Small game management in Georgia

Small Game Management

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in Georgia

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Georgia Department ofNatural Resources Wildlife Resources Division

ZcllMillcr, Governor Lonice C. Barrett, Commissioner
David .J. Waller, Director
Hoard of Na tu ra l Resources

Recse J . Thompson, Chair Vidalia - First District
Lenora J. Garrard Columbus - Third District
C. W. (Sonny) Jackson Cartersville - Seventh District
Donald J . Carter Gainesville - Ninth District
.Iohn R Willi ams Covington - Tenth District
Ben Seay, III Waynesboro - Eleventh District
Th oma s \V. wh eeler, .lr. Duluth - Fourth District
Will D. (Billy) Herrin Savannah - Coastal District

Joe E. Heverly, Vice- Chair Thomasville - Second District
FelkerW. \ Vard,Jr. Atlanta- Fifth District
J. D. Caswell Norcross - Member-at-Iarge
Sara S. Cla r k Alpharetta- Sixth District
Glenn E. Taylor Atlanta - Member-at-large
J am es G riffin, J r. Albany - Member-at-Iarge
Curtis Farra r Douglas- Eighth District
Ben G. Perter Macon - Member-at-Iarge

Small Game Management in Georgia
Georgia Departm ent of Natural Reso urces Wildlife Resources Division Game Management Section
Aut h ors : Jerry Bearden, Senior Wildlife Biologist
BillCooper, Wildlife Biologist Nick Nicholson, Wildlife Biologist Steve Ruckel, Senior WildlifeBiologist Ron Simpson, Senior Wildlife Biologist George Steele, WildlifeBiologist
The Department of Natural Resources is an equal op portunity employe r and offers a' persons the opportunity to compete and participate in areas of employm ent regardless 01 race, color, religion, national origin, handicap, or other non-merit factors.
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Preface
Wildlifebiologists serving onthe Georgia DepartmentofNatural Resources' Small Game Committee prepared this booklet It is intended to serve as a source ofgeneral information for those with acasual interest insmall game animals. It alsoserves as a moredetailed guide for landowners and managers whowant to improve small game populationsontheirproperty. Landmanagementassistance isavailable fromWildlifeResources Divisionbiologists. For additional help, contactthe nearest Game ManagementSectionofficelisted below.
Acknowledgements
We wouldliketo thankthe following individuals for providing editorial comments: Karen Johansen, Linda May. Beth Brown,Haven Barnhill. and Todd Holbrook, Georgia Department ofNatural Resources. Tall Timbers Research Station.Tallahassee, FLgraciously allowedtheuseof Table I, Preferred Bobwhite Food Plants. WayneTankersley, MorganCounty Extension Director, University of Georgia Cooperative ExtensionService, provided information and comments onAppendix 1, Planting Guide forSmall Game.

Game Management Offices

Headquarters Armuchee Gainesville Thom son FortValley Albany FiIzgerald Brunsw ick

(770) 9 18-64 16 (706) 295-604 1 (770) 535-5700 (706) 595-4222 (9 12) 825-6354 (912) 430-4254 (9 12) 423-2988 (9 12) 262-3 173

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Table of Contents

BobwhiteQuail .............................................................................................................. 5

Life History

6

Management

9

Mourning Dove

13

Life History

13

Management

15

Ruffed Grouse

17

Life History

17

Management

19

Rabbits

21

Life History

22

Management

24

Gray andFoxSquirrels

27

Life History

27

Management

29

Appendix 1: Planting Guide for SmallGame

31

Corsroued burning during the proper conditions is a valuable tool for improving wildlife habitat.
4

BOBWHITE QUAIL
For many years Georgiawas known as the"QuailCapital of the World." This title was ju stifiably earned by Georg ia's exce llent population of bobwhite q uail (Caliou s vio: injaoYs). However, veteran quail hunters are well aware that quail abundance has d ropped dram atically, making hunting much less productive. Data gathered on hunters and harvest reflect this trend. Since 1980, the number of quail hunters dec rease 61% and statew ide harvest fell by 79% . Unfavorab le habitat changes acco unt for a large port ion of these long-term declin es. Although habitat loss impacts hunting, restricted access adds to the prob lem. Declines in quail habitat are mainly a result of increased acreage in shortrotation pine plantat ions, " clean" farming practices, loss ofagricultural land. larger agricultural fields, decreased use of fire, hea vy graz ing by livestock, and urbanization .
No standard quail management plan will work for all properties. Each tract of land has its own character (so il type and fertility, drainage, amou nt of open land. amount and type of forest land, etc.). A land manager must eva luate these characterist ics to determin e how to best improve the area for quail. The uniq ueness of individual properties is a primary reason many landowners see little increase in qua il numbers follow ing "guesswork" management.
The enti re life history of the bobwhite must be considered to determin e an area's needs for increasing the quai l population. Simply providing a few more seeds in winter may not be the answer. The habitat must meet the year-round requirements of the bobwhite. Game Managemen t Section biologists can help landowners develop a management plan to meet these needs.
5

L I FE H l S I Q R Y

Rep roduct ion

The fam iliar "bob-bo b-white" w hist le herald s the beginnin g of the breed ing season.

Breedin g activity is trigger ed by increases in day length and tem pera tu re . Pairing begins

with cove y break up. usually in March . Remnant covey s may be found until early May.

In March , coveys occas iona lly break up during th e day and reform just before dar k.

Quail are generally mono gamous, meain gone male mating with one femal e. However.

stud ies reveal som e polygamous behavior, with tw o or mo re mat es during a breed ing

season, is more common than pre viously thou ght. Popu lat ions consist of about 15%

more cock s than hens. Uneven sex ratios result from high hen mortality during nesting

season. Most of the " bob-whiting" heard

in mid- and late-summer is produced by

unmated cocks in search of a hen.

The most important mo nths for nest ing

are Ma y through Augu st, but some nesting

occ urs as early as March and as late as

Octo ber. Both hen and coc k cons truct the

nest from material s, primaril y grasses and

pine needles, collec ted within a few feet of

the nest site. The number of eggs laid per

nest, a "cl utch," dec reases with each

attempt, ran ging from an average of 16

egg s in Apr il to onl y n ine in August .

Incubation lasts 2 1 days .

Hens renest throughout the nesting

season if previous attemp ts are unsuccess-

ful. Even with seve ral nest attempts, some

pairs fail to hatch young. On ly 2025% of

quail nests are suc cessful.

A pa ir generally raises one brood per

yea r. Occasionaly a hen may rene st after hatching a brood , leavi ng the ch icks with a male or surrogate parent . Both coc ks and hens have a strong brooding instinct and

Ii alching is a major survi va l accomplis hment fo r the se chicks. Only 20 25% of quai l nests success fully hatch.

will adopt strayed or orphaned yo ung .

Mort ality Q uail ch ick mortality is 50% or mor e betwee n hatchin g and 15 weeks of age . Th is loss
can be reduced by manag ing hab itat to better meet the needs o f ch icks. Management pract ices that produce abundant insects ncar gro und level in a protected situat ion increase ch ick survival.
Exclud ing summer losses of chic ks, the grea test loss of bobwhites in Georg ia occurs during either the hu nting season or the b reeding season. If habitat con dit ions on an area are good and hunte r harvest is low, spring and summer mort ality will equa l or exceed that of winter. Habitat quality contro ls quail population size. Summer quail production usually exceeds the abilit y of the habitat to support the young throu gh an entire yea r. Natur al mortality from preda tion , d isease , and in so me cases, starva tion will occur. An annu al loss of 80% remains fairly co nsta nt, wh ether or not an area is hunted . A hunter harvest of 30-50% of a fall popul at ion re p laces part of these natura l losses witho ut endange ring next yea r's population.
Contro l of pred ator populations usually rec eives too mu ch consideration and frequently is unju stifiable and ineffective . Thi s ex penditure of effort and money would be

6

more product ive if directed toward improv ing qua il habitat to reduce predatory losses. Natural mortality mainta ins a bobw hite popu lation that is balanced at the level the habitat can support. A qua il popu lation that does not exceed the habitat' s carrying capacity is highly resistant to predatory pressure. Although foxes, bobcats, hawks and owls do eat an occasional quail, they may actually be beneficial to the bobwhite population. Many of the qua il taken are diseased or crippled. Also, nest predators and sma ll mamma ls that comp ete with quail for food are a major part ofthe diets of these larger predators. Due to the complex balance between predators and prey spec ies, predator control shou ld not be attemp ted without substantial reason and professional advice.
Food Hab its Qua il foods vary by season and depend on natural availability and the quail's
nutr itive needs. Fruit consumption peaks in the late spring and summe r whi le most insects are eaten during the summer and fall. During the first few weeks oflife, chicks require a high protein diet provided only by anima l matter, primarily insects. The annual bobwhite diet consists of60 -65% seeds, 15-20% fruits, 15% anima l matter and 5% green vegetat ion. Preferred food plants and their relative importance in different sections of Georgia are listed in Table I on page 8.
The bobwhite can survive without drinking water, provided succulent vegetation and insects are read ily available. However, a quail population needs some fonn offree water (ra in, dew, etc.) to thrive . Dramatic year to year population fluctuatio ns in the Southeast are re lated primarily to rainfall. Drought was a factor in poor quail reproduction and low fall populations during 1980s. Ifa hen goes without water for 24 hours, laying may cease because she cannot com pensate for water required to produce eggs.
Behavior a nd Movement Patterns Most quail in Georgia never range more than one-fourth to one-half mile during their
life. Covey home ranges are usually no more than 40-60 acres and may overlap. Average individual movements and covey home ranges decrease as habitat quality increases.
Coveys fonn as family groups join together during summer and early fall. There is some move ment between coveys by individual birds but by October most coveys are stable. Th is is the time of highest quail densit ies with popu lations of more than one bird per acre possib le on areas of exceptionally good habitat. As coveys are reduced by losses during the winter they may comb ine with birds in adjacent coveys.
Habitat Requirements The bobwhite is dependent on early success ional vegetation. They thrive where
occasional soil disturbance maintains weedy plant growth . The majority of important natural quail foods, including insects, arc most abundant where this early plant succession occurs . Other foods that are prod ucts oflate plant succession, like acorns , are used when they occur close to ear ly successional areas.
Qua il need protective cover in varying forms for feeding, roosting, escape , loafing, and nesting. Some vegetation provides multi-purpose cover. Feeding and loafing cover have grass and herbaceous vegetation that are generally more open or sparse than roosting and escape cover. Preferred nesting areas are those where ground vegetation contains clump-type grasses and covers half of the total gro und area. Cover of this type offers opt imum nest concea lment while providing adeq uate passageways for qua il movement.
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Tabl e 1: Preferred Bob white Food Plan ts

B e g g a r weed s Ragweeds C ommon lespedeza
C orn K o rean c lo v er P a rt ri d g e p e a s Oa ks Mil k p eas S umacs Bus h cl o ve r s P ines Soy bean C o w peas J ewel -weed s D o gw o od s
Sweet -gum W ild beans S orghum H og peanut P a n ic grasses Black lo c u st J o hnso n g rass W heat H o n ey su ckle s S a ss afra s Sm a rtweeds Ve tc hes
Crab grass P as p alum s A ,h
Poor Joe
B u ll grass Spurred b utterfl y peas Grapes D o v e weeds
Fo xt a il g rasses Cranesbi ll Wood sor rel s Sericea N ut ru shes Bi c ol or Bl ackbe rries Ni gh t sh ades B eg gar t icks Ground n ut
S E ED P LAN T

COAST A L P LAIN

P IE DMONT PLATEA U

M O UNTA IN

o e 16 0 e 16 0 e 16 0 8 16 AVERAG E IMPORTANC E VA LU E

Reprinted wi t h pe ""bdon f rom' ~a nd e r s , Lar ry J . and A. Sydne y Johnso n . 1916 . Bobwhi t e Quai l Food Habi t s . Tall Timber s Res earch St a t i on . Tall ah a s see, Fl orida.

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MANAGEMENT
The majority of hab itat improvements needed in Geo rgia involve increas ing year-
round food availability and mai ntai ni ng pro per density and amounts ofvegetative cover.
Mos t lands not ma naged for quail are deficient in food and hav e cover that is either too dense or too sparse.
Q uai l habitat ma nage ment is based on th e idea of prov iding a variety of land uses (forest. fallow or idle, pastur e or grass, and cu ltivated land) in an arrangement that improves food and cover cond itions. Ideal cond itions are foun d along the edges betw ee n land types. A m odel area for quail has small blocks ofbrush m ixed w ith sma ll field s and patc hes of w oodland . The di stance between edge co nditions is never more th an a short fligh t away. How ever. management in th is manner is se ldom feasi ble or eco nom ically justifiab le. For thi s reason, managemen t pra ctices should be designed to provide as much edge as possible wit hin eac h land use type .
Woodbnd Co ntro lled burn ing is the most co mmo n and pro bably most beneficial management
practice use d in pine an d low-grade hardwood stands. Fire removes thick lin er (pinestraw, leaves, grass , etc.) tha t bu ilds up in unburn ed sta nds. Q uai l foo ds are of no value if unavai lab le due to thic k ground cov er. Fire st imu lates the germinatio n of im portant native plant seeds, such as partridge pea , lespedeza, and butt erfl y pea. Th ese legu m inous p lants are imp ortant bobwhite food s in late w inter, and burn ing may make them up to 14 times more abunda nt. A lso, succulent plant growth followi ng bu ms increases sum mer insec t ab u n d a nc e.
Bu rning also creates optimum nestin g co ndit ions the year after the bum . Are as w ith one year's grow th of vegetation have twi ce the nest success as areas with two years' gro wth, and about six times more success th an areas with more than a two-year growth . Spring bums also provide produ ct ive late season nesting cover. Usually by the end of June, new growth and ground lin er is sufficient to provide concealment for nesting.
February or early March is the best time to bum . Howe ver, a bum that is delayed until leaves begin to form assists in controlling de nse hardwood und ergrowth. The freq uency w ith w hich a site is burne d depend s on soil fert ility and moisture. Av erage sites usu ally need burning once every two yea rs, poorer dry sites once every thr ee years, and r ich mo ist sites eve ry yea r. Ideall y, on ly 40 60% of an area should be burn ed eac h y ear .
Se lected thi ckets of desirab le shru bs like plum, hawthorn, hackberry , sassafras, an d bla ckberry should be protected w ith a harrow ed fireb reak to provid e protective cover immediately fo llow ing the bu m. Ideally, th ese areas sho u ld be 20-30 feet in d iameter and distr ibuted so th at protec tive cover is no more than a short covey flight in any direction . Additional ar eas , one to two acres in size , conta ining broo msedge, wiregrass. or other native clump-type grasses w ith one seaso n ' s growth, should be protected for early nesting attempts. Nests in sma ll cover are as are only one-fourth as successful as nests in cover areas on e acre or larg er. Protect ive co ver thickets should be maintained w ithin these larger areas of nesting cover. Both types of cover are as, protective and nesting, sho uld be burned on a re gu lar rotat ion with altern ate areas left unburned . However, permanent th ickets of fire -sensitive species, such as wi ld plum , are best ma intained by m ow ing or light harro w ing unle ss they have becom e to o large.
Inexperienced peop le sho uld not attempt controlled burning unas sisted. Importan t pre parations inclu de firebreaks, pro per equipment, and bum pennits from the Georgia Forestry Com m ission. A person experience d in fire behav ior mu st evaluate fuel type, fuel moi stu re, relative hum idity, an d win d spe ed and direction . Smoke sensitive areas like hom es or highw ays m ust be iden tified.' The Georgia Forestry Commission and the Department of Natural Resources wi ll m ake rec ommendations for co ntro lled burning .
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Th ick pine stands should be thinned and control burned to favor understory vegetat ion favorable to quail.
Ifa stand of timber is so dense that direct sunlight cannot reach the ground, burning alone is of little value. These stands should be thinned to a basal area of 50-65 squa re feet per acre . Food and cover plants in the deve loping understory vegetation will then receive the sunlig ht necessary for growth. Soil disturbance by timber operations helps mainta in the desired early success ion plant species. Hard seeds of plants like partridge pea are scarified during this disturbance, which increases germination rates.
Thinning overstoc ked timber also is a beneficial forestry practice because it releases the remaining trees from an overcrowded situation and increases their growth rate. In stands with a long rotation period, like sawtimber or pole timber, several thinnings are necessary to maintain good tree growth and an understory suitab le for quail. Longrotation timbermanageme nt is more compatable with quail mana gement than short pulpwoo d rotat ions.
Dense scrub hardwood stands are difficult to manage . Late spring burning he lps open the stand, allow ing the growth of benefic ial quail plants. However, mechanical means such as cutting, rotary mowing and bulldozing, may be req uired in initial contro l attempts if the sprouts are more than one and one-half inches in diameter at chest height. Only use herbicides for contro l when other methods fail, and then under strict superv ision since desirable vegetation can be harmed.
Planting provides add itional cover and food (Appe ndix I). Some of the best food plants are cowpeas, corn, kobe lespedeza, Korean lespedeza , commo n lespedeza, bicolor lespedeza, large partridge pea, Florida beggarweed , browntop millet, and grain sorghum. Certain var ieties of sorghum may attract large numbers of blackbirds wh ich can greatly reduce winter food value to quail. Areas with an abundance of summer and fall food, but lacking winte r food, benefit from these plantings. Insects also are abundant and readily available to adults and chicks in these plant ings. Annual food patches should be rectangular and one-eighth to one-fourth acre. Four one-fourt h acre patches will benefit quail more than a single one-acre patch.
Planting costs can be reduced by alternating patch locations on a two year rotat ion, planting half of the patches each year. Weedy growth and insects found in fallow patches are of high value to quail. A minimum of one patch per 10-15 acres of woodland is recommended.
A minimum of one woody thicket ofplanted or naturally occurring shrubs, 2030 feet in diameter, is needed for every 1015 acres of managed land. Native shrubs normally estab lish a good cover area if the site is protected for a few years.
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Long -rotation , ope n understory timber management is more compatible with quail management than short pulpwood rorations .
Bicolcr lespedeza, a perennial, provides both protective cover and food . Bicolor can be planted as seeds or seedlings. These patches should be 1520 feet wide (six rows, 36 inches between rows) and about 150 feet long. Longer patches are no more productive and create management and hunting problems.
Quality hardwood stands should not be burned. These areas can produce more quail by selective thinning and creating small openings. Openings should be about one-half to one acre in size scattered throughout the stand. A border strip of protective cover, containing shrub thickets 1520 feet wide, should be established along one side of the opening. The remainder can be planted in one of the annual food plants. Maintenance of l y-foot-wide transition strip of early succession weeds is recommended between the border cover strip and the edge of the planted area.
Past ure a nd Cultivated Land Most pasture and cropland lack adequate cover for quail. Heavily-grazed areas and
certain row crops, such as cotton and tobacco, provide little natural quail food, especially in the winter.
Open pasture and cropland can be made more suitable by allowing field borders or existing fence rows to revert to natural vegetation. Developing scattered thickets or islands of woody cover and cover lanes across these areas is also helpful. Terraces for erosion control can be developed into cover lanes. Cover lanes and thickets allow quail access 10a greater portion of large pastures or harvested fields. Otherwise, quail only use the edges. The more that open land is broken up with cover, the better it is for quai l.
On cult ivated land, a hedgerow or cover lane can be simply a strip about 15-20 feet wide which is not cultivated. Permanent lanes can be establ ished by leaving the same strip uncultivated for a few years. Grass, shrub, and tree species usually need only three to five years to become established. Ifmore rapid development and results are desired, these strips can be planted in pine and permanent shrub cover like wild plums and bicotor lespedeza.
Where cultivated land is bordered by wood land, a 20- to 30-foot wide transitio n strip should be established between fields and woodland . This practice is the most product ive for quai l management on agricultural land. The border can be left to revert natura lly to desirable species, such as beggarweed , ragweed , and broomsedge, or it can be planted. Bicolor lespedeza and wild plum can be established quickly through plantings. Shrub cover should be established to form a brush thicket every 150 yards in this zone. Except
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for fire sensitive protective cover, the area should be burned along with the bordering woodl and. The soil can be periodically disturbed by light disking to contr ol woody plants and ma intain a diverse weed growth.
Where cultivation methods prohib it use of co ver lanes or field borders, odd shaped areas along field margins and low-produ ctivity areas can be left out of cultivat ion and allowed to reve rt to natural growth. If possib le, such areas should be located so that they are a short flying distance from additional shrub or weed cover.
An improved pasture's value to quail depends on size, amount of graz ing, and use of herbicides in controlling weed growth. Several pract ices help to increase quail use of pastures. Moderate graz ing may leave adequate nesting cover. Delayed mowing of these pastures until the latter part of June increases nesting success. Common lespedeza, if used as part of the pasture mixture, provides seeds. Bahia grass, used in many pastures, prov ides summer and fa ll seeds and insects for quail.
Fescue in pastures and fence rows causes major habitat problems in the Piedmont. Its thick growth is a physical barrier. It supports fewer insects than other grasses, and the seeds are not readily eaten. In areas where it grows, serious quail management includes an aggressive program to convert fescue to warm season grasses.
Unimproved pastures contain more weeds and shrubs than improved pastures and are more suitable for quail. Suitability depends on the amoun t of grazing. Practices used on improved pastures also benefit unimproved pastures.
Temporary pastures that are overgrazed leave little food and cover. Thickets, hedge rows, and food patches can increase their value. Shrub co ver in pastures should include plants that are se ldom graze d by cattle, such as wild plum and hawthorn. These shrubs protect some food plants from grazi ng and a lso provide cover. If food patches are planted in pastures, they shou ld be rotated with fallow patches and replanted every other year. Cover lanes and food patches should be fenced to avoid damage from livestock.
Fallow or Idle Land Idle fields usually do not contain many wild legumes until about the third year after
cultivation. Legume abundance then remains high until about the tenth year. Such areas should be co ntrol burned when grass and other herbaceous ground cover is dense enough to carry a fire. Selected areas of encroaching shrub species should be protected to deve lop woody cover. Shrub plantings can speed up the development of adequ ate woody cove r if the area is going to remain idle for several years. Rotating the location of annual food patches also enhances idle land for quail. Periodic light disk ing of portions of idle areas is productive for maintaining plant growth and diversity for quail.

More quail can be produced through management, but the old say ing, " you can't get something for nothing" is all too true. Effort and money are required. The amou nt required is based on the habitat de velopment needed and the density of quail des ired. However, a huntable quail popu lation can be susta ined at reasonable costs for the average landowner.
12

MOURNING DOVE
The mourn ing dove (Zenaida macroura) is one ofthe most popular and numerous game species. Doves nest in al148 contiguous stales and, each fall, northern migrants join a year-round resident population in the southern states, adding great ly to the number of birds. During the 1992 hunting seaso n, 98 .000 Georgians harvested 1.5 milli on doves. Th is bird' s popu larity extend s beyond the hunt er since it also is a favorite of birdwatchers and photo graphers.
U nlike mo st othe r game bird s. doves have benefited from modem agricultu ral practices. Larger field s with fewer weeds provide suitab le feeding areas. Doves a lso have adapted to urbanization and dove populations have remained stab le for many years.
L1FEWSIQRY
Reproduction Alt hough doves may nest year- round in parts of Georgia, mo st nesting occurs
between February and October. Peak nesting is during May and Jun e. The female lays two whit e eggs (rarely three) in a flimsy nes t oftwigs 10-25 feet high in a tree or shrub. Occasionally, doves use abando ned nests of other birds as a platfonn on wh ich to co nstruct a nest. Gro und nes ting, although uncomm on in Geo rgia, may occur.
Both sexes incubate eggs, and youn g doves , or squa bs, hatch after 14 day s. Bot h parent s feed " p igeon milk ," w hich is pro duced in the ir crops, to the nestlings. The milk is gradually rep laced with see ds, and in 11-15 days the you ng leave the nest . Fledg lings that recentl y have left the nest sti ll depend on the ir parents for food. Parental feedi ng continues for 10-15 days wit h mo st feeding do ne by the ma le parent.
By the time dove s are 30 days old , they are feed ing themse lves and fonn flock s wit h oth er juvenil e bird s. The onset of nesting to the completion of fledgin g take s about 32 days. Adults repeat the nesting cycle , usuall y producing from thr ee to five broods each seaso n.
13

Nest failures limit dove populations more than any other facto r. The flimsy character of dove nests makes them vulnerable to severe weather.
Mo rta lity About 70'% of the dove population dies each year. Approximately three-fourths of
this morta lity is from natura l causes. and 15- 20% is from hunt ing. Nest failures limit dove populations more than any othe r factor; only one nest in four
success fully fledges young . The flimsy character of dove nests make s them particular ly vulnerable to storms and other severe weat her. A variety of nest predators including blue jays, crows, squi rrels. raccoons, and snakes, also destroy dove nests.
Widespread ice and snow sometimes kill wintering doves by making food unavai lable. On ly two d iseases cause significant morta lity in doves. The most preva lent is trichomoniasis. a para sitic disease of the upper d igestive tract that has caused serious dieoffs. Tr ichomoniasis is characterized by the formation of a cheese-like substance in the mouth. throat, or crop, which interferes with the ingestion of food and usually causes death from starvation. Dove pox, a viral infection. produce s symptoms similar to trichomo niasis. but is less common and has less impact on dove populations.
Food Habits Doves feed on seeds from a variety of cultivated and wild plants. Preferred cultivated
foods include wheat, com, browntop millet. proso millet. gra in sorghum. peanuts. oats, rye . peas, sunflower. and benne (sesame). Important wild foods include wool y croton (dov e weed). poke weed. ragweed, pigweed. Johnson grass, panic grass, and a variety of other grasses and weed s.
Animal foods make up a very small part of the diet . Sna il shells are sometimes found in dove crops. presumab ly becau se they provide needed minerals. Doves also eat small amounts ofgrit whic h aid with grinding food in the gizzard .
Habitat Requi rements The basic hab itat requi rements for doves are food, water . nesting cover, roosting
cover. and resting sites. Because doves have feet that are not deve loped for scratc hing, they feed primarily on grain and other seeds lying on bare ground. Open grain fields are an important part of their preferred habitat.
Most dove s nest arou nd fields or clearings that supply food during the nesting season. Nests commonly are found in overgrown fencerow s. hedgerows. scrub oak brush. young pine plantations, large hardwoods and pine s. and ornamental shrubbery .
Roosting and resting cover is provided by various habitat types includ ing pine plantations, mature hardwoods, brushy thickets, dead snags, and powerline s. Cover is seldom a limiting facto r ofdove populations in Georgia.
Doves need a daily source of surface water and prefer watering sites with bare ground allowi ng easy access to the wate r. They may fly con siderabl e d istance s to favor ed waterin g sites, especially durin g droughts .
14

MANAGEMENT
Land management pract ices that prov ide for the basic year -round need s of doves can enhance local dove populations. While doves are migrato ry, many remain year -round. and the early season harvest consists almo st entirel y of birds prod uced in Georgia . Migrants begin to arr ive during Oct ober and make up much of the late season harvest, part icular ly in south Georgia.
Summer feed ing areas help insure good dove populations in the early fall. Ifnonn al fann ing practices do not make gra ins or other seeds available during the summer, food can be provided by leaving strips of unharvested wheat. Small fields of wheal can be planted at the rate of one-half to one and one-ha lf bushels per acre in the fall and held thro ugh the summer. Mowed. dis ked , or burn ed strips through these fie lds attrac t doves and may becom e necessary if weed growth prevents dove s from feeding. The same treatment is effective in fallow fields that have grown up in seed-producing weeds.
Dove field s must be well planned if they are to be beneficial for doves and dove hunters. For shooting purposes, a field should be a minimum of three to five acres (larger is better). Fields should be at least 100 yards wide if hunters are shooting from both sides, and hunter densities o f less than one hunter per acre are best. Smaller fields are more e ffective when irregular in shape with borders of woodla nd or brushy fence rows to prov ide good vantage points for hunters.
Fields for dove hunting should be managed so that crops mature at least 10-14 days before the desired period for shooting. Several cu ltivated grain crops offer attractive food for doves (Appendix I) . Crops planted in rows are prefe rred to those that are broadcast.
Brow ntop millet has long been used to artract dove s, especially in middle and north Georgia. It is a preferred dove food and matures early with a min imum ofattention. Bro wntop may be planted as a hay crop. a seed crop to be harvested after maturity, or speci fica lly for doves either in rows or by broadcasting. Millet should be planted so that it matures at least two weeks before the first anticipated shoot. Ilowever, ear lier planting a llows the mowing o f strips to ho ld and attrac t birds during August in case other food is unavailable . Millet left standing in rows usually continues to attract doves du ring the entire early season. Proso mi llet, whic h takes longer to mature, is similar in attrac tiveness and planting requirements to browntop.
Wheat planted for doves has the advantage of providing summer feed ing areas as well as good ear ly season shooting oppo rtun ities. Disk strips through matu red gra in during June to begin feedin g birds. As grain becom es unavai lable. more strips should be disked or mowed, but leave abo ut half of the field in standing wheat. Seven to ten day s prior to hu nting mow and then bum the rest of the field. Avo id planting forage varieties
Mowin g mature g rain nc:1:I 10 disked strips provides seeds on ban:: ground which is attractive 10 doves,
15

of wheat, like Stacy. Instead, use grain varieties with shorter, stronger stems that can stand throughout the summer.
Com or grain sorghum cut for silage often provide excellent early shoot ing opportuni ties. Harvested peanut fields are prime attractants in south Georgia. often pulling doves away from other food sources. Few crops attract doves in apprec iable numbers when harvested peanut fields are nearby.
Late season dove shooting is often limited to harvested fields of late-maturing crops like grain sorghum and co m. Com fields that have been combined or " hogged off' can produce exce llent dove hunting in December and January. Sunflowers and benne persist into the late season and offer good dove shooting oppo rtunit ies. Burning weedy fields may be all thai is needed to attract birds. Fallow fields containing croton , ragweed. pokeweed, wild grasses , or voluntee r stands of small grains from the previous year can be mowed, disked, or burned to free the seeds and provide an open feed ing area .
Normally, a dove field is planted for either the early hunting season or the late seaso n. However, managing a field for both seaso ns is possible by alternately planting strips 25-50 feel wide of various crops that mature at different times. Millet. sunflowers, sorghum, and com work well. This techniqu e, if well planned, provides dove feed for the durat ion ofthe hunting seaso n. Interspersing crops with disked strips helps maintain bare soil and increases the attract iveness of the field to doves.
A dove field located near a favored waterhole or roosting area can enhance the prospects for good dove hunting. Limit hunting to once or twice per week and allow doves to feed undisturbed durin g the last two hours of daylight. More frequent shoot ing ca uses doves to abandon a field for rnore favorable feeding conditions. Afte r the hunting seaso n, fields should not be plowed under. Crop residue and weeds continue to provide food for doves and other wildlife throughout the winter.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv ice and the State ofGeorgia jointly regulate the harvest ofm igratory birds in Georgia. Georgia is allowed amaximum of70 days of dove hunting between September I and January 15. The limit in Georgia is 12 doves daily. An increase in the bag limit can be obtaine d only by reducing the seaso n length. Regulation framewo rks are based on a nationwide dove call-cou nt each spring. Breeding populations vary from year to year but there has been no long-term change in the dove population east of the Mississippi River since the survey began in 1966.
Hunters and landowners often are confused about what co nstitutes " baiting" or a " baited field." Baiting is defined as " ... placing , exposing, depositing or scattering of salt, com . wheat or other grain , or any feed that may lure or attract dove s to or over any area where hunte rs are attempting to hunt them ." A baited area is any area where bait has been placed. Any baited area is considered baited for ten days following the complete removal ofthe bait .
Bait ing regu lations do not prohibit the taking of doves on or over any land where com , wheat, peanuts or any other feed has been distributed as a result ofa bona fide agric ultura l operation (planting, harvesting. etc.), or as a result of manipul ation of a cro p or other feed grown for wildlife manageme nt purposes. Crops may be mowe d, bushhogged, or knocked down and made more available to doves as long as they arc not harvested and redistributed to the field. It is advisable to check regulations each year for specific information regarding baiting, seasons and limits.

Doves do not stay in one place indefinitely. but many do return to the same area each season, with the larger conce ntrations occupyi ng the most attractive places. Local attention to the basic needs of the bird greatly increases the chances of a landowner producing quality dove shooting. A well-ma naged dove field provides benefits to doves and other wildlife throughout the year.
16

RUFFED GROUSE
The ruffed gro use (B onasa um bellus). often called th e " king ofthe up land game b irds ," gets its name (or the ruff o f dark fea thers on its ne ck wh ich are co mmo n ly displ ayed by the male. The gro use is a beauti ful bi rd with subtle and mottled colors and its size is between th at of a qua il an d a pheasan t.
Th e range of th e rutTed gro use extends fro m Canada to northern Georgia. Th e grouse is a b ird of the fores t. In Georgi a, hun tabl e num be rs are usually found in moun tain ous areas above 1,000 feet in ele vation . These b irds pre fer bru shy, second-growt h tim be r, shrubs. and forest edges.
Grou se are usuall y found in extreme north Georgia ; however, they hav e bee n fou nd as fa r south as C larke County and as far west as Floyd County. Grouse populati on s in Georgia are low . part icu larl y whe n compared 10 po pulations in the north ern states , suc h as M innesota or Wiscons in.
LIFE IIISTORY
Reproduction The m ale ruffed grouse is po lygamou s (ma ting w ith more than one fema le). He
attracts fem ales by bea ting his w ings toget he r, known as " drum m ing, " usuall y wh ile stand ing on a fa llen log in a de nse thicket of mou ntai n laur el or flame aza lea . He also uses th is sound to defend his territory aga inst ot her males.
Recent nort h Georg ia censuses ofdrumming males indicate den sities of 0 .3 to 2 .5 drumming m ales pe r 24 7 acres. The se densities are low when compared to as many as 20 .5 mal es pe r247 ac res in M innesota.
A fter m atin g, th e hen usually se lects a nest site at the base ofa tree or other obs tacle which pro vides her protection from the rear but allows he r good vision in fron t. The nest
17

is usually located near a distinct forest edge. The hen lays nine to 13 eggs with an average clutch size of I I. Nest ing begi ns in early April and continues through mid-June.
Th e hen incubate s the eggs for about 24-26 days. If the first nest is destroy ed, the hen usually will renest. The peak of halching occurs in late May . Young grouse ch icks
are reared entirely by the hen. The hen and her brood prefer areas with high stem
de nsities and a variety of herbaceous foods. Studies in Georgia found that grouse preferred upland hardwood sapling areas for brood habitat.
Inform ation regarding reproduction and po pulation trends in the southern Appalachians is limited. Recent surveys ind icate that broods are smaller in Georgia than in north ern states.
Ruffed grous e nest failure is high with on ly about 25% of nest attem pts successful. Because the nest is bu ilt on the ground it is mo re vu lnerable to predators. Common nest predators include raccoons, opossums, bobcats, dog s, cats , and snakes.
M o r t a lity Mortality is high during the first we eks of life with only one out o ffou r j uve nile
grouse surviv ing. Predators cause half of this mortality. Once the b irds reac h adult size, they rare ly die from d isease , exposure, or malnutrition. Predation eliminates 5Q..60% ofthe adult population each yea r.
In the northern part of their range, grouse popula tions cycle up and down dur ing a ten yea r period. Most researchers agree that the cycle involves changes in the rates o f movement, reprodu ction , or mortality. This cycle does not occ ur in the southern part of the ir range .
There is no evidence that hunting negatively affects grouse pop ulations over large areas . However, over-hunting may cause problems in small localized areas .
Food Habits Ruffed grouse eat both plant s and anim als, but they mainly feed on plants. In
Georgia and the So uthern Ap palachia ns, they eat mo re green leaves tha n fru its o r bud s. Fall and winter food studies in Geo rg ia fou nd leaves from a variety of plants in 97% ofthe grouse collected. Leafy materia l made up 93% ofthe volume. Georgia grouse eat a wid e variety of plants but mountai n laure l, Christm as fern, and greenbriar are the most important. Mounta in laurel ma kes up one-t hird of the grouse's d iet durin g the fall and winter. Oth er important foods include cin quefoil, go ldenrod, foam flower, trailing arb utus, and clover.
Behavior a nd Movement Patterns The adult male ruffed grouse is a loner. Radio telemetry stud ies show that the male ' s
home range, generall y abo ut five acres, is closely tied to his drumming log. The home range for the hen is small during the incubation
period . After hatch ing, hens with broods become very mo bile as the hen searc hes for goo d food and cove r for her you ng chicks. Hens with brood s have larger home range s than hen s without broods. Winter home ranges for hens may be as large as 26 acre s.
As the young gro use mature, they become more independ ent. By fall, the broods break up and disperse into new habitats. Dur ing the winter, you nger b irds mo ve more than adults.
IS

Adult male grouse spend much of their time near drumming logs.
Habitat Req uire ments Grouse require cover for escape , nesting, brooding, and winter protection. They
frequent the more densely forested areas d uring the winter and the spring nesting seasons. The more open, brushy habitats are used dur ing summer and fa ll. In north Georgia, evergreen shrub thickets and forest regeneration areas provide habitat for adult birds in the summer.
Drununiug lugs are very specific and important to the ma le bird. Much of his adult life is spent in the vicinity of these logs. Drumming logs are usually located in dense thickets on sloping hillsides, permitt ing a maximum field of view. A well dispersed shrub lhicket understory is necessary to provide drumming site habitat.
Georgia grouse populations are usually three to four times lower than densities reported in the northern states. Lower southern populat ions are due to poor habitat and less nutritious foods. Lack of quality habitat makes grouse more susceptible to predat ion. Foods found in the Southeast are typically lower in protein, which may result in smalle r clutch sizes, poorer hatchin g rates, and lower survival rates.
MANAGEM ENT
The ruffed grouse is a forest spec ies, preferring a second -growth, brushy midstory. The best year-round habitats for grouse contain about 8,000 wood y stems over five feet tall per acre within 300 feet of a good food source. Sites having less than 2,000 woody stems per acre are too open and used only seasonally by grouse. Thu s, in the Southeast, an important priority ofgrouse habitat management is the maintenance of a good distribution of dense vertical growth (8,000+ stems/acre) of 15-20 foot saplings.
Horizontal cover, like logging slash, blow-down trees, or forest debris, adds good cover in open areas. However, too much horizontal cover can be detrimental to grouse, co ncealing predators, reducing the grouse's ability to see, and impeding its movement on the forest floor.
Small clearcuts in mountain hardwoods are an effective forest practice for improving grouse habitat. This technique requires removing of all trees except oak seedlings or saplings and small clumps of food-produci ng trees beneficia l to grouse. Cuts of five to 20 acres are most desirable, but cuts of up to 40 acres are acceptab le if arranged in irregularly-shaped strips or blocks. Highest grouse populations occur on areas where hardwoo d regenerat ion seven to 15 years old make up more than 14% of the total area .
19

An important part of grouse habitat management is maintaining a good distrib ution of dense venicle growth of IS 20 foot saplings.
Therefore, hab itat management should include regene ration areas thai ma intain a good balance between part ial canopy closure and high basal areas to enhanc e grouse habitat. Oak stands are most productive for grouse in the sapling stage when they provide dense understory and ove rhead cover . Many researchers agree that winter cover, not brood habita t. ultimately determ ines grouse population densities in man y areas .
Seeded roads or linear forest ope nings are preferred over fields. Also, cleanly-mo wed openings are less desirable than strip-mowed fields with some weed and brush cove r
, remaining. Wildlife openings with a brushy edge can becreated by leaving the outer few
feet of openings unmowed for one or two years . Additionally, a brushy edge can be created by " day lighting," or cutting down mature trees in 50-foot strips around fields or along roads.

Ruffed grouse are truly a challe nge for upland game hunters in Georgia because they are found on ly in mountainous areas with rough terrain and thick brushy cover . The management of our north Georgia forests, particularly the oaks, is critica l in providing the cover and food necessary 10 support future ruffed grouse populations.
20

RABBITS
Rabb its became abunda nt when early settlers cleared the forests, and they are the num ber one game anima l in the United States today. In Georgia. they rank third in small game hun ting popularity behi nd doves and squirrels.
Rabb it hu nting was very po pular in Georgia du ring the early 19605 when about 117,000 hunters annually harvested 1.27 mi llion rabbits. Wildlife Harvest Surveys show a steady declin e in rabbit hunting since the 19605 with 43.152 hunt ers harvesting 305,09 8 rab bits dur ing 1993 . Th is decli ne results from several factors. The loss of rabbit habitat in many areas of the state has caused some populations to decrease. Farm ing practices that remove protec tive cover reduce habitat. Devel opment and urban expansion red uce habitat and limit hunter access. Deer hunt ing has become increas ingly popular and competes with sma ll game hunting. Th e leasing of hunting rights also limits access to many acres of good rabbit habitat.
Four species of rabbi ts live in Geo rgia. The most comm on is the Eastern cotto nta il (Sy lyjlal:us Ooridanus). Th is rabbit has dense brown to gray fur on its back with a white underside and tail. There is usua lly a white spot on its forehead. The sexes are similar in ap pearance for all rabbit speci es. Cottontails are found througho ut the state. The ir hab itat includes upland areas assoc iated with agricultural fields, pine woodlands. and brushy areas.
Th e Swamp rabbit (Sylvilal:uSaQuaticus), often called a "cane cutter ," is the largest rabbit in Georgia. 11 has black to rusty-brown fur with a white underside . Swamp rabbit s are fou nd in bott omland hardw ood and beaver pond habitats along rivers and creeks in the Piedmont.
The Marsh rabbit (Syly jlailus palustris), is the sma llest rabbit found in Georg ia. It has a blackish to redd ish-brown back and the underside is brownish-gray, not white as in the other three species. Its ears and tail are also sma ller. Mars h rabb its are usually found in open mars h areas assoc iated with the Coas tal Pla in and coas tal river systems.
21

Young rabbits are completely on their own after IWO weeks of age.
Th e Appalac hian cottonta il (Syl v i[a~ us Qbscurus) is similar in size and appearance to the Eastern cotto ntail. However, instead of a wh ile spot on the forehead , they oft en have a black spot betw een the ears. Appalachian cottontails are con fined to high mountain e levations. Georgia is at the sout hern end of Appalachian cottontail range and sightings ofth is rabbit are rare. The Appalachian cottontail is included o n Georgia ' s Protected Wild life list and requires protect ion in its limited habitat.
LIFE HISTORY
Reprod uction In Georgia, rabbits begin breedin g afier the first wann spell in Febru ary, which mark s
the beginning of a nine-month breed ing season. Gestation averages 28 days for cottontails, 33 days for marsh rabbits, and 37 days for swa mp rabbits. Before givi ng birth, the female selects a dry location to build a nest. Early spring nesting habitat for cottontails
includesgrassy areas with vegetation less than eight inches high. Later nests are
com monly located in hay fields and areas of native grass. The female cottontail d igs a \ nest cavi ty in the ground and lines it with grass and fur. Swamp rabbits usua lly place their nests under low-grow ing bushes or in plant debris, such as fallen limbs. The ir fur-lined nest is bu ilt on top of the ground using dried weed stalks.
Rabb its in Geo rgia are usually one: ye:aro ld before they breed. They can ha ve three to seve n line rs per yea r and se lect different nest locat ions for each liner. A female rabbit breeds aga in on the sam e day that she gives birth. Line r sizes range from three to five yo ung. The y are born bl ind and helple ss, but develop quickly. Their eyes open in about one week , and they [eav e the nest abou t two weeks after birth. The mother return s to the nest to nu rse the young at dawn and dusk; but once the young leave the nest they are on their ow n. Female rabbits produce an average of20 young per year. More ma les than fema les are born and male s remain more numerou s in the adult popu lation .
Morta lity Approximately 80% of the rabbit population dies each year . A major cause of this
mortality is predation . Rabbits rank high on the list of preferr ed foods for many predators. Predation is norma l for most wi ldlife pop ulations, and rabbit reproduct ion makes up for these losses if adequate escape cover is available.
22

Rabbits are host to several species of ticks, fleas, warbles, and chiggers . Parasites seldom cause death in rabbits . However, they can infest rabbits to such a degree that they becom e easier for predators to catch .
Warble s, or " wolves," are larvae of botflies that lay eggs around holes and burrow entranc es. The eggs becom e attached to the rabbit's fur and are ingested when the rabbit cleans itself. They hatch inside the rabbit and the larvae migrate through the rabbit's body to the skin, often in the neck area . The larvae often exceed one inch in length as they grow unde r the skin, feeding on body fluids. When mature, the larvae emerge and drop to the ground, pupating to become a fly. Warbles may also co me out of dead rabbits in a hunter' s bag. The sight of a warb le is repugnant and may cause the hunter to discard the carcass , even though the meat is still edible.
Many kinds of roundworms and tapeworm s also infect rabbits. The spec ies most important to hunte rs is the canine tapewo rm. Some rabbits ingest tapeworm eggs whi le feeding. The eggs hatch in the intestines and the larvae travel into the body cavity where they form a clear, bladde r-like structure with a white center. This format ion, called a cysticercus, rare ly harms the rabbit. The larvae mature into adult worms after they are ingested by mammalian predators, like coyote s or foxes, which have eaten an infected rabbit. Some hunters allow the ir dogs to eat " innards" from harvested rabbits. If the rabb it is infected with larvae, the hunter is giving his dogs tapeworms.
Fleas and ticks may carry the bacter ia that cause Tularemia (rabbit fever). Infected rabbits are sluggish and usually die within ten days of getting the disease. Humans can becom e infected when they handle sick rabb its or eat undercooked meal. The disease can be life-threaten ing, and people should not handle sick rabbits. Hunters should wear rubber gloves when cleaning rabbits, apply iodine to cuts and scratches, and thoroughly cook rabbit meat.
Weather can also impact rabbit popu lations. Heavy rains durin g the nesting seaso n can drown young rabb its. Extende d drought, which decreases young and tender vegeta tion, can reduce pregnancy rates. Drought also forces rabbits to search longer and in less protected areas for food, making them more available to predators .
Thousands of rabb its are killed each year by vehicles. Peak roads ide use coincide s with springtime breeding activity and an increase in herbaceous food.
Food Habits Rabbits eat parts of over 100 spec ies of plants. They prefer herbaceous plants
when eve r available. Woody plants are used mainly during the winte r months. However, marsh rabbits make more year-round use of woody vegetation than the other species.
Winter foods include honeysuckle, lespedeza, blackberry, greenbri er, and a variety of grass es and dried vegetation. Bark, twigs, and buds from sumac, black cherry, willow, holly, and dogw ood a lso are eaten. Agricultural crops used durin g the winter include rye, wheat, alfa lfa, clover, com , peanuts, and ryegrass. Cottonta ils may damage fruit orchards by eating bark. Buds of seedlings in pine plantations may be eaten dur ing the winter.
Food s dur ing warmer months include a variety of sedges, grasses, and othe r herbaceous plants. Important species include paspalum , panic grass, plantain, da ndelion, crabgrass, ragwee d, croton, clover, and lespedeza. Agricultura l crops eaten during the summer include clover, alfalfa, soybeans, peanuts, and garde n vegetables.
Rab bits pass two types of pellets from their digestive system. Hard, brow n, fecal pellets are undigested plant material. Soft, green, food pellets containing vitamin B and other nutrients are reingested by the rabbit. Eating fecal material, ca lled "co prophagy, " allows rabbits to more efficien tly absorb nutrients from their diet.
Rabb its do not require surface water for drinking. They obtain moisture from ra infall, dew, and the herbaceous vegetat ion in their diets.
23

Behavior a nd Movement Patterns
Home ranges of cottontailsare usually less than five acres. Males have larger home
ranges than females, and adults have larger home ranges than you ng cottonta ils. Home ranges overlap when prefe rred food is less abundant in late fall and winter. Adult fema le home ranges usua lly do not overlap during the breeding season. Dispersal into areas of su itable habitat is usually by younger rabbits that have not bred .
During spring and summe r, cottontails use herbaceous vegetation for feedin g and resting. O pen areas with shorter vegetation are used at night. They use thicker vegetation conta ining tangles of vines and low-growing, thorny bushes for resting durin g the day. Cottontai ls use woody vegetatio n mo re for resting sites during the fall and winter when herbaceous vegetati on is dead. Fall pop ulations in good hab itat range betw een one and two rabb its per acre.
Home ranges of swamp rabbits vary fro m four to 17 acres. Densitie s range from one rabbit pe r one and one-hal f to 18 acres . Home rang es for marsh rabbi ts are reported as less than one acre and their densities may exceed two rabbits per acre .
Hab itat Req uirements Areas with a mixture of gras sy and brushy veg etation provide exce llent habitat for
cott ontails. Because rabbi ts rate high on the menu of man y predato rs, quality escape cover, close to a food source, is the key ingredie nt to maintaining a h igh rabb it pop ulation . Old fields, utility right-o f-ways, shrubby areas between fields and woods, hedge row s, she lter belts, and young pine plantations provide goo d habit at.
Swamp and marsh rabbits, as their name s imply, are a lways found close to wate r. Swam p rabbits inhabit wood ed swamp and marsh y areas along rivers and streams . Suitable swamp rabbi t habi tat has thickets of cane, prive t, blackberry, honeysuckle, or greenbriar for escape cove r. Logs, fallen trees, and down ed limb s pro vide shelter. Small fores t openings and the edges of beaver ponds provide add itional food and cover.
Marsh rabbits inhabit more open, ma rshy areas contain ing scattered shrub th ickets. Th ey oft en are the major occ upants ofland next to open marsh along Geo rg ia's coast. Brack ish marshes containing cord grass, j uncus, spartina. and panicums are heavily used . As with cottontai ls, ma intena nce of quality esc ape cover and availability of food are essential for high populatio ns of both marsh and swamp rabb its.

MANAGEMENT

Agr fcuu ura t Fields for Co tt onta ils

\

Agricultu ral fields are improv ed for rabbits by allowing edges and comers to grow

into thick ets of b lackberry, honeysuck le, plum, or other low-gro wing dense vegetation.

S imilar vegetation, grown as hedgerows acros s larg e field s, provides cover strips that

break up large field s. The y are created by plantin g at least five rows o f pine s on a 6-foo t

by 12-foot spaci ng across the field . Plum , b lackberry, and honeysuckle thic kets should be

encou raged in these strips. Hedgerows and cover strips provide trav el lanes, allowing

rabb its access to more of the field .

Nes ting cover and food production are improved by creating tran sition zones

between field s and areas of protectiv e cover. These zones are areas, ten to 20 ya rds wid e,

where natural vege tat ion can develop. Annua l weeds and grasses grow du ring the first

summer, followed by perennial and woody p lants in following years. Mowing or disking

part of thi s transit ion zone every two or thre e years keeps vegetation at the desired stage

and prevents woody plan ts, like sweetgum and pine, from becoming too large .

Mowing selected areas next to hedgerows and field edges several times during the

summer stimulates tender, new plant growth preferred by rabbits. Preferred food s a lso

may be planted along field edges (Appendix I). Disking provid es similar benefits and

24

Dense thickets provide critical protectiv e cover for rabbits.
promot es the growth of additiona l food plants like ragweed and crabgrass. The quality and quant ity of food for cottontails improve when these areas are ferti lized.
Natu ral vegetation around fields, overgrown fence rows, ditch banks and wet areas provides food and cover for cottontai ls. When protective cover becomes too th ick, strips should be mowed or disked through overgrown vegeta tion to stimulate new gro wth.
Cotto ntails often use brush piles for cover, especia lly during the winter when protective vegetation has decl ined. Brush piles should be five to eight feet high and ten to 16 feet wide . Place larger logs and debris at the bottom. If equipment is used, keep from pushing dirt into the pile to allow rabb its easier access. Brush piles should be located near a preferred food source and withi n 100 yards of other cover. A brush pile only lasts a few years and should be replaced before its value for rabbit s is lost. Brush piles can quickly provide protective cover for rabbits where it is lacking. However, they cannot replace the value of more permanent, live vegetative cover.
Pastures grazed by livestock are poorly suited for rabbits. Livestock compete with rabbits for preferred food plants, especially legumes, and they tram ple and graze vegetation until it is too sparse for protective cover. Pastures are improved for rabbits by fencing livestock out of adjacent woodlands and allowing fencerows and field co me rs 10 develop protective cover.
Fescue, a cool-season grass, is planted in many pastures throughout Georg ia' s Piedmont. Fescue's dense growth comp etes with more desirable plants and restricts the movements of young rabbits. A fungus that grows on fescue causes reproductive problems in cattle and may affect other animals that eat it. Although rabbits seldom eat fescue, they may resort to this grass if other foods are not available. In areas where fescue occurs, serious rabbit management includes an aggressive program to convert to native vegetation.
Woodland s for Cotton ta ils Cottontails are found in a variety of woodland habitats. Pine or mixed pine-hardwood
forests have the most potent ial for rabbit habi tat improvement. Timber stands should be maintained at densities that allow food and protective cover
to grow in the understory. Th inning pine stands to a basal area of50-65 square feet per acre a llows enou gh sunlight for the understory to develop. If higher timber densities are desired, rabbit habitat can still be improved by creating small. scattered openings that can develop into shrub-thicket areas .
Pine stands over 20 years old reach their maximum potential for wildl ife when thinned and burned. Burning helps co ntrol hardwood competition, releases nutrients back into
25

the soil, and stimu lates the grow th of food and cover plants for rabbits. The best time for burning is between January and early March, before spring green-up. Later bums may endanger nestling rabbits. Burning scattered, 20-30-acre blocks within larger pine stands provides better habitat diversity than burning the entire stand the same year. Rotate burned areas each year to create a three to four-year burning cycle. Protect several onehalf-acre areas within each burned block with a firebrea k. These areas shou ld contain black berry, honeysuckle, or other thicket-forming vegetat ion to provide escape cover while the burned areas regrow. Mast trees within and next to bum areas should be protected from fire.
Only persons experienced with fire behavior should conduct control bums. A bum plan that describes suitab le conditions for burning, smoke management, and safety precautions helps insure the desired results. A permit is required from the Georg ia Forestry Commission befo re burning. Additional information on controlled burning is available from the Georgia Forestry Commission and the Wildlife Resources Division.
Firebreaks are important parts oftimber and wildlife manageme nt. A permanent firebreak system should be developed and ma intained on an annual basis by mowing or disking. Permanent firebreaks improve fire control and provide additional access. Periodic soil disturbance from firebreak maintenance increases plant diversity; which provi des more food for rabb its.
Creating scattered, one-fourt h- to one-half-aero openings prov ides additio nal food and cove r for rabbits. These openings can be managed for native vegetatio n or planted in clover, wheat, or othe r suitable crops (Table 2). Loading docks, skid trails, firebrea ks, and roads can also be maintained in rabbit plantings.
Clearcuts and pine regeneration areas less than seven years old provide good rabbit habitat. These areas usually contain a mixture of herbaceous plants, thickets, and brushpiles until the trees begi n to shade out the understory . Planting pine seed lings on an 8-foot by 12-foot or wider spacing will delay crown closure and lengthen the period of good rabbit habitat.
Swamp a nd Ma rsh Rabbits Swamp and marsh rabbits are depende nt on bottomland hardwood or marsh wetland
habitats. Protection of these critical habitats is most important in managing for these species. Timber manageme nt practices that reduce bottomland hardwood stands to narro w bands along creeks or rivers can eliminate swamp rabbit populations . Stream channelization, wetland drainage, and conve rsion of bottomland hardwoods to pines or agricu ltural crops destroy valuable habitat.
Selective ly thinning bottomland hardwoods allows sunlight to reach the forest floor and increases herbaceous growt h, improvi ng hab itat for swamp and marsh rabbits. In \ closed -canopy stands, the creation of one-fo urth- to one-acre clearings, will improve habitat for these rabbits. Where c1earcuts must be conducted in bottomlan d areas, they should be limited to ten acres or less. No more than 20% ofa stand should be regenerated in a ten year period.
Both swamp rabbits and marsh rabbits readily respond to increased food production assoc iated with winter burning of marsh grass areas.
**********
During most years, high rabbit popu lations result from the presence of adeq uate escape cover next to a quality food source . Management practices that maintai n these cond itions are most bene ficial to rabbits.
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GRAY AND FOX SQUIRRELS
The gray squi rrel (SCjUOlS carolioensjs) and the fox squirrel (Sciu rus n i ~er) occu r throughout Georgia. The generic name,~, means"squirrel" in Latin and was derived from two Gree k words, "skia" (shadow) and "o ura" (ta il). Take n literally, the name means " an animal that sits in the shadow of its tail," whic h both species can do.
The tai l is a squirrel's most d istinct ive physica l feature. It provides balance wh ile runn ing, jumping, and clim bing, and ac ts as a para chut e to break an unexpected fall. It supplies warmth in cold weather and shade on sunny days. When rapidly flicked back and forth the tai l acts as a warning signa l, or a decoy 10 distract enemies.
The gray squ irrel is predominantly gray with wh ile underparts. T he fox sq uirrel has seve ral color phases vary ing from silver-gray with a predominant ly black head , to solid black, to a light bufTor brown color tin ged with redd ish-yellow. Fox squirrels are larger than grays with so me adults exceeding three pounds. Gray squirrels appear more sle nde rbodied with adults we ighing one to one and one-half pou nds.
Squirrels a lways have been important game animals, providing early frontiersmen with food and sport. The long rifle, developed during the 1700s in Pennsylvania and later popularized as the Kentucky rifle during Daniel Boone 's exploits, is still referred to as a " squirrel rifle."
Squirrel hu nting rema ins pop ular with Georgia hunters, especially in the mountains where the sport has strong traditional roots. Statew ide, on ly dove and wh ite-tai led deer outra nk squ irrels in tota l number of hunters and annual harvest.
LIFE IllSIORY
Rep roduction Squirrels normall y have two distinct breed ing periods in Georgia. The first occurs in
December and early Jan uary followed by a second in June and early Jul y. Females usually prod uce their first litter at one year of age . The gestation period for both species is app roximately 45 days and litter sizes range from one to five, with an average of three .
Gray and fox squirrels have two types of homes: de ns and leaf nests. Dens are located in tree cav ities and are usua lly filled with leaves and bark. Den trees are usually large mature hardwoods hav ing cavi ties fonned from weather or insect damage. Leaf nests are located in the forks of limbs or bu ilt around several intertwining branches. They
27

cons ist ofa rough tw ig framework from 15-25 inches across, interlaced wit h layers of leaves. The inside cavity is ten to 12 inches in diameter and is reached th rough a hole in the side of the nest. Squ irrels gather nest material from the tree in wh ich the nest is located. Leaf nests ca n be construc ted in less than 12 hours and last for several months. On e sq uirrel may bui ld many different nests during the year.
Den trees are more secure than leaf nests for raising young and are pre ferred by gray sq uirrels. Fox sq uirrels, on the other hand, frequently raise their young in leaf nests. Most nests are in the upper 40% of the tree with adult fema les usually occ upy ing the highest nests.
Young sq uirre ls are born hairless with their eyes close d. At three weeks of age their bod ies are covered with short hair, and the ir eyes open a week or two late r. Th e yo ung begin to venture out of the nest or den at six weeks and are half-grown at eig ht weeks. Mot her sq uirrels ra ise the ir young alone and aggressively defend the nest tree. Go od parental ca re resu lts in high survival rates for the yo ung when comp ared to other sma ll game species.
M o r t a lity Life expectancy of squirrels in the wild is one to two years with about 50% of the
popu lation lost to predation, accidents, and d isease each year. Hunting has little impact on squ irre l populations except where small woo dlots are heavily hunted . Ann ual harvest rates are norm ally ten to 20% of the popu lation.
Many predators, including haw ks, owls , bobcats, coyotes, and rattlesnakes, take squ irrels . Th ese losses are normal and are usually offset by repro duct ion eac h year. Squirrels have few serious parasites or d iseases. Mites, ticks, fleas, roundwo rms , and tapeworms so metimes infest squ irre ls, but seldom cause ser ious prob lems. Occas ionally, an out break of mange, or scabies, a severe skin con dit ion caused by mites, results in morta lity .
During Sep tem ber and Octobe r, squirrels are ofte n infested with botfly larvae, sometimes called warbles or "wolves:' These larvae dev elop under the squirrel's ski n, similar to the wa rbles described in the chap ter on rabbits. Although these warbles are no t fatal to the squirrel or harmfu l to the hunter, the ugly lesions prompt many hunters to discard infested squirre ls. Th e discarding of warble infested sq uirrels is unfortunate. Even though these lesions are uns ightly, the sq uirre l's meat is quite ed ible. By late Oct ober, mos t "wolves" have left their host.
FoodHabits
A n adult sq uirre l consumes abo ut two pounds of food each week. Food preferences "are sim ilar for both gray and fox squirrels. However, ty pes offood are extremely variable depe ndi ng on loca le, abunda nce, and ava ilability. Major fall foods include " mast" or nut crops (acorns, hickory nuts, beech nuts, pecans and walnuts), pine seed, and the fleshy fruits of dogwood and b lackgu m. Spring and su mme r foods incl ude bud s, seeds, and flowers of elm, map le, poplar, hoph ombeam, and other trees and shrubs . Sq uirrels also ea t mu shrooms and a variety offruits includ ing mulberr ies, wild cherries, blackberr ies, and wild grapes. An ima l foo ds, mainl y insect larvae and bird eggs, occasionally are eaten . Squ irre ls are quick to lake advantage of agricultural crops when available, especially com, pea nuts , and sun flowe rs. Peca n orchards are favorite places for sq uirrels in late summer and ea rly fa ll. Squ irrels do not require ope n water but obtain the moisture they need fro m their d iet, dew , and rain.
Squirrel popu lations vary between years and are related to food availability. Popu lations are infl uenced stro ngly by the fall mast cr op. When the re is good mast prod uct ion, squirre ls ente r the followi ng spr ing and sum mer breeding seasons in excellent condition and produce more and healthier young. Following a poor mast year some fem ales have onl y one litter, and many one-year-old fema les will not produce young.
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Leaving scattered mast and dCII trees ill pine stands provides better habitat for squi rrels.
Behav ior and Movement Patterns Fox squ irrels have larger home ranges than gray squirrels and males of both species
have larger home ranges than females, especia lly dur ing the breeding season. Although fox squirre ls can move over one mile in a day, both species typically use less than five acres surrounding the den tree. Habitat use is influenced by food availab ility and changes in behavior during the breeding season. The total area used during the year is usually less than 30 acres.
Besides mast production, gray squirrel dens ities are influenced by the avai lability of tree cavities for dens. Seasonal changes occur as squirrels respond to the availability of preferred foods. Pecan orcha rds attract many squirrels from surrounding woods . When hardwo od mast is scarce, squirrels spend more lime in adjacen t pine woodlan ds eat ing pine seed. These movements give the appearance of abundance in some areas and scarcity in adjacent habitats.
Ne ither species of squirrel hibernates. However, during high winds, heavy rains, or extreme cold, they seldom leave their den or nest. Both gray and fox squirrels have major activi ty peaks during the morn ing and afternoo n hours . Gray squirre ls are generally more active early and late, while fox squirrels often move during the middle of the day.
Although fox and gray squirrels are considered tree dwellers, both spend a consi derable amount of time on the ground foraging for food. Fox squirrels readily venture into open agricultural fields and pastures. Grays seldom travel through large open areas, prefe rring to stay along the woods borders near the protection of trees .
Ha bitat Requirements Although fox and gray squirre l habitats overlap, better gray squirrel hab itat is found
in mature hardwoods having a well-deve loped hardwood midstory with associated vines . Th is is typical of hardwood forests where fire has been excluded. Gray squirrels also use pine-hardwood forests , but only the borders of pine plantations. Tree cavities for dens are essent ial for good gray squirre l habitat.
Fox squirrels prefer open forests without a hardwood midstory. Fox squirrel habitat includ es mature upland pine and pine-hardwood forests that have been burned pericdically . They use edges of forests and open lands and will feed in large pastures or fields, hundreds of yards from the nearest tree. Another favorite habitat of fox squirre ls is mature longleaf pines with an open wiregrass understory.
MANAGEMENT
Squirrel management often conflicts with modem timber management practices. Squirrel popu lations are extremely low in large tracts of'eve n-aged pines managed on a short rotation. Squirrels need mast-producing hardwoods for food and cavity trees for den sites, and pine plantations lack these habitat compone nts.
Although short rotatio n pine plantat ions are not desirable for squirre ls, modificatio ns to th is management can improve squirrel habitat.
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Hardwood corridors le ft in c1earculs greatly enhance the se areas for squirrels.
To enhance pine stands for squirrels landown ers should:
Le ave hardwood corridors along sueamside s and in drainages unsuitable for pines. Leave strips of hardwoods betwe en pine stands.
Clearculs should be SOacres or less. Protect large mast producin g hard woods and den trees wilhin pine regeneration areas.
Co mbine contro lled burning with lhinning in pine stands to create and maintain an open under
story. The resulting habitat is desirable for fox squirrel s.
During controlled bums. protect adjacen t hardwood trees and shrubs . including food producers such
as dogwood. blackgum. oak. hickory. beech, and e ther mast trees.
Within hardwood stands landowners should:
Exclude fire: from existing hardwood timber. When harvesting hardwoods, leave at least I den tree (cavity tree) and 5 mast trees per acre. T hese arc mi nim um requ ire me nts. Not every mast tree will produce eac h year, so the more nut producin g trees that arc le ft, the bette r. T hin young hardwood stands to favor mast trees and promote faster growth and crown deve lopmcnt . Protect understo ry tree s, shrubs, and v ines. Many o f these: unders tory plants prod uce importan t food for squirrels. -ertilize hardwoods to e nhance mast producti on.
In areas lacki ng adequate den trees, artificial nest boxes prov ide secure den locatio ns and improve gray squirrel produ ction. A nest box should be two feet deep , e ight to ten inches square, with an entrance hole three inches in diameter. Many comp anies that produ ce bird houses also offer squirrel boxes .
Supplemental feeding is not practical for squirre ls. However, both species will use small strips or patches of com when they are planted along woods borders .

The most important habitat components to provide for gray squirre ls are mature, mast-producing hardwoods and large cavity-prod ucing trees. Fox squirre l habitat includes mature , open pine forests having a variety of mast-producing trees. Most oaks and hickor ies require over40 years to reach optimum mast prod uction and cavity development. Forest management decisions, once carried out, are not quickly changed and have long term impacts on squirrels. It is important for lando wners to wise ly manage their forests if the continued benefit of squirrels and other hardwood dependent wild life is among their objectives.
30

CROP Millet. Brownlop Mlilet , Prose l_g e Partridge Pea Oa ts, Whe al, Rye

PlANTING RATES PER ACRE
Broadcasl 20 Ibs OnlI l 51bs BroaOca SI 20 Ibs Onu l51bs Broadcast 15 Ibs
Broadcast or On. 2 bu

PLANTING DAYS TO

COMMENTS

OATES MATURIT'l
Apnl ..June eo-to Appl y 40-60 lbsIae ""rogen at p1anl,ng

AplihJunOll 1S-110 Apply 40-60 IbsJac rotrog otnat planlJng

""""-Mid-Sept 10 M,d .(lec.

'SO Main tain pH abo~ 6.0
'80 Apply 40-60 lbs fac rolrogotnat plan bog and egaln ....earty spnng Planl seed vanelln 01wheat to hold through !he ~ lor dov "

Seasame

Broadcast 10 Ibs

50,1 Temp . 85-100 Deer resistanl

36' ro ws 5 Ibs

15 deg rees

Gra in Sorg hu m

arceccest 810 lbs

April-June gs130 App ly 80-100 Ibs/ae nitroge n at planting , split application on sand y SOlts

36" row s 4-6 Ibs

Some vanetie s ma v suffer damao e Irom blackb irds

Sun rlower

Broadcast 5 lbs

May-July

" Xl Deer may teed o n young pten ts

36" rows S ibs

C~" While Clover
Cnmso n Clover

Rows 71bs Broadcast 8 Ibs Broadcast 20 Ibs

MardI-Ma Se t_-oct.
S t -ee.

80-1 00

A 1 8().100 lbsf ac n llto en at 1~ .5 lit licallon on sand soils lnooculate seed , maonlaJn abo~ 6 ,5, mo w In lale summer II weed InnoaJlale seed , malnlaln abo ... 60 mow In late surTVnfi II W...:l

Red Clo Vilr

Broadcast 10 lbs

Sept.-oct.

Innoeul ale seed , maonlaln pH abo ve 6 0 , mo w in late summ8l" ,I weed

Lespe<leu Corrvnon . Broad cast 30 lb s

Feb .-May

Maintain pH abo~ 6.0

Kor ean , Kobe Li-Sp4:M Za: BlCOIor

Broadcast 15 Ibs Of Seecll,na s 18" In 36" rows

Marctl ApnI or J8fl.-Feo.

Cl

Deer may leed on yOU"lg plants, seed available FaI-W,nI8l". pH above 6 0

3

o

Lespedeza; Thunberg" Br oadcast 15 lbs or

Ma,cn. Apnl

Deer resistanl, seed aVailable Fall-Winter, IT\lIInlain pH abo ve 6 ,0

seeeuoes 18" ln 36" rows or Jan.-Feb

E taln Wheat Co wpeas

36" rows 10 lbs Broadcast or ro~

A ril-June April-July

.,."9().105 A

8().100 lbs/ ae ni en at lanll I lit

neenon on sand SOi ls

3050 lbsfae

Fla Be arweed

Broadcast 10 Ibs

A ril -Ma

150180 Use scari l ied seed, maintain H above 6.0

Apply lertlhzer per 50 11tast recommend all ons ro, bes l results,

Consu lt your local co un ly ext"nslon agent l or vll nelV and cultu'al reco mmend atio ns specifle to you ' 1I'8a

ADDlIlONA L READING
Th e Ecology and Management of the Mourning Dove. Edite d by Thomas S. Baskett, Mark W . Sayre, Roy E. To mlinson and Ralph E. Mirarch i. 199 3. Wildlife Management Institute. Stackpo le Books, Harr isburg, PA. 567 pp.
The Bobwhite Qua il: Its Habits, Preservation, and Increas e. H.L. Stoddard, Sr. 193 J. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. NY. 559 pp.
The Bobwhite Quai l: Its Life and Management. Walter Rosene. 1984 . Th e Sun Press, Hartw ell, GA . 418 pp.
Bobwhite Quai l Management: A Habitat Approach . J.L. Landers and B.S. Mueller. 1986. Ta ll Timbers Research Station Misc. Pub. No.6. Ta llahas see. Fl. 39 pp.
Ru ffed Grou se - The Wildlife Series. Edited by S. Atwater and). Sne ll. 1989. Stackpole Books. Harri sburg, PA. 370pp.
The Ruffed Grouse: Life History, Propagation, Man agement. G. Bump, R.W. Darro w, F.e. Edm inister, and W.F. Crissey. 1947. (Re print 1978) Ne w Yor k Slate Conservation Dept. Al ba ny,9 ISpp.
Oak For ests: A Managem ent Opportunity for Ruffed Grouse and Other W ildlife. J.F . Kub isiak. 1987 . The Ruffed Grou se Society. Coraopo lis, PA . 16 pp.
Wi ld Mammal s of North Am erica. Edited by Joseph A. Ch apm an and Ge orge A. Fe1dham er. 1982 . The John Hop kins Univ ers ity Press. Baltim ore , MD . 1147 pp.
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