Georgia's forests and their development

GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY
GEORGIA'S FORESTS AND THEIR
DEVELOPMENT

GEORGIA'S FORESTS AND
THEIR DEVELOPMENT
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Prepared by
The Division of Forestry
OF THE
Department of Natural Resources
M
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PREVENT WOODS FIRES and
REFOREST GEORGIA'S IDLE LANDS

Georgia's Forests and Their Development SPECIAL TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER IX. CHAPTER X. CHAPTER XL CHAPTER XII.

What Is Forestry?

Importance of Georgia's Forests

The Tree and Its Growth

Tree Identification

Protecting Forests from Fire

Reforestation

Care of Forests
Uses of Georgia Woods

Naval Stores

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Wood for Paper and Cellulose Products.

Forests and Water

Forestry Education in Georgia

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18 23 26 30 34
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41 43

Land Classification Data

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Photographs on Pages 5, 7, 11, 24, 25, 27, 29, 35, 39 reproduced through Courtesy of the United States Forest Service.

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Georgia's Forests and Their Development

CHAPTER I

WHAT IS FORESTRY?

Forestry is the art of establishing, managing, and harvesting forest
crops. Important activities in forestry include the following: The

collection of tree seed; growing tree seedlings in nurseries; planting

seedling trees on areas where natural reforestation is not possible;

protecting forests from fire, insects and diseases; thinning and prun-

ing; maintenance of sustained yields; and proper methods of harvest-

ing and marketing.
The forester who measures the volume of standing timber is called a "timber cruiser." Those who remove logs from the forest are "logging engineers." Those who devote themselves to the improvement of the forests are "silviculturists." Men who patrol the forests are known as "forest rangers." Forest pathologists look after the

diseases of trees and forest entomologists are concerned with insect

A enemies of trees.

dendrologist is one who studies the characteristics

of trees for identification or classification.

Botany, which treats of plant life in general, is basic to the science

of forestry. Like other green-leaved plants, trees are able to take from
soil and air the elements necessary for their growth. Unlike many

plants, they do not end their life cycle in one year, but renew growth

each spring on their old structures.

A Forestry, therefore, deals with long life processes.

tree crop does

not bring immediate returns, and care must continue for a number
of years to get maximum tree yields. For maximum forest production the forester must know tree
habits, how much soil space and sun exposure trees require, how to influence growth to obtain the desired product, and when to release
a crop tree from overcrowded conditions.
A forester is a scientist whose laboratory is the forest. Some

foresters are engaged in research to learn more about trees and their
habits. Most foresters are, however, applying known facts to fores-
try practices. Both the state and Federal governments are employing

foresters to render assistance to landowners in protecting and develop-
ing their forest resources in much the same manner as Federal and
state governments are aiding farmers to attain better agricultural

practices.

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In an effort to conserve forest resources for the future needs of this country, the Federal government has acquired national forests, one of which is located in the mountains of North Georgia. This is
known as the Chattahooche National Forest. In this and other
similar areas trained foresters are in charge.
The U. S. Forest Service has regional headquarters in Atlanta and
maintains close co-operation with the state forestry organizations of
the region.
The state forestry work of Georgia is designated as the Division
of Forestry which is a division of the Department of Natural Resources. Headquarters are in the state capitol.
The personnel of the Division of Forestry consists of a State Forester who is Director of the Division, Assistant Directors in
charge of tree nursery practices, fire control, and utilization, and District Foresters and assistants with headquarters at Gainesville, Macon, Albany and Baxley.
The Division of Forestry operates two tree seedling nurseries which will in 1938 produce more than 25,000,000 young trees. These nurseries are located in Albany and Flowery Branch.

CHAPTER II
IMPORTANCE OF GEORGIA'S FOREST RESOURCES
Sixty-one per cent or 23,000,000 of the 37,583,900 acres in Georgia are classed as forest or potential forest land. In 47 counties forest lands comprise 60 per cent or more of the area; 20 counties
have 80 per cent or more; 9 counties have 90 per cent or more. The distribution of forest land by counties is shown in the appendix.
Originally this state was completely covered with forests of pines or hardwoods. After early settlers had cleared forested lands for agricultural purposes and tilled the soil for a few years, they aban-
doned their fields for freshly cleared lands. Many of the cultivated
acres thus abandoned came back to trees by natural reforestation.
An interesting change in the character of Georgia's forests took
place as a result of abandoning farm land for new ground. Trees with winged seed, especially the pines, had an advantage in reseeding old fields, and they made such good use of the opportunity that Georgia became more of a pine growing state than it was originally. This modification of tree distribution helped rather than hindered forest conditions, for the pine is adapted to worn-out soils and to various sites, and is one of the state's best revenue producing trees.

Though pines are of major importance commercially, Georgia also
has a large variety of other tree species, and is second in this respect only to Florida with its semitropical as well as Temperate Zone flora. Foresters have listed 165 species of trees in Georgia; some of the species in the mountains of North Georgia are indigenous to the far North and some in the southern part of the state are found in the tropics, while trees between these extremes include most species found in the eastern part of the United States.
Stand of virgin longleaf pine, over 150 years old. Known as "Yellow Pine" in
trade circles. Heavy, strong timber, valued highly as dimension stock.
77028

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In this connection it is well to know that there are more species of shrubs than there are of trees. The difference between a tree and a
shrub is that a tree has a single stem with branches forming a crown and a trunk diameter attaining several inches, while shrubs begin branching near the surface of the ground with stems rarely attaining a diameter of more than two inches.
Since tre?s constitute the state's chief forest resource, this discus-
sion does not include the humbler forest growth, the shrubs, valuable as they are for their beautification of the forest and their food for wild life.
Of the 21,500,000 acres of actual forest land, only about 1,000,000 acres are virgin timber. The present generation is drawing on "second growth," that is, young trees which are the offspring of the
old forests. An interesting fact about second growth timber of the
South is that because of the quality of its rapid growth it is suited to practically every use for which virgin timber has been employed.
Having many species of trees extremely rapid in their growth, and because of its nearness to wood consuming centers, Georgia has great
opportunities for developing forest resources; but Georgia has not
made use of its opportunities as it should.
In spite of their neglect and abuse, however, Georgia's trees have survived and are providing jobs in forests and factories for approximately 40,000 people, a livelihood directly to about 200,000 people in the state, and contribute to the livelihood in part of thousands of business and professional men.
The value of primary products such as lumber, naval stores, poles,
piling, fuel, veneer, cooperage, crossties, excelsior, and pulpwood, as shown in part by available reports of the Census Bureau, and estimated where not given, is approximately $50,000,000 annually.
The value added by the manufacture of primary products into fin-
ished commodities brings the total to over $100,000,000 annually.
An important new demand created by paper mills, estimated at
820,000 cords in 1938, will increase as new mills come into operation. This demand will add materially to the number of jobs in the forests and industries and will greatly increase the value of manu-
factured products.
It is better to think of what can be done than what we have failed to do. The forest resources of Georgia can be doubled in twenty-five years by preventing fires, by allowing abandoned farm land and poorly stocked forests to undergo natural reforestation, and where necessary, by artificial planting of trees and by conservatively har-

vesting forest products. Think of what this would mean in new jobs, more pay rolls, increase in the tax base, and more wealth available for the welfare of all people of the state! But these desirable ends are to be attained only by a change of public attitude toward the forest, possibly only through education. The public
schools must face and help to solve the forest problem.
-- Second growth shortleaf pine, 40 years old inferior to virgin "Yellow Pine"
and not as hard but very useful wood.

CHAPTER III
THE TREE AND ITS GROWTH
Trees grow larger and live longer than any other form of life. The giant sequoias of the Pacific Coast are 3000 to 4000 years old, growing as tall as 320 feet. Some of the oldest sequoias were large trees when Christ was born and were growing when the first pyramids of Egypt were erected. But these trees are giants of the tree kingdom and their great size is exceptional. Other trees, among which
is the bald cypress, may attain an age of 1000 years. Many trees
in Georgia attain a size suitable for "sawtimber" in forty to fifty
years.
CELLS. Like all other living things trees are made of cells. In some respects a tree is like a house made of hollow tiles. The very small cells are hollow and built one upon another. But tree cells are unlike the uniform tile of a house in that they have many shapes. Some are round, some boxlike, some are long and flexible, and others thick walled and rigid. Some cells are capable of dividing when full grown to produce new cells, although by far the majority of the cells of a tree are inert like the hollow tiles of the house men-
tioned above.
Strong walled cells are essential to make a firm wood structure,
and to this end the tree creates a kind of liquid cement called lignin, which infiltrates into cell walls and then hardens to make a strong
structure.
SEED. Trees originate from seed just as do flowers. Tree seeds have a hard coat beneath which is compact, starchy material surrounding a small embryo that carries the germ of life.
Seeds are produced on the tree in some form of container. The
chestnut and chinquapin seeds are in prickly burrs; cherry, plum, haw, dogwood, holly, and hackberry have seeds with fruity coverings; locust and catalpa seeds are borne in pods; hickory nuts in
woody hulls; sycamore and sweet gum seeds in balls; acorns in cups;
pine seeds in hard cones; and magnolia and sumach in fruity cones. Some seeds are equipped with wings with which they fly from
the tree on the wind, sometimes as far as half a mile. Common
among these are the seeds of the pine, maple, yellow poplar, linden, and ash. The willow and cottonwood trees have downy hairs attached to their seeds to make them buoyant for wind transportation.
Heavy seeds like walnuts, acorns, and hickory nuts have no means of transportation of their own, but thanks to the provident instincts

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TRUNK

SAPWOOD CARRIES SAP FROM ROOT TO LEAVES
CAMBIUM (MICROSCOPIC) BUILDS THE CELLS

INNER BARK CARRIES PREPARED FOOD FROM LEAVES TO CAMBIUM LAYER

OUTER BARK PROTECTS TREE FROM INJURIES
SURFACE ROOTS

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of squirrels, the heavy nuts are transported and buried in the ground for a future supply of food, often only to remain undisturbed and to sprout and grow.
Water is also a factor in transporting seed over the surface of the
ground and along streams. The berry fruits depend largely on birds
for transportation to planting sites.
When the warm, rainy days of spring arrive, a seed that has fallen
to the ground begins to absorb moisture and swell. From the seed emerges a tender tip which forces itself into the soil. The tip continues to grow into the earth to form roots, while that portion of the
tiny seedling above ground develops into leaves and stem.
The cells that are producing primary roots and stem get their
food from the mother seed, but as soon as green leaves are formed
the seedling is able to gather its own nutriment from the air and the soil. The seedling has then started a life cycle which will be completed, barring disaster, only when it has developed into a great tree.

TREE TRUNK. The tree trunk is the main stem of the tree which supports the crown. The crown consists of limbs, twigs, and leaves. The trunk provides channels for transporting moisture and plant
food. It also provides the most valuable commercial products of the
tree.
Considering the tree trunk from the bark inward, several welldefined layers occur. First is the outer layer of corky material called
bark. The cells composing this layer are inactive so far as tree growth
is concerned, but they are very useful in protecting the vital part of the tree from adverse temperatures, damage from fire, mechanical injury, and to guard against entrance of injurious insects or organ-
isms of disease and decay. Under the outer bark is the inner bark which transports plant food down the trunk from the leaves.
Beneath the inner bark is the cambium layer, the cells of which are of the utmost importance in the growth processes of the tree. This is a thin layer of cells, less than 1/16 of an inch thick, yet so
vital to the tree's life that in order to cause death one has only to
sever the cambium around the trunk with an axe. The tiny cambium cells take the plant food brought down from the leaves, where it is
made, and convert it into growth cells of various kinds. In a sense
the cambium is the contractor that is building the trees. The diversity of its building may be appreciated when it is noted that it is
-- -- constructing bark cells on its outer side and an entirely different
kind the sapwood cells on its inner side at the same time.

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Underneath the cambium is a new wood growth called sapwood.
These living cells are exceedingly active. Beneath the layer of sapwood is the heartwood, usually darker
in color than the sapwood. The cells of this layer are dead and have
hard, thick walls. Heartwood forms a core that gives the tree strength
to resist the force of storms.
At the center of the stem is the pith, which in some trees is hardly noticeable, consisting of loosely arranged cells. From the pith the ray cells radiate outward to the inner bark, and serve to transport food materials through the trunk.
LEAVES. Leaves have a very important part in the life of a tree. They manufacture from carbon dioxide taken from the air and plant food materials brought up in the water from the soil, the tree's sap or plant food. They not only take in carbon dioxide but transpire water and waste carbon dioxide. Trees that sever their leaves in the fall are called deciduous, and trees that retain green leaves through
the winter are called evergreens. Leaves of different species of trees have distinct characteristics and serve as an important means of tree identification, as will be discussed in the next chapter.
How TREES FEED. Green plants, among which are all trees,
have the wonderful ability to manufacture their own food. This little known process is one of the most wonderful chemical activities
Hardwood forest in which oaks are prominent. Hardwood brings higher
price than pine for lumber.

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in the world. The raw products which trees manufacture into food are carbon dioxide gas and water. Only the leaves of the trees take part in this wonderful process which is known as photosynthesis,
and which takes place only as a result of energy from the sun's rays.
The carbon dioxide which is one of the common gases in the earth's
atmosphere enters the leaves through minute openings called stomata. Water and mineral elements are derived entirely from the soil and, therefore, enter the tree through its root system, passing upward through the sapwood into the leaves.
The tiny cells of leaves are filled with a green pigment known
as chlorophyll. It is the chlorophyll which imparts the green color to leaves. Through the action of chlorophyll carbon dioxide and water are converted into simple elements of foods, and then by further
-- chemical action these elements are changed into carbohydrates, fats,
oils, and proteins the same materials comprising the food of man.

After the manufacture of food by the leaves, this plant food must
be transported to where it is needed. It is carried downward through
the inner bark where it is required by the growing cells of the cambium.
While it is easy to understand why water goes down, it is strange that water climbs against gravity all the way from the ground to the topmost leaf of the tree. The principle force at work is called
osmosis, or the effort of cells to equalize the concentration of their
fluid contents. When water evaporates from the leaves and other
surfaces of the tree, as it must for more water and plant food materials from the soil to enter the tree, the cells from which water has evaporated become drier and have a denser, stronger solution. At once osmosis causes moisture to soak from neighboring cells into the drier cells, and in turn, all the cells below yield their moisture. Thus osmosis provides a constant pull and hence the upward movement of water from the soil to the leaves. Likewise sap moves under the power of osmosis wherever there is need for growth material.
It is also thought that capillary attraction may have a part in the movement of water up the tree. This is a force observed operating
in an oil lamp, the oil climbing up through the wick to the flame at its top. Capillary movement of water also occurs in the soil, replacing moisture as it evaporates from the surface.

Trees use the same food elements as man requires for his growth.

We In fact, man's food is created by plant life.

either feed directly

on plants or their fruits, or else on animals and their products which

have fed on plants.

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Unlike man, but like a few animals such as the bear and ground
hog, trees take a long rest in the winter known as dormancy, or the sleeping period. Since a certain degree of the sun's warmth and light is necessary for leaf activity it can be readily understood why growth
processes of trees must cease in the winter.
Because of this annual break in growth processes of the tree,
growth or annual rings are recorded in the bodies of many but not all kinds of trees. By counting the rings in the stump where a tree has been sawed down, one can tell how many years the tree grew.
Each ring has a light and dark part, the light being spring growth and the dark, summer growth.

CHAPTER IV
TREE IDENTIFICATION
Because each tree possesses certain outstanding characteristics which
may cause it to be best suited for certain products, it is important in forestry to be able to identify at least the most common trees. Thus the white oak is well suited for cooperage whereas the red oak
is not. Again slash pine is highly valuable for the production of naval stores whereas loblolly pine, although closely resembling slash
pine in appearance, is not.
It is desirable to know what trees have long tap roots and what
have shallow root systems in order to select proper planting sites.
It is also valuable to know what trees grow rapidly and what slowly,
what trees require wide space for their crowns and what will do well with minimum space, what trees are shade tolerant and what are not.
A manual, Common Forest Trees of Georgia, issued by the Divi-
sion of Forestry, illustrates and describes leaves, fruit, buds, bark, and wood, making it possible to easily identify all of the important
forest trees of Georgia.
The distinct characteristics of leaves of each tree species make the leaf the chief means of tree identification. Trees fall into two general
classes, evergreens and deciduous. Evergreens retain green leaves in the fall and winter whereas deciduous trees drop their leaves in the fall and renew them in the spring.
Conifers, so named from bearing their seed in cones, retain some of their green, needlelike leaves during the fall and winter. The
sole exception is the cypress, a conifer that sheds all its leaves in the
fall.

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SLASH PINE
SCRDB PINE WHITE PINE

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BLACK JACK OAK

LIVB OAK

OVERCUP OAK

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PIGNUT HICKORY

BITTERNUT HICKORY

SCALY BARK HICKORY

BLACK WALNUT

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Broad-leaved trees, another name for deciduous trees, generally shed all their leaves in the fall, but exceptions to be found are the magnolia, holly, and live oak which are evergreen.
Though evergreens retain their green leaves and chlorophyl through
the fall and winter, they do not use them for growth during that
period. They are dormant like the deciduous trees. It is interesting to note the great variations in tree leaves. Some
leaves are quite broad and long, and at the other extreme are the very
narrow, needlelike leaves. Leaf margins are quite different. Some have deep indentures and some are unbroken; some have pointed lobes, whereas others have rounded lobes; notched and smooth margins are found. Some leaves are heart-shaped, others oval, pointed or blunt. For leaf characteristics of some of the most common trees of Georgia, consult the illustrations shown in this publication. The fruits of the trees are also shown.
Not all trees grow on the same site. Along streams and in moist
places one can find willow, ash, water oak, river birch, cottonwood, yellow poplar, elm and sycamore in almost any part of the state.
In South Georgia one may also expect to find on moist sites, tupelo gum, bay, cypress, pond pine, and magnolia.
On drier sites, such as are provided by sloping lands of hills and mountains, one may look for pines, most of the oaks, hickories,
persimmon, sassafras, dogwood, red cedar, ironwood, chestnut, mulberry, haw, and sourwood.

-- Natural Reproduction Seed Trees and Their Offspring.

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The optimum sites for yellow poplar are the moist, rich coves
of the mountains. Georgia is credited with having unsurpassed
forests of second growth yellow poplar in the Blue Ridge Moun-
tains.
When collecting leaves for tree identification, also gather tree
fruit. Extract seed from their coverings where necessary. Note that some seed have wings, such as those of the pines, maples, and ash, and that willow and cottonwood have silky hairs for wind
transportation. Consider the variations in the nuts of different species of hickor-
ies and oaks as an aid to identification of the species. Note also the different kinds of bark on trees and observe striking
differences, the smooth bark of the hackberry and beech, the irregular brown scales of pines, the white bark of sycamore limbs, the papery bark of the river birch that curls in an effort to shed from the tree, the shaggy bark of some hickories and of cedar, the rectangular fissures of the black gum, the light-gray bark of the white oak, post oak, and laurel oak, as distinguished from the dark-gray of
other oaks.
Note that the older portions of trees have rougher, more deeply fissured bark than the younger portions of the tree, or young trees.

CHAPTER V
PROTECTING FORESTS FROM FIRE
The greatest hindrance to forest development in Georgia is fire. The Georgia Division of Forestry estimates forest fire losses in the state amount to $5,000,000 to $8,000,000 annually.
Most forest fires are man-caused, very few being attributed to
lightning. Those who start forest fires have different motives. Some
individuals believe that grazing will be improved by burning. Others seek to kill boll weevils in hibernation. Turpentine operators rake around their trees and burn to decrease the possibilities of an acci-
dental fire reaching the chipped faces and gum of the cups of the trees, and to improve working conditions for their men by removing underbrush. Many fires may be attributed to carelessness. Farmers
burning off fields carelessly allow the fire to enter the woods. Hunt-
ers who discard burning matches, cigar and cigarette stubs, and who leave their campfires burning when they depart, are responsible for some fires. Still other fires are maliciously started. Those who
"burn off" the woods as a rule do so to serve other purposes than the welfare of the forest, and more damage is done to the forest than

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any benefit that they may possibly derive. Apparently many people
of Georgia do not understand the real damage which fires do to the
forest. The chief damage is discussed under five headings, as follows:
( 1 ) Fires Destroy Seedlings. Georgia's forests have quite generally fewer trees per acre than the desired number. This is largely
due to the fires destroying seedlings each year. Not only would the stands of forests be improved but many abandoned fields would be reforested if nature's efforts were not continually thwarted by fire. Since seedlings will develop into the trees that the young people of today will harvest in the future, every young person should want
his heritage of forest wealth protected.
(2) Fires Retard Growth. By defoliating the crown and by damaging the cambium layer of the trunk, fires may seriously retard
tree growth even if the tree is not killed outright. Obviously the larger the tree, the more resistant it is to fire. But severe fires, caused by dry conditions of the forest accompanied by high wind, are capable of destroying hundreds of acres of trees of the largest size. In Georgia as a whole the average growth in 1934 was only about one-third cord per acre. If protected from fire, the growth of Georgia's
forests could quickly be doubled.
(3) Fires Cause Scars on Tree Trunks Through Which Boring Insects and Organisms of Disease Can Enter. Frequently forest fires
Destructive forest fire. Note how natural reforestation is prevented
by the destruction of the young trees.

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scorch the cambium under the tree's bark until it is destroyed; then the bark over the wound falls away leaving the wood exposed to

boring insects and fungi of decay. Hardwoods are damaged more than pines which provide gum to protect their wounds until they

are healed. The decayed trunk of hardwood trees, with the best

portion of the first log rendered worthless, is attributable in nearly

every case to fire damage.

Gum (4) Fire Reduces

Yield. When fire destroys the foliage

of pines the production of gum is decreased. Studies made by the

Southern Forest Experiment Station revealed that gum yield was

decreased 30 to 40 per cent as a result of defoliation by fire.

(5) Fires Destroy the Cover of the Forest Floor. The presence

of leaves, twigs, and semidecayed matter on the forest floor is very

important for several reasons. It provides means for retarding surface

runoff during rains, thus causing more water to penetrate the soil.

The water of springs and wells and the constant flow of streams are
dependent on surface absorption of rainfall. An unburned forest

floor provides ideal conditions for absorption and percolation of

water into the ground.

If the forest floor is burned, the surface movement of rain water

is unrestricted and flows quickly off the slopes in quantities that

cause soil erosion. The eroded materials in turn silt up reservoirs

and stream beds. Stream beds having been filled, the freshets cause

overflows and much damage to bottom lands. The fact that water

flows quickly off burned-over forest land also means that a greater

A firebreak to stop fires, or to provide a base for starting a fire to meet an
oncoming blaze and stop its advance.

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amount of water is released in a short time into the streams and consequently greater floods and greater flood damage result.
The public should be taught to avoid starting forest fires:
(a) By never leaving a campfire in the woods without applying
water or covering it with dirt.
(b) By never striking a match in traversing woods or fields
without seeing that the match is burned out before casting

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Lookout tower for detecting outbreaks of forest fires so that fire fighters may get to and suppress them quickly before they spread far.

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it away, and better still, by grinding it into the ground with
the heel.
(c) By never dropping a cigarette, cigar stub, or the embers of
a pipe on the forest floor or in a field without grinding it into the soil with the heel.
The disastrous effects of forest fires have become so apparent in the past few years that the public is now demanding protection from forest fires. Laws have been passed to prohibit promiscuous woods burning and approximately $155,000 are spent annually by the
citizens of Georgia in an effort to protect their forests from fires.
The Georgia Division of Forestry and the U. S. Forest Service
co-operate financially with the forest landowners by spending approximately $69,000 annually, in addition to furnishing technical supervision over all of the fire protection work. Obviously that iz not enough money to protect the 21,500,000 acres of forest lands
in this state and efforts are now being made to obtain more money. All money and labor employed in fire protection go to construct
lookout towers, telephone lines, firebreaks and roads so that fire fighting trucks can get to the fires quickly and easily; to buy fire trucks, fire pumps, tractors and plows for the plowing of firebreaks; to buy other fire suppression equipment and to the hiring of rangers, patrolmen, and towermen so that the fires can be quickly located and
fought.
The Georgia Division of Forestry assists landowners in forming Timber Protective Organizations having 25,000 acres or more of forest lands. It is in these Timber Protective Organizations that the
towers are built, the fire suppression equipment used and the rangers and patrolmen hired.
Three of these organizations are now controlled by radio. The
towermen remain in the lookout towers all day and watch for fires, and as soon as a fire is discovered the towers call the central headquarters over the telephone lines built for that purpose, and by instruments which they have in the towers for the purpose of locating
fires, they tell the ranger in charge of the location of the fire. The
ranger calls other towers to get a "cross reading" on the fire so as to more accurately locate it, and, after the fire is accurately located,
the radio dispatcher calls over the radio to the fire trucks nearest the
fire and gives them instructions as to how to proceed and any other
pertinent information. Immediately after the trucks get the signals, they go to the fire and with water pumps, "flaps," rakes, and other
tools combat the fire. After the fire is suppressed, many hours are

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spent by men patrolling the fire to see that it does not break out
again, and in extinguishing all burning snags, trees, and stumps.
Education plays an important part in fire protection work. Many
people are not aware of the damage that fire does to the forest, and do not realize the benefits to be gained by protecting the forests.
The Georgia Division of Forestry works through schools in estab-
lishing demonstrational plots and gives advice about protecting the forests. It is then incumbent upon the school children to go back
home and carry out the practices learned in school. In regions of the state where no large forested areas exist, a system
of county fire wardens is used by which community groups are organized to fight any fire that breaks out.
Georgia's record for forest fires is poor, and everybody who realizes
what damage forest fires cause must help in the educational program if rapid progress in suppressing the fire evil is to be made.

CHAPTER VI
REFORESTATION
-- Reforestation of cutover lands or abandoned fields can be attained
in two ways natural reforestation and artificial reforestation. In natural reforestation existing trees distribute seed from which new forest growth results. This process is often hindered by lack of seed trees and by fires, so that many years may elapse before new tree growth is established.

View of the State Tree Nursery at Albany where about twenty million seedlings are now grown each year and sold to landowners at cost of production.

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Artificial reforestation is usually carried out by gathering tree seed, growing seedlings in a tree nursery, and planting the young trees on areas to be reforested. Although requiring a larger financial investment than does natural reforestation, this method has advantages in that one can select and grow the kind of trees desired, space the trees properly when planting, and insure a fully stocked stand
in a minimum time. Georgia has many thousands of acres of cutover forest land on
which not enough seed trees were left to provide natural reproduction,
and there are many other thousands of acres of abandoned farm lands
where trees cannot reseed. Artificial reforestation is, therefore, an important practice in Georgia.
The need for artificial tree planting is very generally realized, and in an effort to meet the demand for planting stock, the state Division of Forestry is operating two tree nurseries and is expanding production as rapidly as possible. At no time have the tree nurseries in Georgia been able in recent years to supply the demand for plant-
ing stock.
The demand for seedlings is not only to reforest lands for timber
production, but for conserving soils that are no longer used for agri-
culture and are washing away. When trees are planted, erosion of
soils is not only controlled but the soils are put to about the only use to which they are suited. It is, therefore, not surprising that the

Slash pine plantation, 6 years in the field, 7 years from seed. Note man in hachgrouni for determining height of trees. Extremely rapid growth is shown.

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Soil Conservation Service is operating a tree nursery in Georgia to supply the tree planting needs on farms being treated for erosion con-
trol. The School of Forestry at Athens also maintains a tree nursery in an effort to supply the demand. Although the chief demand for
forest planting stock is for pines, public interest is awakening to the
desirability of other important forest trees. By the fall of 1938 the
Division of Forestry will have available at low costs a supply of the following trees: slash, longleaf, loblolly, shortleaf, and white pines; black locust, white ash, red mulberry, and tulip poplar.
Everyone would like to plant trees and watch them grow, but to
insure their growth one must know how to plant them. If it is a
pine that is to be planted, it is better that the seedling be used
and that it be only one year from seed. Seedlings older than one year are generally too large for easy and economical planting. Pine seedlings grown in a nursery have good root systems and will grow more rapidly than a seedling taken from the forest. Pine roots can

Planting one year old pine seedlings in an old field. The planting iron makes an opening for the seedling taken from the bucket containing water.

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by quickly injured by being allowed to dry, so that from the time the seedling is taken from the ground until it is planted in the soil its roots must be kept moist.
The planting hole should be large enough to accommodate the roots without twisting or lapping. The seedling should be placed at the same depth in the ground it was when taken from the nursery bed. The richer soil should be placed around the roots and packed
firmly so that there will be no air pockets left.

CHAPTER VII

CARE OF FORESTS

Trees will respond to good treatment and make more rapid growth

if cared for by man. The distribution of tree seed, subjected as they

are to the variable winds and to the impulses of transporting animals,

is usually irregular. Too many seedlings come up in some places and too few in other places. Man can assist by removing some where

there are too many and by planting where there are too few. Only where land is fully stocked with properly spaced trees can maximum

yields of forest products be obtained.

As long as large trees are making a reasonable rate of growth no

thinning is necessary. Growing close together, trees shade their lower

limbs. This causes the limbs to die with the result that the trunk has

fewer knots in the lumber it produces. But when growth slows up

then thinning should begin.

A general rule for spacing trees when thinning is to measure the

4^ diameter of the trunk

feet from the ground and add 4; then

convert the total to feet, the number of feet thus derived being the

desired distance between this tree and any other of the same size.

For instance, if the diameter of a tree is 6 inches at 4*^ feet from

the ground, adding 4, the total is 10. The figure 10 indicates a

spacing of 10 feet between the tree measured and another of similar

size. Such measurements should be taken for the larger and more

desirable trees. Trees are too irregularly spaced for the rule to be more

than a general guide. Crooked and diseased trees and any undesir-

able species should, of course, be removed. Later in the life of the

forest, another thinning may be necessary. The trees taken out may

be used for pulpwood, poles, fence posts, fuel, and other purposes.

Suppose no thinning is practiced, what would be the result? Trees

would continue their struggle. Some will eventually get an advan-

tage and overtop others. The overtopped trees cannot live in the

27
shade and eventually die. Thus the winners in the forest do their own spacing. But consider what a waste the struggle involves. Much of the growth material that was used by the dead trees could, with proper thinning, have been used for more rapid growth in the trees
-- -- Top Longleaf pine forest in need of thinning delayed too long. Ordinari.y a -- stand should be thinned when 15 to 20 years old. Note the great number of trees
on the site. Bottom the same longleaf pine forest shown above, thinned to 200 trees per acre.

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selected to remain in the forest. By thinning, therefore, forests may
be led to greater production of commercial wood. Pruning is also a silvicultural practice. As already explained, if
trees are open-grown, the lower limbs Will not die and will remain on the tree indefinitely. It is good forest practice to prune the tree as high as can be conveniently reached with a long-handled axe. Even
when trees are close together and the lower branches are naturally killed by the shade, pruning off the dead limbs close to the trunk is
advisable so that the limb scars can heal over as soon as possible. Since trees depend on green leaves for growth material, the removal
of a large amount of foliage by pruning will slow down growth.
It is considered good practice not to remove at one pruning more than Ys to *4 of the leaf surface and to make a second pruning later.
DISEASES AND INSECTS. Trees are sometimes attacked by diseases
and insects. As has been learned, fire leaves scars on trunks of trees through which insects and disease may attack the tree. Hollow trunks are caused by fungi attacking the wood through fire scars or other wounds.
Tree surgeons can stop the decay when it has not gone too far by cutting out the decayed part, treating the wound with an anti-
septic and filling the cavity with concrete. This treatment, although
desirable for shade trees on home grounds, along streets, and in parks, is of no interest to foresters inasmuch as such detailed care is far too
costly to be practical.
One of the great tree disasters of America is the destruction of the chestnut by a fungus. In a few years this disease spread with fatal results to this valuable tree which was a common forest tree of the Appalachian region. The disease was introduced from abroad, began its attacks in the East and rapidly spread. Trees were killed by the fungus damaging the cambium layer.
The Dutch elm disease is another epidemic that is now threatening
to wipe out the elms, but it is being attacked with some degree of success and has not yet reached Georgia.
The greatest enemy of the pine in Georgia is the southern pine
beetle. Its most destructive outbreaks are found where trees are cut in
the summer or where lightning exposes fresh wood. The odor of
-- freshly cut wood attracts the beetles and, by concentrating their
attacks, they kill trees sometimes in great numbers.
The southern pine beetle lays its eggs in the inner bark so that when the grub is hatched it can feed on the cambium. When the grub circles the cambium the tree can no longer live.

29
An important consideration regarding insects is that they rarely
ever attain epidemic proportions unless the forest is damaged by some other cause such as fires, droughts, or floods. Trees damaged

Second growth yellow poplar growing in a mountain cove of North Georgia. tree grows rapidly, produces long, symmetrical trunks that make excellent lumber and veneer.

This

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and weakened by fires fall easy prey to attacks of the southern pine
beetle.
The well known borers or "sawyers" that one can hear "sawing"
trees attack only dead trees, and enter trees killed by the southern pine beetle or by some other cause. If the dead tree is not removed soon after it dies it will be riddled by borers.
Many other insects and diseases attack trees but since no great
damage is done no measures are taken for their control.
Destruction of Ornamental Forest Trees. The custom
of gathering green leaves and red berries of holly for Christmas decoration, and dogwood and azalea branches for their blooms in spring, not only robs the forest of natural beauty but sometimes causes the death of these very desirable plants. It is well to enjoy the beauty of such plants but not to selfishly appropriate it to the extent of maim-
ing or killing the plants.
Perhaps the most effective way to protect the holly is never to purchase it from vendors at Christmas time. Not only refrain from robbing the forest trees of their beauty but make known your dis-
approval of the practice at every opportunity.

CHAPTER VIII
USES OF GEORGIA WOODS
The commercial forests of Georgia today are new growth, usually
referred to as "second growth." Rapidly growing trees, a long growing season, and favorable climate place the South first in timber
growing among the forested regions in the country. As a consequence, industries depending on timber supplies are turning more and more to the South.
The primary uses of the forests of Georgia are for lumber, poles,
pulpwood, veneer, cooperage, fuel, fencing, charcoal, and naval stores.
One of the first (and perhaps the most historic) uses of Georgia wood
was that of live oaks near Brunswick in the construction of the famous wooden man-of-war, the Constitution.
The long, strong, and straight trunks of longleaf pine find use in
ship masts, flagpoles, as well as for beams, sills, and other lumber. In fact pines have contributed more timber products than all other
kinds of trees in Georgia. The species of pines that are supplying the most lumber, poles, and pulpwood are loblolly, shortleaf, longleaf, and slash. Some of the finest dimensioned lumber in the world
is derived from virgin Georgia pine.

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Among the hardwoods, the white oak is important in providing hard, beautifully grained wood capable of high polish and favored for furniture, flooring, interior finishings, desks and cases. For many
of the same purposes, red gum, wild cherry, and black walnut are
also used. White oak is the favorite wood for tight cooperage; that
is for making watertight barrels. Makers of athletic goods and handles for tools or farm implements, and manufacturers of vehicles
desire wood that is hard and flexible. This they find in ash and hickory. Railroads want crossties from durable, strong wood that
will hold spikes. This they find principally in oak, cypress, and pine. Poles for supporting telephone, telegraph and electric power wires
must be strong, with but slight taper, and durable in contact with
the soil. The requirements are met in chestnut, black locust, cypress, cedar, and (when creosoted) the pines. The farmer needs for fence posts the kind of wood that is resistant to decay in contact with the
ground, and finds black locust, mulberry, cedar, heart pine, and
sassafras are best for this purpose. Textile mills require many spools and bobbins made from hard, close-grained wood that does not split,
and will stand hard wear. This is provided by dogwood, persimmon
and ironwood. The same kinds of wood are also desired for golf club heads. The turner who shapes or carves round posts, pillars, pedestals, or bows desires fairly close-grained timber and uses for
this purpose the yellow poplar, tupelo gum, and beech. For veneer, used in making desks, household furniture, doors, and interior finishings, the producer wants beautifully grained hardwoods, and uses oak, maple, walnut, red gum, cherry, and birch. For baskets, light, small boxes, and crates, the veneer manufacturer uses yellow poplar, cottonwood, black gum, tupelo gum, and basswood. Cedar is favored for chests and lining of closets because of an odor that moths
reputedly avoid.

LUMBER INDUSTRY. Normally Georgia has between 1000 and

A 1500 sawmills in operation.

few are large mills receiving logs

shipped many miles; but most of them are small, portable mills that

set up near a forest and when the local supply of logs is cut move

to another source of logs.

According to the latest available information from the Bureau

of Census the production in 1936 of 951 sawmills in Georgia was

872,476,000 board feet. (A board foot is one inch thick and one

foot square.) Of this amount 766,010,000 board feet were cut

from softwoods (pines) and 106,466,000 from hardwoods. Ac-

cording to the same report the average value of pine lumber at the

mills was $16.81 per thousand board feet, and the average value of

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hardwood lumber at the mills was $21.27 per thousand board feet.

No Sawmills are scattered over all the state.

one who is out on

the roads or streets fails to see and smell the odor of freshly cut

lumber moving to points where it is in demand. Unfortunately

many trees of small diameter are sawed. Timberland owners do not

seem to realize that small thrifty trees are making rapid growth of

commercial timber. Left alone to grow to larger sizes they will be

much more profitable both to the timberland owner and the sawmill

operator. Good forest management calls for harvesting mature trees

and trees that should be removed in the process of thinning to

improve the forest.

An operation that is frequently associated with sawmills is planing

mill products. In 1935, according to the U. S. Bureau of Census,

84 such mills reported 445,259,000 board feet planed by 1,716

employees in Georgia.

VENEER AND PLYWOOD. A comparatively new and very promis-
ing use of wood is veneer, obtained by rotating a log against a long blade so as to make a continuous sheet of thin wood. It has been called "unwrapping the tree." This thin sheet of wood is generally glued to less valuable wood in the manufacture of tables, desks,
pianos, and radios so as to give a beautiful outside appearance at low cost.
Plywood is made of layers of veneer glued together at cross grain. Strong wood is thus formed with minimum weight and is especially valuable in airplane construction. Recently the Forest Products Laboratory of the U. S. Forest Service completed a design for houses to be made completely of plywood at very low cost. Other veneer manufactured in Georgia from gums, yellow poplar and the hardwoods is used for making berry boxes, peach, apple, and vegetable
baskets and crates. When one sees a load of what appears to be
short logs, it is very likely that these logs or "bolts" are going to a veneer or cooperage manufacturing plant.

COOPERAGE. Two types of wooden barrels are manufactured
in Georgia. These are slack cooperage for rosin and tight cooperage
for turpentine. The slack cooperage is usually made of pine with wire serving as hoops. The tight cooperage must be water tight, and is usually made from white oak with steel bands for hoops.
The census of 1935 showed there were twelve cooperage plants
in Georgia employing 235 people, with the value of the products placed at $964,171.

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BOXES. Fourteen wooden box factories in Georgia in 1935 employed 2,168 men and produced boxes valued at more than $3,000,-
000.
TURNERY. Manufacturers that carve wood into a diversity of
shapes for various uses such as bedposts, stair posts and porch pillars
operated four plants, employed 186 men and produced wares valued at $147,000 in 1935.
WOOD PRESERVING. Nearly all telephone, telegraph, and electric
light poles used today have received a treatment of creosote. Creosote prevents decay. It is applied to the poles under high pressure to force it deeply into the wood.
Formerly only woods highly resistant to decay such as black locust, chestnut, cedar and cypress were used for poles, but when they became scarce creosoted pines came into use. Seven creosoting plants in 1935, employing 466 people, were using poles valued at $2,453,362, and were adding a value of $839,629 by creosoting.
EXCELSIOR. Georgia has two excelsior manufacturing plants but the census gives no data on production. One of these plants is among the largest in the country and converts pines into wooden ribbons, known to everyone as packing material.
OTHER WOOD INDUSTRIES. Information on other wood in-
dustries for the state as a whole is not available, but the U. S. Forest Service has released information for the naval stores area of South Georgia which shows that 46,000,000 board feet of veneer, 1,919,800 crossties, 4,082,000 fence posts, 160,300 poles, 35,100 cords of wood for cooperage, 171,000 cords of fuel wood, and 78,400 cords of wood for miscellaneous products were harvested in 1934 in the 57 counties comprising the area.
Naval stores and pulpwood are reserved for separate discussions.
FUEL. Most of the farm families and a number of village and town families depend upon forests for fuel. Information gained in
other southern states indicates that the average family uses 14 to 16
cords of wood a year. Some farm families have so little woodland that they use coal for fuel. Those who buy wood pay $3.00 to $4.00
a cord delivered. It is probably conservative to figure that a cord of fuel is worth $2.50 to the farmer. Figured on this basis, Georgia
is using wood valued at $8,000,000 or more as fuel each year.
A well-kept, well-stocked forest may grow a cord of wood an-
nually, but few acres are doing this, so that on the average a Georgia farmer should figure on having 40 to 45 acres of woodland for a perpetual supply of fuel.

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CHAPTER IX
NAVAL STORES
Georgia produces 57 per cent of the naval stores output of this country and obtains $16,000,000 or more annually for its efforts. According to the latest available census figures, 14,537 people were employed at the 497 distillation plants at salaries and wages amounting to more than $8,000,000, using materials valued at $10,266,442 and adding a value by manufacture of $6,134,331. This does not include the chippers and other woods operators for which no report is made.
Naval stores are rosin and turpentine obtained from the gum exuded by slash and longleaf pines when they are chipped. Only
slash and longleaf pines of the ten species of pines found in Georgia
yield gum in sufficient quantity to be commercially profitable. The
two naval stores species grow mainly in southern Georgia.
Gum is not pine sap such as the sweet, watery sap of the maple
tree from which maple sugar is made but is a sticky substance which exudes from the tree as a result of a wound. Certain cells of the
-- pine are latent until they are called upon to bathe a tree wound
with gum the tree's method of protecting its wound against attacks of insects and organisms of decay. The tree applies the gum to its wounds as one would an ointment, as a protection until new
bark is formed.
Taking advantage of this defensive provision of the pines, the turpentine operator chips through the bark and makes a narrow
wound that results in gum production. When pines were first chipped
for naval stores, only large trees were used and a deep cut or box was made in the tree for collecting gum. Dr. Charles H. Herty of Georgia devised the present method of hanging cups to the tree which revolutionized the industry by making it possible to chip small trees. This method consists of using metal strips called either aprons
or gutters for guiding the gum into cups suspended from the trunk
of the tree by nails. Once a week, as a rule, in order to stimulate a fresh flow of gum,
the chipper removes another narrow strip of bark and wood. The
active naval stores season continues throughout the year except for the winter months of December, January, and February.
y It is customary to remove 32 chips each year. From 34 to 2
inch of wood is removed at each chipping. Thus, after several years working, a "face" may extend up the tree for 8 to 10 feet. The

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liquid gum and the hardened gum which forms on the face are col-
lected periodically from the cups, placed in barrels and hauled to a still where rosin and turpentine are produced from the crude gum.
It has been recommended by the United States Forest Service that no trees smaller than 9 inches in diameter be chipped; but in case
there are too many trees on an acre, smaller trees may be chipped
before they are removed as thinnings and sold as pulpwood. Chipping of trees smaller than 9 inches in diameter is of doubtful value
due to the small gum yield from timber of this size. At least one-
third of the bark of a tree should be left to assure a rapid healing of the wounds.
The yield of gum is usually roughly in proportion to the leaf
surface of a tree for the reason that the green leaves provide materials
from which gum is made. Those who grow pines primarily for
naval stores, therefore, desire a spacing that will permit trees to have comparatively large crowns.
The revenue obtained from naval stores is in a sense a surplus income since the timberland owner still has the wood to sell after the gum has been harvested. This gives the slash and longleaf pines
exceptional values.

-- View showing pines chipped for their gum from which naval stores rosin and

-- A turpentine are produced. The trees are in their fifth year of chipping.

narrow

strip of bark and wood is removed about once a week to stimulate a new flow of gum.

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The gum of these Georgia pines is entering into the making of many useful products. The chief consumers of turpentine are mak-
ers of adhesives and plastics, automobiles and wagons, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, foundries and foundry supplies, furniture, insecticides, disinfectants, linoleum and floor covering, oils and greases, paint, varnish, lacquer, printing ink, railroads and ship yards, rubber, shoe polish, shoe materials, soap, and other less important industries.
Rosin is used chiefly by abattoirs, in adhesives and plastics, asphaltic products, automobiles and wagons, chemicals and pharma-
ceuticals, ester gum and synthetic resins, foundry products, insecti-
cides and disinfectants, linoleum and floor covering, matches, oils and greases, paint, varnish and lacquer, paper and paper size, printing ink, rubber, shoe polish and shoe materials, soap and other industries.

WOOD DISTILLATION. Another source of turpentine is from
wood distillation. Riding through South Georgia one may see a

large tractor with a great beam or crane busy in fields or cutover pine

lands. Like some long-necked, prehistoric creature pecking at some-

thing in the ground, the outfit moves from place to place. The

crane drops to the ground, its steel jaws fasten deeply into a stump,

there is a whir and a sudden exhaust of smoke from the tractor,

A and up comes a pine stump, roots and all.

quick shake removes

the clinging earth. As the steel jaws are released, the stump is tossed aside. The monster moves on and in two minutes or less time has

siezed upon and removed another stump from the ground.

Trucks haul the stumps to railroad cars where they are loaded and
carried to a large plant at Brunswick. The stumps contain a gum that is stored as heartwood in trees and known in South Georgia as

"lightwood." At the Brunswick plant the stumps are fed into a

chipping machine called a "hog." The chips are steamed and chemi-

cally treated to produce turpentine and other products.

The three kinds of wood distillation carried on by Georgia plants are classed as steam distillation of wood, sulphate wood treatment, and destructive distillation of wood. By these methods 151,723

barrels of turepntine of 50 gallons each were produced from April 1

to March 31, 1936-37, and during that period, by the steam distilla-

tion process, 724,028 barrels of rosin of 500 pounds each were

produced.

Until recently the naval stores industry has depended largely upon

chemists of other industries to find new uses for naval stores; but now the naval stores interests have established a research laboratory at

Savannah to engage in the undertaking.

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CHAPTER X

WOOD FOR PAPER AND CELLULOSE PRODUCTS

With all the forest land in the southern states, the long growing

season, abundant rainfall and rapidly growing trees of high value,

no other section of the country offers as great opportunities for

An sustained commercial forestry.

appreciation of these facts is lead-

ing the paper industry to establish its mills in the South. Already

the greater part of the country's kraft paper manufacture is in the

southern states. White newsprint paper and excellent book and bond

paper have been successfully made from southern pines by the Herty

Foundation Laboratory at Savannah.

For many years the belief that southern pines contained too much

oleoresin to make them useful in the manufacture of white paper went

unchallenged until Dr. Charles H. Herty, native Georgian and noted

chemist, declared that as the result of chemical analyses, the gum

content of southern pines is comparable to red spruce from which

white paper is largely made. Soon thereafter studies made by chemists

of the Forests Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, provided

an explanation of why slash and longleaf pine produce so much gum

or oleoresin, and have so little present in their wood. The heavy exudation of gum of these trees was found to be made by cells that

functioned only when the tree is wounded and then only for the

purpose of covering the wound with gum. Dr. Herty's position was

sustained. Southern pines are not full of gum; in fact, they do not

contain enough to prevent their use in the manufacture of newsprint,

book, and bond paper.
How to handle pine fiber to get the very best products at lowest

possible cost has been the basis of continued study at the Herty

Foundation Laboratory.

All species of pines in the South have been proved by Dr. Herty

to be suited to white paper manufacture, and his work with black gum and tupelo gum has revealed the practicability of drawing on

the large supply of material these trees afford for making white

paper. Paper used for printing newspapers in Georgia is imported

from Europe, with the cost increasing. Southern forests can be drawn

upon to produce enough newsprint to supply the needs of the whole

country.
A paper mill represents millions of dollars of investment which

the owners are slow to scrap. It was only when initial kraft paper

mills were set up in the South and revealed the advantages by the

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competition they created that kraft mills came in numbers to this
region. The same will occur, it is thought, when mills for white
paper manufacture get started in the South.
Paper mills located at Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, and at Fernandina, Port St. Joseph and Panama City, Florida, draw on forests of South Georgia for pulpwood, while North Carolina mills
draw on mountain regions of Georgia. The area between the mountains and coastal plains known as the Piedmont Plateau is too far from existing paper mills to profitably market pulpwood because
of the high freight cost.
Some paper mills specify bolts 5 feet long which are accepted in "units" or "long cords." The difference between a "long cord" and a standard cord is that the sticks or bolts are 5 feet rather than
A 4 feet long. Quite generally the mills consider "pens" as units.
pen is made * feet high, built up like a log cabin with four sides.
It is quite a common practice for paper mills to have contractors
to buy pulpwood on a stumpage basis, that is as standing timber. These contractors engage a crew of men to get out the timber and
deliver it to a railroad siding.
DANGER CONFRONTED. Paper mills can use smaller timber than
sawmills and buyers of poles, crossties, and other forest products.
They can also utilize smaller timber than the turpentine operator,
cutting bolts as small as 4 inches in diameter.
A landowner whose timber is 6 to 8 inches in diameter has means
of deriving revenue only from paper mills. The young timber which he thought had no value, the pulpwood contractor now wants to buy, and if sold on a stumpage basis with no restrictions, the young
timber is all removed or clean cut. This done, the sawmills, turpentine operators, and buyers of poles, crossties and other forest products are deprived of a source of materials that would have been created by the forest had it not been clean cut.
If clean cutting is widely practiced it will mean the destruction of many existing woodworking industries. But paper mills, sawmills, turpentine operators and all other users of the forests, can be supplied by Georgia's forests if the timberland owners can be led to follow a practice of so handling their forests as to provide materials for all forest industries; and by so doing they can receive the largest returns from their timberlands.
A statement of what to cut and what not to cut for pulpwood,
prepared by the U. S. Forest Service for Georgia conditions* is as
follows:

39

TREES TO CUT FOR PULPWOOD: (1) Worked out naval stores

trees; (2) crooked and poorly formed trees; (3) weaker crowned trees in dense stands and "wolf trees" overtopping young trees; (4)

overmature, red heart trees; (5) fire scarred, insect damaged, or dis-

eased trees.
Trees to Leave in Cuttinc Pulpwood: (1) Round longleaf

and slash pines

(not turpentined) ;

(2)

straight and best formed

trees; (3) trees with good, thrifty crowns; (4) young, thrifty, fast

growing trees. (5) healthy trees free from injury.
Paper Manufacturing. The main product of paper mills in

the South is kraft paper. The word "kraft" is a German word mean-

ing "strength." This type of paper is usually brown and is exten-

sively used for wrapping purposes and for bags.

-- Pulpwood cutting. Note that thinnings of the forest provide the pulpwood stacked
in pens and that a number of trees are left for a future crop a good forestry practice.

40 .

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Upon arriving at the paper mills the pine bolts have their bark removed by machines. The wood is then chipped into small fragments by powerful machines called "hogs." The chips are digested
in chemicals that separate the cellulose from the lignin of the wood, following which the cellulose is washed to remove all foreign matter, and is then a pulpy material which is pressed between drums or rollers and issues as paper.
White paper is made somewhat in the same way but the material is treated with bleaching chemicals. Newsprint paper is made up of a large amount of ground wood, that is, wood mechanically ground into a powdery form. Ground wood and fiber pulp obtained from chipped wood are combined to make newsprint. Newsprint
does not require the strength needed in kraft paper.
A number of plants are making rayon in the South but only one,
located at Fernandina, Florida, is now being constructed to make rayon from southern pines. One plant located at Brunswick is now
making white paper from southern pines.
An interesting use of chestnut trees killed with blight is that the
wood is distilled for the production of tannic acid used largely in leather manufacture, while the residue of wood fiber, too short to make paper, is used to make paperboard used for paper cartons and
other commodities.
CELLULOSE PRODUCTS. Cellulose gets its name from the fact
that it is derived from cells. Cotton lint is almost pure cellulose,
and wood cells are likewise high in cellulose content. Wood appears
destined to be the main source of cellulose because more cellulose
per acre can be obtained from wood than from any other material.
Heretofore most of the cellulose used in many different commodi-
ties has been derived from red spruce, also the main source of white
paper, but due to Dr. Herty's tests, the fact is now well-known that
the southern pines are as well-adapted to the purpose as the spruce.
The process by which cellulose is made is like that of papermaking until the raw pulp is produced, then it is broken down by chemical
processes into a liquid form before entering into its final product.
A noted chemist has said that the world is entering the cellulose
age. Since trees are the largest and cheapest source of cellulose, the prospects are that timberland owners will share in the benefits. Rayon, a cellulose product, can be made from southern pines, a fact
fully demonstrated by Dr. Herty. The transparent wrapping paper known commonly as "cellophane" is a cellulose product made from
wood. Cellulose goes into shatterproof glass of automobiles. It is

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an important part of artificial leather now extensively used. Nitro-
cellulose, a high explosive, has been rendered harmless, and useful as a quick drying paint. Photographic films and moving picture films, lacquers, drinking straws, and numerous other articles are
now made from cellulose. Perhaps before long chemists will have
mankind eating wood, transformed into palatable starchy material
--a better cellulose product than Germans were forced to eat during
the World War.

CHAPTER XI
FORESTS AND WATER
The forest that covered Georgia before the white settlers cleared
their farm lands caught rainfall with its spongelike carpet, so
that comparatively little surface water made its way into streams. The rain water that was not used by trees and other vegetative growth
seeped into the ground to emerge as crystal clear water of springs. In former days all the streams were clear and heavily stocked
with a variety of fish. Today streams run red with clay and are rarely clear. The few fish remaining are generally the poorer sort, with the game fish like the trout and bass long since driven out by
a change of environment they could not endure.
As the tide of white men continued to flow into Georgia, still more and more land was cleared of its forest growth. Soils on rolling
lands and even steep slopes were cultivated because they were fertile and produced large crops.
Cotton and corn soon became the leading crops. Both were cultivated with considerable space between the plants. Rain falling on these lands found plenty of opportunity to flow between the stalks of cotton and corn and to carry along loose soil to the streams. Year after year the fertile topsoil thus slipped away until the subsoil was
reached.
Many acres became too poor to grow cotton and corn profitably and were abandoned. Nature undertook to reclaim what man had
despoiled, and in time neighboring pines released their seeds on the winds. Within a few years, pine seedlings were growing in the
eroded and gullied fields. Young pine roots clutched the soil, checked
erosion, and began the slow process of improving the soil. Streams formerly heavily charged with sediment became clearer.
Many acres abandoned for agricultural crops in Georgia are still eroding badly. In many instances the pines are struggling to reforest

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the old eroding fields but are hindered year by year by fires that burn through the sedge grass and destroy their seedlings.
Some eroded fields are not flanked with seed bearing pines, or at least there are not enough of them to carry on natural reproduction,
hence the necessity for planting seedlings artificially. It is generally admitted that trees control soil erosion better than
any other means, natural or artificial. But of course in some areas, if all sloping land were given over to trees, there would not be enough left for the farmer to grow his crops and establish pastures. Erodible lands that are to grow crops and those that are to grow trees, constitute a problem for the farmer to solve under the guidance of agricultural agencies of the state and Federal governments.
Forests, land terracing, rotation of wide spaced cultivated plants with close growing crops, establishment of permanent pastures and stabilizing channels for removing the rainfall from sloping lands all are needed for checking soil erosion and for flood control.
It has been shown that unburned forests absorb rainfall in large quantities. Therefore the greater the forested area on a watershed the less danger from floods. The greater the area of land abandoned for agricultural crops, the greater will be the number of gullies to collect and quickly carry water to streams, hence the greater will be the floods on the watershed. If all such land were reforested, the flood danger would be minimized.
Gully floods are the most dangerous because of the amount of materials carried and because the gullies move water suddenly into the streams. Often two-thirds of the fluid material is composed of solids, such as silt, sand, gravel, and even stones. The greater the amount of water the swifter it flows. According to a law of physics,
if the velocity of a stream is increased ten times, its transporting
power is increased one million times. It has been determined that a current having a velocity of two miles an hour will move stones the size of a hen's egg. If the velocity of the stream were twenty miles an hour, a boulder weighing one hundred tons would be moved.
Carrying stones, gravel, and sand, the abrasive power of the stream flow is able to gash stream banks, scour away bottom lands with overflow water, and by its strong impact, sweep away bridges, mills, and houses.
The value of the plant food material permanently lost to Georgia in any one year would go far toward meeting the cost of planting
trees on all the abandoned eroding lands of the state, and instead of such lands being a source of floods and damage to other lands, they could be growing trees to add to the forest wealth of the state.

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CHAPTER XII

FORESTRY EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
The first institution to give degrees in forestry in the South was the University of Georgia. The George Foster Peabody School of Forestry was established in 1906 and has sent out many graduates who are now employed by the states and Federal governments.
Georgia was also the first state to establish a course in forestry in high schools having vocational agriculture teachers. This course was established in 1928. It was thought that while teaching future
farmers how to grow and market farm crops and livestock as a means of earning a living that a knowledge of how to handle a farm forest should also be helpful. The chief end sought by the undertaking was to equip the student with fundamental knowledge of how to
protect and develop forest resources.
SCHOOL FORESTS. For practicing forestry jobs, vocational agri-
culture teachers were encouraged to establish school forests of ten
acres or more. No trouble was experienced in obtaining the required
forest land. In most communities the school forests were leased for
ten or more years by local school boards. The school forests were surveyed and mapped by technical foresters who also made manage-
ment plans to be followed for converting them into ideal demon-
stration forests. The only printed material dealing with the practice
of forestry used in these schools has been free bulletins prepared by the state Division of Forestry and the U. S. Forest Service. These serve as sources of information and guidance in teaching forestry jobs. The Division of Vocational Education has organized this information into teaching material. Technical guidance has been given by representatives of the state Division of Forestry who, when visiting the schools, have conducted demonstrations showing the technique of doing forestry work. As an incentive to student interest, the state Division of Forestry has financed and conducted a forestry camp each summer, with each school eligible to one free camp scholar-
ship.
The Georgia Forestry Association, an organization of citizens devoted to promoting forestry, has shown its interest and given en-
couragement to the undertaking by contributing cash prizes to teachers and students doing outstanding work in forestry. These are called "Herty Prizes" in honor of Dr. Charles H. Herty.
RESULTS. During the ten years the project has been in operation, between 40,000 and 50,000 rural boys of Georgia have received

44 .

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practical training in forestry. About 70 per cent of these young men are now engaged in farming and are applying the knowledge obtained to the forest areas under their control. While in school these young men were responsible for the planting of millions of pine tree seed-
lings and for the construction of thousands of miles of firebreaks to
prevent the spread of forest fires. In many instances these young men have played an important role in changing the attitudes of their communities regarding forests. They have been responsible for the general adoption of many improved forest practices in their respective communities. Some have graduated from the School of Forestry at the University of Georgia and have become trained foresters. A number have become vocational agriculture teachers and are carry-
ing their knowledge of forestry to future farmers.

FORESTRY AS A CAREER. In recent years interest in forestry has grown and the demand for foresters has increased. As a result the
schools of forestry throughout the county have greatly increased their enrollments. It is difficult to predict whether the profession of forestry is to be over supplied or under supplied with trained men.
Foresters do not have an opportunity in practicing their profession to become wealthy, but most foresters would rather be engaged in
their interesting work than to be wealthy. For any who would rather
be a forester than anything else the field is open. Aside from the School of Forestry at the University of Georgia,
other southern universities offering degrees in the subject are Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, the State College of Agriculture
at Raleigh, North Carolina, and the University of Florida. Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, offers advanced degrees in the subject. Other institutions in the South have forestry in their curri-
cula.

LAND CLASSIFICATION DATA--BY COUNTIES
The following data, compiled by the Georgia Forest Service in 1926 to show the potential forest land of Georgia, have probably changed so little that they can now
be reprinted as a fair approximation of the forest and potential forest land of the state.

County
Appling Atkinson Bacon Baker Baldwin Banks Barrow Bartow Ben Hill

rotal Area of County

290,560

211,200

173,440

228,480

196,480

142,080

.

.

107,520

301,440

163,840

Potential
Forest Land
231,800 172,550 137,437 140,985 109,508
79,211 46,085 174,148 103,213

Percent Forest Land
80 82 79 62 56
5,5
42 58 63

County Berrien Bibb Bleckley Brantley
Brooks Bryan Bulloch Burke Butts Calhoun Camden Candler
Carroll Catoosa Charlton
Chatham
Chattahoochee Chatooga Cherokee Clark Clay Clayton Clinch
Cobb
Coffee Colquitt
Columbia Cook Coweta Crawford Crisp Dade Dawson Decatur DeKalb Dodge Dooly Dougherty Douglas Early Echols Effingham
Elbert
Emanuel Evans Fannin
Fayette Floyd Forsyth Franklin Fulton

Total Area of County
320,000 177,280 131,200 280,537 328,960 275,840 427,520 611,840 129,920 181,760 455,040 145,920 314,880 108,160 563,840 235,800 139,520 209,920 274,560
72,960 129,920
90,880 576,000 225,920 404,480 338,560 224,000 154,240 283,520 204,160 177,280 119,040 138,240 526,720 174,080 275,840 254,080 218,880 133,120 335,360 231,680 286,720 231,040 488,960 183,680 256,640 149,760 321,280 158,080 178,560 346,240

. 45

Potential
Forest Land 246,343
97,215 .60,961 190,184 182,924 244,058 263,411 330.471
72,301 95,312 441,893 78,665 147,289 58,781 542,744 198,109 113,983 115,335 189,628 24,917 53,956 36,865 546,708 111,738 290,694 188,056 141,505 102,250 143,701 132,991 7.6,718 96,005 107,529 343,173 94,147 109,665 112,805 122,456 81,366 180,090 212,417 239,534 123.546 318,139 143,540 217.526 83,415 182,092 83,613 86,197 160,992

Percent Forest Land
77 55 46 67 56 88 63 54 56 53 97 54 47 54 91 84 81 55 69 34 42 40 95 49 72 56 63 66 51 65 43 81 74 65 54 71 44 56 61 54 92 84 53 65 78 85 56 57 53 48 46

46 .

.

County

Gilmer

Glascock

Glynn

Gordon

Grady

I

Greene

Gwinnett

Habersham

Hall

Hancock

Haralson

Harris

Hart

Heard

Henry

Houston

Irwin

Jackson

Jasper

Jeff Davis

Jefferson

Jenkins

Johnson

Jones

Lamar

Lanier

Laurens

Lee

Liberty

Lincoln

Long

Lowndes

Lumpkin

McDuffie

Mcintosh

Macon

Madison

Marion

Merriwether

Miller

Mitchell

Monroe

Montgomery

Morgan

Murray

Muscogee

Newton

Oconee

Oglethorpe

Paulding .v.

Peach .'..:'..,

Total Area of County

281.600

108,800

280,960

240,000

284,160

2,56,240

281,600

185,600

279,680

339,200

181,760

320,640

167,040

182,400

.

.

207,360

374,400

241,920

227,200

205,440

192,000

413,440

218,880

186,880

241,280

118,782

123,428

515,840

208,640

599,040

186,240

244,598

304,640

179,200

183,680

300,800

23 6,160

181,760

230,400

317,440

161,920

350,720

' 373,760

121,600

249,600

218,880

150,400

167,680

110,080

322,560

207,360

95,651

Potential
Forest Land 241,544 73,141 267,611 134,401 168,482 152,120 144,491 144,479 179,466 214,165 113,255 217,188 75,465 102,863 91,625 210,098 149,57,6 99,477 96,408 150,443 268,281 132,615 94,590 139,858 33,625 56,259 258,477 95,539 541,111 128,209 147,249 192,391 150,396 118,815 289,687 102,162 85,291 147,342 166,359 89,001 174,048 242,309 60,435 128,170 160,145 101,360 65,886 42,259 196,637 128,447 12,340

Percent Forest Land
86 67 95 56 59 57 51 78 64 63 62 68 45 56 44 56 62 44 46 78 65 61 51 58 28 45 50 46 90 69 60 63 84 65 96 43 47 64 52 55 50 65 50 51 73 67 39 38 61 62 12

nCount y Plckens

Pierce

Pike Polk

Pulaski
Putnam Quitman Rabun Randolph Richmond

RockdaIe

Schle y Screven

SeminoIe

S Paldin 8 Stephenson

Stewart Sumter

Talbot

TaIlaferro

Tattna11
Ta 7 lor
Telfair

errdl
^homas

Z,

l lh

oombs

J
l

Wns

ruetlen
J roup

i,

I urner

wlggs

^T nion

^T

n

^xV^a ker

^alton

^ are

^ar cn
Washf mgton

ZTe
Webster

~wht*" ltfe,d
^^fOX
Wllkes
^llki "son
Worth

47

Total Area of County
147,840 330,880 196,480 202,880 165,120 231,040
92,160 241,280 263,680 204,160
76,160 98,560 508,160 160,214 133'. 760 106,240 263,'040
291,840 199,680 135,,580 298,240 217,600 238,720 206,080 339,200 155,520 251,520 115,840 167,680 278,400 147,840 200,960 207,360 202,880 276,480 211,840 493,440 258,560
42816Q
504 ' 3 20 193 28Q ::: l6&[96 156.800 181,120 257,920 293 120 302,080 416,540

Potential
Forest Land 110,114 276,566 80,906 118,160 83,356 135,086 51,234 219,354 142,443 118,161 30,122 48,673
353,551 54,833 51,105 69,918
153,878 111,553 125,022
87,536 221,013 130,633 149,278
82,652 209,570
82,474 178,620
91,932 113,073 149,425
71,052 118,170 169,565 124,263 164,87,6 87,475 452,066 183,483 226,532 446.524 132,329 100,674 127,798 99,982 139,525 150,493 206,776 245,145

37,583,900

23,970,960

Percent Forest Land
74 83 41 58 50 58 56 91 54 58 40 49 70 34 38 66 58 38 63 65 74 60 63 41 62 53 71 79 67 54 48 54 82 61 60 41 92 71 53 88 69 60 82 55 54 51 68

GE0RL

. 48

i?3

OFFICIAL DIRECTORY
DIVISION OF FORESTRY
-- Director and State Forester Frank Hey ward, Jr., 435 State Capitol
Atlanta, Ga.
-- Assistant Director in Charge of FoSEstation H. D. Storey, Jr., 435 Stat*.
Capitol, Atlanta, Ga.
-- Assistant Director in Charge of Fire Control Russell H. Franklin,
435 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga.
-- Assistant Director in Charge of Forest Products H. C. Carruth,
435 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga.
-- EDUCATIONAL MANAGER C. A. Whittle, 419 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga.
District Foresters: T. P. Hursey, Gainesville, Ga.
W. G. Wallace, Macon, Ga.
J. S. Cross, Albany, Ga. Joel J. Rice, Baxley, Ga.
State Tree Nurseries: Albany, M. E. Murphy, Superintendent.
Flowery Branch, A. D. King, Superintendent.

J % 1