamp situations, although sometimes they can not be differentiated from flatwoods drainageways or back bays.
The wettest upland drainageways are classified as vegetated ponds. They are dominated by evergreen bay species: sweet bay, red bay, loblolly bay, black gum, and red maple. This is similar to a bayhead or the flatwoods depression category.
MARSH COMMUNITIES
River-edge marsh is the freshwater marsh which comprises a broken, narrow strip (up to 50 feet wide) along the freshwater and brackish channels of the lower Altamaha as far into the delta as Butler Island. Flora is diverse but dominant vegetation includes giant cutgrass, pickerel weed, wild rice, arrow-arum, and other grasses. Beautiful flowers of the false dragonhead and spider lily are present. Herons, egrets and the American alligator abound in backwater reaches lined with freshwater marsh.
The giant cutgrass and mixed fresh-brackish marsh categories shown on the Natural Communities Map (Figure 20) cover lands on Cambers, Wrights, Butlers, Generals, Rhetts, Carrs, Champney, and Broughton Islands, plus

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areas south of Cathead Creek and adjacent to the south Altamaha River in Glynn County. Nearly all of this land was cleared of its original gum-cypress forest in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and used in the once-thriving rice culture. The rice islands were diked to insure optimal control of water on the paddies along a five-mile wide strip in the Altamaha Delta. The area was ideal for rice cultivation because tidal range is high, but the water is still primarily fresh.
Much of the land is now under state ownership and is managed as the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. Dikes are still operable on Butler, Champney, and Rhetts Island and these are controlled to produce food favored by waterfowl such as pigeon grass, muskgrass, pondweed, dwarf spikerush, panic grass, smartweeds, and aneilema. Other old rice areas have reverted to a mixed unmanaged marsh, Much of this marsh is exclusively giant cutgrass.
The mixed fresh/brackish marsh contains a more complex mixture of vegetative species: cattail near deep margins, sawgrass, giant plume grass, golden club, and scratch grass. Aquatic plants are common in creeks and potholes. Frogs that are common include the bull, pig, bronze, and green tree frogs. Giant grasshoppers are abundant among the cutgrass on the islands. The banded water snake is common~ The pools and canals of the managed islands harbor abundant populations of the eel-like salamanders Amphuma and Siren, as well as garfish, bowfin, the American alligator, and the Florida manatee which migrates through salt water to meet diverse habitat requirements.
The freshwater, giant cutgrass, and mixed fresh/ brackish marsh have a greater diversity of aquatic plants and are more heavily used by waterfowl than any of the other marshlands (Johnson, 1971). The Georgia coast is on the southern end of the Atlantic
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migratory waterfowl flyway, and major ducks of the flyway include: mallard, black, pintail, gadwall, baldpate, merganser, shovelers, green-winged teal, bufflehead, scaup, ring-necked, canvasback, and geese.
Based on research by Gallagher and Reimold (1973), the brackish marsh is characterized by needlerush, large cordgrass, bullrush, and pickerel weed, and with some smooth cordgrass. The soil salinities range from 0 to 14 parts per thousand. The needlerush marsh is very apparent and well-mapped. The other brackish species are all included in the mixed brackish/salt category. Large cordgrass is the most important mixed species, occurring in a strip along most channels in the brackish marsh. Large cordgrass extends furthest inland on the Darien River. Pickerel weed mixed with smooth cordgrass often occurs in thin strands between the water and large cordgrass. Bullrush, which grows where the influence of fresh water is high, occurs in significant amounts on Black Island east of Darien, on Rockdedundy and on the smaller islands of Altamaha Sound.
A small patch of glasswort, which grows only on highly saline salt flats, was located on the northeast corner of Rockedundy Island and mapped under mixed salt-brackish. Other small patches of mixed salt marsh species were also mapped in this category.
The salt marsh is by far the most studied marsh in Georgia. It is mapped as the smooth cordgrass marsh and includes three different forms of Spartina alterniflora. Streambed spartina grows as a tall strip next to all saltwater tidal channels. Creekhead spartina and short spartina are low varieties that densely cover the rest of the marshlands. Soil salinity levels in the low marsh range from 25 to 42 ppt.

Dr. Wilbur Duncan of the University of Georgia has pointed out that there are some rare, endangered, or unusual marsh species. The very rare cork tree Leitneria floridana grows on the edge of the low marsh along the lower Altamaha. Spartina acori is not usually found on the high salt or brackish marsh, but is endemic to the Altamaha Delta.
The fiddler crab, which can extend far up into the brackish and fresh-marsh systems, is a principal detritus feeder. The diamondback terrapin is the only reptile living full-time in the salt marsh. Mammals are rarely permanent residents, but raccoon, mink, otter, marsh rabbit, and rice rat take advantage of the abundant food resources available.
Birds can be abundant in the salt marshes. The marsh wren, seaside sparrow and clapper rail, the latter an important game species, typify the area. The Altamaha delta marshes are very important feeding and nesting areas for wading birds, migratory waterfowl, and songbirds.
Little Egg Island was studied in the past as an important nesting area for black skimmers; royal, least, and gull-billed terns; American ovstercracker; Wilson's plovers, willets and boat-tailed grackles (Kale, 1965, 1967). Unfortunately, they have all apparently left (possibly moving over to Little St. Simons Island where a rookery now exists).
Another important rookery is reported a mile east of Rabbit Island in the brackish marsh area (Johnson, 1971). The first record of a glossy ibis nesting in Georgia was made there in 1970. Other nesters here included the common egret, anhinga, black-crowned night heron, snowy egret, Louisiana heron, and white ibis (the most dominant). Problems with predation, tides, and storms were noted here.

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DEVELOPED AREAS

NATURAL FACTORS SYNTHESIS

Cleared uplands are areas that have been cleared of forest vegetation. They are mainly agricultural lands but some areas so mapped may be recently cut or newly planted pine plantations. A few scattered residential areas near Darien and Ludowici are also included in this category.
Urban areas include the predominantly developed portions of the study area that are used as residential areas (Darien, Ludowici, and north of Jesup), commercial areas (Altamaha Park, Paradise Park, and Two-Way Fish Camp), and industrial areas (ITT Rayonier Mill and waste ponds).

Since this proposal is for a scenic and recreational river along the lower Altamaha River, the synthesis must determine how and where the optimum recreational use of the river valley ecosystem can occur. This was essentially accomplished by determining which areas of the lower Altamaha River study site are vulnerable to, or suitable for, development. Also, even though development can occur in areas that are suitable in terms of land capability, the same areas might be ecologically valuable in roles that are important to the maintenance of the lower Altamaha floodplain for natural river recreation. In such an instance, the preservation/ conservation potential of the resource must be considered.

DEVELOPMENT VULNERABILITY OR SUITABILITY
Development vulnerability or suitability includes any land or water activities of man which would significantly change the natural character of the lower Altamaha area. The analysis of development. vulnerability or suitability for this study has been directly applied to intensive recreation and related impacts, but the analysis also can be applied to planning goals for other forms of intensive land use.
The only limiting factor which must be remembered is that vulnerability is dependent on the nature and impact of the land use activity. It will cost more, in economic and environmental terms, to intensively develop areas that are most vulnerable than areas that are shown as the most suitable for development.
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Four levels have been differentiated on the Development Vulnerability/Suitability Map (Figure 22). These are listed from "most vulnerable", _with the greatest limitations on development activities, to "most suitable", with the least; constraints on development. Mapping on Figure 22 came primarily from earth resources information such as soil series information on soil limitations and subsurface locations of mineral resources (See Appendix E: Simplified Subsurface Resources of the Lower Altamaha); from water resources and climate i~formation such as floodprone areas and groundwater recharge areas; and from natural communities information such as wetlands and unique habitat.

(Lakeland, Galeston, and Klej soils). They have moderate to severe limitations for permissible septic systems and slight to moderate limitations for other uses such as roads.
The most suitable areas may have local limitations due to wetness, rapid permeability or soil texture; but are generally considered to be compatible for most uses (Stilson, Norfolk, Fuquay, and Irvington soils).

The most vulnerable (least suitable) areas are the wetlands. Included is the main river-swamp and backswamps, upland and sandhill depressions, drainageways (Leefield, Leon, Rutledge, Pelham, Rains, Ellabelle, Megget, Bayboro, Johnston soils), fresh and salt water marsh areas, sandbars, coastal beaches and all waterways. This land either undergoes frequent flooding (usually for several months each year), drains very slowly, or has a very high water table for extended periods every year.

The areas that are mapped with limited suitability are those areas that are in the Altamaha floodplain but are slightly higher in elevation than t he river swamp. Most of the limited suitability areas are susceptible to large floods and access for development is poor. These include most evergreen hammocks (Kershaw and Galestown soils), some scrub-sand hill com-
munities (Kershaw soils), steep bluff zones at the swamp-upland interface (Lucy, Gilead-Lakeland-Sawyer, and Tifton soils), coastal island sand dunes, and wet upland areas (Bladen and Olusta soils).

The limited vulnerability areas have some wetness limitations (Klej, Mascotte, Albany, Craven, and Dunbar soils) and soil textural limitations

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DEVELOPMENT VULNERABILITY/SUITABIUTY
D MOST VULNERABLE
LIMITED SUITABILITY UMTEO VULNERABLJTY
MOST SUITABLE

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ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

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PRESERVATION POTENTIAL
Dr. Eugene Odum of the University of Georgia from his research on the succession of natural ecosystems, concludes that man requires a variety of ecosystems to survive ("The Strategy of Ecosystem Development", in Science 164:262-270, 18 April, 1969; and Fundamentals of Ecology, third edition, Saunders Co., 1971). Man's tendency is to strive for maximum production (either in crops or money) from each acre of land, while most natural systems, if left undisturbed, .tend to maximize their protective functions, developing complex food chains and efficient nutrient cycles. "The most pleasant and certainly the safest landscape to live in is one containing a variety of crops, forests, lakes, streams, roadsides, marshes, seashores, and waste places - in other words, a mixture of communities of different ecological ages" (Odum, in "Strategy of Ecosystem Development", p. 267).
The purpose of the Preservation Potential Map (Figure 23) is to show those areas which are most important and least important in assuring a "mixture of communities" that will support continued and growing use of the lower Altamaha River for natural river recreation. Five levels of preservation potential are shown on the map from the first level, or most potential, to the fifth level, or least potential. The information used to map preservation potential came from scenic value [bluff views, buffers along the river and sloughs, and the sand ridge crest corridor (discussed in the next chapter as the Altamaha Swamp Trail)]; habitat value (productivity and uniqueness); continuity value (representative samplings along a linear, but extensive floodplain); or interpretive value (for recreational activities).
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PRESERVATION POTENTIAL
ARST(~HEST) LEVEL SECOND THIRD FOURTH
FIFTH (LOWEST} LEVEL

lA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF PLANNING AND RESE ARCH
HE ALTAMAHA
SCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL

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CHAPTER 5
PLAN AND PROGRAM
FOR RECREATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
The results of the natural factors, recreation, and land use factors syntheses indicate that there are many areas suitable for a wide range of recreation activities along the lower Altamaha River, and that there is a clearly defined need in the coastal region for these activities. The goal of the Recreational Activities Plan and Program is to accommodate the identified and appropriate recreational needS of the Altamaha Market Area to the existing natural and cultural environment of the lower Altamaha without reducing the quality of either. To accomplish this goal, the following objectives will be met:
1. to provide an overall development program for the lower Altamaha, optimizing for recreatipnal use and resource protection;
2. to depict a plan explaining proposed recreational development and managed lands; and
3. to propose recreational management, floodplain management and economic implications to satisfy the program and plan goal.

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PROGRAM
The overall objective of the program is to outline a plan which, once implemented, will provide a large number of high quality recreation opportunities while maintaining the integrity of the natural river resource. The proposal is based on the concept of maintaining and enhancing the existing recreational experience while providing necessary facilities for appropriate visitor use and enjoyment of the river.
In support of the above-stated program objective, management objectives have been established. The river will be primarily managed:
1. to maintain its natural free-flowing condition;
2. to provide opportunities for river-oriented recreation which are consistent with protection of the environmental quality of the river and its landscape; and
3. to wisely utilize the scenic, earth and water, fish and wildlife, historic, archaeologic, and botanic resources.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF ACTIVITIES
The lower Altamaha River floodplain provides a resource base for expanding recreational use. All recreational facilities that are developed within the lower Altamaha River floodplain should be oriented to the natural qualities of the river and be sited with respect to the kind of experience the activity will provide. The experience that a person receives is a direct function of the activity in

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relation to the environment within which it is performed. The same activity performed in different natural settings can give different experiences, and different activities performed in the same setting can also give different experiences. Care must be taken to assure the visitor a quality experience be it for fishing, camping, water skiing, bird watching, picnicking, canoeing, or hunting.
Various types of activities and people require varying degrees of support facilities and services. A wilderness-type adventure requires the absence of man-made intrusions, while an organized group. camping experience requires more intensive development. Along the lower Altamaha River there exists the potential for providing recreational activities that afford several types of experiences: the natural river/scenic river experience, the recreational river experience, and the interpretive or educational experience.
The natural/scenic experience is essentially an e~thetic one and the provision of this experience requires no man-made intrusions to maintain the integrity of the experience. The rugged and scenic nature of the Altamaha River throughout the Boyles Island or the delta area provides many high quality opportunities within which this type of experience can occur.
The recreational river experience is a more intensive one, where individuals, friends, or families can enjoy activities such as picnicking, camping, swimming, or boating within pleasant surroundings. The developing recreational regions north of the Jesup Jaycees Park, surrounding Altamaha Park at Everett City, and adjacent to the Darien/Highway 17 corridor provide many high quality opportunities within which this type of experience is suitable.

The educational experience is one that can occur in conjunction with either the natural/scenic or recreational experience and can be obtained almost anywhere within the lower Altamaha River corridor. It can be experienced at a site of historic, archaeologic, geologic, or botanic interest; on an interpretive trail; during a hunting trip; or solely by sight-seeing.
The primary activities will be: sight-seeing; hiking; natural, historical, and archaeological interpretation with environmental education programs; canoeing; motor boating; swimming, splashing, and floating; hunting; fishing; camping; and general river sport activities such as travel, exploration, or relaxation.
Secondary activities or support facilities, which are either necessary to maintain the primary activities or need is indicated, will be: trails; picnic areas; camping areas; boat ramps; beaches; overlook areas; signing; rest stations; parking areas; gates; utilities; interpretive facilities; waterfowl and wildlife management facilities; staff residences; administrative facilities; and maintenance facilities.
DESIGN, SERVICES, AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The conceptual framework for siting recreational areas within the lower Altamaha River floodplain can best be described by the term Planned Recreational Development (PRD). This concept implies the grouping together of related recreational activities around defined central node areas that occur on the periphery of the resource. The grouping together of related recreational activities (i.e., picnicking, camping, open space recreation) will contribute to an easing of acquisition problems in obtaining land for recrea-

118

tiona! use; simplification of recreation area management and administration; the retention of more open space and reduction of human impact on the land; an increased level of convenience for users of the area; an overall reduction in the amount of support facilities required; and a reduction in the amount of road and parking surface that would otherwise be required.
Recreational facilities are located in activity clusters which are referred to as recreation sites, historical sites, or natural areas. The proposed recreation sites will vary, but can contain primitive camps, interpretive trails, gates, signs, portage trails, boat ramps, boat lifts, and parking. Proposed historic sites and natural areas can contain interpretive trails, gates, signs, and parking. A secondary consideration for the recreation areas will be a central campfire area for historical or natural area programs.
The maintenance facilities of the lower Altamaha River corridor will be minimized in several ways. No trash pick-up will occur in any of the recreational facilities. All areas will be signed for no littering and enforced through existing DNR regulations.
Also, all maintenance facility development will occur at the DNR stations which have existing jurisdiction in the lower Altamaha area. These are the Zone VII Game Management Office on Butler Island (the only station within the study corridor) for Long, Hcintosh, and Glynn Counties; the Zone VI Game Management Office at Fitzgerald for Wayne County; the Zone VII Fisheries Management Office at Brunswick for the southern coastal section including Long, Mcintosh, and Glynn Counties; the Zone VI Fisheries Management Office at Waycross for Wayne County; the Marine Fisheries Management and Marshlands Protection Office in Brunswick; the Southern Coastal Section Law

Enforcement Office at Brunswick for Long, Mcintosh, and Glynn Counties; the Law Enforcement Office at Metter for Wayne County; and the Environmental Protection Division Southeast Region Office in Bruns wick.
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PLAN
The Recreational Activities Plan is the method by which research, planning, and programming can be applied to the land. The resulting plan should do this in a manner which makes the objectives obtainable in an economically and environmentally feasible manner. The plan is not intended to be specific in terms of the exact selection of activities or the exact location of facilities because site master-development is a process which follows after land is under direct management. The plan is-, however, the means by which an over-all picture of research, planning, and programming can be conceptually drawn together to aid the more detailed implementation processes to follow.
The Recreational Activities Plan/Program (Figure 24) represents the conceptual gathering of this study into a Scenic and Recreational River Proposal for the lower Altamaha. The term "scenic and recreational" in the instance of this plan is a planning term which indicates the popular public conception of a natural river recreational corridor rather than a legal term. In Georgia, the state Scenic Rivers Act of 1969 refers to rivers which have been designated by the Governor and General Assembly as Natural River Areas, Pastoral River Areas, and Recreational River Areas (see Appendix G: Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969).
The plan (see Figure 24) shows the recreational facilities and the various management areas into

119

which the area is divided. The left-hand column of the title block shows the color key for all privatelyheld lands which are included in the Recreational Activities Plan but will not require public ownership for plan implementation. These lands will contain limited access for the public through joint agreements between the Landowner and the State of Georgia [see Chapter 6: Implementation of the Activities Plan (Joint Agreements)].
The right-hand column of the title block of Figure 24 shows the color key for all lands that are proposed for state management. Most of these lands are presently in the public domain, but some will require acqu1S1tion [see Chapter 6: Implementation of the Activities Plan (State-managed Lands)].
JOINT AGREEMENT RECREATION SITES
There are a number of proposed recreation sites which will occur under state/private joint agreements. These are either low-key primitive camps or foot trail access areas. The proposed primitive camps will contain only informational signs and trail markers and occur only on the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail and remote water trails.
The Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail Primitive Camps which will have state/private joint agreements are the Hammock Ridge Primitive Camp in Buffalo Swamp; the Sand Hill Bay Primitive Camp near Fort Barrington; the Turkey Oak Ridge Primitive Camp slightly turther northward; the Turkey Hammock Primitive Camp on the Long/Mcintosh County line; the Middleton Lake Primitive Camp on Bug Island; the two Joiners Island Primitive Camps; the two Patterson Island Primitive Camps slightly further northward; and the Hughes Old River Primitive Camp near the upper trail-head.

There are a number of proposed state/private primitive camps which occur on water trails. All are on back swamp sloughs and oxbow lakes with the exception of the Goose Creek Hammock Primitive Camp (a bluff) on the main river north of Jesup and the Vivians Island Primitive Camp (on sand spoil) in the main river near Darien. The backwater camps are: the Old River Water Trail Primitive Camps (camping platforms); the Oak Landing Primitive Camp on the Penholloway Creek Water Trail (a bluff); the Phin Holloway River (formed by the confluence of Old River and Penholloway Creek) Primitive Camp (camping platforms); the two Harpers Slough Primitive Camps (camping platforms); the Steamboat Slough Primitive Camps (camping platforms); the Ellis Creek Primitive Camps (camping platforms); and the Berky Lake Primitive Camp (camping platforms) on the Berky Slough Water Trail.
There are three proposed foot trail access areas which will exist by state/private joint agreements. The first is the western trailhead for the Altamaha River Swamp Trail (see following section on Hiking Trailway) which occurs at the existing private fish camp on Hughes Old River. Because of existing private facilities, only information signs, trail markers, and a gate will be needed. The second and third sites are off Blues Reach Road and off Fort Barrington Road. Both areas will have sand hill interpretive walks, information signs, trail markers, parking, and a gate.
STATE RECREATION SITES
In addition to the existing primitive camps and access areas of the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area (see Appendix F: Map of Waterfowl Management Area), there are a number of proposed state recreation sites. These are either low-key primitive camps, water trail access, or foot trail access.

120

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PLAN/ PROGRAM

LANDS FOR STATE / PRIVATe JOINT AGREEMENTS

LANDS FOR STATE MANAGEMENT

RECRE ATION SITES FOR PRIMITIVE CAMPING. INTERPRETIVE TRAILS, AND ACCESS
HIKING TR AILWAY

RECREATION SITES FOR PRIMITIVE CAMPING, INTERPRETIVE TRAILS. AND ACCESS
ONE HUNDRED YARD RIVER BUFFER

WATER TRAIL BUFFERS (INCLUDING SOME MAIN RIVER TRAIL )
HISTORIC SITES

HISTORIC S T I ES
NATURAL AREAS

NATURAL AREAS
POTENTIAL PUBLIC HUNTING AREAS

ADDITIONS TO ALTA MAHA W.M. A. WATERS UNDER PUBLIC DOMAIN

PROPOSED ACCESS

ICIU
:h.
CEOICIA DEPAR TMENT Qf NATURAL RESOURCE IFFICE OF PlANNING AND RESEARCH
THE ALTAMAHA
ASCENIC &RECREATIONAL RIVER PROPOSAL
FOR THEGREAT ALTAMAHA SWAMP FIGURE 24

121

There are three water trail access areas whi ch are proposed for acquisition and development by the State. They are planned for Penholloway Creek at the Bethlehem Church Road south of Jesup, at lower Sansavilla Bluff where Sansavilla Road from Mount Pleasant reaches the river, and on the Darien River at either the old public boat ramp in Darien (if enough public land is available) or off Generals Island on U.S. Highway 17 across the Darien River from Darien.
The Penholloway Creek Access Area will be small with a boat r amp designed primarily for jonboats and creek-type craft. The Sansavilla Bluff Access Area will b~ a standard DNR boat ramp facility (as at Highway 301) with parking on top of the bluff. The Dari en River Access Area will .be the largest proposed facil i ty with a boat hoist for the larger saltwater craft. All three sites will have information signs, parking, and a gate.
Two other areas are shown on the map a s water trail and foot trail access at Morgans Lake and at Cox~ Georgia, but access at these two sites is only by foot on an interpretive loop/portage trail. At Cox, the trail goes to Opossum Landing on Upper Lewis Creek, but because of the narrow channel and difficulty of dragging over logs on upper Lewis Creek, a light craft (portage-type) is necessary. At Morgans Lake, there is no need for a boat ramp because three ramps occur nearby off Highway 301.
There is one access area that is proposed for state management as foot trail access only, and this is the eastern trailhead for the Altamaha River Swamp Trail. It is off Highway 251 directly west of Interstate 95. The remainder of the state-owned foot trail access will be on existing public land, within proposed additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area, or in coordination with a water trail access area.

The High.;;ay 251 access area will have information signs, trail markers, parking, and a gate. This area is referred to under the following hiking trailway discussion as the Cathead Marsh Foot Trail Access Area.
There are two Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail Primitive Camps that will be state-mana ged and solely for the foot trail. They are the Cathead Marsh Camp near Darien and the Fishing Lake Camp near Cox. All other state-owned foot trail primitive camps occur in conjunction with a water trail primi tive camp. This is to reduce maintenance by sharing sites. These primitive camps occur on a spur off the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail at Poppels Old Field; at Harmons Bluff and Joiners Landing on Joiners Island; and at Lake Bluff on Morgans Lake.
The remaining proposed state-owned primitive camps are on water trails. On the main river, primi-

122

tive camps are planned on Buttermilk Island in Altamaha Sound (on sand spoil); off northeastern Little St. Simons Island (developing barrier island); across from Fort Barrington at 109 Mile Bluff (sand bar camping); near Lower Sansavilla Bluff on 105 Mile Island (sand bar camping}; near the Mcintosh/Long County line at Miller Lake (sand bar camping); on Bryans \.J"oodyard Round slightly up river from Miller Lake (sand bar camping); on both the up-river and down-river sides of Second Water Oak Round (bluff camping); at Doe Head Eddy above Boyles Island (sand bar camping and camping platforms); and on Shoestring Bar (sand bar camping).
In the back swamp, two state-owned primitive camps are proposed for the Lewis Creek Water Trail. These camps are the previously-mentioned Poppels Old Field Primitive Camp and Dick Swift Hammock (both are bluff camps).
HIKING TRAILWAY
The Hiking Trailway, as shown in Figure 24, is a two-hundred foot buffer on both sides of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail outside of existing or proposed State of Georgia lands. For most of the forty mile length of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail and fifteen miles of interpretive and access loops, the trail will be in the trailway and joint agreements between the state and the landowners of the property which the trail crosses will be necessary [see Chapter 6: Implementation of the Activities Plan (Joint Agreements)]. The following is a basic description of the Altamah~ River Swamp Foot Trail from Darien to Hughes Old River with special reference when the trail is within the trailway and/or on state land. The description is quite detailed and is intended for those specific lly concerned with the alignment

of the trail. Those not specifically concerned with trail construction should turn to the water trails' description on page 127.
The trail begins in Darien as the Bartram Trail and continues out-of-town on Highway 251 for roughly two miles until the Cathead Marsh Foot Trail Access Area is reached across Interstate 95. At the access area, an interpretive loop leaves the parking area and follows Cathead Bluff through the proposed Union Camp Addition to the Al tamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. In the area where the bluff reaches Cathead Creek, there will be a suspension bridge that co ,. t c ts marsh dikes on both sides of the creek. On both the east and west side of Cathead Creek, the trail splits and loops through the marshlands. These one-quarter mile loops are for natural and historical interpretation and foot access for fishing. The signed entrance to the foot trail will occur at the back of the western-most loop. - The trail will then proceed along old dikes to the primitive camping platforms located in the rear of the marsh. Figure 25 is a typical site plan showing the preferred alignment of the trail from Highway 251 to the flatwoods of the proposed International Paper Addition to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area.

123

124

From the camp, a boardwalk will pass through river swamp to the flatwoods of the International Paper (IP) Addition. When the boardwalk begins, it will be within a 400 foot wide trailway. One-quarter of a mile later, it will switch to the IP Addition for another one-quarter mile and then the boardwalk will end as the trail reaches the International Paper flatwoods. Shortly after the trail reaches the flatwoods, it will again enter a trailway for onequarter of a mile and then move back on to the IP Addition flatwoods for one-half of a mile.
After the trail leaves the International Paper Addition, it will continue for a mile across a trailway to the western edge of the flatwood run. Here the trailway splits and a one-half mile spur trailway travels south to the signed interpretive loop and camp along Poppels Old Field on Lewis Creek.
At the split, the primary trailway continues on for one-half mile to the Buffalo Hammock Natural Area. The trail follows the crest of the hammock for onehalf mile and descends to a boardwalk on the northwest end which leads to the Hammock Ridge Primitive Camp, one-quarter of a mile away.
The mile-long trailway along Hammock Ridge crosses a small foot bridge before it reaches the uplands near Cox. At this point, the trail will be following the floodplain/uplands edge within the proposed Opossum Landing, Hammock Ridge, and Lewis Creek Lake Additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. Also, a short segment (one-quarter mile) of this three miles will occur on the Lewis Island section of the existing management area.
There is an interpretive loop off the trail near Opossum Landing (the landing on Lewis Creek within the proposed Opossum Landing Addition to the Altamaha State

Waterfowl Management Area), but this loop will actually

originate at the Cox Access Area (also in the Opossum

Landing Addition) and cross the Altamaha River Swamp

Foot Trail as it travels downhill to the landing. The

loop will be approximately one-half mile and signed

at the crossing.



A trailway travels north from the management area additions for one mile as the Altamaha River Swamp Foot
Trail continues to follow the floodplain edge. After the mile, the trailway is signed for an interpretive loop which climbs north to the Barfington sand ridge near the foot trail access area on Fort Barrington Road. The one-mile western portion of the loop follows the edge of the Barrington bog section of the Sand Hill Bay Natural Area. The one-mile eastern portion of the loop travels through the parking area and between the bog and the larger back portion of the Sand Hill Bay Natural Area to the east.

After the loops rejoin, the trailway travels northward for one-half mile to the Sand Hill Bay Primitive Camp in the middle of the Sand Hill Bay Natural Area. After the camp, the trailway follows the eastern edge of the Barrington sand ridge (along the back bay) for a mile and one-half. Then it turns from the natural area to the west for one and one-half miles and swings over the sand ridge to the western edge, along the river floodplain.

For the next three and one-half miles, the trailway criss-crosses the Barrington sand ridge and it passes the Turkey Oak Primitive Camp. The ridge narrows to a point at the junction of Sand Hill Bay and the remainder of the floodplain and here the trail leaves the Barrington sand ridge. Throughout the total eight miles that the trail is on the sand ridge, several foot bridges will be needed for passage over small sand hill depressions and drainageways.

125

The trailway leaves the Barrington sand ridge via

a boardwalk over the wet back bay/floodplain interface.

The boardwalk passes near one of the floodplain lakes of

the Altamaha Lakes Natural Area (see following discus-

sion on joint agreement natural areas) and ends on Tur-

key Hammock, one-quarter of a mile to the west. The'

trailway then crosses the hammock for one-half mile

to the western edge of Turkey Hammock near another

oxbow lake of the Altamaha Lakes Natural Area; The

trailway follows the hammock edge for a half mil~

.~

through the Turkey Hammock Primitive Camp bluff,o'O." ~,,

the Turkey Hammock Water Trail.

The main river is less than one-eighth of a mile ' from this camp (via the Turkey Hannnock Water Trai,.l)~.abd

the camp is accessible to small craft. The Altam'a'ha

River Swamp Foot Trail averages one to two miles dis- . '.

tance from the river channel throughout Mcintosh County

(from Darien to the county line at Turkey Hammock~. ,

This near

is the primary result of the river in the Buffalo

the e Swamp

xtensiv tidal

e p

wet ulse

l

i ands .,
b~'~i#,~.

1'

(lowlying marshlands and river swamp in southeaste'rn

Mcintosh County).

The trailway goes north from the camp fcm thre.e-

quarters of a mile to a one-half mile boardwalk. This

boardwalk passes an oxbow lake (one of the lakes of t;:he '.\

Altamaha Lakes Natural Area) and then swings 'onto Bug

Island (a large hammock proposed as a joint 'agreement

natural area).



,.

,Within

the Bug

Island Natural

Area,

th~I >



'

A\t"Amaha

River Swamp Trail.goes northwest for one and'one~alf .

miles until the trail splits at a large pond depr~ssion:

in the center of the island. The main trailway goes

to the right while an interpretive loop goes to, the

left. The two-and-a-half-mile loop follows tpe edge

of the hammock to B\lg Bluff on the Altamaha River

and then swings backto meet the main trail on the

northern end of the hammock. The main traihvay

....

is more direct along the island crest for one and one-quarter miles.
One-quarter of a mile before the main trailway rejoins the loops at the north end, an access loop from Blues Reach Road enters. This trail begins at the Blues Reach Road Access Area (in Long County off upper Blues Reach Road) where a one-mile interpretive loop leaves the parking area. This trail will interpret the sand ridge connnunity and local timbering (the Barrington Sand Ridge Loop interprets sand hill depressions). The signed entrance to the Altamaha River Swamp Trail will be at the back of the loop as it descends for one and one-half miles along the back edge of the Blues Reach sand ridge. Then the access loop crosses the floodplain to the Bug Island Natural Area by foot bridge. At Bug Island, the trail passes through the Middleton Lake Primitive Camp to meet the main trail within one-half mile.
The main trailway leaves northern Bug Island by a foot bridge onto southern Joiners Island. After one and one-half miles, the trailway splits and the main trail goes straight on the island's crest. The mile loop to the left travels through the upper and lower Harmons Bluff Primitive Camps on the main river. The main trailway rejoins the loop after a half mile. After this junction, the trailway follows western Joiners Island for one mile to the camps on the upper bluffs of Joiners Landing.
For the next seven miles, the Altamaha River Swamp Trail criss-crosses Joiners Island as it passes two camps and moves away from the river. Near U.S. Highway 301, the trailway will have several foot bridges for drainageways that cross the island.
The trailway splits at Lake Bluff (on Morgans Lake) and a fishing loop follows the edge of the bluff for one' mile. The main trail travels for one-half

126
,,...
,, ~,.:

mile and rejoins the loop at the Lake Bluff Access Area.
North of U.S. 301, the trail criss-crosses Patterson Island for three and one-half miles as it passes two more camps and ends at the Hughes Old River Fish Camp (eventually, the trailway will travel northward for fifteen more miles through the Altamaha floodplain to the State of Georgia's Big Hammock Natural Area.
RIVER BUFFERS (STATE MANAGEMENT) AND WATER TRAIL BUFFERS (JOINT AGREEMENT)
The Activities Plan requires the establishment of buffers along some waterways for the protection of the primary recreational use corridors. The River Buffer width has been set at three hundred feet. The width of the buffers along the tributary water trails has been set at two hundred feet. River Buffer is shown in Figure 24 as lands for state management. Water Trail Buffers (possibly including a small amount of three-hundred foot buffer on the main river water trail) are shown in Figure 24 as lands for state/private joint agreements.
rhe one-hundred-yard river buffer areas include those bordering the main channels of the Altamaha River up river to Hughes Old River on the Long County side and to the Jesup Jaycees Park on the Wayne County side.
In the tidal area, four of the six tidal channels are considered under river buffer. They are Lewis Creek, the south Altamaha, the main channel, and Butler River. Only portions of the other two tidal channels (Cathead Creek and the Darien River),

as shown on Figure 24, are considered under river buffer.
The two-hundred foot water trail buffers occur throughout the floodplain on freshwater tributaries, oxbow lakes, old river sloughs, and on tidal creeks of the Altamaha floodplain. In Glynn County, water trails are proposed for Hammersmith Creek (behind Carrs Island), Guale Creek (tributary of Hammersmith Creek), Jones Creek (tidal creek of the South Altamaha between Hammersmith and the Honeygall Creeks), Hon.eygall Creek (see Figure 24), Cowpen (the northernmost creek of the two Honeygall Creeks), and Clayhole Creek (see Figure 24).

127

A number of water trails are proposed in Mcintosh County. These are Rifle Cut and the Potosi Island dike channels (old drainage canals between lower Cathead Creek and the main Altamaha); Wells Creek, Price Creek, Fulton Creek, and Oglethorpe Creek (all tributaries of Lewis Creek); Harper Lake, Barrington Lake, and Smith Lake (all are oxbow lakes near Fort Barrington); and the upper and lower Sansavilla Lakes (oxbow fakes slightly up river from the proposed Sansavilla Bluff Access Area).
In Long County, water trails are proposed for Turkey Hammock Lake (an oxbow lake near the Long and Mcintosh County line); Hells Bight Lake (near the junction of the main river with Phin Holloway River); Joiners Slough (behind the Second Water Oak Round); upper Johnson Lake (see Figure 24: most of the Johnson Lake and Casino Slough Water Trail occurs within the proposed Casino Ridge Natural Area); Morgan Lake (along Lake Bluff); Hogpen Slough (north of Highway 301); and along portions of Hughes Old River (see Figure 24).
In Wayne County, water trails are proposed for Berky Slough (at the Wayne/Glynn County line); Ellis Creek (see Figure 24); Penholloway Creek; the Old River; Phin Holloway River; Harpers Slough (through the center of Boyles Island); Steamboat SlQugh (eastern Boyles Island): Diana and Little Diana Sloughs (between the Old River and Harpers Slough); and the beginning of the Narrows (multiple channels of the upper Old River, northwest of Boyles l!sland).
JOINT AGREEMENT HISTORIC SITES
There are two historic sites along the Al~..... ~~ ..; h. a
River in Glynn County which are recommend for state./

private joint agreements. Evelyn Mounds is an Indian mound cluster and Clarks Bluff is an Indian village site (see Figure 4: page 31).
On the Glynn and Wayne County line, Reads Bluff (a colonial settlement) is proposed for joint agreement, as is Berky Bluff (an Indian-era site slightly to the north and off Berky Slough).
At" Sans~villa, the proposed Sansavilla Bluff Historic Site follows the edge of the bluff for over three miles from the Old Post Road to Ellis Creek. The site contains settlements from several eras (see Appendix A: Aleck Island anp the Sansavilla Bluffs).
Doctortown is the remaining historic site in Wayne County which is recommended for joint agreements in the Activities Plan. The site is located on the southeastern side of the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad where the Altamaha is crossed near Jesup. This site is also further d~scribed in Appendix A.
In Long County, two sites are shown for joint agreements. The first site is the eastern portion of the Lake Bluff site (see Appendix A) along Shoestring Lake. The second site is the lower portion of Joiners Island including all of the known Indian village sites.
Mcintosh County has two sites that are considered for joint agreements. The first is Fort Barrington (a multi-era site). Fort Barrington was the sole north/ south crossing of the Altamaha River for Colonial America (see Appendix A: Fort Barrington).
The Altamaha Logging Tram Historic Site (a post1860 site) is located in Buffalo Swamp (Mcintosh County). The site contains a hammock ridge which juts directly into extensive river swamp f9r approximately two miles . The ridge, therefore, was long ago used as a base for tramways which were built into the lower Altamaha River

128

Swamps to remove timber. Today, a tramtrain and a portion of the original track remain on Hammock Ridge (see photograph on page 8). The area is shown on Figure 24 for joint agreements.
STATE HISTORIC SITES
Only two sites along the lower Altamaha are proposed for state management. The first site is the Mount Venture/Old Post Road Historic Site on Aleck Island (see Figure 24 and Appendix A). The second site is the Altamaha Sound Historic Site on northern Little St. Simons Island which includes the Indian village sites facing Egg Island.

which exist on the back-bay side of the Barrington sand ridge and the back-bay itself, to the flatwoods of Blues Reach Road.
The Little St. Simons Natural Area is proposed as a joint agreement area on the northern end of Little St. Simons Island. The area is primarily coastal barrier hammock directly adjoining existing and proposed state lands.
One rema1n1ng state/private natural area is Buffalo Hammock in the middle of Buffalo Swamp in Mcintosh County. Aside from the value that the relatively small hammock has for the hiking trail, it is an isolated refuge that is elevated well above the surrounding wetlands of the Buffalo Swamp tidal pulse basin.

JOINT AGREEMENT NATURAL AREAS
Seventeen oxbow lakes are spread throughout the floodplain of the lower Altamaha River and are proposed under the title of the Altamaha Lakes Natural Area. The boundaries of these joint agreement lakes include the lakes in addition to a twohundred foot buffer for habitat protection.
The largest proposed state/private joint agreement natural area is Bug Island in southern Long County. The island is an evergreen hammock with a distinct sand hill community. The area was selected primarily for the great diversity and health of the natural communities that exist upon or closely. surround the hammock.
The next largest proposed joint agreement natural area is Sand Hill Bay near Fort Barrington. This area is primarily a grouping of selected natural communities

STATE NATURAL AREAS
There are seven proposed state-owned natural areas that are shown on Figure 24 and could be considered as small additions to the 100-yard river buffer. They are: Kneebuckle Island; the Spill-Over Bar Natural Area near Johnson Lake; the Boyles Point and Harrnons Bar Natural Areas on Boyles Island; the Old Hell Bight Natural Area on the first point south of Boyles Island; the Oberry Bar Natural Area below Miller Lake; and the Alligator Congress Natural Area below Altamaha Park. These areas were all selected as being integral parts of the immediate channel dynamics of the lower Altamaha River.
The Lake Bluff Natural Area (off Highway 301) was primarily selected for the river bluff complex on Morgans Lake, but the area also has historic preservation and and potential recreational activities as complementing factors.

129

'.,

The Casino Ridge Natural Area is an almost classic example of a low-lying evergreen hammock. Although hammocks are spread throughout t he river swamp,- this hammock is unique because of easy access from the river; the presence of a large oxbow lake (Johnson Lake) and a floatable slough (Casino Slough); and a stunni~g . natural community cluster that has not been sign~fi cantly disturbed.
The Bug Suck Natural Area is named for Bug Suck Lake (an oxbow within the area) but the area was primarily selected for the aged, yet mixed samplings of the Al tamaha' s freshwater, hardwood river swamp. .
Wrens Flatwoods Natural Area is an isolated, hard wood flat that maintains refuge in the center of the
river s't'amps n:orth of the Sansavilla Bluffs. Itt' i s one of the few flatwood areas of the freshwater floodplain which has not been converted to pine plantation.
The Poppets Old Field Natural Area, like Buffalo Hammock, is a refuge in the Buffalo Swamp tidal pulse basin but the area is lower in elevation than the hammock and considered as flatwoods. The few pine ~tands are aged and woodpecker populations are high. The area also complements the interpretive loop from the swamp trail and the adjoining primitive camp.
The last proposed state natural area is 'the Altamaha Rookery Natural Area. The area is predominantly ..Stateowned and as the name indicates, the area includes important rookery sites in Aitamaha Sound.

joint agreement (see Chapter 6). All of the areas are large and relatively remote tracts of land which are presently controlled by timber companies (see Figure 7: page 55). The tracts are close to fifty percent swamps and fifty percent in hammocks, flatwoods, and adjacent uplands which vary greatly in elevation. These lands would vastly improve the diversity and the potential for public hunting and fishing along the lower Altamaha.

POTENTIAL PUBLIC HUNTING AREAS {Joint Agreeme~ts.)'

The areas that are shown in Figure 24 as potential public hunting areas are all proposed for state/private

130

ADDITIONS TO THE ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
There are thirty-seven islands in the channel of the Altamaha River from U.S. Highway 301 to the ocean that are listed as additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. The islands are all considered to be in the public domain and potential lands for state management.
The smaller upstream islands in the river channel tend to be cut-off river swamp or sand bars at varying successional stages. The delta islands are mostly marshlands and, in Altamaha Sound, a number are very large.

Six areas which are proposed as additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area are considered to be inholdings or needed high-elevation access to Lewis Island. Two of the inholdings are Generals and Carrs Islands on both sides of the most intensivelymanaged management area islands (Butler and Champney).
Another inholding is the Dick Swift Creek Addition inside Lewis Creek. The remaining three additions provide access to upper Lewis Island and they are the Hammock Ridge Addition; the adjacent Opossum Landing Addit i on, south of Cox, Georgia; and the Lewis Creek (headwaters) Lake Addition, west of Cox. All contain portions of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail and the Opossum Landing Addition contains the Cox Access Area with an interpretive/fishing loop.
The remaining two proposed additions to the State Waterfowl Management Area provide for expanded waterfowl habitat in the Cathead Creek/Marsh area. The first is the Union Camp Addition in the brackish marsh of lower Cathead Creek (containing a portion of the Altamaha River Swamp Trail) and the International Paper Addition in the freshwater marsh and low-lying flatwoods of upper Cathead Creek (also containing a portion of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail).
THE PROPOSED DARIEN/MciNTOSH VISITOR CENTER
Presently, the City of Darien and Mcintosh County are studying the feasibility of establishing a locally tun interpretive center to aid tourists in discovering the cultural, natural and recreational attractions in the area. The Recreational Activities Plan (Figure 24) is designed to accommodate brochures and "theme" loops (for boot, boat, and car travel) for the recreational use of the lower Altamaha River floodplain.

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CHAPTER 6
IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE
RECREATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
PLAN
The Georgia Heritage Trust Program was established "to develop and implement a plan of acquisition that would preserve our cultural and natural heritage and serve the recreational needs of Georgia's expanding population". This quote is from the Georgia Heritage Trust Commission's "Phase V Report for FY 1978" which outlines a prioritized plan for state acquisition of significant cultural, natural, or recreational sites. All sites are given a ranking, but the important sites having the most state-wide significance are shown on the Hallmark Status List. The Great Altamaha Swamp is a Hallmark Status Site.
The Priority Acquisition Plan requires site descriptions to be made of each hallmark status site, along with a statement on location, description, significance, endangeredness, and a summary. The site descriptions also contain a "project map".

The original project map for the Great Altamaha Swamp had over 130,000 acres within the boundary (see Appendix H). The feasibility and impacts of State of Georgia acquisition of such a large amount of land was considered along with the natural factors, recreational, and land use analyses. As a result, fee-simple acquisition as the primary implementation means was ruled out.
A further analysis of the direction that State of Georgia involvement could take in relation to the Great Altamaha Swamp proposal pointed to a need for threading limited state recreational and scenic corridors through the swamp without significantly removing the swamp from private ownership.
The only way to accomplish such a task was to center the plan around the main river channel (which is in the public domain) and work the plan across the floodplain in a way which selects representative samplings of the cultural, natural, and recreational sites of the Great Altamaha Swamp along with use corridors that weave through the floodplain and connect individual sites into a whole.
Centering the plan upon the Altamaha River places much more emphasiti on the river and the immediate floodplain rather than areas farther away. This is the planning evolution of the original proposal as it was formulated within the Department of Natural Resources and this is the primary reason for the evolution of the title of the proposal. The plan has come to closely resemble what is commonly referred to in most planning circles as a scenic and recreational river study.
The plan as described in Chapter 5 will rely on joint agreements between the state and the landowners

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with some acquisition in sensitive areas. This situation makes the Altamaha Scenic and Recreational River Proposal a very unusual Heritage Trust project because it will be the first to include all the various site categories (cultural, natural, and recreational sites) and also the first to rely on several methods to implement the plan rather than just fee-simple purchase.
JOINT AGREEMENTS
Although the state will not own a large portion of the lower Altamaha River floodplain, some types of conservation measures are necessary to retain an environmental frame"t>.JOrk to support outdoor recreation. This approach should not significantly alter the way in which the existing landowners presently use the land, but at the same time, it is necessary for the Department of Natural Resources to ask for cooperation from the landowners on programs for which the original large acreage Heritage Trust proposal was made. These are programs such as endangered species (some species require isolation or a significant range); natural river recreation (a growing public pastime with huge deficits in state-wide facilities); waterfowl habitat (of growing concern because of declining wetlands); and fishery improvement (of interest because of recent declines in the shad fishery, shrimp catch, and oyster production.
Approximately 75,000 acres of land in the Altamaha Scenic and Recreational River proposal are proposed for joint agreements between the state and private landowners. The agreements will permit the public to have limited recreational use of, and access to, the jointly-managed recreation sites, hiking trailway, water trail buffers, historic sites, natural areas, and potential public hunting areas of the lower Altamaha River.

JOINT AGREEMENT RECREATION SITES
Since the joint agreement recreation sites will be only low-key primitive camps (totalling 375 acres for the foot trail and 75 acres for water trails) or foot trail access areas (included in hiking trailway total), the recommended form of the agreement should be a "right of access" that can be either incorporated into the management plans of the individual owners (and copies sent to the Department of Natural Resources) or set aside through conservation easements under the Facade and Conservation Easement Act of 1976 (see Appendix I). As required by the act, both the primitive camps and access areas will conserve areas of natural and scenic importance.
The advantage for the landowner of the management approach would be that certain uses would be moved to different locations as ongoing activities (such as timber rotation) occur. The advantages of the conservation easement would be that some recreation sites (such as water trail camping platforms) cannot be readily moved, and it would be to the advantage of the landowner to accept financial compensation as described in the act for real loss of potential private use.
Light maintenance and signing preparation of all bluff and sand bar primitive camps will be completed by the Game Zone VII Management Office on Butler Island - or the Game Zone VI Management Office at Fitzgerald. All water trail primitive camping platforms will be constructed by the Department of Natural Resources' Trails Building Crew (administratively under the DNR Parks and Historic Sites Division).

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HIKING TRAILWAY JOINT AGREEMENTS
The Hiking Trailway, as shown in Figure 24, is a four-hundred-foot wide (approximately two hundred feet on both sides of the trail) corridor lying across private lands to connect public lands along the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail. The trailway will have joint agreements under landowner management plans or conservation easements as described previously under recreation sites.
The joint agreement primitive camp recreation sites could be considered as small additions to the Hiking Trailway. The trailway is meant to be a conservation area of natural, historic, and scenic importance. The trailway will enclose approximately 2,000 acres.
The Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail (including blazes, footbridges, camping platforms, and boardwalks) will be constructed by the DNR Trails Building Crew and maintained by the Butler Island Station of the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area (administratively under the DNR Game and Fish Division).
The trailheads for the foot trail access areas will all contain a registration box/desk with a register for day-use visitors and registration forms (see Appendix J) for those who will be on the trail for longer than ons day.
JOINT AGREEMENT WATER TRAIL BUFFERS
The three-hundred-forit River Buffer, as described in Chapter 5, is planned for state ownership. However, some river buffers could be conservation easements.
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The major off-river water trails occur on Hughes Old River, Morgan Lake, Cole Eddy, Doe Head Eddy, Old River, Phin Holloway River, Penholloway Creek; Harpers Slough, Steamboat Slough, Smith Lake, Berky Slough, Hammersmith Creek, Clayhole Creek, Honeygall Creek, and Fulton Creek. All are proposed as conservation easement areas (two hundred feet on both sides) and total acreage affected is approximately 3,350 acres.
The remaining water trail buffers should either be conservation easements or considered under the management plans of the landowner (and submitted as information to the Department of Natural Resources). These are Guale Creek, Jones Creek, Rifle Cut and the Potosi Island Dike Channels, Wells Creek, Price Creek, Oglethorpe Creek, Harpers Lake, Barrington Lake, the upper and lower Sansavilla Lakes, Turkey Hammock Lake, Hells Bight Lake, Joiners Slough, upper Johnson Lake, Hogpen Slough, Diana and Little Diana Sloughs, and the Beginning of the Narrows (approximately 1,750 acres total). All conservation easement deed restrictions which are placed on the water trail buffer will be monitored by the DNR Game Zone VI and Game Zone VII management offices.
JOINT AGREE}1ENT HISTORIC SITES
Nine historic sites are listed for joint agreements. These are Clarks Bluff, Reads Bluff, Berky Bluff, Sansavilla Bluff, Doctortown, Fort Barrington, Lake Bluff, Joiners Island, Evelyn Mounds, and the Altamaha Logging Tramarea on Hammock Ridge in Buffalo Swamp. The acreage total for all nine sites is 1,525 acres.
The first phase in the joint agreements for historic sites will be to incorporate the sites into the management plans of the various landowners [see Chapter 7: Implications of the Activities Plan (Manage-

ment Implications)]. In coordination with this action, the land owners should be asked to formulate (with the assistance of the Department of Natural Resources, Historic Preservation Section) a "statement of policy on future activites which may affect archaeological and historical sites" similar to that recently prepared by the Georgia Power Company (see Appendix K).
A "facade easement;" (see Appendix I) is possible for any area which is determined to have enough historic significance to merit partial state management. Such an easement is presently being considered for Evelyn Mounds. This is customarily a suggestion of the DNR State Archaeologist.
JOINT AGREE~ffiNT NATURAL AREAS
Five natural areas are proposed for joint agreements between the Department of Natural Resources and the landowners of the tracts involved. The natural areas are the Altamaha Lakes Natural Area (335 acres), Bug Island Natural Area (1,090 acres), Sand Hill Bay Natural Area (675 acres), Little St. Simons Natural Area (360 acres), and Buffalo Hammock Natural Area (120 acres).
The joint agreements on these areas will involve the incorporation of these areas into the management plans of the individual landowners and the registration of these areas, through the Natural Area Unit of the Department of Natural Resources, as areas "possessing exceptional value in illustrating the natural history of the state" (see Appendix L).
Implementation of natural areas designation on privately-held land is by agreement between the State of Georgia and the landowner of the lands being considered. The Natural Areas Unit of the Department of Natural Resources will survey all the proposed areas

136

to map existing natural communities and flag endangered species' locations. After this has been accomplished, the proposed natural areas will be certified (see Appendix L) and registered. The only requirement for the landowner is to maintain the natural communities and buffer unique species. This allows for continued use of the areas for naturally-regenerated timber production. Special management of these areas should appear in the owner's Land Management Plan. Certified natural areas are typically reviewed every ten years by the Natural Areas Unit to continue the certification.
JOINT AGREEMENT PUBLIC HUNTING AREAS
The Potential Public Hunting Areas, shown on Figure 24, are large tracts of timber company lands which may be available for lease in the future by the Department of Natural Resources. The Potential Public Hunting Areas will be similar to the existing Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company Public Hunting Area as shown in Figure 6 (page 39).
The areas shown in Figure 24 as Potential Public Hunting Areas total approximately 66,600 acres when .combined. On these lands, leases should be executed whenever possible as land becomes available. Management and law enforcement will be by the respective DNR field offices for the zones in which the proposed public hunting areas occur.
STATE MANAGED LANDS
Lands for state management are listed in the right-hand column of Figure 24. They are the recrea-

tion sites (eight primitive camping areas requ1r1ng acquisition totalling two-hundred acres, three water trail access areas totalling forty-five acres, and one foot trail access area at thirty acres); the onehundred-yard river buffer (approximately 2;600 acres total); historic sites (seventy acres at Mount Venture and thirty acres off Altamaha Sound); natural areas (150 acres in small natural area additions to the river buffer, 250 acres at Lake Bluff, 440 acres along Casino Ridge, 370 acres around Bug Suck, 110 acres of Wrens Flatwoods, sixty acres at Poppels Old Field, and twenty acres in the Altamaha Rookery: the remaining 100 acres in the rookery are under the public domain); and additions to the Altamaha Waterfowl Management Area (General Island: 800 acres, Carrs Island: 300 acres, Dick Swift Creek: 100 acres, Hammock Ridge: 125 acres, Opossum Landing: 300 acres, Lewis Creek Lake: 375 acres, Union Camp: 700 acres, and International Paper: 1,000 acres).
Land and water under the public domain [the channel and side sloughs of the Altamaha River; all islands in the channel or side slough channels; all marshlands; and all beaches (or river sand bars) in the floodplain] will be managed, monitored, and utilized (in some instances as primitive camp sites by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources) as an integral part of the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. DNR will not file a land registration action on this land unless some major development is planned. Basically, these lands remain under the public domain because of the English common laws dealing with public navigation and access to coastal waters and wetlands:
Navigability: Title 85, paragraphs 1301-1305, of the Georgia code defines a navigable stream as "one capable of bearing upon its bosom, either for the whole year or part of the year, boats loaded with freight in the regular course of

137

trade." It also asserts state ownership of the beds of navigable streams to the low water mark.
English Common Law (from which Georgia law is derived) states that a right of "common passage" exists on all streams subject to such use. It also claims sovereign (state) trust for all tidally influenced lands below the level of mean high tide (i.e., beaches, marshlands, tidal creeks, and developing islands).
Aside from the public domain lands, the statemanaged lands will all be acquired in fee-simple ownership. There are six basic means by which the Department of Natural Resources acquires land: the unconditional gift, the conditional gift, by voluntary sale, through condemnation, life tenancy, or by devise and bequest.
This plan relies primarily on the unconditional gift, although voluntary sale is likely in the few areas that have use and development potential. The acreage total for fee-simple acquisition is approximately .8,075 acres (275 acres at recreaion sites, 2,600 in river buffer, 100 acres at recreation sites, 1,400 in natural areas, and 3,700 in additions to the existing Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area).
When a parcel of land is acquired by DNR under this proposal, it will automatically become a portion of the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area regardless of the site category (recreation site, river buffer, historical sites, natural areas, and inholding additions to the existing management area). The acquired parcel will then have an existing site survey filed in the DNR Drafting Unit (similar to the Existing Facilities Map for Fort King George Historic Site that is shown in Appendix M). If any development is planned for the P<' ~el, it will also have a General Development Plan completed (similar to the proposed General Development

Plan for the Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation Historic Site that is shown in Appendix N; also, see Bibliography: DNR 'Interpretive Prospectus for Hofwyl-Broadfield'). Although Hount Venture and the Altamaha Sound Historic Sites will be managed by the Game Zone VI or the Game Zone VII management offices, the programming and and handling of interpretive activities will be from the Fort King George Historic Site and Museum.
COSTS AND FINANCING
Land negotiations on all acquisition and joint agreements are scheduled for completion by 1985. This plan therefore, represents a seven-year master plan for development based on needs as projected in Chapter 3 (see Table 9) for 1985. However, land negotiations can be time consuming and some negotiations last for decades.
This is not likely to occur on the Altamaha Scenic and Recreational River Proposal and in some cases, it should definitely be avoided. The Hiking Trailway, for example, relies on timely actions by the state and private landowners to properly coordinate the location and building of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail.
The 7,675 acres that are shown for State of Georg: 1 acquisition have a market value of approximately one at.:l one-half million dollars. Unconditional gifts are expected to total more than one-half of the market value at over $800,000 (for most of the river buffer and some of the additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl 11anagement Area), and this would leave approximately $700,000 in lands for Heritage Trust acquisition. This could mean that land acquisition purchases by the state might be nominal if the fair market value of donated lands is used as the State of Georgia share of the state/ federal, one-to-one, matching dollars under the Land

138

and Water Conservation Fund (principal monies for the Heritage Trust Program).
It is expected that only 3,500 acres of the approximately 75,000 acres in joint agreement lands will have facade or conservation easements. These are basically . the major water trail buffers, the major water trail primitive camps, and possibly, a portion of the Hiking Trailway. As conservation easements, these areas would not require Heritage Trust land expenditures.
All land negotiations, however, require monies for professional service fees to handle transfers and agreements. By 1985, at the completion of the plan, these fees will probably have totalled close to $100,000. Financing will be through Heritage Trust, U.S. Water Resources Council Grants, and existing DNR personnel allocations (costs for this study are included in the $100,000 figure).

Plains Regional Commission has a continuing goal to fund coastal hiking trails.
Maintenance and personnel costs (including such development costs as property signs, grading, and fencing) will be included as an increase in the DNR operating budget for the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area and the Southern Coastal Section Law Enforcement Office at Brunswick totalling $91,000 for the first year of increase and $63,000 for each year thereafter. This represents the costs of salary and outfitting a biologist and a technician at the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area and an additional law enforcement officer at Brunswick.

Facility construction costs will be separated from operations, maintenance, and personnel costs only in the instance of the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail, historic sites, access area boat ramps and lifts, primitive camping platforms, major access entrance signs and gate purchases. Approximate costs for these will be: $88,000 for the blazing, flagging, and placing of incidental boardwalk along the Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail and on the onemile Old Post Road Foot Trail through the Mount Venture Historic Site; $15,000 for the foot trail suspension bridge across Cathead Creek; $12,000 for two boat ramps and one boat ramp lift; twenty camping platforms for $9,000; eight major access entrance signs for $1,450; and twelve gates for $2,500. Financing of the facility construction costs should be by DNR budget item increase or through grants for trail construction. The Coastal

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140

CHAPTER 7
IMPLICATIONS
OF THE RECREATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
PLAN
The third of the three recreational activities program objectives (listed on page 117) proposed the discussion of identified recreational management, floodplain management and economic implications which would help to satisfy the program goal [(from page 117) .. "to accommodate the identified and appropriate recreation needs of the Altamaha market area to the existing natural and cultural environment of the lower Altamaha without reducing the quality of either].
The purpose of this discussion is to share information that is considered to be important to any policy decisions that concern the future of the resources of the lower Altamaha and publi.c investment in them. The level of detail needed to make these decisions will obviously require more information than is presented. However, these decisions will have to be made and perhaps the discussion can act as a guide to further research.

Recreation management will obviously be of concern with improved public access to the lower Altamaha and the expected increase in recreational use. Also, proposed and previous public expenditures along the lower Altamaha River for waterfowl management and outdoor recreation require the maintenance of environmental quality through wise floodplain management to reap the full benefits of those expenditures.
RECREATION MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Recreational use and development along the lower Altamaha will be, by far, the most important planning factor in maintaining the esthetics and experience of the existing resource. Timber company lands are quite scenic near the recreational use corridors. Recreational development is the most consistently questionable in terms of appearance.
The publically-operated fish camps can be eligible for "improvement" funds if application is made to the local recreation Technical Assistance and Funding Units of DNR and criteria are met (see Bibliography under DNR). Hopefully, with the expected increase in recreational use, private fish camps will be financially enabled to upgrade their facilities.
Recreational houseboats are particularly becoming more noticeable. In a 1973 survey, Department of Natural Resources' personnel counted 105 houseboats from Altamaha Park (Seaboard Coastline Railroad) to the ocean. "In the management area, we boarded all the houseboats. They were all posted as not being in compliance with water quality (waste disposal) laws. Twenty-eight of them are still anchored to state property, three have permanent docks, and one boat owner sunk a well. We have got a houseboat

141

problem ... especially when one comes loose and sinks in the channel." (Gene Love, p.c., November, 1977).
Public information on recreation is a great aid in managing daily recreational use. It can provide guidance on: safety (several people have been killed by striking snags while travelling at high speeds, and in 1976, a prominent citizen of Mcintosh County was lost completely in Altamaha Sound); behavior (" ... and there are lots of unthoughtful campers on the sand bars." Preston Rozier, p.c., 1975); recreational opportunities and activities; and most importantly, in the Great Altamaha S_.w...~..mp, directions!
"People still get lost," said Mr. Howard. "A fellow spent the night in the swamp near here

recently, and he was a gibbering case of nerves when he was found. I won't say I have never been lost, for there have been times, on my own land, when I didn't know which way my home or the river lay. If clouds obscure the sun and there is no wind blowing, you'd better have a compass. The low sand ridges run into a swamp. If you try to follow a ridge it will run out and you're going downhill again. It can be pretty confusing, and it grows worse if a fellow gets panicky" (an interview in Georgia Rivers with Tom Howard, a landowner in the Altamaha floodplain near Ludowici).
An essential consideration for any public information brochure (recreational, cultural, or natural interpretation) however, is that public use be directed toward the recreational use areas and away from the more sensitive areas (an example could be the centering of recreational use on some water trails while not fully advertising others).
The identification of the various river buffer areas as natural areas named for the donating landowner will aid possible trespassing problems with recreationalists who do not realize that state ownership of the river buffer will only be a narrow band that is 100 yards wide.
FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources is involved all over the state in land management to help insure the wise utilization of Georgia natural resources. DNR lands are directly managed to further departmental goals in such areas as fisheries management, wildlife management, outdoor recreation, natural area preservation, and historic preservation.

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All lands and waters of the State of Georgia are subject to the environmental protection role of DNR. This role is the determinant of such things as: standards for state-wide water quality (Water Quality Control Act), air quality (Air Quality Control Act), surface mining (Surface Mining Act), groundwater aquifer depletions (Groundwater Use Act), surface water use (Surface Water Allocation Act); and solid waste disposal (Solid Waste Management Act). Therefore, since the state will not own the floodplain of the lower Altamaha River, the natural resource management interests of the people of the State of Georgia are still represented.
Another, more indirect source of DNR input into the management of lower Altamaha River floodplain is through the Comprehensive Review System. This system allows the Department of Natural Resources to review all projects which are sent through processes such as: A-95 (covers over 200 federal programs); A-85 (regulations and guidelines of state and regional government); A-102 (primarily housing projects); NEPA Reviews (environmental statements); U.S. Army Corps of Engineer Permits (projects in wetlands along navigable waters); U.S. Forest Service (advanced planning); special reviews (in-house state plans, reviews required by legislative mandate, inhouse departmental plans); and others (Federal Power Commission relicensing applications, etc.).
One on-going program of the Department of Natural Resources which hopefully eases the volume of paperwork is the Flood Insurance Program. The program is administratively located in the DNR Resource Planning Section. Funds for the program are available through the National Flood Insurance Program [under the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA)].
Through the Flood Insurance Program, communities are asked to comply with efforts to avoid development within areas that are prone to flooding. These special flood hazard areas are delineated on Flood Hazard Boundary Maps

that are issued by the FIA. Appendix 0 is the Present (1977) Flood Hazard Boundary Map of the City of Ludowici, Georgia. Note that the special flood hazard areas closely coincide with the river swamp communities mapped on Figure 20, page 93.
Communities that do not attempt to restrict development in the flood hazard areas may be declared ineligible for National Flood Insurance. That could easily become a financial disaster for any disqualified community which suffered a flooding disaster, since its citizens would not be able to carry flood insurance.
One means of development control is, of course, zoning. Although zoning is considered part of the state's police power in most states, in Georgia, the zoning power has been delegated to county governments by the Georgia Legislature through a Constitutional Amendment. Appendix P is Section 712, Article VII, of the Zoning Ordinance of Glynn County, Georgia. The section states the requirements for the zoned conservation-preservation districts.
The Department of Natural Resources is charged with the responsibility of recommending rivers for inclusion in the State Scenic Rivers System to the Governor and the General Assembly (any designation would require an act by the General Assembly). DNR is given the authority to acquire the fee or lesser interest in land along rivers which are components of the system, and dams or other obstructions of the natural streamflow are prohibited. No rivers have yet been designated as components of the system (see Appendix G: Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969).
The only viable reasons for designating the lower Altamaha as a State Scenic River would be if a dam or channelization proposal arose. Both are highly unlikely. Two lesser reasons for scenic river designation are publicity or maintaining recreation-level water quality.

143

Although all of these various floodplain management tools (environmental protection, comprehensive review, the Flood Insurance Program, local zoning, and the Scenic Rivers Act) can be effective in attaining a balanced and wise approach to resource development, they are top-level or "over-all" management-type policies. The varied resources of the lower Altamaha could conceivably disappear on a site specific level while over-view policies increase in number. This is often the case with endangered species, in particular.
Therefore, the following is a slightly more detailed management discussion of the existing utilization of the lower Altamaha River floodplain's earth resources, water resources, fishery resources, wildlife resources, and forest resources.
EARTH RESOURCES
Phosphate is a major component of modern fertilizer, and possible sources are being examined with increasing interest in light of the worldwide reduction in phosphate reserves. Rock containing economical quantities of phosphate probably underlies much of the Altamaha River Study Area. Current University of Georgia research may make possible an assessment of the environmental feasibility of phosphate mining and determine its future potential in the lower Altamaha floodplain.
Aside from the phosphates and some potential for heavy minerals deposited in the older floodplain sediments (see Appendix E: Simplified Subsurface Resources of the Lower Altamaha River Floodplain), the primary earth resources' utilization for the present and immediate future will be sand and gravel mining.
The University of Georgia Marine Extension Service on Skidaway Island surveyed the sand and gravel resources

at selected locations on the Altamaha, Satilla, St. Marys, and Ogeechee deltas (Harding and Woolsey, 1975), and concluded that "the Altamaha River system and its estuarine network of tributary streams appear to contain the best potential for commercial deposits of usable aggregates."
Sand and gravel pit mines occur in the Altamaha floodplain off Highway 301 between Jesup, Georgia and Ludowici, Georgia. Two companies currently dredge sands from the Altarnaha delta. The South Altamaha River between I-95 and Broughton Island is the principal source, with approximately 10,000 cubic yards of aggregate taken annually. A much larger quantity of fill materials was recently taken from the south channel for the Interstate 95 causeway over the Altamaha delta and Pliocene gravel from Glynn County was also used.
Other dredging operations in the Altamaha channel occur for purposes of navigation rather than commercia: aggregate extraction. The United States Army Corps of Engineers has the authority to maintain a three-foot channel on the Ocmulgee and a 2.5 foot channel on the Oconee from the Altamaha River upstream to Macon and Milledgeville. Also, regular dredging occurs to maintain the Intercoastal Waterway.
The most extensive dredgings to date were done during the mid-seventies by the Georgia Power Company to float two nuclear reactors upstream to the Hatch Plant at river-mile 115. About 200,000 cubic yards of sediment were removed.
Dredging can have significant impacts on the river. It may add to the silt load, increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), destroy valuable habitat, and may have large secondary effects such as increasing the erosion of sandbars and river bluffs. Increased erosion from bluffs and sandbars has been noticed on the lower Altamaha in recent years (Gene Love, p.c.). Newly dredged

144

areas have been completely filled again in as little as a one-year period. These sediments probably come off the sandbars and bluffs in much the same manner as sand filling in a hole on an ocean beach.
The marsh systems are particularly susceptible to damage from dredging and dredge-spoil deposition. Saltmarsh soils, when cleared and drained, rapidly become acidic and unproductive. The freshwater marsh soils do not change as drastically upon alteration.
Dredging permits (issued by the Corps of Engineers) usually require the applicant to complete dredging operations during the high water season, before April 1. It is felt that the large volume of river flow will make the additional silt load negligible. This, however, is also when the anadromous fish run occurs and their spawning period is well underway by the beginning of April.
Any fill operations within the Altamaha floodplain should now require a permit from the Army Corps of Engineers under the new interpretation of Section 404 of the federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.
WATER RESOURCES

of fishes. Spawning success occurs during high waters when lakes and pools are connected to the mainstream [Larry McSwain, coastal land use activities interviews (DNR)]. Water release schedules at Lake Jackson and Lake Sinclair have been reported to have detrimental effects on the lower river (Carl Hall, p.c.).
In the article "The 1973 Flood and Man's Constriction of the Mississippi River", C.B. Belt said:
"The progressive constriction of the Mississippi for navigation since 1837 has caused bottom erosion in some stretches. In others, the bottom oscillates up and down with time. The high stages rise much more rapidly. Constriction of the river channel causes flooding and makes floods higher: thus navigation works degrade the protection afforded by levees. The combination of navigation works and levees causes significant rises in the stages of floods. Additional channel constriction and levee building will cause further problems. The 1973 flood's record was man-made."
James Thomas, in his thesis at the University of North Carolina ("Influence of the Altamaha River on Primary Production Beyond the Mouth of the River") said:

Eugene Odum, in summar1z1ng the ecology of the coastal river swamp said (p.c.): "Because seasonal water level fluctuations provide an energy subsidy that increases production in the same way that tractor energy increases crop production, the swamp tends to resemble the estuary in being the most fertile of nature's ecological systems."
The arrival of fresh water over the entire floodplain is the principal assurance of this fertility. Flow is a key factor affecting movement and migration

"At maximum discharge, estuarine water is flushed from the estuary and the river contributes its water directly to. the ocean off the river mouth.
Primary production within the first 24 km. off the
mouth of the Altamaha River equalled the primary production within the salt marsh-estuary complex (including Spartina and intertidal mud-flat algae). The production off the mouth of the river is 1.5 g C m-2yr-l, a greater value than that reported off the mouth of either the Columbia or Mississippi Rivers. It is also among the higher-known produc-

145

tion values for areas over the Continental Shelf and inshore ocean.
During times of less than maximum discharge of the Altamaha River, smaller pulses of fresh water come down the river at irregular intervals. These smaller pulses flush the nutrient-rich water of the highly productive salt marsh-estuary complex out into the ocean. Between the pulses of nutrientpoor river water, the estuary recovers, enriching its waters with nutrients from a sediment reservoir and biological activity."
Presently, the backwater swamp and upland bottomlands act as a buffer, holding back fresh water during a rain and slowly releasing it to its outlets and eventually into the estuary. The swamp thus acts as a crucial regulator of the salinity levels in the estuary. The saltwater/freshwater interface will move further downstream during heavy rains and further upstream during droughts. Dr. Fred Marland, Dr. William Burbank, and Carl Hall have all pointed out the great ecological value that this relationship has for the estuarine ecosystem (see Figure 26A).
.
Time
FRESHWATER PULSES TO THE ESTUARY FIGURE 26A

Organic pollution is the most recognized pollution problem in the Altamaha estuary today. Because of hig~t coliform counts, all oyster and shellfish beds are 1 closed throughout the estuary. According to Pomeroy ' (1972), organic pollution is more of a potential problem in Georgia estuaries than excess nutrient enrichment. During the stimmer growing season, marshes are low in dissolved oxygen and if faced with an increased BOD, they can become anaerobic.
The ITT Rayonier plant adds a large quantity of organic materials to the lower Altamaha River which taxes the normally present decomposition mechanisms. The BOD is increased and oxygen decreased just below the effluent discharge. As these materials are broken down, large concentrations of nutrients are released, causing large algal growths 5-18 miles below the discharge. By the final station, most of the BOD and increased nutrient concentrations have been assimilated by the river/river swamp system.
In 1972, the Environmental Protection Division published the Altamaha River Basin Study that included a detailed biological and chemical assessment of the waste discharge from Rayonier. Samples were taken above and below the plant. Again, the water purification ability of the Altamaha was proven. The response of the biotic life to waste influence is often a much better indicator of altered conditions than water chemistry data. This is shown in the following record from the monitoring stations surrounding the ITT Rayonier Plant:
Station G. U.S. 301 bridge, upstream from ITT's discharge: sparse algal growth; no sheath bacteria; excellent water quality; and diverse macroinvertebrate populations.
Station F. Near SCL bridge, Doctortown, just below

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effluent: discoloration observed during fall low-water sampling period; large algal growth sheath bacteria abundant; BOD increased by 1.6 Mg/L, conductivity increased 56 units, dissolved oxygen lower; and large increase in macroinvertebrate populations, including many pollutanttolerant species.
Station E. One mile downstream: no physical evidence of waste; sheath bacteria present; high productivity of macroinvertebrates, many pollution-tolerant species; and little chemical change.
Station D. 5 miles downstream: highly productive algal populations, pollution-tolerant species present; sheath bacteria present; phosphorus concentrations reach level sufficient to cause large nuisance algal growths; and still high macroinvertebrate populations, some tolerant species.
Station C. 18 miles downstream: numbers of algae high but declining; some sheath bacteria still present; chemical parameters recovered; macroinvertebrate population returned to normal; and some tolerant species still present.
Station B. 36 miles downstream at SCL bridge, Everett: normal algal population; marked decrease in sheath bacteria; and macroinvertebrates normal.
Heavy metal contamination has been a problem in Georgia estuaries in the past. In 1970, blue crabs in Brunswick Harbor were declared unsafe for consumption because of mercury concentrations. Toxaphene was also found in dangerous quantities. The problem with these and other pollutants is that they are concentrated in tissues of some organisms, particularly shellfish.

The presence of the Georgia Power Hatch Nuclear Power Plant on the upper Altamaha has potential implications for the water quality of the entire river, mainly due to the many unknown factors about such plants. The primary problem is the possible accumulation of radioactive materials in river, terrestrial, and estuarine life forms. Though these may be present in the water only in minute quantities, some radioactive materials, as well as heavy metals, are known to be concentrated up through the food chain to levels that can be dangerous. Georgia Power scientists are carefully monitoring the area and will hopefully spot possible problems at their earliest stages.
The ground water resources of coastal Georgia constitute one of the most valuable natural resources in the area (Wait and Gregg, 1973). The availability of large quantities of ground water at a moderate cost has enabled the pulp and paper industry to flourish in the area. However, use of this aquifer points out the need for more careful management of this prime water source in the future. Since 1880, the potentiometric head (the level to which the water from an artesian aquifer will naturally rise in a tightly cased well) of the principal artesian aquifer has decreased 40 to 70 feet in the lower coastal area. This decline is thought to be due to industrial pumping in Savannah (70 MGD), Riceboro (10 MGD), Jesup (45 MGD), Brunswick (105 MGD), St. Marys (40 MGD), and Fernandina Beach (70 MGD) (Krause, 1971). This has resulted in the loss of natural flow in hundreds of small artesian wells. Many water users have had to install pumps.
Another associated problem of much greater impact has been the increase in local contamination of the principal artesian aquifer. The Ocala limestone is underlain by a zone of rock containing brackish water (high chloride concentration). A thin, relatively impermeable rock layer separates the two. There are

147

cracks, however, in this separating layer, which may be caused naturally by faults or sinkholes or by wells drilled too deep and improperly plugged. In some areas where the pumpage rates from the principal aquifer is large, water from the brackish zone has been able to seep upward to contaminate the freshwater zone. Brunswick is experiencing this problem and Savannah may experience it in the future.
Recharge to the shallow aquifer is high throughout the study area because of the permeability of abundant coarse sediments in the floodplain. Locally, the aquifer is contaminated by seawater or septic tanks. Little data is available for this aquifer compared to the principal artesian aquifer. However, if brackish water contamination of the principal aquifer continues to worsen, the importance of this surficial aquifer for irrigation, domestic and limited industrial use could increase.
FISHERY RESOURCES
According to John Adams, a biologist at the Georgia Power Company Environmental Lab (who previously worked with the DNR Fisheries Section on the Altamaha anadromous fish studies), the management of the Altamaha fishery needs improvement. All game species appear subject to overfishing, resulting in decreasing populations and an increase in the number of "trash fish" (i.e. spotted sucker, carp sucker, gizzard shad). The redbreast sunfish was used as an example. They are abundant near the Hatch Plant, RM 110-120. During spawning runs they concentrate together. On May 19, 1973, Adams made a rough survey and estimated a potential harvest of 22,000 fish which could have been made that day from a 10-mile stretch of river (440 fishermen, 50 per man limit). Since males are usually taken, the

impact on the population is increased even further, because males are the limiting factor to successful spawning of this species. Adams reported that the effort required of Georgia Power technicians to catch red-breast for sampling purposes has greatly increased in recent years.
An important facet of estuarine habitat is salt content. Freshwater flow affects the salt content, and therefore, freshwater intrusion can be a productivity determinant, especially for oysters, shrimp, finfish, crab, and speckled trout. Each requires a specific salinity range, and a change, especially if it is rapid, can be fatal.
The University of North Carolina Sea Grant College Newsletter (August 1976: see Bibliography) wrote:
"Freshwater intrusion is the runoff of fresh water into normally brackish or salty water. Many of the brackish, estuary waters that receive fresh water such as rain are also the nursery grounds for shrimp, oysters, flounder, trout, and other commercially important marine life. These creatures can adapt to a wide range of salinities and temperatures, but they all have limits to the amount of fresh water they can stand. And they may be hurt by rapid fluctuations in the water's salt content.
Runoff has always occurred along the coast. When it rained, the fresh rainwater eventually found its way to the shore. But in recent years, mazes of drainage ditches now make fast avenues for fresh water to rush to the brackish coastal areas . And fewer swamp forests are present to trap the water and slowly filter it to the shore (see Figure 26B).
A study of juvenile shrimp in Rose Bay showed

148

that freshwater intrusion definitely disrupted the salinity of small creeks in the area. The result was a smaller shrimp harvest by fishermen, particularly if salinity dipped and fluctuated during the critical early spring months."
Rain
TJ".m.e.
FRESHWATER PULSES TO THE ESTUARY AFTER CHANNELIZATION FIGURE 268
WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Dr. A. Sydney Johnson (wildlife biologist, University of Georgia) was interviewed by the DNR Resource Planning Section ("Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews") concerning the state of wildlife resources on the coast, and particularly, along the Altamaha. The following information is from that interview.
"The river swamp is the most productive wildlife habitat in the coastal area. Georgia's only native duck, the wood duck, finds suitable habitat and reproduces well in the forested river swamps. Deer and turkey populations are low in Georgia's

vast piney woods, but at the edge of the river swamp, their population dramatically increases. The presence of hardwoods, as habitat diversity, is why they are attracted to the river swamp.
Both the river swamps and the sand ridges are unique because they provide buffer areas (from several miles to several hundred feet across) that break the expanse of coastal pine flatwoods. Any break in the flatwoods is desirable from a wildlife habitat standpoint because it allows for species diversity. The river swamps are valuable because of abundant hardwoods, while the sand ridges are valuable because of the oaks, berries, and grasses. The sand hills have unique flora and fauna (the deep sands with turkey oak are important gopher tortoise habitat).
The longer trees stand, the better the wildlife habitat. Saw timber can stand for a longer time with the result that the stand will naturally support fewer trees of larger size. It is more beneficial to wildlife if a pine plantation is managed in fifty to sixty year cycles. The change from hardwood to pine results in a change in habitat type. When encroached upon, hardwood area habitat undergoes a detrimental change.
When a stand is clearcut, some wildlife species will benefit for a short period of time (for example: rodents and their predators, quail, rabbits, and songbirds). Good habitat requirements for most species are detailed and specific.
A small clearcut area in a big forest is beneficial, but a larger clearcut area brings diminishing returns because of the habitat diversity needs. Turkeys need an open area in the summer for resting. In the winter they need a hardwood forest for food (acorns, insects)."

149

Dr. Johnson stated further in his paper "Wildlife in Young Pines" that:
"We should face the fact that, although not as barren as some critics would have us believe, the typical pine plantation after crown closure, unthinned and unburned, is very poor habitat for most wildlife species. The good deer and turkE!Y populations common on industrial forest lands result from a favorable interspersion of hardwoods and other habitat types with pine stands of various age classes. If the optimistic predictions of wildlife . are to be realized, forest managers must give wildlife full consideration at all stages in planning and management.
The important facts are that forest industries own millions of acres of land in the south, that the management of lands for the yield of forest products is much more compatible with wildlife interests than most other forms of land use, and that there is considerable unrealized potential for coordinated production of timber, wildlife and other resources. Most forest industries recognize these facts, and many already have wildlife programs of some type."
The following is an article from the Savannah News (see Bibliography) which announced the ITT Rayonier move to forbid hunting on the "Big Pasture/Altamaha Forest" (north of Blues Reach Road) after Dr. Johnson completed preliminary studies of the pine flatwoods above the Altamaha floodplain in Long County:
' ..." "TOWNSEND - ITT Rayonier's Southeast Timber Division has temporarily closed its 30,000 acre Altamaha Forest tract to hunters in an effort to rebuild dwindling wildlife populations.
The land is located north of Georgia Highway 99 on the Long-Mcintosh County line.
150

The decision to close the land to hunters was made following receipt of a two-year study of wildlife in the area by a team of experts from the University of Georgia.
Hunting Brought Decline - The team, using a $36,000 grant from Rayonier's parent corporation, International Telephone and Telegraph, determined that illegal hunting had caused a decline in wildlife in the forest.
Wildlife populations, including non-game species, have been at a low level in the forest areas for several years.
Dr. A. Sydney Johnson, assistant professor of the School of Forest Resources at the University of Georgia and project leader for the research, said the Altamaha Forest tract's soil is low in nutrients, but that it could support more wildlife than it had been during past years.
'Realizing that soil conditions in this area are not ideal, and that this also has a definite effect on wildlife, we determined in our study that hunting pressure appears to be the chief reason for low numbers of game species, particularly deer,' Johnson said.
'We found that the habitat in this forest was good enough to support considerably more wildlife,' he said.
The temporary closure of the forest to hunters will be backed by the DNR Game and Fish Division according to Jack D. Crockford, director of the division.
'We will increase our law enforcement effort in and around this area,' he said."

FOREST RESOURCES
Forest resources management holds the key to the' future of the lower Altamaha River floodplain. The success of any future natural resource utilization projects that the Department of Natural Resources begins along the Altamaha (such as fishery improvement projects, game improvement projects, or endangered species recovery projects) will depend on the viability of the Altamaha's bottomland forest.
Along the proposed water trails (the primary recreational use corridors), the need is for scenic quality and habitat preservation. Larry McSwain, DNR Fisheries biologist, said (in the "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews"):
"The cutting of trees near stream banks may cause the stream to fill in with sand because the vegetation that stabilizes the banks is removed and the bank erodes. If a buffer is left, then the problem is solved - a 100 yard buffer would solve it. From a recreational standpoint, when trees are cut and left to fall into the stream, they prevent boat traffic at low flow. This filling in of pools (that have a stable bottom and are good invertebrate reproduction areas) can create a sand bar that is shifty, unstable and non-productive."
As a buffer between the upland and river, bluffs act to screen the floodplain from man's activities on the uplands. The soils of this steep bluff (mostly the Gilead-Lakeland-Sawyer series) can easily erode if the vegetation is removed. Such erosion is evident at Sansavilla Bluff where Georgia Power continuously removes the bluff vegetation under the major power line crossing. The problem at Sansavilla Bluff is further complicated by the removal of the "down mate-

rial" by the river channel snagging operations of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (see Appendix Q: DNR River Planning Unit Comprehensive Review Comments on the proposed 1975 Corps Snagging Operations for the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Oconee Rivers).
The wet, bottomland hardwoods represent the largest forest-type in the Altamaha floodplain and these bottomlands provide the true essence of the great Altamaha Swamp. Timber companies are currently managing almost all of this forest.
The following quote is from the ITT Rayonier Management Plan for the Rayonier Bottomland Hardwoods of the Lower Altamaha River Floodplain by H.J. Belcher.
"The Rayonier lands along the lower Altamaha River referred to as the 'Doctortown Tract', represent one of the largest stands of bottomland hardwoods in Georgia. The soil is extremely fertile and ideally suited to growing commercial hardwood species.
These lands were acquired by Rayonier to serve as a major source of wood supply to the company's nearby Jesup pulp mill. In recent years, market requirements have resulted in a substantially increased demand for hardwood pulps. Rayonier also produces other wood products which require hardwood, such as railroad ties and lumber, and the Altamaha lands are expected to provide an important portion of this supply . These lands cover approximately 25,100 acres on both sides of the Altamaha River for approximately 20 miles.
Rayonier acquired most of this land in 1970. Previous to that time, it had been subjected to repeated selective harvests for perhaps two centuries. The first selection was on a species basis -- no doubt for cypress -- when that was gone, for the higher valued trees that could be turned into sawn

151

products or veneer. The net result was the retention of the least valuable species or the poorest quality trees of all species, regardless of size. The huge picturesque cypress trees that remain are little more than hollow shells and are the culls of a hundred or more years ago.
For all practical purposes the land is inaccessible nine months out of the year due to high water. Local people use the river gauge at Doctortown as an indicator of the water level in the bottoms. When it has a constant reading of 3.5 feet or less, the bottomland is usually exposed enough for normal vehicular travel (see Figure 16, page 80).
Normal choices for the reproduction of hardwoods include plantations, coppice or sprouts, and natural seeding. Hardwood plantations in bottomlands, however, have not been successful. Inundation before they are well established is lethal and those that do survive are subjected to heavy browsing pressure from deer. Stump regeneration occurs but it cannot be considered as a reliable method of regeneration. Stumps that are already hollow or have a diameter greater than 12 to 14 inches are very poor risks -their sprouts have a very high incidence of heart rot. Seedling reproduction is abundant and is the only feasible means of regeneration.
The desirable species found in the bottoms are all very intolerant. They will not survive as seedlings under the existing vegetative cover. Seedlings can be found in abundance but will not grow to maturity, and after a few years in the shade they die out and a new crop takes their place. The overstory has to be removed for adequate seedling development. From a strictly silvicultural standpoint, there would be no reforestation problem in removing all of the overstory on all of the acres that are in need of being reproduced. However, a proper consideration

to wildlife and aesthetics requires other alternatives.
In addition, large clearcuts do not provide for a close seed source in the case of a reproductive disaster. They suddenly provide more food than the wildlife can possibly utilize. Large clear cuts are also temporarily aesthetically offensi e.
In place of complete clearcutting, the proper solution is to make the cuts in comparatively small patches that are isolated from each other by uncut areas. Once the area is covered by these isolated patches and they have been regenerated, the remaining uncut areas will be harvested. Thus, those patches that were first regenerated will serve as isolation blocks for those that ai~e last cut . Harvest patches will not exceed 40 acres in size. The patches will not be uniform in shape or size, but will conform to the boundaries formed by waterways, roads, adjacent nonforest areas or stands of radically different age or other natural characteristics.
Not all trees will be cut. Den trees and some seed trees will be left. Seed trees will be those species that are the most desirable and in the shortest supply, cypress is a major example.. The young vigorous cypress will provide needed seed production while the old hollow veterans will be left as den trees and as part of the heritage to future generations. Adequate reproduction of water hickory and overcup oak, both of which are heavy seeded, will be assured by leaving seed trees of these species.
.. Rayonier's policy is to leave untouched those lands that border major rivers and streams. This policy calls for the retention of a strip 300 feet wide on each side of the major streams and

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lesser widths along the creeks and sloughs. Reasonably sized natural areas are also left around established landings, recreational sites, and other areas that are considered to be of historical or unique ecological importance ...
.. These plans are based on the best knowledge and information available to us at present. As the implementation of the plan progresses, the results will be monitored to determine if the desired results are being obtained. Future knowledge gained will be incorporated to improve the management plan."
Dr. John Bozeman, of the DNR Marshlands Protection staff, said of timber removal in the bottomland river swamps of the lower Altamaha (p.c. 1976):
"There is a general lack of proven methodology in the coastal bottomland river swamp for the regeneration of desired species after clearcutting. The south end of Bear Island, in the Savannah River, is a tangle of shrubs and vines after the clearcutting of the bottomland hardwoods. Even in the middle of Boyles Island, you can see some evidence of floodplain soil scouring after the canopy was removed. Insect species like craneflies, which can break down large quantities of organic materials (leaves, debris, etc.) and other forms of floodplain life are washed away."
From Forests and Floods (see bibliography), Hornbeck and Federer wrote:
"Thus during and after cutting, protecting the forest floor to prevent erosion is even more important than any minor changes in flood magnitude (which might occur after cutting)".
Dr. Bozeman further added (p.c. 1976):

"Most timber companies should consider at least a sixty to eighty year rotation cycle of selective cutting. The real habitat productivity of these areas only begins at about thirty years.
Road fills have the obvious impact of interfering with the natural flow patterns through the swamp. The vegetation along Highway 301 in Long County has obviously been affected by road ,fills. Above the highway, ponded water inundated a large portion of previously dry river swamp. Below the highway, the fill dried up all of the floodplain drainageways that were not given bridges. (This is shown on the Natural Communities Map, page 93). Where possible, roads should be built on pilings or trestles, especially across major drainageways .. Dry season harvest would be best, of course, and gravel (for permeability) in boggy holes would also help avoid the excessive grading needed to construct road levees.
These bottomland communities also exist as depressions or drainageways in the flatwoods, hammocks, and sand ridges of the river swamp. They are a very important habitat for waterfowl and amphibians. They provide important cover for breeding and nesting. When clearcut and drained, the hydro-period is changed and the supporting claypan cracks."
Druid Preston, Chief of Forest Management for the Georgia Forestry Commis'sion said (in the "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews"):
"Coastal timber producers are draining swamps to grow pine. The Forestry Commission knows of the activity because of fire fighting problems. A lot of channeling is going on in Brantley County. The Forestry Commission does not advise it. There

153

is some extent of channelization in all of the coastal counties."
However, at least one company (Brunswick Pulp and Paper) is now placing more value on its hardwoods. From the Brunswick Pulp and Paper Comprehensive Review of the USDA/SCS-sponsored Turtle River Watershed Program (by George Anderson):
"Glynn County (Georgia) has a great portion of the tupelo-gum producing swamps found outside of the Mississippi delta region. Tupelo-gum and swamp blackgum are and will be greatest in demand for pulpwood over all other hardwood species. Gum will probably always be in demand for veneer and other specialty products.
. The relatively high densities and large wood volumes attained by these swamp species stands in marked contrast to those for the better known southern pines. They seem to thrive on existing site conditions .. It is a commonly known fact that the more flooded swamp sites grow taller swamp blackgum trees at age 50 than the less-flooded runs or drier swamp edges.
Glynn County is blessed with a considerable acreage of excellent loblolly pine sites. These are normally wet, poorly drained soils which present optimum growth conditions for loblolly pine. On our own lands we are not planning on "drying out" such sites.
Surface drainage of our periodically wet loblolly pinelands will be detrimental since it would reduce water storage in these soils for those dry periods which occur during the height of our growing season in Nay and June .. "

The dryer floodplain forests (flatwoods, hammocl 3, and sand hills) are very different in the approach th~t is commonly used to manage timber production.
Druid Preston described the common "harvest cutting" method (in the "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews"):
"During harvest cutting, an area is cut and replanted the same year or within two years. Site preparation can include prescribed burning to remove debris especially when the area is to be hand planted. This is the cheapest method of site preparation for planting. Another method is chopping (not with KG blade). This doesn't disturb soil to the extent of blading (debris is chopped and left on ground). The blades on a chopper are 1-2 inches apart on a weighted drum. The purpose is to eliminate pine competition. Depending on the amount of area-, this costs between $25 to $50 an acre (depending on how many passes over an area is necessary). Harvestcutting occurs all year round, usually. If sandy loam soils are not bedded a year before planting,, poor survival is a result. This waiting period also allows the beds to settle, packing and firming of the soil, which allows the soil to better hold tree roots and moisture.
The final stage of site preparation is bedding. Debris is bulldozed into rows (see Figure 27: Windrow Construction) that are spaced (usually on contour) at determined widths based on estimated, possible competition. Mr. Preston continued on:
"Bedding in the coastal plain costs $17 to $20 an acre (KG blading costs are up to $70 to $100 an acre). In the sand-loam soils, nutrients are in the top 3 inches of soil. Bedding overturns this nutrient layer and it is saved, whereas KG blading

154

t

+ t

Timber Before Harvest

Debris Left After Cutting

Debris Bulldozed Into Rows

WINDROW CONSTRUCTION FIGURE 27
takes all debris off the ground including topsoil, Slash pine is sensitive to competition and that is why the site needs preparation. If this preparation does not occur, the tree will not reach commercial size. Longleaf pine has a long top root, is sensitive, and is of high quality. Loblolly Pine can stagnate, but it can release itself and grow again.

Very little herbicide is used in coastal Georgia. When they are used, it is only on a tree-by-tree basis. They were used to eliminate non-commercial species. Now site preparation techniques are used instead of herbicides. In terms of pesticides, lindane is used on the bark beetle. The tree is cut and sprayed. No aerial application is used. The extent of the problem determines use.

All timber companies are beginning to pursue fertilizing. \\Teyerhouser has done the most re-

search. They use a high nitrogen fertilizer. It is used when a tree is planted. The fertilizer is granulated and has a slow release. On older plantations (at 17 years), aerial application occurs. Union Camp does most of the fertilization in Georgia. They have found they can take 5 years off the rotation cycle. The fertilizer is applied by helicopter. The objective is to increase volume and reduce stand age at the same time. St. Regis and ITT Rayonier are getting into fertilization."
The soils are just not suitable for rapid pine growth. This suggests that fertilizer might be applied more heavily in the future (Emil Futch, Long County Forest Ranger, p.c.).
Dr. Sydney Johnson (from the "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews") said:
"Private companies now use fertilizers high in phosphates (sandy soil is lacking in this nutrient and the ability to hold it). Because of the flat topography, there is little lateral movement of phosphates into the water. If this is occurring, the result could be an increase in undesirable aquatic vegetation."
Dr. John Bozeman (p.c. 1976) feels that:
" ..mineral shock is the big problem with harvest cutting (clear-cutting and windrowing). The 'A' horizon of these soils is only 2-3 inches thick. This is where most of the vital nutrients are stored. The 'B' horizon (habitat of the gopher tortoise community) is almost non-existent in the Turkey Oak Forest. There is a little in the Live Oak Forest.

155

In the sand ridge areas, the pulverizing and spreading of chopped debris over the ground with the hand planting of sand pine seed trees might be justifiable. The longleaf and slash pines were logged out of these areas long ago and left without seed
.. trees. My feeling is that all of the floodplain
hammocks and scrub sand hills should be left as refuge habitat. That would mean no site preparation or selective plantings in the timber management process.
No matter what future decisions are made on methods for growing and harvesting timber in the lower Altamaha floodplain, one issue will always be of importance. That issue is economics. Timber production has definitive economic constraints as does any endeavor. The hope, though, is that environmental quality can keep pace with timber production economics.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
So far, environmental quality is keeping pace with timber production economics in the Altamaha forest. At the same time, "Georgia is currently growing 55% more wood than it is using and has potential to do better" (Druid Preston, Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews). Timber market prices have been steadily increasing during the 1977 construction boom, nearing the 1973 record year ("Money Trees", Atlanta Journal/Constitution, Sunday October 2, 1977). In addition, record tree plantings have occurred in the last few years all over the State of Georgia (71 million in 1974 and 82 million in 1975: "Record Trees Planted in State", Atlanta Constitution, July 29, 1975). Finally, there is a big market on the coast for timber to be processed into rough products (plywood, lumber, pilings, and paper pulp) in-state and on the coast. This, of course, is a great economic aid to coastal Georgia. "Coastal forests (for example the Waycross State Forest) get a price of $42 a cord, but the same type wood grown

in northeast Georgia (Gainesville) yields only $5 a cord" (Druid Preston, "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews").
The recreational industry of the lower Altamaha River is also a great economic aid to coastal Georgia. From "The Altamaha River Industry", Wayne County Press, April 3, 1975:
"Altamaha River recreation is great fun. Plus, it enriches our local economic coffers. This latter point was well made this last weekend.
Some 175 members of the Macon Motor Boat Club, along with more than one-half million dollars worth of boats, motors and auxiliary equipment, stopped over in Jesup last Friday. For the past 16 years the Macon Club has been making an annual spring cruise down the Ocmulgee and Altamaha Rivers from Macon to the Golden Isles. They have always stopped over in Jesup on Friday to spend the night, dine out and refuel their boats before continuing on to Brunswick Saturday morning.
A conservative estimate of the money spend in our community by this group last Friday and Saturday for docking, fuel, motel rooms, meals, and sundry items and details was well in excess of $4,000. National Chamber of Commerce figures reveal that for every dollar spent in the local area, the economy is enhanced by 16 times that amount. So actually the brief stopover by this group poured the equivalent of $64,000 plus into our community overnight. The majority of us might not have been the primary recipients of this, but all of us will be affected in some small way as these dollars pass from pocket to pocket.

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Conservation figures also show that for each fisherman-day spent on a waterway, some $4 goes into that community. They also have similar dollar figures for campers, canoeists, skiers and other water recreation enthusiasts.
Our Wayne County Altamaha River is a valuable economic asset. As long as there are boaters, fishermen, skiers and other water recreation lovers, our "Altamaha River Industry" will continue to pump dollars into the Wayne County economy. Just because it has always been there we take it for granted. But we should remember that the Altamaha is more than just a pretty body of water."
Ne~s releases of the Boating Industry Association have shown that the recreational boating industry has continued to grow over the seventies. In a September 18, 1975 news releases, the association's chairman, John Seeger stated that in 1974-1975, new boats and boating equipment sales topped two billion dollars. He said, "This year, I think we showed amazing strength despite the recession."
In the association's magazine (April 1973), another interesting point was made in the "Canoe Country" article: boat users are buying smaller craft in line with the energy-conscientiousness that automobile buyers are facing. The article said:
"The canoeist and his buddies spend $25,000,000 every year on canoes and accessories ... There are a surprisingly large number of canoes in current use. Perhaps half (perhaps more!) of the miscellaneous small craft reported in use during calendar 1972 were canoes. Specifically, that means a million to a million-and-a-half canoes were in the marketplace. At that population

level, if all the boats in U.S. waters were to file past a given point, one in every nine of them would be a canoe."
Based on Table 23 and Table 5, canoeists alone spent almost $15,000 during 1974 on the Altamaha:
TABLE 23 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES OF CANOEISTS PER TRIP,
CROW WING RIVER AREA, 1966

Item
Food Lodging Auto expenses Equipment purchase Equipment rental Other
Total

Expenditures per Person
$ 3.74 0.20 1.16 0.51 3.93 0.61
$10.15

Total
37% 2%
11% 5%
39% 6%
100%

Source: Wadena County (Hinnesota) Park Board.

Table 24 is an estimate of how much hunters and fishermen spent along the lower Altamaha during 1974.
In terms of commercial fishermen, the central district of coastal Georgia (of which Altamaha Sound is the center) has almost 40% more commercial fishery landings (catch) than either the northern or southern district. The value of the 1976 commercial catch in the central district was over five million dollars ($12,374,000 for the entire coast: Department of Commerce, Current Fisheries Statistics No. 7151, Georgia Landings, December, 1976).

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TABLE 24 AMOUNT SPENT BY HUNTERS AND FISHERMEN
ALONG THE LOWER ALTAMAHA IN 1974

Recreational Group

Dollars Spent Number of Per Day* Man Days**

Amount Spent

Fishermen Freshwater Saltwater

$ 7.02 avg. 6.03
10.77

275,000

$1,930,500

Hunters Waterfowl Small Game Big Game

10.52 avg. 9.73 7.62
17.47

70,000 $ 736,400

TOTAL

$2,666,900

*Source: U.S. Bureau of Sports, Fisheries, and Wildlife.
**Source: Table 5, page 43.
These implications of possible economic gain through continued timber production in the Altamaha floodplain, with accented recreational opportunities, are very real and sometimes forgotten in the race for economic development. Sometimes, even public land holdings for conservation and recreation are critized for taking land off the tax roll and replacing nothing.
In the instance of the existing and proposed state lands along the lower Altamaha, this is far from true. First of all, most existing or proposed public lands along the lower Altamaha are wetlands, and these remain undeveloped in most areas of coastal Georgia. Secondly, even if the Altamaha's public

lands contained considerable developable high ground, the loss of future improved assessed value through increased private development might be better than having development which could increase taxes (later) for existing citizens.
From the article "Here's Proof That Open Space Can Hold Down Taxes" (by Ruth Rusch):
"There is mounting evidence to support the claim that open space can save the hard-pressed taxpayer money, at the same time supplying him and his children with a place for healthy recreation and enjoyment out-of-doors.
Municipal officials too frequently lose sight of the fact that the profit from a piece of property on the taxrolls is the revenue received less the cost of services rendered. Those services include utilities, streets, sewage disposal, garbage removal, drainage, police and fire protection plus the cost of educating the children that live there.
When State Park Commissioner Robert Moses announced plans to purchase the 1,426 acre Marchal Field estate at Lloyd Harbor, protests arose from residents of the area.
The village board hired a firm of planning consultants to determine the effect of the J;>ark on the, tax structure. It was found that the creation . of the park would raise the tax rate from $14.33 to $16.91, but if homes in the $35,000 class were built on two acre minimum plots, they could expe c.t a tax rate of $21.64.
A study of open land made in the Town of Lexington, Massachusetts, by Roland B. Greeley, a member of

158

the planning firm of Adams, Howard and Greeley ... pointed out the added advantage of open space in helping to retain the rural charm of a suburban community and in providing outdoor areas for recreation. Residents are afforded ample elbow room for outdoor activities -- intensive sports and games as well as quiet relaxation and rest in the open air. Keeping the "old swimming hole" and the corner lot for the neighborhood kids may end up being not only a contribution to the community's recreation program but a sound financial investment promising future savings as well."
On the coast, average ad valorem tax/acre is $1.20 for timberland (Druid Preston, in the "Coastal Land Use Activities Interviews"). There are 7,675 acres proposed for state acquisition under this plan (see page 138) which will result in the loss in tax revenue of approximately $9,200.00 per year to the four study area counties (Wayne, Glynn, Mcintosh, and Long). An additional 3,500 acres (see page 139) could have conservation easements (see Appendix I) that would call for tax reductions on assessed value. If all the conservation easements were deeded, approximately $4,200 could be the reduced tax revenue. Just canoeists (who almost demand the scenic buffers that are the largest portion of these acres) spend more per year in the local communities than the ad valorem tax loss per year.
Economically, the Altamaha's public recreation industry is big business.

CHAPTER 8
SUMMARY
The purpose throughout this study (see page 1) has been to encourage, yet protect the opportunities for outdoor recreation along a very unique river resource. The Altamaha is unique because it is the largest river swamp complex on the Atlantic coast of North America and with the most freshwater flow of any estuary south of Chesapeake Bay. Further, the river already has a DNR management station on Butler Island which is surrounded by almost 19,000 acres of wetlands that are managed as waterfowl habitat (the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area). Included in this area is the Lewis Island Natural Area (a National Natural Landmark); 10,000 acres of marshlands; a public boat ramp; ten primitive camping sites; and roughly fifty miles of saltwater and brackish water trails. Also adjacent to the area are the 1,200 acre DNR Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation Historic Site, the DNR Fort King George Historic Site and Museum, and the 5,000 acre Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge. In addition, there are approximately 30,000 acres of public hunting (upriver of the management area and north of Highway 25/341) adjacent to the river.
To add to all of this, many landowners in the lower Altamaha River floodplain are especially concerned to maintain the qualities of the existing environment. Previously, in 1974, Governor Carter had contacted ITT Rayonier (the largest landowner in the study site) with a request that they place a moratorium on timber harvesting in the Boyles Island area until plans for the Heritage Trust Altamaha River Park (later changed to the Great Altamaha Swamp) could be

159

formulated. ITT Rayonier agreed; the following is from the letter written (December 9, 1974) by Charles E. Anderson, President of ITT Rayonier, in response to Governor Carter:
" .. we readily accept the stewardship responsibilities of not only maintaining a viable local economy, but of equal importance, of preserving and enhancing the natural beauty and the historical, ecological and recreational values of this great river.
We . intend to keep both the Department of Natural Resources and the Georgia Conservancy aware of our plans and invite their periodic review of our management of these lands
In addition, we are willing to consider entering into game management agreements with the State for these lands as they become available from present agreements with private individuals.
We would also consider granting use easements for boat landings, nature trails, camping platforms and the permanent preservation of historic, geological or ecologically significant sites. Assuming vandalism and other abuses can be controlled, some of these public facilities might also be provided by the company as part of our continuing program of providing and encouraging recreational use of our timberlands.
I also note that a stated purpose of the park is ' .. to illustrate how the past, present and future of man and his environment are inextricably woven. ' It seems most appropriate that the Altamaha River Park memorialize both the past and the present of this great economic activity which has played so large a role in the lives of

so many Georgians, and serve as a valuable 'living' laboratory for modern forest management where the lessons learned can be freely applied to the future management of other Georgia lands. In this regard, we would welcome the establishment of cooperative studies with the state's universities and the Department of Natural Resources to be conducted on our Altamaha larids."
Chapter Three of this study outlines the future needs for historic preservation and public recreation (over 600,000 trips by 1985: in man days) along the lower Altamaha. Chapter Four discusses the existing environment and potential areas for meeting the needs as well as where future specific needs for such things as habitat diversity and where developed access could occur (see Natural Factors Synthesis, page 111).
Chapter Five contains the Recreational Activities Plan and Program for the lower Altamaha River. In some ways, it could be said that the Recreational Activities Plan does not innovate as much as it recognizes. For example, primitive camps have always existed on the river sand bars. The sand bar camps are not new under this plan. However, they will have scenic buffers to maintain their popularity. A good example of the complement that this plan makes to existing recreation is the designation of bluff camps for seasons when the sand bars are under water (see page 122).
In terms of historic preservation, the historic sites of the lower Altamaha could provide many of the needs for state historic "themes" as shown in Table 11. The first few theme needs and possible corresponding sites (among others) are: agriculture (HofwylBroadfield Plantation); Georgia ways of life (the social conscience of the Butlers); Revolutionary War (the Old Post Road); development of the English colony (Hilliamsburg, page A4); connnerce and industry (the

160

distillery on upper Sansavilla Bluff, see page AS); political and military, 1783-1830 (Mount Venture); etc. In all, twelve potential historic sites are proposed in Figure 24 (the Recreational Activities Plan).
The plan also proposes twelve potential registered natural areas; a fifty-five mile hiking trail; six foot-trail access areas; three water-trail access areas; thirty-one primitive camps; 120 miles of buffered water trails; and vastly improved access for public hunting and fishing. In addition, the plan calls for the use of joint agreements (page 134) to improve public access without significantly altering timber production or any other compatible land use. In some instances, it may even improve the abilities for production. As another example, the proposed Altamaha River Swamp Foot Trail passes several timber company experimental plots where timber practices that are not fully understood by the public could be interpretively explained.
The Altamaha resource has had problems. A hardclam fishery existed before 1932. Today, a potentially harvestable brackish water clam population is reported from Altamaha Sound, but these waters are closed for shellfish due to heavy mineral contamination. Wildlife is not as diverse as long ago. The following is from "They Called Their Town Darien", by Bessie Lewis (page 16):
"That year (1738) was a sad time for John Mcintosh Mohr and his wife Marjorie, they lost one of their sons, Lewis, by death. He and a young brother were swimming in the Altamaha River when an alligator snatched him and 'carried him quite off'" ..
Today it is considered a rare treat to spot an Altamaha 'gator.

But though there are problems (see Chapter 7), almost everyone on the Georgia coast considers the Altamaha to be a truly special place: "It's a great place . . . down here on the old lady (river)" (Preston Rozier, on the Altamaha, p.c., 1976).
In all, this proposal will create a recreational complex that covers over 150,000 acres (18,570 acres in the existing Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area; 30,000 acres in the existing Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company Public Hunting Area (north of Highway 25/341); 5,126 acres in the Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge; 1,271 acres in the existing State Historic Sites at Hofwyl-Broadfield Plantation and Fort King George; 10,000 acres in proposed state recreation sites, historic sites, natural areas, river buffers, habitat additions to the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area, and possible conservation easements (see page 134); 66,000 acres in potential public hunting areas; 3,000 acres in marshlands under the public domain; and 18,000 acres in public domain waterways.
The only recommendation of this study is that the Recreational Activities Plan (Figure 24, page 121) be accepted by the Board of Natural Resources and the Heritage Trust Commission as the project map for the Great Altamaha Swamp Proposal. In addition, it is recommended that all lands acquired by the state (under this plan) be placed under the title of the Altamaha State Waterfowl Management Area. Land management will be from the DNR Game Zone having jurisdiction. Proposed public hunting areas will be .named for the donating landowner as an indication of the cooperation that this plan has received.

*

*

*

161

.
162

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SELECTED HISTORIC SITE DESCRIPTIONS
LAKE BLUFF
This was one of the most productive sites explored by Clarence B. Moore in 1898 along the Altamaha. He discovered a mound here 5'10" high by 52' indiameter. Also found were scattered human remains; calcined bones in burial areas; a rare hoe-shaped implement of calcareous rock; shell beads; a child's ?keleton and adult vertebrae; a decorated pot filled with bone fragments charred by fire and small shell beads (uncharred) and covered by an undecorated pot; an undecorated bowl containing cremated remains and small shell beads and covered by another pot; a large pot covering a polished chisel of volcanic rock; two tobacco pipes; 26 perforated pearls and a large deposit of calcined human bones; and remains of two undecorated :>ipes (one with a peculiar metallic lustre). Six low
ounds in the vicinity were also investigated. Reains from this exploration are in the Peabody Museum, ambridge, Massachusetts and the Academy of Natural ciences in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
During log-rafting days in the late 1800's, a sawmill was located at Lake Bluff.
DOCTOR TOWN
Doctortown was named for Captain Alleck, a Lower Creek Indian chief who is thought to have moved to the

area from his previous home on "Aleck Island" (about 20 miles downstream on the Altamaha: see the Aleck Island and the Sansavilla Bluffs discussion), subsequent to the 1763 Indian Treaty at Augusta. According to Dr. John Goff (Georgia Mineral Newsletter). Alleck's name is from the Muskogee word: Alekcha or Alikcha, meaning doctor in English.
Located where one of the remnant barrier island ridges crosses the Altamaha, Doctortown has been a major river crossing site for centuries. An important Indian path, the Alachua Path, extended southward to Florida and may have been followed by Spaniards and their Indian allies during attacks on the English in the early 1700's. On the east side of the river, a well-known late Colonial and post-Revolutionary trail extended northward to Savannah.
From 1763 to 1802, Doctortown was directly on the White-Indian western border, and to protect this important river crossing and the white settlements on the east bank of the Altamaha, the state established a stockade there soon after the Revolution. This post, called Fort Defense, was under the command of Captain James Armstrong in 1794.
Little information is available for the early 18th century, but small plantations were most likely operated on the west side of the river near Doctortown (Margaret Jordan, p.c. 1974). Also, the surrounding Altamaha floodplain was utilized by both Wayne and Liberty (now Long) County residents as common pasturage (Folsom, 1931).
In 1853, the Savannah, Albany, and Gulf Railroad (now the Atlantic Seaboard Coast Line) was begun en route from Savannah to Waycross and beyond. The Doctortown Bridge was the first of any type to span the Altamaha. During the Civil War, the river crossing again had vital strategic significance. Troops reoccupied the old fort barracks at Doctortown on

A1

the west side of the river just north of the railroad bridge, located where Rayonier's industrial waste pond is today.
In December, 1864, while General Sherman was rapidly progressing across Georgia on his fateful march, Brigader General A.K. McKay mounted earthworks and stationed two companies. of infantry at Morgans Lake (a small lake in the Altamaha floodplain 1.3 miles northeast of Doctortown). He stepped up protective forces at Doctortown prior to Sherman's advance and held the bridge throughout the union attack.
A road across the floodplain was not built until 1931. The fill required over the nearly continuous swamps from Ludowici to the river was as much a limitation in building the road as the river bridge itself. Today, U.S. 301-82 spans the river on the J. Allen Leaphart Memorial Bridge.

Doctortown was for many years the site of a large sawmill and woodworking plant. These facilities are now closed, but nearby, ITT Rayonier's chemical cellulose plant continues the use of timber resources in the area.
JOINERS ISLAND
Moore (1898) found a mound 3' by 38' and a second 6'8" by 68'. Pot-hunter destruction had already taken place and only a few sherds and some calcined human bones were found. Surveys of this area are recorded in the University of Georgia archaeological files. Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Jordan, Wayne County residents and 'historians, have collected large amounts of pottery from this area in recent years.
PENHOLLOWAY CREEK
The naming of the creek that drains southeastern Wayne County and flows into the Altamaha below Doctortown was the subject of one of the late Dr. John Goff's "Short Histories of Georgia Place Names". The creek has been alternately spelled Finn Halloway, Fin'halloway, Finhalloway, Pinholloway, Phenholloway, and Phin Holloway. Some early maps call it "Turkey Creek", apparently thinking the derivation is from the Creek Indian word "pinewa", meaning turkey. Combined with "holloway", meaning "high up", it was explained that the creek name was derived from turkey roosts high in the canopy.
Dr. Goff, however, discovered the more likely origin. The important Indian Alachua Trail, which forded the Altamaha near Doctortown and ran into Florida, crossed Penholloway Creek several miles above the

A2
f,

river junction in a narrow part of the creek's swamp, at a bluff north of MacFishery Landing, at the edge of the Great Penholloway Swamp. Footlogs were the principal means used by Indians to cross the small streams and the Creek word for footlog is "fina" and Fin'halui means a "high footlog". Thus the high footlog by which the Alachua Path crossed the creek gave rise to the Penholloway.
BUG ISLAND
Explored by Moore (1898), a mound 2'7" by 40' was found, but investigations yielded few results.

Sansavilla Bluff, upstream from Aleck Island, consists of two areas: lower Sansavilla and upper Sansavilla. In Dr. Goff's words, these "bear one of the most interesting and most enigmatic geographic designations in Georgia" (Georgia Mineral Newsletter). The name origin has yet to be agreed upon. Old maps and records list the name in a variety of fashions: Sevilla, St. Sevila, Saint Sevillies, Santa Sevila, Sancta Sevilla, St. Sevelia, Station Sevilla, etc. Though a Spanish origin could be conjectured, Goff could not find any record of a Spanish Mission connected with the site, or of any Saint named Sevilla, Sevila, Sevela, etc. However, Midgette points to a monk named "Avila" who is recorded to have been taken up the Altamaha into the interior following a raid on the coastal missions.

ALECK ISLAND AND THE SANSAVILLA BLUFFS (Mount Venture and the Old Post Road)
These lie along the west bank of the Altamaha above Fort Barrington on the first major elevation up fro~ the coast (on one of the ancient barrier island remnants). The area is a bluffed ridge geologically older than the surrounding swamps and delta. Therefore, it has remained comparatively protected from river flooding and has yielded historians and archaeologists some of the richest materials of the entire basin.
The area has been extensively explored by archaeologists Gordon Midgette, William Steed, and Margaret Davis Cate. It is currently under consideration for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Relics found here indicate many periods of occupation, dating back over 10,000 years (the oldest Indian remains of the Georgia coastal area were found at lower Sansavilla Bluff).

The Sansavilla Bluffs were extremely important strategically. The primary north-south trail crossing of the river above the Altamaha delta occurred within the site. Further down stream, the river soon breaks into many channels. The early Indian treaties with Oglethorpe ceded to the English all lands under tidal influence. The upper limit of those lands was in the Fort Barrington/Sansavilla Bluff area.
A preliminary archaeological survey of lower Sansavilla Bluff yielded materials from the fiber-tempered, Deptford, and protohistoric eras. Also, materials from the Spanish Mission period were identified, making this the first established Spanish contact site on the interior of coastal Georgia.
Upper Sansavilla Bluff is connected with some of the best known personages in Georgia history including Roswell King, for whom Roswell, Georgia was named, and General James Jackson, Revolutionary war hero. An Indian village (Santa Sevilla) may have existed on the site through 1770 as indicated by the large amounts of Lamar pottery found at upper Sansavilla Bluff.

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"The site of upper Sansavilla was probably associated with earlier establishments at lower Sansavilla and could be part of the area occupied during the Spanish Mission period" (Midgette, National Register application form).
"For a time after the Revolution, there was a white settlement called 'St. Savilla' on the upper Sansavilla Bluff where Alecks Creek joins the Altamaha. In December, 1792, however, the place was incorporated as Williamsburg by William Williams, Farr Williams, John William Lambert, William Cook, and Roswell King as Commissioners. The town was surveyed and laid out with named streets. As a planned town, the site did not live up to the plan drawn in 1792 (see Figure 28). However, there was a substantial settlement with numerous structures" (Midgette).
Aleck Island is actually the downstream end of the Sansavilla Bluffs. The site is nearly surrounded by bogs, and during high water, is separated from the adjacent lower Sansavilla Bluff. A small stream called Aleck Island Creek and the Old Post Road (see Fort Barrington discussion, page 17) both travel through the site. Indian remains found here date from the early Archaic period (5000 B.C.). The island derives its name from Captain Alleck, a Lower Creek Indian chief who is said to have lived here in the 1700's. Alleck, although living far from the main Creek settlements to the west, played an important role as mediator in Indian-White negotiations during this period (particularly in boundary line disputes). He presumably moved to Doctortown (see Doctortown discussion) after the Indian Treaty of 1763 was solidified.
The greatest significance of Aleck Island is that it has recently been shown to be the probable site of Hary Husgrove's famed trading post: Mount Venture (see page 15).

1792 PLAN OF WILLIAMSBURG, GA. FIGURE 28

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By 1818, the town and trading post name had reverted back to St. Savilla and soon the site became one of Georgia's ghost towns. "In the late 19th century, a rum distillery was built under the bluff at upper Sansavilla. This followed the eviction of rum brewers from their establishments on the Georgia coast. In addition to the obvious values represented by the military buildings associated with Jackson's fortifications and the planned town of Williamsburg, the distillery represents an early Georgia industry that has received little attention" (Midgette, National Register form).
FORT BARRINGTON
About 12 miles up river from Darien, the floodplain of the Altamaha narrows considerably as the sand ridges to the north come beside the river's edge. Further down stream, the Altamaha soon forks into expansive delta, so this up river site became the major crossing point for all travel moving up and down the coast. The old Indian trail passing nearby extended from Savannah into Florida. Indian remains have been found on both sides of the river indicating an occupation from prehistoric through recent times.
When settlements began in the Carolinas, Savannah and Darien, the "Augustine Trail" became important to both great powers and also a center of conflict. Men from the young settlement of Darien in the late 1730's travelled overland into the area south of the Altamaha via the 12-mile route approximating today's River Road (through Cox) to the crossing and from there on south on the trail. During the famous Battle of Bloody Marsh in the "Marshes of Glynn", Darien Highlanders followed the aforementioned route and joined General James Oglethorpe's army, helping win a decisive battle.

With the colony's development, the Augustine Trail's importance continued to grow. Oglethorpe improved the road as early as 1736. By 1742, the first mail service between the colonies of Carolina, Georgia, and Florida moved down the trail that was later called the "Old Post Road".
Though problems with the Spanish continued, the Indian threat was becoming more serious. Until the 1763 Treaty, Barrington was near the uppermost limits of the river which was legally under British rule and still within the reach of the tide. With the exception of the trading post and village on nearby Alecks Island and the Sansavilla Bluffs, few if any Englishmen lived south of the Altamaha.
In 1751, Fort Barrington was constructed to protect the "Old Post Road" at the request of the citizens of Darien. During the Revolution (1778), a major gathering took place at Fort Barrington (Fort Howe by then). Troops from Fort Howe under Colonel Samuel Elbert combined with Colonel C.C. Pickney's Carolina forces. They crossed the Altamaha at the Barrington Ferry, camped one night at Reads Bluff (June 12, 1778) on the south bank of the river, and proceeded to march down the Old Post Road to attack the British at Fort Tonyn in Florida (then preparing an invasion of the coast of Georgia).
After the Revolution, the fort was left to decay. During the War of 1812, Fort Barrington (the name Fort Howe disappeared after the Revolution) was manned, but saw no action. Although coastal inhabitants fled up the Altarnaha into the interior and the fort was reinforced in the expectation of a British invasion, the Englishmen contented themselves with looting the coastal areas only.
Famous personages travelling down the Old Post Road passing in the vicinity of Fort Barrington

A5

included John Wesley and the Bartrams. William Bartram in his famous "Travels" describes the Fort Barrington area in the following manner:
"The ancient ramparts of a fort are still visible on the northeast and southeast sides of the quadrangle, also bastions at the eastern and southern corners, the latter being at river edge. The ramparts are in the form of a low ridge or embankment extending in a straight line for 150-160 yards between bastions."
Left to decay, the fort was remanned sporadi cally during the Civil War. Today, very little remains of the old fort. A sportsman's club occupies the site and the Old Post Road in Mcintosh County is known as Fort Barrington Road. The Barrington Ferry was in active use until the early part of the 20th century, but today, public use of the area is confined to the Mcintosh County River Access Ramp.

APPENDIX 8: OKEFENOKEE NWR 1974 USE FIGURES
OKEFENOKEE NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE 1974 PUBLIC USE FIGURES TABLE 24

Suwannee Canal Recreation Area

Stephen Foster State Park

January February March April May June July August September October November December

7,500 6,616 15,728 20,246 14,929 15,052 11,650 7,578 4,558 5,228 4,432 4,103

4,982 5,396 13,268 15,284 15,113 16,857 14,832 11,384 9,045 7,565 10,269
7' 715

Okefenokee Swamp Park Total 84,874*

Suwannee Canal Total

85,000**

Stephen Foster Total

131,710

Refuge Total

301,584***

Source of Data: Electric Traffic Counters, Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge Personnel.

*Non-profit privately owned. **Traffic counter was too high according to Refuge personnel (85,000-90,000 would be a better estimate) ***Using adjusted Suwannee Canal figures.

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APPENDIX C: GROWTH OF RIVER SPORTS IN THE SOUTHEAST
The following information was taken from the U.S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Technical Bulletin Number 4, August 1975.
INTR,ODUCTION
Interest in the sport of river running has increased dramatically in the past ten years. This is evidenced by the growing number of canoeing, kayaking, and rafting enthusiasts in the United States today. People from all walks of life desire the experience offered by a river, be it the thrill of white water or the solitude of a quiet stream.
As planners, we must keep abreast of the everchanging needs of the public. A recent survey of organized river user groups and river managing agencies in the Southeast, conducted by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, brought to light some of these needs. The purpose of this technical bulletin is to report the findings of the river use survey with the hope that the information will be of assistance in future planning for rivers.
METHOD OF SURVEY
In January 1975, a three-page questionnaire on river use was distributed to 17 southeastern canoe clubs. The questionnaire covered subjects from club membership and activities to river preservation and management programs. The 15 canoe club responses (2 clubs did not respond) provided some very interesting and enlightening information. A query was also

sent to canoe manufacturers; however, little data on sales was available.
Additional data on river use was provided by three federal agencies presently managing southeastern river areas - the Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service and National Park Service. Information on the location of canoe trails was provided by many federal, State, and local agencies.
For information on the commercial recreation use of rivers, two major raft trip outfitters were contacted for annual use figures. The American Rafting Association provided information on organized raft races in the Southeast.
GROWfH TRENDS
Analysis of the data indicates a very definite trend of growth in river use. Canoeing, rafting, and tubing are all increasing.
Canoeing: In reply to the questionnaire, canoe clubs provided initial and current membership figures. As indicated by the survey, memberships have been on the increase. Seventy-five percent of the clubs which responded were established in the past decade. Canoe club membership in 1965 was approximately 400; today there are approximately 1,700 canoe club members in the Southeast - a 325 percent increase in canoe club membership in the past ten years. Club membership is probably a small percentage of the actual canoeing public, but it does illustrate the trend.
Rafting: A less expensive and easier sport than canoeing and kayaking, rafting has become extremely popular in the past several years. Although data is not available, the growth in this sport can be inferred

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by the increase in advertisements and feature articles on the thrill of rafting and 11 tubing". As a result, much of the private use on rivers is by rafting enthusiasts. Although the sport is popular, there are relatively few organized clubs (as compared to canoe clubs) to assist the public with trip planning, training programs, and information on rivers. The number of commercial outfitters in the Southeast offering white-water raft trips to the public has grown from one in 1970 to six in 1975, operating on seven different rivers.
The American Rafting Association, established in 1970 to promote raft races, currently sponsors three "Ramblin' Raft Races" in the southeast. These take place annually in Atlanta, Georgia, on the Chattahoochee River; Jacksonville, Florida, on the St. Johns River; and Charlotte, North Carolina, on the Catawba River. Plans are underway for additional races in Memphis, Tennessee, on the Mississippi River, and on the Ogeechee River near Savannah.
The Atlanta race, established in 1969 with 50 participating rafts, increased to over 8,000 rafts in 1970, 4,700 in 1971, and a peak of over 8,000 rafts in 1972. Participation in the past three years has remained at approximately 8,000 rafts. Many more thousands of spectators attend the event.
The Jacksonville and Charlotte races were established in 1972 with approximately 150 participating rafts in each. Participation in 1973 increased to 1,000 rafts and has remained in that range for the past two years.

Chattooga National Wild and Scenic River, South Carolina, U.S. Forest Service.
Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge Canoe Trails, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Everglades National Park Canoe Trails, Florida, National Park Service.
Nantahala River, North Carolina, Nantahala Outdoor Center.
Hiawassee River, Tennessee, Sartin Float Service, Incorporated.
Table 25 illustrates the growth in use of these five areas. Figures for the Okefenokee and Everglades canoe trails represent total public non-commercial use occurring on these two strictly-managed areas. Demand is probably higher than this, but use is limited. Although figures for the Chattooga, Nantahala, and Hiawassee Rivers represent only commercially-outfitte~ raft trips, which is only part of the total public use occurring, they do illustrate the obvious increase in use. Data on the great amount of non-commercial public use occurring on these rivers is unavailable. The tremendous increase on the Chattooga River is attributed to the widespread publicity it has received.
CLUB ACTIVITIES

Managed Areas: Documented use figures are available for the following rivers and canoe trails for the fiveyear period 1970-1974.

Canoe club activities represent a substantial amount of use on rivers. Organized club cruises, races, and training programs are a few of the major club act:~vities. Fifteen canoe clubs reported 600 organized cruises occurring each year with an average of 25 participants

AS

TABLE 25 DOCUMENTED USE ON FIVE SOUTHEASTERN WATER TRAILS
(1970 through 1974)

Number of users

15000 14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 -
9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
0 -

,PI

I

I I

I
I

I

I

I

I

I

I

/ I

_ _ _c..

/

//

..n

---- __ /

.....:.::.:. :.-.-E"

---- -- ----::-.:,..,/-.----:'

__,.,.,.. ...J!-.?

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

KEY:
A Chattooga River, u.s. Forest Service
B - Okefenokee Canoe Trails
c - Everglades Canoe Trail
D - Nantahala River E - Hiawassee River
Source: United States Bureau of Outoor Recreation, Southeastern Regional Office, Atlanta, Ga.

in each cruise; thus, a result of 15,000 visitor days of use. Of these 600 annual cruises, 65 percent are on white water and 35 percent on flat water. It was also reported that approximately 25 percent of these cruises are on dam-controlled rivers. Only 25 percent are on rivers that are in some type of preservation program.
Five years ago there were only a few organized races on southeastern rivers; last year there were 33 canoe club races, 13 white water, 10 flat water, and 10 marathon. Last year a total of 1,800 entrants participated in these races before crowds of spectators that totaled 13,000.
Training sessions conducted by clubs and private outfitters contribute to safe river use. Last year, canoe clubs held 39 training sessions with a total of 1,200 participants. The Nantahala Outdoor Center, since the beginning of its training program in 1973, has trained 270 people on the Nantahala River. In the past two years, the Outward Bound School in Morganton, North Carolina, has enrolled and trained 750 students in canoeing and kayaking techniques.
RIVER INFORMATION
Some states have abundant information on canoeing and rafting opportunities, while others have none or very little. This is not to say that the opportunities do not exist in some states, but that the public has less access to what is available and is therefore unable to take advantage of them. Publicity of canoe trails in those states showing few canoe trails would reduce the travel currently necessary for a river experience and would also reduce the amount of use on well-established trails.

A9

RIVER PROTECTION
We are all aware of the development and pollution problems that threaten rivers today. In response to these problems, the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (Public Law 90-542) was enacted to save the most outstanding of the wild, free-flowing streams left in the nation. Five southeastern states also enacted river preservation and management programs. However, there are few rivers actually in these protection systems. Unmanaged rivers are endangered by future encroachment of development, dam and channelization projects and highway construction which could greatly reduce the supply of rivers available to meet the increasing recreation demands.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

are poorly located and unsafe with respect to traffic. With the increase in use, an increase in facilities to accommodate and direct that use must follow. Provision
of better planned access points on heavily-used rivers and greater parking capacity at some existing access would help to alleviate this problem.
Canoe club members obtain the majority of their information on rivers from other river users. There appears to be a lack of information available to the general public, particularly beginners. Here is where an important safety problem appears, particularly in the area of rafting. Since it is a relatively unorganized sport, rafters do not have the benefit of information from experienced river users as do canoe club members. More than a dozen deaths have occurred on southeastern rivers in the past few years; the majority of the victims being rafters or beginning canoeists who were ignorant of the dangerous points on rivers.

Several problems are faced by the river-using public: some resulting from the great increase in recreational river use. The following problems were mentioned in response to the river use questionnaire.
Overcrowding was cited as a major problem on rivers that have received wide publicity. As mentioned previously, establishment and publicity of new areas, particularly in states that have few canoe trails, would help reduce traffic on a few well-known and heavily-used rivers. Additional management and limiting of commercial outfitters in these heavily-used areas was suggested as a possible solution. It was the general feeling of river users that actual limiting of use should be considered only as a last resort and when the resource itself is threatened by the amount of use.
Many river access areas are becoming congested or

As mentioned previously, a significant amount (25 percent) of canoe club cruises occur on dam-controlled rivers. At present, there are few special provisions made for recreational water releases on these impounded rivers. Canoe clubs suggested that it would be helpful in planning activities such as cruises and races if longrange information could be made available on schedules of water releases. Managing agencies might also study the benefits of water releases with recreation enhancement in mind.

Canoe clubs were queried concerning conflicts with

landowners and other river users. Although several

encounters were reported, it was not considered a signif-

icant problem. Most of these problems are in early

stages of development. Through immediate action, govern-

ment agencies can alleviate the growth of these and many

future problems on rivers.



A10

APPENDIX 0: TRIBUTARY STREAMS AND INLETS OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

TABLE 26 TRIBUTARY STREAMS AND INLETS OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Tributary Streams and Inlets (from Altamaha Sound to Hughes Old River)

Drainage Area
(sq. mi.)

Altamaha Sound Altamaha River Little Mud River Crooked Creek North Altamaha River Three Mile Cut Butler River Darien Creek Rifle Cut Champney River Mackay River Fridaycap Creek Dents Creek & Tributaries Woods Cut Unnamed Creek Unnamed Creek Brunswick-Altamaha Canal Hammersmith Creek Unnamed Creek Champney River South Branch Altamaha River Hammersmith Creek Honeygal Creek Cowpen Swamp Minnow Creek Butler River
(continued on the next page)

14,500 14,200 Tidal
"
" " "
" " " " " " " " " " " "

Length (mi.)
136.8 2.0 2.5
2.0 4.0 1.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 2.0 1.5 0.6 1.0 0.5 8.5 3.0 0.8 3.5 4.4 3.0 1.0 9.5 3.0 4.0

Width Near Mouth (ft.)
3000 600 150
500
10 550 1300 200 100 400
50 40 100 150
600 400 150
50
150 350

Average Flow
(cfs)
14,000 Tidal
" " " "
II
"
II II II II II II II II II II II II
"
II
"
II II

Average Fall Rate
(ft. /mi.)
Tidal
" " " " "
II II II II
" "
II II
" " "
II II II
"
II II II

A11

TABLE 26 (continued) TRIBUTARY STREAMS AND INLETS OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Tributary Streams and Inlets (from Altamaha Sound to Hughes Old River)

Drainage Area (sq. mi.)

Rifle Cut Lewis Creek Unnamed Creek Old Soldier Creek Fulton Creek Unnamed Creek Buzzard Creek Upper Old Soldier Creek Pica Creek Little Buzzard Creek Dick Swift Creek Middle Lake Old Soldier Creek Upper Old Soldier Creek South Branch Altamaha River Pica Creek Unnamed Creek Buzzard Creek Little Buzzard Creek Unnamed Creek Hornsby Creek Clayhole Creek Swan Lake Unnamed Creek Pocket Lake Unnamed Creek Walker Lake
(continued on next page)

Tidal
II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II

Length (mi.)
1.5 10.0
1.0 2.5 2.0
1.5 2.5 1.0
1.0 1.0 2.5 2.5
1.0 1.0 1.5
1.0 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.5 3.5

Width Near Mouth (ft.) (ft.).

Average Flow (cfs)

10 200
20 60
100 100
60 80 60 100 60 100 400 60
100 50 20 60 30
300 LJ.OO 400 100
50

Tidal
II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II

Average Fall Rate (ft. /mi)
Tidal
II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II

A12

TABLE 26 (continued) TRIBUTARY STREAMS AND INLETS OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER

Tributary Streams and Inlets (from Altamaha Sound to Hughes Old River)

Drainage Area (sq. mi.)

Bridge Creek Gamecock Lake
Unnamed Creek Harper Lake Barrington Lake Smith Lake Unnamed Creek Ellis Creek Pigeon Roost Creek Unnamed Creek Miller Lake Penholloway Creek Old River Little Diana Slough Diana Slough Sandy Lake
Gardner Lake Little McMullen Creek Old River Doctors Creek Old River Old River Goose Creek Little Goose Creek

Tidal
II II II II II II II II II II
220
23 16
60 20

Length (mi.)
3.5 0.3
1.3 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.8 6.0 0.2 1.5 24.0 4.0 0.8 1.0 0.8 2.0 5.0 3.0 16.0 3.0 4.0 11.5 10.0

Width Near Mouth (ft.)
30 400 100 150 200 200 100 100
50 100 200 200 200
200
200 200 100
20

Average Flow (cfs)
Tidal
II II II II II II II II II II
230
19 43
56 19

Source: United States Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, Savannah, Georgia.

Average Fall Rate (ft. /mi.)
Tidal
II
II II II II II II II II II
2 Low
II II II II II II
3 Low
II
10 10

A13

APPENDIX E= SIMPLIFIED SUBSURFACE RESOURCES OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN

TABLE 27 SIMPLIFIED SUBSURFACE RESOURCES OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN

Approximate Depth Rock Unit-

Below Surface

Ages and Name

Rock Unit Description

Ground Water Potential

Mineral Potential

0-100'
100-300' 300-650' (continued on next page)

Holocene
Pleistocene r-Pliocene
Miocene (upper unit Hawthorne Formation)
Lower Miocene (Lower Hawthorne: Basal Carbonate Phase of Hawthorne)

fine sands, marsh muds
fine-medium sands varied sands mixed with shells, phosphate grains, clays.
clays, silts, and sands containing phosphates, fossils, and mica.
sand with clays, calcium, and phospatic stone beds.

above water table
shallow ground water aquifer; not extensively used; yields from 20-200 G.P.M. have been obtained with potential for more shown (Wait, 1965); high recharge in most areas possibly by Altamaha waters as well; locally limited by excessive iron and salt water encroachment.

sand and gravel presently mined from near river and delta channels
Pliocene sands used in road-fill for I-95; Potential for more sand and gravel; heavy minerals and phosphates.

relatively impermeable, confining water in underlying rocks, making them artesian.

good potential for phosphates in mid-Miocene Hawthorne; Fuller's Earth is present in lower Miocene Hawthorne, but is so far down that mining is considered uneconomical.

Artesian wells here did produce up to 300 G.P.M. but have ceased to flow since heavy industrial pumpage began in the principal artesian aquifer below. Local limitations by excessive iron and hydrogen sulfide.

Phosphate potential in limestone beds.

A14

TABLE 27 (continued) SIMPLIFIED SUBSURFACE RESOURCES OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN

Approximate Depth Rock Unit-

Below Surface

Ages and Name

Rqck Unit Description

Ground Water Potential

Mineral Potential

550-650' 600-1000'
1000-2000'
1500-2500' (continued on next page)

Oligocene Suwanee Limestone
Upper Eocene Ocala limestone
Middle Eocene Lake City and Avon Park Limestone
Lower Eocene Oldsmar limestone

sandy limestone with phosphate and fossils.
fossiliferous limestone and dolomitic limestone.

flowing wells except near points of heavy industrial withdrawals from lower aquifer; considered a part of the principal artesian aquifer.
main part of the principal artesian aquifer; most heavily used; two water b. , ring layers yield flows of up to 5000 G.P.N. and when pumped yields over 10000 G.P.M.; good quality hard water except where contaminated.

dolomite and cherty limestone.

In Brunswick this is a brackish water zone capped by a confining impermeable bed; locally contaminates principal artesian aquifer through leaks in confining beds; another confining unit at base.

oil potential from thick zones offshore.

interbedded limestone and dolomite.

artesian flows of good quality water under considerable head; depth limits its potential use; yield uncertain.

A15

Approximate Depth Below Surface

TABLE 27 (continued)

SIMPLIFIED SUBSURFACE RESOURCES OF THE LOWER ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN

Rock UnitAges and Name

Rock Unit Description

Ground Water Potential

Mineral Potential

2000-2800'

Paleocene

limestones and some clays and sands.

not well known.

2500-4500'

Cretaceous Post Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa Lower Creta~ ceo us

limestones, sands, clays.

The Tuscaloosa is an important aquifer in the mid-western part of the coastal plain. Here it is too deep to be much understood. Probably has large quantities of water but most likely will be brackish and temperature will be high

Source: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Earth and Water Division.

oil potential in offshore deposits.
potential oil reservoir under the coastal plain though lacking necessary tight caps.

A16

APPENDIX F= MAP OF THE EXISTING (1976) ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA

lEGEND
c : J BOUNDARY
DIKES
_. PRIMITIVE CAMPING BOAT RAMP

AREAS

N
m

n__r-:--,

0

1

SCAlE IN MilES

DEPARTMENT Of NATURA-l RESOURCES GAME AND fiSH DIVISION CAPITOl HILl ST..TION ATLANTA, GEORGIA JOJJ.4

Me INTOSH

COUNTY

f?
I
A17

FIGURE 29
ALTAMAHA STATE WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA

APPENDIX G: GEORGIA SCENIC RIVERS ACT OF 1969 (Chapter 17-9: Georgia Code)
17-901. Short Title of Chapter. - This Chapter shall be known and may be cited as the "Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969."
(Acts 1969, p. 933)
17-902. Definitions. - Unless clearly indicated otherwise by the context, the following terms shall have the meanings ascribed to them.
(a) "Scenic River" means certain rivers or sections of rivers of the State of Georgia which have valuable scenic, recreational or natural characteristics which should be preserved for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations.
(b) "Council" shall mean the State Council for the preservation of Natural Areas established by Chapter 43-12.
(c) "River" means a flowing body of water or a section of a river, portion or tributary thereof, including rivers, streams, creeks, branches, or small lakes.
(d) "Free-flowing," as applied to any river or section of a river, means existing or flowing in natural condition without impoundment, diversion, straightening, rip-rapping, or other modification of the waterway.
(e) "Scenic easement" means an interest in land which limits the use of land along the shoreline

of a scenic river for the purpose of protecting the scenic, recreational or natural characteristics of the area. (Acts 1969, p. 933)
17-903. Scenic river system. - The Georgia Scenic River System shall comprise each river or section of a river hereafter designated a scenic river by Act of the General Assembly. (Acts 1969, pp. 933, 934)
17-904. Duties of State Council for the Preservation of Natural Areas; studies of certain rivers; classification of scenic rivers.
(a) The council shall study and from time to time recommend to the Governor and General Assembly rivers or sections of rivers to be considered for designation as scenic rivers. Each recommendation shall be accompanied by a report showing the proposed area, classification, the characteristics which qualify the river or section of river for designation as a scenic river, ownership and use of land in the area, the State agency by which the area should be administered, the estimated costs of acquiring fee title and scenic easements and of administering the area as a scenic river, The council may conduct such studies in cooperation with appropriate agencies of the State of Georgia and the United States, and may apply for and receive funds therefor from the Land and Water Conservation Fund and other Federal sources. Provided however, such studies and/or projects must first be approved by the person or persons appointed by the Governor for liaison purposes with certain Federal agencies under the terms of Public Law 90-542 (82 STAT. 906), approved October 2, 1968, said law having been designated the "Wild and Scenic Rivers Act."

A18

(b) The council shall proceed to make a study of each of the following rivers and make a report of its findings and recommendations to the Governor and the General Assembly:
(1) Suwanee River. From its source in the Okefenokee Swamp to the point where it flows out of the State of Georgia.
(2) Chattooga River. The section of the river within the State of Georgia.
(c) Each scenic river together with the land lying within its authorized boundary, as established by the General Assembly, shall be classified as one of the following:
(1) Natural river areas. Free-flowing rivers or sections of rivers generally inaccessible except by trail, with shorelines undeveloped and unused.
(2) Pastoral river areas. Free-flowing rivers or sections of rivers accessible by roads, with shorelines mostly undeveloped and unused.
(3) Recreational river areas. Free-flowing rivers or sections of rivers accessible by roads, with limited development along the shorelines. (Acts 1969, pp. 933, 934)
17-905. Preservation of scenic rivers. - After designation of any river or section of a river as a scenic river by the General Assembly pursuant to section 17-903:
(a) No dam, reservoir or other structure impending the natural flow of the waterway shall be constructed, operated or maintained in such river or section of river so designated as a

scenic river, unless specifically authorized by an Act of the General Assembly.
(b) The council may acquire by purchase, gift, grant, bequest, devise, lease or otherwise fee title or any lesser interest in the land lying within the authorized boundary of such river or section of river hereafter so designated as a scenic river. Any interest in land acquired by the council pursuant to this section shall be transferred to such governmental agency as the General Assembly may by Act direct. (Acts 1969, pp. 933, 935)
APPENDIX H: THE GREAT ALTAMAHA SWAMP: A HERITAGE TRUST PROJECT.

A19

r

APPENDIX I= FACADE AND CONSERVATION EASEMENTS ACT OF 1976
General Acts and Resolutions, Vol. 1 State of Georgia
No. 1280 (House Bill No. 1935).
An Act to enact the Facade and Conservation Easements Act of 1976; to provide for definitions; to state the duration and means of acquisition of such easements; to provide for recordation; to require tax assessors to revalue encumbered property; to provide for appeals; to provide an effective date; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes.
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Georgia:
Section 1. Short title. This Act shall be known and may be cited as the "Facade and Conservation Easements Act of 1976."
Section 2. Definitions. As used in this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, the following definitions apply:
(a) "Facade" an interior or exterior surface of a building which is given emphasis by special architectural treatment.
(b) "Facade easement" means any restriction or limitation on the use of real property expressly recited in any deed or other instrument of grant or conveyance executed by or on behalf of the owner of real property whose purpose is to preserve historically or architecturally significant structures or sites located within an officially designated historic district pursuant to the applicable provisions of any local political subdivision's authority to provide for such districts and to provide for special zoning restrictions therein.

(c) "Conservation easement" means a restriction or limitation on the use of real property expressly recited in any deed or other instrument of grant or conveyance executed by or on behalf of the owner of the land described therein whose purpose is to preserve land or water areas predominantly in their natural, scenic, landscape or open condition or in agricultural, farming, forest or open space use or to return land or water areas to such conditions or uses (when such land is located within a historic district provided for in (a) above).
Section 3. Interest in land; how acquired; duration. Such facade and conservation easements are interests in land and may be acquired through express grant to any governmental body or charitable or educational corporation, trust, or organization which has the power to acquire interests in land. Where such facade and conservation easements are not acquired for the benefit of any dominant tract of land, they shall be enforceable against the servient estate, both at law and in equity, as an easement in gross, and as such they may be assignable to any governmental body or charitable or educational corporation, trust or organization as aforesaid. It shall be presumed that such facade or conservation easements are created in perpetuity, unless the instrument of conveyance creating such facade or conservation easements shall state otherwise, in which case the easement may be extinguished or released, in whole or in part by the dominant owner in the same manner or by the same means as other easements are extinguished or released.
Section 4. Assessment of real property to reflect encumbrance of easements. The instrument of. conveyance of such facade or conservation easement shall conform to the formalities of a registerable deed to land and be recorded in the office of the clerk of the superior court of the county where the land lies. Sue!

A20

recording shall be notice to the Board of Tax Assessors of such county of the conveyance of the facade or conservation easement and shall entitle the owner to a revaluation of the encumbered real property so as to reflect the existence of such encumberance on the next succeeding digest of such county. Any owner who so records and is aggreived by a revaluation or lack thereof under this section may appeal to the Board of Equalization and may appeal for the decision of the Board of Equalization in accordance ,.;rith the provisions of Code section 92-6912.
Section 5. Legislative purpose. The General Assembly hereby finds, determines and declares that, the historical, cultural and asthetic heritage of this State is among its most valued and impqrtant assets and that the preservation of this heritage is essential to the promotion of the health, prosperity and general welfare of the people.
In accordance with this finding, it is hereby declared to be the purpose and intent of the General Assembly to encourage and promote the protection, enhancement, perpetuation and use of places, districts, sites, buildings, structures, and works of art having a special historical, cultural, and aesthetic interest or value.
Section 6. Effective Date. This Act shall become effective upon its approval by the Governor or upon its becoming law without his approval.
Section 7. Repealer. All laws and parts of laws in conflict with this Act are hereby repealed.

Approved March 31, 1976.

A21

APPENDIX J : EXAMPLE FOOT TRAIL REGISTRATI ON FORM

HIKING THE TRAIL &
CAMPING?
PLEASE SEE REVERSE SIDE
THANK YOU fOR YOLft COOPE:RATION
GEORGIA :DEPAifi'MENT Of' NATLRAL RESOI.RCES GNE AND FISH DIVISION GAl' MANAGEI"ENT SECTION GAME ZONE VII BUTLER ISLAND STATION PO BOX lf71f DARIEN, GEORGIA 3lo3J5

COMPLETE aad DROP IN BOX

ATE _ __;;,___ _ _...;.

HOI'I:TOWN - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -

HOW LONG DO YOU PLAN TO BE ON n TRAIL f - - - -- - -

WILL YOU RETI.RN HERE f YOU EXIT FROM:

NO IF NOT ~ WHICH ACCESS WILL

CAnAD CREEK ACCESS AREA COX ACCESS AREA fT c BARRINGTON ROAD ACCESS AREA BLUES REACH ROAD ACCESS AREA LAKE Bllff ACCESS AREA HUQS OL RIVER ACCESS AREA VIA A WATER TRAIL

RETAil THIS PORTIOII
COIINTS ON YOLit TltlP&

f OR l'iOR IN"OimATION ON n ALTAnAHA RIVER SIIIAI'P FOOT TRAIL Oft OTHER STATE Of' GEORGIA OUTlOOK RE<XATIONAL OPPOR1\MTIES.. WR11't TO n&
EPAK'mENT Of' NATUUL. RESOI.RCES OffiCE Of' Itf"ROMATION AND EIUCATION 270 WASHINGTON STREET An.ANTA.. GEORGIA ~33'6

MAIL OR DROP IN BOX AT YOI.R DESTINATION ACCESS AREA

A22

APPENDIX K= GEORGIA POWER COMPANY: POLICY FOR HISTORIC SITES. GEORGIA POWER COHPANY STATEMENT OF POLICY REGARDING ACTIVITIES WHICH MAY AFFECT ARCHAEOLOGIC AND HISTORIC SITES ON COMPANY LANDS
In recognition that certain sites are features of archaeological or historical interest which, if disturbed, can be destroyed, Georgia Power Company, as a major landowner in the State of Georgia, desires to contribute a significant leadership role in responsible stewardship by private enterprise of the state's archaeological and historical areas.
Therefore, consistent with Georgia Power Company land use, this policy is adopted to assure the preservation or proper utilization of the historic and prehistoric patrimony of this state.
A. DEFINITIONS
1. Project Lands:
a. Steam-electric Generating Plant project lands are those involved in construction or operation of such plants, or related facilities.
b. Hydro-electric Generating Plant project lands are those '"ithin the project boundary' subject to the Federal Power Commission License for such projects, or related facilities.
2. Non-Project Lands:

a. Any Georgia Power Company lands not involved in planned or existing generating facilities are non-project lands as defined by the Federal Power Commission.
B. ACTIVITY BY GEORCIA POWER COMPANY ON PROJECT LANDS
In archaeological and historical investigations required by federal or state actions, the procedures followed by the Company will be that required by the lead government agency.
C. ACTIVITY BY OTHERS ON PROJECT LANDS
In the conduct of any activity by others on project lands which may affect archaeological or historical sites, the work will be as directed by Georgia Power Company with necessary government approval in accordance with procedures required by the lead government agency.
D. ACTIVITY BY OTHERS ON NON-PROJECT LANDS
Prior to the conduct of any activity by others on non-project lands which may affect archaeological or historical sites, Georgia Power Company will require that an archaeological and historical survey be made by a qualified personnel to determine whether any sites are affected, unless it is determined that such a survey is not required.
When the conduct of activity on non-project lands affects any archaeological or historical site, Georgia Power Company will require that such activity be justified as to need or desirability. Additionally, such activity will not be permitted until determination of disposition or preservation of the affected site is made. For this determination to be made, Georgia Power Company will require that procedures as set forth in Section (E) below are followed.

A23

E. PROCEDURES FOR THE CONDUCT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL EXCAVATION OR RESEARCH BY OTHERS ON NON-PROJECT LANDS
1. In the conduct of any activity involving the excavation or research of archaeological or historical sites by others on non-project lands, Georgia Power Company will require that such activity be justified as to need or desirability, be conducted by qualified professional archaeologists or historians, and be carried out within the framework of a valid scientific research design. All artifacts, photographs, maps, drawings, and written records must be properly -curated, and information obtained must be made available to the professional community and the public at large through adequate publication of the investigation results.
2. Any individual, agency, or institution wishing to enter upon Georgia Power Company lands to conduct activity involving the excavation or research of an archaeological or historical site shall request, in writing, permission by the Company to conduct such activity. This request will be directed to the manager of Environmental Affairs, Georgia Power Company, and will include:
a. location of Company lands involved;
b. location and detailed description of historical or pre-historical site of interest;
c. type of activity contemplated and justification for such activity;
d. name and qualifications of principal investigator;
e. names and qualifications of other persons assisting principal investigator;

f. research design; g. plans for safeguarding excavation site;
h. plans for restoration of area upon completion of activity;
i. plans for preservation of data, i.e., artifacts, photographs, maps, drawings, and written records;
j. plans for dissemination of information obtained to the professional community, and to the public.
3. Upon receipt of a request, Georgia Power Company will provide, for review and comment, copies to professional archaeologists recommended by the State Archaeologist, and will request that the State Archaeologists coordinate such review and comment.
4. Through review by appropriate departments within the Company, the comments received from the reviewing archaeologists, and recommendations made by the State Archaeologist, will be evaluated to determine whether or not permission should be granted. In the event more than one party makes a request concerning the conduct of activity at a site, and, it is determined that such activity is warranted, permission will be granted to the party determined to be best qualified, and with the most appropriate research design, etc.
F. SPECIAL CONDITIONS
In any case where historic or pre-historic survey or excavation occurs on Company lands, Georgia Power Company shall retain ownership in, and the right to utilize and maintain for display, any artifacts recovered from such activity.

A24

APPENDIX L= STATE CERTIFICATE FOR NATURAL AREA RECOGNITION

m~ts is tn rtrttfy ~~at nu

DATE

Wtr ~t prnttbltnus nf 1\rt Nn. 490 (<6a.ljUUts 1966 p. 330)

w~tr~ prnutbts fnr a surutu nf t~t. rtmatuiug natural artas

was nffutally rrrngut5tb as pnsstssiug txrtptinnal ualut tn tllustrattug t~t natural ~tstnru nf t~tsstatt.
........ ---------
A25

APPENDIX M= FORT KING GEORGE HISTORIC SITE= EXISTING FACILITIES MAP.

APPENDIX N= HOFWYL-BROADFIELD PLANTATION HISTORIC SITE= GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN.

o" :;:;::,:.:c;c~~:;.~::_;;;;~~::;:~.:- ~
.

MAP REVISION.._
r-'"'" ~

GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

~--

.

FORT KING GEORGE HISTORIC SITE

FIGURE

STATE OF GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Office ot PI...O.V ..t Research

HOFWYL -BROADFIELD PLANTATION HISTORIC SITE

31

FIGURE 32

A26

APPENDIX 0: FLOOD HAZARD BOUNDARY MAP FOR LUDOWICI, GEORGIA
--------~--~----------------~

APPENDIX p: SECTION 712, ARTICLE VII, ZONING ORDINANCE OF GLYNN COUNTY, GEORGIA
THE ZONING ORDINANCE OF GLYNN COUNTY GEORGIA FEBRUARY 1, 1966, AS AMENDED ARTICLE VII. REQUIREMENTS BY DISTRICT

Section 712. (CP) Conservation - Preservation District.

STA.T

LEGEND
SPCIAI.. FLOOO HAZARD .V.lAWITH DATI Of IOlNTIFICATION

Not T- -

,...., no1 1nclu... all s-1-.1 Flood Ho1arcl

.......,................ _....__ ......,._...In,-_coHma&mwudnit..y...._Af1.........m...o..u ,-.1_ 110_ 1 ,,._ ....,, ,...,..

c:GMaH.T Nf'IA MMIV.ctNG CCIW'ANY OR LOCAL 1~1
MaJfl' OR . . .lit TO DETI:MII. . IF""""-""" IN THit ~TY MlluthaLI: POR FLOOD IMUilANCI.

Af YIMON DAUS 1-2J-7&.REDUCE S.f.HA., SHOW CURVILINEAR
90UNOARIS

,...... ...... IIPAITMIIfT Of MCIUI.. AID UIIM DIVfl.OfiiBIT ~
CITY OF LUDOWICI, GA !LONG CO.)

500
N. FlOOD MAlMD ....aMY MAP . "02

APPIOliMA TE SCALf

1000

2000

COIIUITY 11.130128A

.......3.0..00 FEET
JANUARY 23, 1976

FIGURE 33

A27

712.1 Intent of District. It is the intent of this Section that the CP Zoning District be established and maintained to preserve and/or control development within certain land, marsh and/or water areas of Glynn County which 1) serve as wildlife refuges, 2) possess great natural beauty or are of historical significance, 3) are utilized for outdoor recreational purposes, 4) provide needed open space for the health and general welfare if the County's inhabitants, or 5) are subject to periodic flooding. The regulations which apply within this district are designed to reserve such areas for the purposes outlined herein and to discourage any encroachment by residential, commercial, industrial or other uses capable of adversely affecting the relatively undeveloped character of the district.
712.2 Permitted Uses. The following uses shall be permitted in any CP Zoning District:
a) Private dock or boat house. b) Boat marina. c) Bait house. d) Public utility line, fire or water tower or
sub-station. e) Publicly owned and/or operated park, open
space, recreational facility or use, and the equipment necessary for servicing the users. f) Farm for the growing of rice of other agri-

cultural products, including timber. g) Wildlife refuge, including one-family and
two-family dwelling units of caretakers employed to maintain and protect the refuge. h) Swimming beach.
712.3 Conditional Uses. The following uses shall be permitted in any CP Zoning District on a conditional basis, subject to conditions set forth in Section 904:
a) Cemetary with or without chapel, provided that such use 1) consists of a site of at least ten (10) acres, 2) has a ten (10) foot-wide planted buffer strip around its entire perimeter which is dept free of any use except access, 3) includes no crematorium or dwelling unit other than for a caretaker, 4) has a front yard setback of at least seventy (70) feet from the centerline of the street or twenty (20) feet from the street right-ofway line, whichever is further, and 5) maintains a non-illuminated sign no greater than thirty (30) square feet and ten (10) feet in height.
712.4 Other Requirements. Unless otherwise specified elsewhere in this Ordinance, uses permitted in CP Zoning Districts shall be required to conform to the following standards:
a) Minimum Lot Area: 5,000 square feet. b) Minimum Lot Width, measured at the building
line: Fifty (50) feet. c) Minimum Front Yard, measured from the nearest
abutting street right-of-way line: Twenty (20) feet. d) Minimum Side Yard: Seven (7) feet on each side. With regard to corner lots, the provi-

sions of Article VI, Section 604, shall not apply. e) Minimum Rear Yard: Seven (7) feet. For rear yard requirements pertaining to double frontage lots, see Article VI, Section 605. f) Maximum Building Height: Thirty-five (35) feet. For exceptions to height regulations, see Article VI, Section 617. g) Additional Requirements: Uses permitted in the CP Zoning Districts shall meet all standards set forth in Article VI pertaining to offstreet parking, loading and other requirements. h) Signs: Signs permitted in CP Zoning Districts, including the conditions under which they may be located, are set forth in Article VIII.

APPENDIX Q: CHANNEL SNAGGING OPERATIONS= ALTAMAHA RIVER BASIN= REVIEW COMMENTS.

Subject:

Comprehensive Review Comments on (the proposed 1975) Snagging Operations by the Army Corps of Engineers on the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Oconee Rivers

From:

DNR River Planning Unit

The River Planning Unit guardedly agrees that some selective snagging operations should continue on the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Oconee Rivers. We generally commend the Corps on satisfactorily overseeing most . snagging operations in the recent past. However, we would like to point out a number of considerations which we hope might influence the design and planning phases of such operations:

A28

1) For most of the Altamaha drainage system, snags and submerged rocks provide the principal substrates for major forms of benthic life and cover for fish. We are glad the Corps recognizes the importance of snags as a fish habitat (EIS page 29) and urge that net removal of snags be limited as much as possible, by redepositing snags in the channel when feasible (ie: when the snag is water-logged). Ideally, the snag should be located iri a relatively deep area to be of maximum benefit to the fishery (Carl Hall, Game and Fish Division, p.c.).
2) Rock deposits in these rivers serve the function of pooling the water for miles upstream. These pooled areas often contain extensive riverswamp communities. Rock removal should be avoided in any areas where head lowering may result in the draining of these important habitats.
3) We definitely hope the Corps fulfills its plans not to pull trees from the bank. Even when large trees lean from the bank into the channel, it should be possible to cut off portions in the channel, rather than pull out the entire tree.
4) The aesthetic value of the Altamaha River System is one of its principal resources. In this light, maintaining high aesthetic conditions along these rivers should be given high priority in planning snagging operations. At times, there is seemingly indiscriminate disposal of snags on the Altamaha banks below Doctortown.- Snags that cannot be relocated within the channel should be located in as few areas as possible or transported to approved land fill areas. Rather than randomly depositing snagged materials in the swamp or on sand bars, these deposit areas should be selected to present the least objectionable appearance. Sand bars and the immediate river bank should especially be avoided.
A29

A30

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Shorelines Between the Altamaha and Savannah Rivers in Georgia. Thesis, Emory University. Atlanta, Georgia.
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