A survey of public education of less than college grade in Georgia

J SURVEY OF PUBLIC EDUCATION OF LESS THAN COLLEGE GRADE IN GEORGIA
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A Report to the General Assembly of Georgia by its Special Committee on Education
Atlanta, Georgia
J anuary 1, 1947

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Athens, Georgia January 1, 1947 Honorable Ellis Arnall, Chairman Honorab~e Frank Gross, Vice'-Chairman Honorable Roy Harris Honorable James L. Gillis, Jr. Honorable W. M. Holsenbeck Honorable Albert Swint Honorable A. N. Durden Honorable Max G. Hicks

Gentlemen:
This communication is written to the members of the Committee on Education authorized by a resolution of the General Assembly of Georgia, House Resolution 166-713A, known as Act Number 83, approve'd January 31, 1946. The resolution creating the Special Committee on Edpcation is as follows:

"WHEREAS:

For the year 1936, prior to the enactment of the law, approved February 10, 1937, to equalize educational opportunities throughout the State, to provide for the operation of the Public Schools of the State, to prescribe methods of aiioting, distributing and disbursing the common school funds, etc., the' General Assembly of Georgia did provide $7,537,205.29 in tax funds, both regular and equ~li zation, for the operation of the public schools; and

"WHEREAS:

The General Assembly is now providing for approximately $25,000,000.00 to be expended in each fiscal year for the operation of the public schools; and

"WHEREAS:

It is reported that the school system now faces the worst crisis in its history and is unable to provide the educational facilities due our children even in face' of the tremendous increase in state appropriation; be it therefore

"RESOLVED: That the President of the Senate be directed

to appoint two members from the Senate and

that the Speaker of the House of Re'presenta-

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tives be directed to appoint three members of the House to serve on an Education Committee. The Governor, President of the Senate and Speaker of the House shall also be members of the Committee. The Committee shall be charged with the duty of making a complete and exhaustive study and investigation into the operation of the common schools of this state, determine the cause of the crisis and propose a remedy, and shall make a complete report on its findings and shall make recommendations to guide the members of the General Assembly in its deliberations on matters pertaining to the improvement of the educational facilities of this state.
"The facilities of the Office of State Auditor and the Department of Education shall be made itVailable to the Committee, at no extra cost, to gather and compile financial data and other information required by the Committee.
"The Education Committee thus appointed shall report back to the next meeting of the General Asse'mbly in January, 1947, and for such services shall receive the compensation and expenses provided for in Georgia Laws, Code Section No. 47-111."
It is noted that the Governor, President of the Senate and Speaker of the House ?-re members of this committee. According to the minutes of the first meeting, the President of the Senate named Senator James L. Gillis, Jr., and Senator W. M. Holsenbeck to represent that body; and the Speaker of the House appointed Representatives Albert Swint, A, N. Durden, and Max G. Hicks to serve for that body. According to the minutes, the first meeting of this committee was held on March 14, 1946, with all me'mbers of the committee present.
The minutes further state that the Honorable B. E. Thrasher, Jr., was called into the meeting of the committee and that he recommended the appointment of the writer as secretary to the committee. The chairman of the committee appointed the writer to serve as secretary of the committee.
The duti~s of the committee were outlined as follows:
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(1) To make a complete and exhaustive study and investi-

gation into the operation of the common schools of the

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state;

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(2) To determine the cause of the crisis;

(3) To propose a remedy; and

(4) To make a complete report to the Gene'ral Assembly to . serve as a guide to it in its deliberation on matters pertaining to improving the educational facilities of the state.

The chairman instructed the secretary to carry out the purposes of the committee, to secure the specific information requeste'd, and to make a comprehensive study and investigation of the common school program of the state. The resolution unanimously passed requesting specific data along with the complete minutes of the first meeting is Appendix A of this study. This appendix is on file in the office of the Bureau of Educational Research and F'ield Service, College of Education, Athens, Georgia.

In corres.pondence with the chairman and in a personal interview with the vice'-chairman of the committee the secretary was instructed to proceed with the development of a comprehensive survey of the total public school program of less than college grade. It was suggested that the study be organized for the use of the committee and the members of the General Assembly in planning a more intelligent and more effective program of public education in Georgia.

The data requeste1 by the committee have been accumulated, analyzed, and organized. The findings and recommendations are contained in a volume of more than three hundred and, fifty pages.

The stuqy is organized into thirteen chapte'rs as listed below.

(1) Summary and Recommendations

(2) Legal Bases of Public Education in Georgia

(3) The Educational Status of the People.

(4) The Instruction~,} Program of the School

(5) Providing an Adequate Supply of Qualified Teachers

for t:he Public Schools of Georgia

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(6) A Report of the School Building Status and Needs .in

Georgia

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(7) School Transportation in Georgia
(8) School and Public Library Service in Georgia
(9) Free Textbook Service in Georgia
(10) The School Lunch Program
(11) Organization and Administration of Public Education in Georgia
(12) School Finance in Georgia
(13) Organization of the State Department of Education
In addition to this report there are many appendices which contain the detailed information requested by the committee and other data used as a basis for making the recommendations in this study. These data are organized so as to be available to the members of the committee and are' stored in several filing cabinets.
An examination of the report will show that emphasis has been placed on ways and means of improving the state's educational program rather than on the weaknesses of the present program.
It appears that the State Auditor's Office has made regular and detailed audits of all public moneys appropriated and used in the State's educational program. The reports of the State Department of Education, based on data furnished by local officials, were examined in detail. The State Auditor's reports and those of the State Department do not always agree exactly because the latter are generally based on data submitted before the audit, with the re'sult that occasional items are treated differently by the two agencies. The only evidences of illegal use or misappropriation of public moneys were found at the local level of administration. Sometimes local authorities made current use of funds raised for bond purposes. Occasional instances in which current funds were used for lunchroom purposes were' also found. The State Auditor's Office commonly warns against such practices. No evidence of illegal use of or misappropriation of state moneys was discovered.
Acknowledgments
The secretary had the assistance of a professional staff in making this investigation. Mr. Joe A. Williams, Dr. W. A.
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Stumpf, and Mr. L. 0. Rogers carried the burden of the detailed data-gathering and analyses. Other professional persons who have materially aided in the development of this report are Miss Johnnye Cox, Mr. J. D. Messer, Mr. Pendleton Mitchell, and Mr. James L. Dickerson. Dr. R. L. Johns of the University of Florida and Dr. Francis G. Cornell of the U.S. Office of Education served as specialists in the fields of educational finance and educational organization.

The secretary would also like to commend the Honorable

B. E. Thrasher, Jr., for his assistance, encouragement, and

advice in the development of the study. Mr. Thrasher's office

and all of his records were made available for the use of the

staff. :pr. M. D. Collins and the entire staff of the State De-

partment of Education-cooperated wholeheartedly and enthusi-

astically in making the stud~Each member of the State De-

partment of Education was contacted and without a single exception ga~e every assistance that could be expected. The

books and records of the Department we're put at the disposal

of the staff. Officials and members of the Georgia Education

Association assisted in securing some of the data and informa-

r,:,
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tion on the local level. School administrators and many teach-

ers in the state furnished information by filling out forms and

answering other requests for data and opinions.

The professional and lay people in the state assisted in the gathering, organizing, and evaluating of the information regarding the state's educational program. Many of them made suggestions that have' been incorporated in certain parts of the report. The chapter on the instructional program largely grew out of the thinking and planning done by more than twenty thousand of Georgia's lay men and women.

The secretary and the professional staff earnestly hope that the report will .be of value to the Education Committee and to the General Assembly. of Georgia; and through them to the State Board of Education, the local boards of education, the school administrators, and others in effectuating a more adequate educational program for all of the people of Georgia.

0. C. ADERHOLD
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Secretary
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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I. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................... 1

Legal Bases of Public Education in Georgia.................................. 1 The Educational Status of the People............................................ 2 The Instructional Program................................................................ 3 Adequate Supply of Qualified Teachers.......................................... 7 School Building Status and Needs in Georgia................................ 11 School Transportation in Georgia.................................................... 14 School and Public Library Service in Georgia................................ 17 Free Textbook Service in Georgia.................................................... 19 The School Lunch Prog-ram................................................................ 21 Organization and Administration of Public Education in
Georgia .......................................................................................... 23 School Finance in Georgia.................................................................. 30 Organization of the State Department of Education.................... 39 Summa-ry of Recommendations.......................................................... 44

II. LEGAL BASES OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN GEORGIA............ 49

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Basic Constitutional Provisions........................................................ 49

Statutory Provisions .......................................................................... 50

Constitutional Boards and Officials................................................ 52

Summary and Conclusions.................................................................. 53

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v III. THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE PEOPLE...................... 55

School Age Youth ..........................................................;.................... 55 School attendance ........................................................................ 55 Drop-outs ...................................................................................... 57 Retardation .................................................................................. 58 College entrance .......................................................................... 60
Adult Population ................................................................................ 60 Years of school c01npleted.......................................................... 63 Illiteracy ...................................................................................... 63 Educational level and income.................................................... 65
Educational Rank ................................................................................ 65 Sum1nary ................................................................................................ 69

v IV. THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM OF THE SCHOOL................ 71

Introduction .......................................................................................... 71 Point of View........................................................................................ 71 Implications of Point of View for Teachers.................................... 72

Implications of Point of View for Administration........................ 73

Implications of Point of View for the Instructional Program.... 73 [

Evaluation of the Present School Program.................................... '{9

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Proposed Organization of the New School...................................... 81 .

The Com1nunity School................................................................ 82 The Comprehensive Secondary School...................................... 97

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Sum1nary ............................................................................................... 113

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V. PROVIDING AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF QUALIFIED TEACHERS FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA.......... 115

Nature and Scope of the Problem.................................................... 115
Teacher Supply and Demand............................................................ 116
A national problem...................................................................... 116 Problem in Georgia...................................................................... 117 Temporary measures in meeting the emergency in Georgia 119 Increased po:;t-war demand for teachers in Georgia............ 119 The norn1al supply...................................................................... 121
Causes of the Teacher Shortage...................................................... 122 Low salaries and other economic factors ................................ 122 Unsatisfactory living and working conditions........................ 123 Low professional standards........................................................ 123
Proposals for Supplying the Teachers Need in Georgia Schools 124
Making Teaching Mo1e Attractive as a Life Work.................... 125 Selection and guidance................................................................ 126
Essentials for an Adequate Training Program.............................. 127 Curriculum and facilities for pre-service program.............. 127 Providing teachers for rural and elementary schools............ 128 In-service education .................................................................... 128 Training of leaders...................................................................... 128 Cost of professional training.................................................... 129 Unifying the program................................................................ 129
Rec01nmendations ................................................................................ 130 The local community and school system.................................. 130 The State Board of Education.................................................. 131 The State Board of Regents...................................................... 132 The General Assembly................................................................ 133

VI. A REPORT OF THE SCHOOL STATUS AND NEEDS IN GEORGIA .............;...................................................................................... 135
The Present Building Status.............................................................. 135 How School Buildings Have Been Provided in Georgia.............. 138 Effects of the New State Constitution on the School Building
Program ........................................ ........ ........ .... ............ ................ 140 Summary Estimate of School Building Needs of the State........ 141 Inequalities Among Counties to Finance Their Building
Program ............................................ .... ........................................ 143 Conclusions .................... .................................... ........ ............................ 143 Recommendations Necessary for Improving the School Building
Status ............................................................................................ 145

VII. SCHOOL TRANSPORTATION IN GEORGIA.................................. 149
Development and Scope of School Transportation Program...... 149 Major Problems .................................................................................. '155
VII

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Chapte1

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Ad1ninistration ............................................................................ 155 Equip1nent .................................................................................... 155 Maintenance .................................................................................. 155 Operation .... ........................................ .... ...................................... 156 Finance ................................................................;......................... 156
Program in Other States..........................................:......................... 156 Summary and Conclusions...................;.............................................. 158 Recommended Program ...................................................................... 162
State-owned and operated school transportation system...... 163 State-regulated school transportation system........................ 164

VIII. SCHOOL AND PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE IN GEORGIA...... 165

History of Library Service in Georgia.......................................... 165 Establishment of Library Commission.................................... 165

Library Commission transferred to State Department of Education .............................................................................. 165

County Library Law.................................................................... 166 State aid for county libraries.................................................... 167 W P A Program............................................................................ 167 State aid for rural public library service.............................. 168

Present Service .................................................................................... 169

Organization and administration.............................................. 169

Public library service.................................................................. 170

School library service.................................................................. 171

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Library Extension Service.......................................................... 175

State Cataloguing Service.......................................................... 175

Public and school personnel........................................................ 176

Cmnparative Study ............................................................................ 176 Program in other states.............................................................. 176 Minimum standards (schools) .................................................. 176 Standards public library............................................................ 177

Georgia Needs ..............................................................................;;....... 178

IX. FREE TEXTBOOK SERVICE IN GEORGIA.................................... 181
History of Textbook Service.............................................................. 181 Legislation .................................................................................... 181 Textbook adoption and distribution.......................................... 181
Organization and Administration.................................................... 182 Present Program ................................................................................ 182 Comparative Statistics ...................................................................... 184 Textbook N ~eds .................................................................................. 185
Stagge1ed prog1am of textbook adoption................................ 185 P1ofessional textbooks committees on the local level.......... 185 Multiple listing ............................................................................ 185 Budget basis of distribution...................................................... 185 Additional funds .........................................................:................ 186 Multi-sensory teaching aids..................................~..................... 186
VIII

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Chapter

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X. THE SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM...................................................... 187

History of School Lunch Program................".................................. 187
Present Program ................................................................................ 188 Agreement with federal agency................................................ 188 Eligibility of schools for participation in program.............. 189 Administration of the Program by the State Department of Education ........................................................................ 190 Program ........................................................................................ 190
Needs .................................................................................................... 191 Lunchromns and meals................................................................ 191 Adequate lunchroom facilities .................................................... 192 Increased supervision ................................................................ 192 Training of supervisors and personnel.................................... 193 Correlation of program with nutlition and health education 193 Federal funds .............................................................................. 195 State funds .................................................................................. 195 Legislation .................................................................................... 196

XI. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC
EDUCATION IN GEORGIA.................................................................... 197
Legal Bases of Administration........................................................ 197 General Patterns of School Administration in Georgia................ 198
State Board of Education.......................................................... 198 The Board of Regents.................................................................. 199 A single board for all state-supported educational
enterprises ............................................................................ 199 State School Supe1intendent...................................................... 200 Relationships of the State Board to the State School
Superintendent .................................................................... 201 Local adrtlinistration .................................................................. 201 Educational organization ........................................................... 203
Governmental Responsibility for Public Education...................... 203 Characteristics of Local School Administrative Units in Georgia 207
What an "administrative unit" is.......................,.................. 207
Characteristics of County School Administrative Units in
l Georgia .......................................................................................... 208
Area .............................................................................................. 208 Shape .................................................................................... ........ 209 ~ Topography .................................................................................. 210 Land use ........................................................................................ 210 1 Population .................................................................................... 210 Population centers ...................................................................... 210 Wealth .......................................................................................... 211 Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance.... 212 School enrollment ........................................................................ 213 Teachers allotted by the State.................................................. 213 Summary ...................................................................................... 214
IX

Chapter

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Characteristics of Independent School Administrative Units in Georgia .................................................................................... 214 Population .................................................................................... 215 Wealth .......................................................................................... 215 Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance.... 216 School enrolhnent ........................................................................ 216 Teachers allotted by the State.................................................. 217 Summary .......................................:.............................................. 217
Comparisons Between County and Independent School Administrative Units on the Basis of Selected Characte1istics.... 218 Wealth ............. 218 >; ..................................................... , ..................... Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance.... 219 School enrollment ......................................................................:. 221
How Well :bo Administrative Units in Georgia Meet Accepted Standards? .................................................................................... 222 Summary of Recommendations.................................................. 239
Internal Organization of Local Administrative Units................ 240
The County .................................................................................. 240 The county as an administrative unit............................ 240 County boards of education................................................ 241 The county school superintendent.................................... 242 Staff of the county school superintendent's office........ 243 Local schools ............................................................ ............ 244 Working relationships between the county school organization and the attendance units ...................... 245
The Independent Administrative Unit............................................ 247
Relationships Between County and Independent Systems............ 249 Intercounty Relationships .................................................................. 250
Recommendations ............................................................ .................... 251 Revision of School Laws.................................................................... 253
Summary and Recommendations...................................................... 254 Sum1nary ...................................................................................... 254 Federal level ........................................................................ 254 State level ............;............................................................... 254 Local level ............................................................................ 254 Educational organization ........................ .......................... 255 Characteristics of local administrative units in Georgia .......................................................................... 255 Working 1elationships within school administrative units .............................................................................. 256 Relationships between county and independent administrative units .............................................................. 256
Relationships between county administrative units...... 257 School laws .......................................................................... 257 Rec01nmendations ........ ....... ......................................................... 257
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Chapte1

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XII. SCHOOL FINANCE IN GEORGIA........................................................ 261

Introduction .......................................................................................... 261 Status .................................................................................................... 261

Present Status of Public School Finances in Georgia.......... 261 Trends in School Support.......................................................... 264
Receipts by sources of revenue........................................... 264 Expenditures .... ................ ................ .................................... 269

Inequalities in Educational Opportunities in Georgia........ 274 Instructional cost .................... ............................................ 275 Qualifications of teachers.................................................. 275 Variations in wealth............................................................ 278
Analysis of Expenditures ............................................................ 281 Increased term .................................................................... 283 Increased services ;............................... ................................ 283 Teachers' salaries ................................................................ 286 Adequacy of expenditures.................................................. 288
Su1nn1ary ...................................................................................... 290

Present Plan of State and Local School Finance.......................... 291

Method of Distributing Foundation Funds ............................ 292 Seven Months School Law.................................................. 292 Equalization Law ................................................................ 300

Local School Financing.............................................................. 301 Current expenses ................................................................ 301 Capital outlay expenditures................................................ 302
Funds for Vocational Education................................................ 307 Source of funds .................................................................... 307 Use of funds .......................................................................... 311 Present plan of distributing vocational funds to local school systems .............................................................. 312

Other State Educational Funds ................................................ 314 Funds for f1ee textbool,s, audio-visual materials, and library books ................................................................ 314 State school lunch funds .................................................... 314 Vocational rehabilitation funds ........................................ 314 County superintendents' salaries ...................................... 315 State schools for exceptional children.............................. 315 State Department of Education........................................ 315
Sun11nary ...................................................................................... 315

Evaluation of State Plan of Support............................................ 317 Guiding Principles ........,............................................................. 317 Criteria for Evaluation.............................................................. 318 Evaluation of Present Plan of Distribution............................ 323

Recommended State Foundation Program...................................... 325

Calculation of Education Needs................................................ 325 Salaries ................................................................................ 326

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Transportation .................................................................... 331

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Other current cxp8nses........................................................ 339

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Chapter

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Capital outlay fund.............................................................. 340 Total needs ..............................................;........................... 340 Ability of Local Units................................................................ 346 Calculation of index of economic ability........................ 346 Revenue to be charged_back to systems based on
economic index ............................................................ 351 Alternate Plan for Determining Ability of Local Units...... 360 State Funds Needed.................................................................... 376 Degree of Equalization Possible Under the Proposed Plan
of Support ........................................ .................................... 376 Sun1mary ........ .................................................... .......................... 381 Proposed Plan for Distributing State and Federal Vocational Funds .........................................,................................................... 383 Proposed Formt~la ...................................................................... 383 Su1nmary ...................................................................................... 387
Other State Educational Funds........................................................ 392 Library Funds .............................................................................. 392 Funds for Textbooks and Audio-Visual Materials.............. 392 School Lunch Funds.................................................................... 392 Vocational Rehabilitation Funds.............................................. 392 County Superintendents' Salaries............................................ 392 State Schools for Exceptional Children.................................... 393 State Department of Education................................................ 393
Total State Funds Needed for Public Education........................ 394

XIII. ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION .............................................................................................. 397

Division of the State Department of Education............................ 399

The Division of School Administration and Adult

Education .............................................................................. 399

The Division of Supervision.................................................... 401

The Division of Teacher Education, Certification, and

Curriculu1n .......................................................................... 402

Textbook and Library Division...............................:.................. 403

Division of Vocational Education............................................ 403

Division of Vocational Rehabilitation...................................... 405

Division of School Building Service........................................ 405

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School Lunch Division................................................................ 406

Division of Negro Education.................................................... 406

Division of Bookkeeping.............................................................. 407

Division of Commodity Distribution........................................ 407

Division of War Surplus Properties........................................ 407

Special Schools Operated by the State Department of Education 408 Schools for the Deaf.................................................................... 408 Schools for the Blind................................................................ 408 State Trade Schools.................................................................... 408

Proposed Organization of the State Department of Education.... 409 Criteria .......................................................................................... 409

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Chapte1

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Recommended Organization ...................................................... 411 Division of Administration and Finance........................ 412 Division of Instruction........................................................ 415 Division of Vocational Education...................................... 417 Division of Vocational Rehabilitation.............................. 418
Concluding Statements ...................................................................... 418 Personnel policies ........................................................................ 419

LIST OF TABLES

Table

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CHAPTER III
!1. Study of Drop-outs in White Schools of Georgia, 1932-42...................... 59) \.2. Study of Drop-outs in Negro Schools of Georgia, 1932-42...................... 59
3. Number and Percent of Enrolled Pupils Retarded by Grades, 1933-44 62
4. Georgia's Rank on Selected Factors Among the 49 School Systems of the United States for the School Year 1939-40.................................... 68

CHAPTER V
5. Amount of College Preparation of Public School Teachers in Georgia, 1937-38, 1940-41, and 1945-46........................................................................ 120

CHAPTER VI
6. Assessed Valuation, Enrollment, Assessed Valuation Per Pupil (White and Negro Combined), and Total Bonding Capacity Per Pupil in Certain Counties of Georgia..............................................................,...., 144

CHAPTER VIII
7. Public Library Service in Georgia, 1938-1945............................................ 171 8. State and Local Funds Expended For Public Libraries in Georgia,
1938-1945 .......................................................................................................... 171 9. State and Local Funds Expended For School Library Materials,
1939-40 Through 1944-45................................................................................ 174

CHAPTER IX
10. Statistics on Net Cost of Textbooks Exclusive of Administration........ 183 11. Textbook Cost in Florida for the School Years 1938-39 Through
1944-45, Inclusive ............................................................................................ 184 12. Textbook Cost in Louisiana for the School Years 1937-38 Through
1944-45, Inclusive ............................................................................................ 184

CHAPTER X

13. Georgia School Lunch Program, 1943-44 Through February 28, 1946.. 191 14. Funds Available For Operation of Georgia School Lunch Program,
1944-45 and 1945-46........................................................................................ 191
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Table

CHAPTER XI

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15. Comparisons Between the Tax Digests Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in the County and Independent School Administrative Units in Georgia.............................................................................................. 219
16. Comparisons of Expenditures Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in 1944-45 Between County and Independent Systems in Georgia...... 221
17. Number and Percentage of School Systems in Georgia With Fewer Than Certain Minimum Numbers of Pupils Enrolled in 1944-45.......... 222
18. The Enrollments and Costs Per Pupil in 463 Senior High Schools of Georgia ........................ ........ .. .. ...... .......... ................ ........ ...... .. .......................... 238

CHAPTER XII

19. Current Expenditures Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance For Six Southern States, 1941-42 and 1944-45................................................ 262
20. Relative Effort Made By the States in Supporting Education, in Supporting All State and Local Government, and Efforts that Would Have Been Necessary to Equalize to State and National Medians. 1939-40 .............................................................................................................. 263
21. Index of Relative Ability of Thirteen Southern States to Support Education Based on 1940 Data.................................................................... 265
22. State Grants In Aid to County and Independent School Systems, 193738 Through 1944-45 ........................................................................................ 268
23. County-City-District Tax Revenues For Operation and Bonds, 1937-38 Through 1943-44................................................................................ 268
24. Public School Expenditures, 1937-38 Through 1944-45 .......................... 270
25. Instructional Cost In Georgia Per Pupil In Average Daily Attendance, In Average Daily Attendance Adjusted For Purchasing Power of the Dollar, and Per Pupil Per Day In Session Adjusted For Purchasing Power of the Dollar-White, Negro, and Total For the School Years 1937-38 Through 1944-45 .................................................... 274
26. The Number and Percentage of White and Negro School Teachers By the Level of Certificates Held By Them for the Year 1943-44............ 277
27. Wealth Per Child In Average Daily Attendance as Measured By Property Digest and Property Digest Adjusted In Accordance With Index of Ability, 1944 ................................................................................................ 279
28. A Comparison of Expenditures by Major Expense Items-Georgia, 1938-39 and 1944 Compared With the Average for the South and The Nation for the School Year 1941-42 .................................................... 283
29. Funds Expended For Vocational Education of Less Than College Grade in Georgia, 1937-38 Through 1945-46 ............................................ 310
30. Criteria Scale For Evaluating State Plans For Financing The Public Schools, State of Georgia .................................................................. 320
31. Density Scale For Determining Teacher-Pupil Ratios By Density Per Square Mile in Average Daily Attendance For Whites and Negroes 326
32. Calculation of Teacher-Pupil Ratios by Density Per Square Mile In Average Daily Attendance For Whites and Negroes ................................ 328

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CHAPTER I
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Legal Bases of Public Education in Georgia
Summary
Education in the United States is a function of the several iitates. The legal basis of education in Georgia is set forth in the State Constitution, the statutes of the legislature, court decisions, rulings of constitutional boards of education, and opinions of the attorney general. The legislature looks to the Constitution for restraints upon its power, rather than for an enumeration of its powers affecting education.
The basic policy of the electorate of Georgia concerning public education is expressed in Article VIII, Section 1, of the Con8titution, as follows:
The provision of an adequate education for the citizen shall be a primary obligation of the State of Georgia, the expense of which shall be provided for by taxation. Separate schools shall be provided for the white and colored races.
The statutory provisions for education in Georgia are numerous, including the McMichael Law of 1905, the laws of 1911 affecting the responsibilities of the State Department of Education, acceptance of the matching provision of the SmithHughes Act of 1917, the Barrett-Roge'rs Act and other laws of 1919, the Equalization Law of 1926, the Seven Months School Law of 1937, the Teachers Retirement Law of 1943, and the Compulsory Attendance Law of 1945. There are also numerous court decisions, opinions of the attorney general, and quasilegislative rules and regulations of the state, county, and independent boards of education, too voluminous to be included in this report.
Within the legal boundaries the authorities responsible for the administration of public education are the State Board of Education, the Board of Regents, and the county and independent boards of education. These bodies act through their chief executive officers. The State School Superintendent and the
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Figure

CHAPTER VI

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7. Minimum Essential Building Needs and Ability to Finance Construction in Fifteen Typical Georgia Counties.................................................. 142

CHAPTER VII

8. Per Pupil Cost for Transportation, 1938 to 1945.................................... 151

CHAPTER VIII
9. Public Library Se1vice, Georgia, 1938........................................................ 172 10. Public Library Service, Georgia, 1945...................................................... 173

CHAPTER X 11. Meals Served in School Lunch Rooms in Georgia, 1944-45.................... 194

CHAPTER XI

12. Shapes of County School Administrative Units in Georgia, 1946........ 209

13. County School Administrative Units With Fewer Than 1,500 Pupils Enrolled in 1944-45.......................................................................................... 239-

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CHAPTER XII
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14. Income Receipts from State Revenue Allotments; Department of

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Education, 1938-45 ....................:..................................................................... 266

15. Percentage of School Funds Expended for Major Expense Purposes,

Georgia, 1939 and 1945; Southeastern States, 1942; and United

States, 1942 ...................................................................................................... 271

16. Percentage of Georgia School Systems Educating Children at Different Instructional Cost Expenditure Levels, 1944-45.......................... 276

17. White Pupils Enrolled in Schools Operating for Various Lengths of Terms ............................................................................................................ 284

18. Negro Pupils Enrolled in Schools Operating for Various Lengths of Terms ............................................................................................................ 285

19. Teachers' Salaries and Average Purchasing Power, Georgia and the United States, 1937-38 Through 1946-47.................................................. 289

20. Median Cost Per Pupil Transported in Average Daily Attendance Plotted Against the Density of Pupils Transported in Average Daily Attendance Per Square Mile........................................................................ 334

21. Distribution of Teacher Units According to Total Prospective Revenue for Current Expense Per Teacher if All School Systems Levy a 15-Mill Tax ................................................ ...................................................... 379

22. Distribution of Classroom Units According to Levels of Expenditures in Georgia, 1939-40.......................................................................................... 380

CHAPTER XIII

23. Proposed Organization of the State Department of Education.............. 413 XVI

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progress at least one year. Many of these students were

retarded two, three, and more years.

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5. More than one-fourth of all Negro pupils are enrolled in

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the first grade.

6. During the war years the number of high school graduates decreased from approximately 22,300 in 1940 to

17,300 in 1944. In like manner, the number entering

Georgia colleges decreased from approximately 3,700 in

1940 to 3,000 in 1944.

7. In 1940, the median number of school years completed by Georgia white adults was 8.4 and 4.2 for Negroes as compared to 8.4 for the average United States citizen.

8. According to the 1940 U. S. Census, approximately 3 percent of Georgia white adults and 14 percent of all Georgia Negro adults had never attended school.

9. The percentage of adults over 25 years old who had not

completed more than four years of school and who were

therefore classed as illiterate by Selective Service standards, in 1940 was 30.1 in Georgia as compared to only

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13.6 percent in the United States.

The Instructional Program
Summary
Any evalution of schools in Georgia must take into account the instructional programs. The school exists for the purpose of providing learning experiences for those enrolled. Organization and administration, library, textbooks, transportation, finance-in fact, all phases of school activity must be projected toward providing educational opportunities to people both young and old to deal effectively with the problems of acquiring skill in the use of the tools of learning, making occupational choice's and adjustments, establishing homes, maintaining health, developing social understandings, earning a living, and the like. It is important to society for all people to become skilled, through experience, in solving such problems intelligently and with concern for all persons affected by the solutions.
An educational program that attains these purpose's must have an adequate number of professionally trained teachers,

3

county school superintendents are constitutional officers, elected by the people; the chancellor of the University System and the superintendents of the independent school administrative units are not mentioned in the State Constitution and are in effect employees of their respective boards.
Recommendations concerning certain changes in the constitutional and statutory provisions for public education will be found in the various chapters of this report and are summarized later in this chapter.
The Educational Status of the People
Summary
One of the best measures of the wealth of a state is human resources. The value of these human resources is measured in terms of quantity and quality. The study which has been made of human resources deals in this report with the quality of the population. It has been assumed that the chief measure of quality is the educational status of the people.
A study of the educational status of Georgians revealed that the quality of our population has improved greatly in recent years. The study also showed that the educational status of the average Georgia citizen is below the educational status of the average United States citizen. Considerable improvement has been made in the last few years, but much more remains to be done. Some of the most pertinent facts concerning Georgia brought out by the analysis are:
1. The percentage of Georgia children 5-17 years of age attending school increased from 70 percent in 1930 to 75 percent in 1940, as compared to 82 percent in the Nation as a whole.
2. The percentage o Georgia white youth 6-17 years of age attending school was 12 percent greater than for Negroes in 1930 and 7.7 percent greater in 1940.
3. Approximately 60 percent of all white students and 90 pe'rcent of all Negro students drop out of school before completing the eleventh grade.
4. In 1944, 20.3 percent of all white students and 49.5 percent of all Negro students were retarded in school grade
2

the same time, and all are expected to learn the same amount of subject matter. Not enough emphasis is placed on the application and the use of the subject matter in life activities. The rules of grammar are memorized but too seldom used; languages are talked about but seldom practiced; mathematical principles are' verbalized but seldom used. Writing is talked about, but little creative writing is clone.
5. In the field of health children read and discuss the importance of cleanliness and sanitation to good health and too often do nothing about the dirty classrooms, toilets, and playgrounds. Children memorize the health rules but little guidance is provided in developing good health habits. Recreation and physical activity are too. frequently unsupervised or absent.
6. Opportunities for growth in the creative arts are all too limited. Except in centers of wealth little or no provision is made for "making things" imcl satisfying the urge to create.
7. Only a few schools in the State give adequate attention to occupational guidance. In too many schools the pr0gram is limited to reading about occupations.
8. Social problems are talked about and re'acling is clone in the civic and social science textbooks, but the masses of students have little help in learning under g_uiclance to become skillful in solving these problems.
9. Opportunities to prepare for earning a living are present in less than one-half of the high schools. Only a small percentage of out-of-school youth and adults get assistance.
10. Utilizing money and natural resources is a part of instructional programs of only a small percentage of the schools.
The lay and professional people who made up the planning groups believe that a program of educational activities should include more functional use of the fundamental skills of reading, writing, figuring, etc.; a more functional program of healthful living; wider experiences in making things from a variety

schools organized into appropriate units to serve the people, and an instructional program to meet the needs of those enrolled.
Teachers with ability, personality, and training are essential. Teachers must understand each learner physically, mentally, and emotionally. They must be skillful in sensing problems faced by students and in promoting reflective thinking. They must be efficient in guiding the learner in discovering problems, proposing and testing possible solutiono, reaching conclusions, and putting plans into operation. An adequate number of teachers with these qualities will develop intelligent, effective Georgia citizens.
Schools must also be organized so that students will have wide opportunities to work at the solution of their own problems. Educational experiences must be provided for all age groups for twelve months in each year.
During the past two years educational leaders have worked with more than 20,000 lay and professional people in planning for more adequate school programs. Planning groups have pointed out weaknesses in the present instructional program. While all may not be applicable to any one school, the weaknesses observed widely are:
1. The school does not reach enough people 6 to 18 years of age. About 90 percent of the 6 to 13 age group is reached but only about 65 percent of the 13 to 18 age group. Little is done for the pre-school child except in centers of wealth. There is practically no program except college offerings for the 18 to 25 years of age group. The adult educational opportunities are limited to instruction in only a few areas and are available to a very small percentage of the people.
2. The school plant and facilities are used only nine months in the year.
3. Many of the school facilities are poorly adapted to an action program.
4. Too many schools are primarily concerned with helping children to acquire certain subject matter assigned in a textbook. In these schools all pupils in a class work at
1

those not regularly enrolled from 18 to 25 years of age.
a. A minimum of one such school should be provided in each county where there are as many as 300 youth between the ages of 13 and 25 years.
b. Such a school should be located, as nearly as practicable, in the center of the population of the age group to be served.
c. The number of people served should be sufficiently large to justify the provision of adequate personnel and facilities for carrying out an effective school program to provide for the nee'd of the high school pupils including the twelfth grade, and for young men and women of the community up to 25 years of age. This means that the comprehensive secondary school should be located so that it may serve several communities, an entire county, or a larger .area.
d. The comprehensive secondary school should provide those facilities for which youth have a need, and which they may use in working toward the solution of the problems. involved in preparing for college, for an occupation, and for taking their places. as good citizens in the community, State, and Nation. These needs will probably call for a well-equipped and wellsupplied library of books, periodicals, bulletins, films, and recordings; laboratories for sciences, homemaking, agriculture, trades, distributive occupations., and the professions; shops and equipment for working with wood, metal, electricity, automobiles and motors; office machines and business training; rooms and equipment and materials for movies and art; and space and equipment for he'alth, physical education, and recreation.
Adequate Supply of Qualified Teachers
Summary
Factual surveys reveal evidence that the problem of teacher supply is not limited to Georgia. In the United States 633,200 teachers have left the profession since 1939; emergency teachers increased from 79,000 in January, 1945, to 108,000 in Janu-
7

ary, 1946; fewer elementary teachers will be available for 194647 than for any war year; the number of college students preparing for teaching dropped from 22 percent in 1920 to 7 percent in 1945. There has been an estimated average drop of one year in the level of preparation of teachers in the United States.
Of Georgia's 24,000 teachers, 25 percent either quit teaching or left the State in 1942-43. Of the present teaching force, 1,851 white and 2,284 Negro teachers hold county licenses; i.e., cannot qualify for the lowest certificates issued by the State Department of Education; about 3,500 have emergency ratings and several thousand others have sub-standard certificates. As wealthier states draw teachers from other states, so the city systems have drawn teachers from rural communities.
At no time in the development of public education in Georgia have the schools had enough qualified teachers, whether the standard be set at one, two, or four years of professional preparation. In 1935, two years of college preparation became the minimum requirement for a new state certificate. In 1945, ten years later, 2,894 white teachers and 2,949 Negro teachers still had less than the standard preparation of two years. In 1942, the State Department of Education announced that after the close of the war the standard professional certificate would require four years of college preparation. In 1946, a total of 9,515, or 56 percent, of all white and 5,640, or 75 percent, of all Negro teachers had less than the proposed standard of four years.
Persistent causes of the teacher shortage, as shown by surveys, include low salaries and other economic factors, such as ,-ost of preparation, insecurity of tenure, local discriminatory r0gulations, and the like; unsatisfactory living and working conditions, such as performing janitorial services and the' like, particularly in rural areas; and low professional standards, which fail to attract many of the more capable college graduates.
Estimates of the demand for teacher replacement are' based on several factors: normal turnover removing one-sixth of the teaching force annually; increased post-war demands for expanded services including kindergarten, new high school serv-
8

ices, new grades in the primary and elementary levels due to increased enrollment; and replacement of personnel classified by superintendents as unsatisfactory or teaching for emergency only. Conservatively, from five thousand to six thousand teachers are needed for annual replacements in the classrooms of the State and would be employed if they were available.
Present facilities provide less than one-third of this number of qualified teachers.
Recommendations
The State Board of Education and the' State Department of Education, the State Board of Regents and the members of the University System, the public and private colleges, and the local school systems-all have responsibilities that call for definite action.
The local community and school system should help develop conditions that make teaching attractive as a profession by 1evising local policies that may discriminate against elementary teachers, married teachers, "home" teachers, or "out-of-town" teachers. The community should provide adequate housing and living conditions and should accept the teacher as a responsible citizen not subject to unjust restrictions. The school and the community should build up in the public consciousness a belief that good teaching is a first need for the community and that teaching calls for the finest abilities and highest professional skills.
The State Board of Education. The State Department of Education, as the' legal agent of the Board, should:
1. Keep accurate data on the numbers and types of teachers needed, and should take the initiative in keeping the public informed of the serious shortage. In cooperation with the Georgia Education Association and other agencies, the Department should further the attack upon the problems of recruiting an adequate number of superior young people for training as teachers.
2. Establish as the standard credential for teaching in Georgia Professional Teacher's Certificate, based upon completion of a planned four-year curriculum. All other cer-
tificates sh01.dd be designated as provisional and the sal-

ary schedule should provide a wide differential between the professional certificate and provisional certificates.
3. Lead in the formulation of guiding principles for the training and certification of teachers.
4. Cooperate in the development of standards to be used as the basis for approving institutional programs of teacher education.
5. Arrange for the division concerned with the problems of teacher education to have adequate personnel and funds to enable it to work through committees, planning groups, and work conferences.
The State Board of Regents. The Board of Regents, through the Joint Committee on Teacher Education, should have data as to the number of teachers needed for replacements in each type of service, the number that may be reasonably expected from cooperating private colleges, and the number that should be provided by the University System. In the light of these data:
1. The Regents should allocate responsibility for definite types of training to appropriate institutions under its direction and should assign to each an annual quota of new teachers.
2. The Board of Regents shouJd provide each institution with funds for a budget in teacher education and should receive from each institution an accounting as to the number of teachers of each type graduated annually.
3. Be'cause of new training requirements for school leaders recently established by the State Board of Education, the demand for graduate study has been vastly increased. The College of Education at the University of Georgia, in order to meet this demand, shQuld expand its personnel and facilities to provide preparation on this level.
4. Research and field studie's are essential to a balanced program of public education and are properly the func.. tion of the University of Georgia. Facilities for this service should be provided as soon as practicable.
The General Assembly. As the voice of the electorate dictates, the legislature can further education in many ways.
10

1. The legislature should provide the State Board of Education with funds that will make it possible for the local system to employ skillful and qualified teachers and competent leaders regardless of competing demands for manpower.
2. For the purpose of encouraging a superior type of individual to prepare for teaching, the legislature should appropriate funds to be used in providing free tuition or scholarships for selected trainees from the several conntie's of the State.
3. The legislature should by resolution charge the State Board of Education and the State Board of Regents with joint responsibility for developing an adequate program for the professional education of teachers and should request of them biennially a joint report on the' status and the needs of teacher education in the State.

School Building Status and Needs in Georgia

Summary
Georgia in 1945 had 1,894 separate school plants consisting of 2,403 buildings for the whites and 2,860 school plants consisting of 3,075 buildings for Negroes. A survey made by the Education Panel reveals that 18.1 percent of the white and 92.6 percent of the Negro school buildings either are past the remodeling stage or would require extensive and expensive repairs to meet a reasonable' standard of efficiency. The survey shows that because of the lack of a sufficient number of classrooms, it is necessary in 1,086 instances, for two Negro teachers to work in the same classroom, teach in an auditorium, or whatever temporary space can be provided. Seven hundre'd and ten, or 23.1 percent, of the Negro schools are housed in dilapidated churches, lodges, tenant houses, or other privately owned buildings which were neither constructed nor equipped for scho0l use.

The survey further reveals that only 62 percent of the white

schools have water under pressure on the grounds; 47 percent

1

use flush type toilets; and 53 percent use outside pit toilets,

..

surface privies, or have no toilets at all. Twenty-seven percent

have no electricity; and 50 percent use inadequate, unsatisfac-

11

tory heating systems.
Only 12 percent of the Negro schools have water under pressure on the grounds. Forty-eight percent have outside pit toilets., and 45 percent have either outside surface privies or no toilets at all. Eighty-two percent have no electricity, and 84 percent have heating facilities below minimum standards.
Sufficient building facilities for libraries, lunchrooms, auditoriums, physical education buildings, health clinics, and the like are found in only a small percentage of the schools.
Through the use of a score sheet developed by authorities on school buildings, it was discovered that out of a maximum possible score of 1,000 points, the average white school in Georgia scored 443 points; and the average Negro school scored 158 points. If a plant scored less than 300 points, whe:J?. evaluated by this standard, it was considered unfit for satisfactory use. When this criterion was applied, it was found that 40 percent of the white and 95 percent of the Negro school buildings in Georgia at present are unfit for school use. The majority of the buildings, however, were constructed during the era when individual local districts independently planned, located, and constructed buildings for a limited territory only, without adequate consideration being given to future needs.
For the last three decades, the chief source of revenue in rural sections for school buildings has been from local district bonds and from city bonds in the independent systems. Under the small district system inequalities of opportunities existed among the districts in each county to an alarming degree. The records show that in one district, for each dollar that could be legally raised from taxes for buildings, a second district in the same county could raise $21. This condition prevailed in varying degrees throughout the State.
The survey also reveals that 15 average Georgia rural counties with their present bonded indebtedness could raise less than 40 percent of the school building funds needed. When studied individually, the survey reveals that four of the 15 counties have the ability to finance their entire needs, while three others could not finance 25 percent of their needs. The variation in the eleven poorer counties ranges from 22 percent to 46.7 percent in ability to meet their actual building needs.
12

This condition prevails in varying degrees between counties throughout the State.

The survey made of the school building needs in Georgia shows that in order to meet the minimum requirements for an adequate school program, based upon present building costs, a total of $83,571,000 will be needed.

White No.
1. Classrooms needed to replace plants unfit for use................ 1,610

Negro No.
5,407

Total 7,017

Estimated Estimated unit cost total cost
$3,000 $21,051,000

2. Remodeling and repairing classrooms ..............................10,366 1,421 11,787

1,000 11,787,000

3. Specialized classrooms (art, music, shops, etc.) .................. 2,418 1,766 4,184

4,000 16,736,000

4. General service rooms (lunchro01ns, laboratories, etc.) ...... 2,070 1,943 4,013

8,000 32,104,000

5.

Classrooms needed to relieve overcrowdedness

......

628

5 631 3,000

1,893,000

Total estimated cost ......................................................................$83,571,000

The above amount does not, by any means, cover the total building. needs. It should be noted that only classrooms and special service rooms are included in the above list. This estimate does not include such needs as physical education buildings, teachers' and caretakers' homes, and garages for buses.

Recommendations
For each county and city system to be in a position to meet the existing school house building needs, the following recommendations are made:
1. Permissive legislation should be passed that would permit county boards of education to assume responsibility for the liquidation of all district bonds outstanding at the time a county-wide bond issue is voted, in order to equalize the tax rate on all taxpayers in the county.
2. The plan of state school support recommended in Chapter XII, when adopted, would provide a suggested $4,326,600 for capital outlay. Should the recommended plan not be adopted at this time, as an alternate, it is recommended that a minimum of $2,500,000 per year be provided as a state equalization building fund. This fund should be disbursed according to the needs of each county in accordance with a formula to be adopted by the State Board

13

of Education. The formula to be adopted should require every county to make a maximum effort to finance its needs before such a county could participate in the state fund.
3. Provision should be made for adequately traine'd personnel to be set up as recommended in Chapter XIII to carry on a continuous statewide survey and planning program.
4. The Survey Committee recommends that a state-financing plan for county and independent school bonds be set up. The State could issue a sufficient amount of serial bonds at a very low rate of interest, to be sold when funds are needed, to purchase county or city bonds bearing as low a rate of interest as would be required to liquidat~ an equal amount of state bonds. Compared with the interest rates at which county and district bonds have been floated throughout the State for the past 25 years: one-half to two-thirds of the interest cost could be saved by the above state-financing method. North Carolina has a state plan somewhat similar to the aforementioned which has proved very satisfactory.
5. It is recommended that all school bond issues be approved by the State Board of Education.

School Transportation in Georgia

Summary
Prior to 1926, the cost of transportation was considered a local district or county responsibility. Since then, however, the state's financial aiel to school transportation has increased gradually and, since 1937, has been administered through the equalization fund.

In 1938, 141,854 pupils as a daily average were transported at a cost of $1,909,540, or $13.36 per pupil.

The annual cost per pupil, in 1945, for the State was $18.74

varying by counties from a low of $8.86 to .a high of $83.40.

This represents 9.19 percent of school expenditures in Georgia

as compared to 6 percent for the Nation as a whole. Variance

31'

between counties may be accounted for by density of popula .~,-

tion, road conditions, distance transported, types of ownership <

14

and operation of equipment, and the quality of management. Transportation has thus become the second highest item of school expenditures, the total cost in 1946 amounting to $3,689,279 or $19.75 per pupil for 186,826 pupils transported per day.
The present law relating to pupil transportation permits county boards of education to provide pupil transportation when it is deemed necessary for the best interest of the school. No legal authority for school transportation is vested in any other agency; nor are independent systems authorized to provide transportation.
The transportation situation at present presents certain major problems as follows:
a. Many county superintendents are inexperienced and unprepared to administer the transportation program efficiently and economically.
b. At least 1,400 new units are needed to replace wornout busses now in use, and at least 1,000 other units are needed to eliminate second- and third-trip routes. At prevailing prices, to purchase these busses would cost more than $5,000,000. At present, however, busses are not available for purchase to meet these needs.
c. Too few counties have a systematic maintenance and repair program in operation. As a result, many school busses have become inoperable long before necessary. Repairs at commercial garages are expensive and difficult to obtain. Those counties operating a central garage and maintenance service as a part of the transportation program have experienced less difficulty in keeping up equipment.
d. Most counties have experienced difficulty in securing physically and morally competent drivers. 'The cost of securing these drivers also has increased greatly in the last five years. The problem of operating the transportation system is further complicated in many instances by road conditions.
e. Under existing laws, school boards must pay for transportation equipment within the school year. This fact
15

makes it impossible for many counties to purchase the equipment they need.
A study of transportation in other states, detailed to some extent in Chapter VII, reveals that Georgia, by comparison, might save an estimated $500,000 a year through fleet purchases of supplies and the 800 busses needed annually. Transportation programs in other states include state-owned andoperated systems and state-regulated systems.
Recommendations
The state of Georgia should develop a state-owned andoperated school transportation system such as is now in operation in North Carolina. Legislation to establish a state system of school transportation should be written in such a manner as to authorize the State Board of Education to:
1. Take over the title to all busses now owne'd by the counties and to purchase bodies and chasis from private owners.
2. Equalize further the education opportunities among the school systems of the State by assuming the full control and cost of transportation.
3. Purchase all equipment and supplies centrally on the basis of competitive bids.
4. Establish a state-wide system of repair and maintenance garages either in cooperation with the State Highway Department or otherwise.
5. Establish a uniform state salary schedule for the bus drivers.
6. Establish a program of education and certification for school bus drivers in cooperation with the State Department of Public Safety.
7. Establish school bus routes and schedules annually, with the cooperation of local authorities.
8. Establish rules and regulations for the' school transportation system relative to the duties and responsibilities of system superintendents, principals, mechanics, and bus drivers.
16

tm Sltandards for the construction of
rules or regulations necessary for the n of a state-owned and state-operated >tem not in conflict with state law. >inaugurate a state-owned and-operated portation, it is recommended that legisng regulatory power over transportation tte Board of Education. This legislation State with specific regulations that may ther, it should enable the State Board e the operation of the school transporta9r that would make for greater service, Thus empowered, the State (Board of
ms routes to the extent that duplication, >cal political influence should be mini-
ring regulations and school bus driver cooperation with the Department of
um standards for the construction of be used in the State.
.imum salaa:y schedule for school bus
ges are made or not, there is a definite .horizing centralized purchasing of school mt and supplies.
blic Library Service in Georgia
Summary
tblic library service in Georgia was vested ::~mission established by the General Ascommission sponsored a service that was ng the nine-year period, December, 1933, mgh participation with several fe'deral ' library service to over 100 counties and
17

tools in the State had ion in library science. r the expenditure of nually. Southern Aswse of the American
.hould be established which have no public
tid be provided. Two jointly, where neces-
~t minimum standards ~cessitate an increase, arians, from the pres187. available to all counber from the present
acquired to meet the. r capita for public li-
n the present $300,000 g one-fourth of a re-
period of six years, ) per capita. m of the school library led resource in instrucisual aid, sound equip-
Georgia
~s one' through six furthe free textbook proan expenditure of $2,-

197,323.27, or $2.78 per pupil enrolled, for textbooks adopted on a multiple listing basis. The program continued on a budget plan of distribution from 1939 through 1943 and on a basis of requisition for minimum replacement since that time. Cost has averaged 84 cents per pupil from 1937-38 through 1944-45 as compared with 94 cents for Florida and $1.18 for Louisiana.
Textbooks are ordered and paid for by the State Department of Education through its Division of Textbooks and Library Service. Adoptions are made by the State Board of Education upon recommendation of professional committees made up of persons of recognized ability in the elementary and secondary fields and in special subject areas.
As is clearly stated in Chapter IV, more than 20,000 lay and professional pe'ople in Georgia have, during the past two years, placed a strong emphasis upon learning through attacking and solving problems. Throughout the State, many schools are developing programs around this concept, with a wide resultant influence upon the use to be made of textbooks. It is: no longer considered adequate for a child to have access to one book in a given subject field. Also, in the'se schools, it is not considered necessary for all pupils in a given grade to have exactly the same books, since different individuals and small groups have varying needs. The first two recommendations below are based upon these beliefs regarding the program of instruction.
The planning clone by lay and professional people also demands greatly increased use of such teaching aids as motion picture projectors, radios, record players, and the like, together with wide selections of films, recordings, etc. It is impossible for many local systems to acquire these aids through their own efforts.
Recommendations
1. The principle of multiple listing should be extended to include a wider range of material at many different levels of difficulty in each subject area and at each grade level.
2. Wide latitude should be given in the selection of books by a committee of professional persons of the local system in order that the wide range of materials needed for a problem-solving curriculum can be made available.
20

3. The textbook program should be extended to include many kinds of multi-sensory aids to teaching.
4. A program of adoption should make provisions for:
a. Review and recommendations for textbooks in a particular subject area one year in each five years.
b. Committees each year to consider material in the area selected for study that particular year.
5. Books and multi-sensory teaching aids should be distributed on a budget basis, pro-rated on a per-pupil basis within limits of justifiable needs. Selection of books for library use should be allowed within the limits of this budget if the local committee so chooses.
6. An annual budget of 1,500,000 for this purpose should be appropriated which would provide approximately $1.50 per pupil plus administrative costs.

The School Lunch Program

Summary

In 1935, through the help of the Work Projects Administration and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 999 schools in Georgia established lunchrooms for the first time. Since the discontinuance of the Work Projects Administration in February, 1943, the State Department of Education in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture has continued to sponsor the school lunch program.

During the 1945-46 school year there were 1,300 approved school lunchrooms in 159 counties which served approximately 33,000,000 noon meals to school children. This means that approximately 38.5 percent of all Georgia children in average daily attendance participated in the lunch program.

In addition to the 1,300 schools approved in 1945-46, 35 schools made application for participation but could not be approved because of insufficient federal funds. At least 25 other schools would have applied had sufficient funds been available.

In addition to the schools operating under the state program,

,.

t

approximately 200 other schools operated lunchrooms without

21

federal aid.

If the lunch program of the future is to serve l:!dequately the needs of all children enrolled in Georgia schools, certain needs must be met. Building space for approximately 1,000 additional lunchrooms are needed. The 33 million lunches being served in Georgia in 1945-46, were 65 million short of the 98 million actually needed if all school children had been served a noonday meal.

The physical facilities in approximately 80 per cent of the present lunchrooms need improvement. Many lunchrooms are now set up and operated in makeshift quarters. Some are housed in basements, classrooms, office space, hallways, and garages. Many schools need more space for preparing and serving meals; adequate facilities for preparing, cooking, and serving foods; and adequate storage space and facilities to maintain sanitary conditions.

More and better supervision of the school lunch program is

also definitely needed. The four lunchroom field supervisors

at present have about 325 schools in their respective territories.

i
t

Provision should be made for assisting counties to employ coun-

'
~~

ty supervisors where a sufficient numbe'r of schools operate

lunchrooms. Where counties have fewer than 20 schools operat-

ing lunchrooms, one person probably could supervise more than

one county.

There is a definite need for better traine'd lunchroom supervisors and managers on the local level. The lunchroom field supervisors find workers who need improvement in personal appearance and hygiene, personal habits, working standards, sanitary standards, food preparation methods, food serving methods, and method of cleaning all parts of the lunchroom. These needs cannot be met until some provision is made for training opportunities to be set up on a state, district, and county basis.
If the school lunch program is to become an integral part of the entire school program, it must be correlated with such phases of the program as nutrition, health education, and the like.
Georgia schools having approved lunchrooms in 1945-46 were reimbursed to the total amount of $2,600,000 of federal funds.

22

If necessary expansion takes place, there will be a need for at least $4,000,000 in federal funds to carry on the program in Georgia on the present basis.
The State Budget Commission allotte'd $42,000 for the administration of the sghool lunch program for the fiscal year July 1, 1945, to June 30, 1946. This amount is 1.6 percent of the amount of federal funds spent in the State. If the program is to expand to meet the needs, at least $200,000 in state funds is needed to provide training opportunities for lunchroom supervisors, managers, and workers; for administration and adequate supervision of the program.
Recommendations
To meet adequately the ne'eds for a lunchroom program in Georgia the following recommendations are made:
1. That legislation be passed permitting local boards of education to spend tax monies for the school lunch program.
2. That training opportunities be provided for lunchroom supervisors and managers.
3. That school lunchrooms be required to meet approved health and sanitation standards similar or supE;rior to those required for approved public eating places before being approved for financial aid.
4. That the lunch program be correlated with other phase's of the program so as to become an integral part of the entire school program.
5. That adequate federal and state funds be provided for carrying on an adequate lunchroom program. At least $200,000 in state funds is needed.
Organization and Administration of Public Education in Georgia
Summary
The responsibility for public education belongs in part to three levels of government-federal, state, arid local. In the administration of public education each of the three levels can perform certain functions better than the other two. The principle should be consistently observed that each activity in the

'.

23

administration of the schools should be performed at the governmental level which can best carry it on:
Federal level. The administration of public education in Georgia at the federal level is concerned with the distribution of federal funds to aid vocational education. No attention has been given to this phase of school administration as it is primarily concerned with finance and is treated in the following chapter.
State level. At the state level the administration of public education in Georgia is vested in the State Board of Education for the lower schools and the Board of Regents for higher education. Both are constitutional boards. The members of both are' appointed by the Governor subject to confirmation by the state senate. They serve seven-year terms which are staggered.
The State School Superintendent, designated by the constitution as the chief executive officer of the State Board of Education, is elected by the people for a four-year term. A chancellor appointed for an indefinite term by the Board of Regents serve's as its chief executive officer.
Local level. The local adminis~ration of public education in Georgia is performed through the county and the independent administrative units of the State. Each county is designated in the constitution as one school district, exclusive of any independent systems within its borders. The control of the schools is vested in a county board of education chose'n by the grand jury for five-year terms which are staggered. A county school superintendent is designated by the constitution as the chief executive of the county board of education. He is elected by the P.eople and serves for four years. Essentially he is as much a political officer as he is an educational executive.
County boards of education are authorized to appoint local boards of trustees for each school to serve in an advisory capacity. These boards have recommending powers only.
Four counties are organized under special laws, choosing their boards of education according to their respective charters. They appoint their chief executive officers. In these counties all schools are under the administration of the county board of education.
24

The independent administrative units are organized under Bpecial laws. Each has a board of education of varying numbers of persons chosen in various ways, and each appoints its own chief executive officer. The powers and duties of these boards are essentially the same as those of the county boards. At present 41 independent administrative units are operating school systems, although others still retain their legal identity.
Educational organization. Georgia is at present committed legally to the 11-grade plan of educational organization1 . The first seven grades constitute the elementary school; and the last four, the high school. Georgia is one of three states which has kept the 11-grade plan. The other two states are reported to be taking steps to adopt the 12-grade plan.
Characteristics of local administrative units in .Georgia. On the whole, the local school administrative units in Georgia are relatively small in school population, in number of teachers allotted by the State, and in assessed valuation per pupil in average daily attendance. About ten perce'nt of the county units and nearly half of the independent units have a smaller school population than competent southern and other authorities in ..,. school administration recommend. A large number of the attendance units have fewer than recommende:d minimum numbers of pupils. The result is too often an inadequate school program, especially in the high schools, and higher costs per pupil than are necessary.
The county administrative units are confined within the county boundary lines. These frequently divide natural communities which have common educational, social, and economic interests. Although the School Act of 1946 has provided the means for some alleviation of the situation for children living near county lines, the artificiality of the county administrative unit cannot be removed without a sweeping reorganization on a state-wide basis.
Working relationships within school administrative units. A common defect of a geographically large unit of school administration, such as the county, grows out of the fact that individual schools are more or less remote from the central officer.
1. Since the writing of this report, the General Asse1nbly of Georgia has made enacted legislation making 12 grades of public education permissive.
25

The county administration has the money and the local schools have the emergency problems, some of which involve expending funds immediately in order to avoid the cumulative cost of repairs that are delayed.

Good working relationships are necessary between the central administration and the individual schools. These include the determination of general policies by the lay public, the professional staff, and the central administration; the application of these policies to the school program; and the handling of routine matters of administration within state laws and the local general policies. The principle should be observed that the head teacher or principal within an individual school ought to have the authority and means to do whatever is needed when it is needed. Those matters which can be taken care of best on a county-wide basis, however, should be determined and should be so handled.

Relationships between county and independent administra~

tive units. The county and independent school administrative I

units often work together on a contractual basis. In some instances the independent units have virtually become parts of

~
,'.

county units although retaining their legal identities. In other

instances, county children are served by the independent units,

especially at high-school level, on the basis of agreements be-

tween the two systems. Independent units may, by vote of the

people, terminate their independent status and become parts

of county units.

All of these relationships should be facilitated by law and by other legitimate means in order to improve public school administration in Georgia.

Relationships between county administrative units. Because of small school populations and small tax resources to support each pupil, contractual relationships between and among adjoining counties should be legally encouraged, even to the extent of making certain fundamental constitutional amendments.

School laws. The school laws in Georgia, as in some of the other states, are in serious need of codification. Obsolete' provisions have been retained. Duplications and ambiguities are common. As a whole, the present school laws need careful revision.

26

Recommendations
It is recommended that:
1. Administrative activities be carefully allotted to the level which can best perform them regardless of vested interests or tradition.
2. No change be made in the method of choosing the State Board of Education, the State School Superintendent, or the Board of Regents if the present pattern of state school administration is retained.
3. The qualifications of the State School Superintendent )Je as follows:
a. At least 30 years of age.
b. At least a Master's degree.
c. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in the technical study of school administration including school finance and supervision.
d. At least 5 years' experience in the actual administration and supervision of schools, three of which should have been in Georgia.
4. Steps be taken to study the desirability of a single lay board for the control of all public education in Georgia. (This perhaps is incidental to' the present study but a recommendation which should be given serious conside'ration.)
5. The 12-grade plan of educational organization be adopted, with the first six grades constituting the elementary school and the second six grades constituting the secondary school.
6. The details of county school organization be removed from the state constitution and enacted in the form of statutes.
7. School administrative units in Georgia be adjusted primarily to the educational, social, and economic needs of natural, communities rather than to the boundary lines of governmental units such as municipalities and coun-
27

ties. Such boundary lines, however, should be used when convenient. Ultimately, the county school administrative unit should be superseded by a unit established on a large-community basis, its composition to be determined by careful studies of local needs.
8. County boards of education be chosen by the people at a non-partisan election held separately from the general elections, preferably in May or June.
9. The constitution be amended to permit county boards of education to choose the county school superintendent by appointment rather than by popular vote if the county so prefers. The need for this change has been demonstrated in several connections to improve the county school administrative unit in Georgia.
10. The qualifications of the county school superintendent be as follows:
a. At least 25 years of age.
b. At least a Bachelor's degree.
c. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in school administration including supervision.
d. At least five years' experience in actual school administration or the supervision, three of which must have been in Georgia.
e. Never convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude.
11. Legally established advisory groups, with recommending power only, be mandatory. These should be established on the basis of sub-communities rather than for individual schools.
12. The homestead exemption be removed for school-tax purposes. If this is not presently feasible, the constitutional limitation of $1,250 should be adopted by appropriate legislation. Every one who can should have the privilege of aiding public education financially.
13. The taxing power of county administrative units for cUTrent building purposes be clarified by appropriate legislation. The virtual fiscal independence of the adminis-

I
I
trative units which is now in effect should not be encroached on.
14. The merger of the independent administrative units with county school systems be further encouraged by appropriate legislation. Such legislation shoqld protect both parties from exploitation by the other. If possible, some compulsion should be authorized to force obviously needed corrections, as demonstrated by objective studies of local situations.
15. Constitutional amendment and other legislative action be taken to permit the joint operation of school systems by two or more counties.
16. County boards of education be encouraged to contract more freely with one another and with independe'nt systems for the Joint use of services and personnel when such agreements will help to insure a better school program and more effective use of available funds.
17. All contracts or agreements between county systems and between county and independent systems be reduced to writing and spread over the official minutes' of the respective boards of education.
18. Suitable legislation be enacted to permit the State Bo~rd of Education to set the pattern for agreements between county systems and between county and independent school systems. These agreements should be subject t) review by the State Board in order to protect both parties as well as to insure the best local use of state funds.
19. Legislation be enacted extending the provisions of the School Act of 1946 with respect to children living near county lines. A limit of as much as five miles to the nearest school might well be establishe'd.
20. Every legal encouragement be extended to establish attendance units of sufficient size to make possible an improved school program at reasonable cost. The need for such encouragement is especially urgent at secondary-school level. The survey method recommended in the next chapter as a basis for the distribution of state school aiel would be a long ste'p in eliminating small and

expensive attendance units that are demonstrated to be unnecessary.
21. The educational policies within an administrative unit be worked out by the central administration, the professional staff, and the lay public.
22. Sound working relationships be established between the central office and the school principals and staff in both county and independent school administrative units to insure reasonably effective day-to-day administration.
23. The limits of the responsibilities and authority of principals be worked out between the administration and the principals, in accordance with the established policies of the administrative unit; and these limits should be known to all con<:;erned.
24. Budgets be set up for each school; or a small petty cash fund established for each to care for emergencies. These should be safeguarded by simple but adequate accounting procedures, upon which, after adoption by the board of education, principals may draw without further authorization.
School Finance in Georgia
The primary purpose of Chapter XII of the report was to analyze the public school finance pattern of Georgia to determine the effort and relative ability of the state and local government units to support education, and the' inequalities existing in educational opportunity in the State, and to propose means for distributing state school funds to more nearly equalize educational opportunity in the State.
The chapter is divided into seven major parts. These sections are as follows:
(1) Status of school finance in Georgia.
(2) Present plan of state and local school finance.
,(3) Evaluation of state plan of support.
(4) Recommended state foundation program.
(5) Proposed plan for distributing state and federal vocational funds.
30

(6) Other state educational funds. (7) Total state funds needed for public education.

A brief summary of each of these sections is presented below.

1. Status of School Finance in Georgia
The analysis which has been made in this se'ction revealed many facts pertinent to school finance in Georgia. From these facts the following conclusions were drawn.

1. Georgia ranked fourth among the six southern states for which data were available in current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in both 1941-42 and 1944-45.

2. Georgia ranks low among the 48 states in relative ability to finance education and exerts less effort to support education than the Nation as a whole.

3. The national average for current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in 1941-42 was $98.31, close to twice that of Georgia.

4. State appropriations for education increased from $14,-

132,567 in 1937-38 to $21,040,196 in 1944-45. During this same }Jeriod federal funds allocated to Georgia for education in-

l

creased from $640,000 to $4,047,212. Likewise, local tax funds collected for education increased from $10,796,503 to $13,043,613. These local funds were used for both operation and capital outlay purposes.

l

5. During the school year 1946-47, expenditures (federal, state, and local, etc.) will probably total more than $50,000,000 because of the 50 percent increase in teachers' salaries and increased tax rates on the local level now permitted by the Constitution adopted in 1945.

6. When school expenditures in Georgia are studied, it is found that the greatest dollar increase has been for instructional service; but the greatest percentage increase has been for auxiliary agencies. The growth of expenditures for auxiliary agencies has been due to the growth in the school lunch program, largely supported by federal funds, and to the expansion of transportation facilities. The expenditures for capital outlay and debt service decreased during the war years be.~ : cause of the practical cessation of school building construction.

31

7. The instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the State increased from $27.71 in 1937-38 to $46.28 in 1944-45. When these figures were adjusted for the purchasing power of the dollar, however, the actual value increase was fro_m $27.19 to $34.93.

8. The average salary of Georgia teachers was $714 in 193738 and will be approximately $1,455 in 1946-47. At the same time, however, the average teachers' salary for the Nation increased from $1,374 to $2,150. When the purchasing power of the dollar is considered, the average Georgia teachers' salary of $1,455 will buy $978 of goods and services in terms of 193539 prices. From this $978, however, there must be subtracted $72.75 for teacher retirement and approximately $155.25 for income tax. After making these deductions, which were not included in 1937-38, the teacher has an equivalent of $750 on which to live.

9. The expenditures for instruction per pupil in average daily attendance in 1944-45 ranged from $60 to less than $10 for Negroes and from more than $100 to less than $10 for whites.

10. In 1944-45, the training of teachers varied from one year of college training as an average for a school system to four years of college training as an average.

11. The ability of counties to finance the construction of school buildings varies greatly. For example, one county by bonding to the constitutional limit could raise sufficient funds to provide for only 24 percent of its present minimum building needs, whereas other counties can raise more than sufficient funds.

12. Because of variations between counties in assessment procedures, the tax digest is not a reliable measure of local ability to finance education. According to data in this chapter, whereby the property digest is adjusted in accordance with a reliable index of ability, the total adjusted tax digest per pupil in ave'rage daily attendance was $368 in Towns County as compared to $4,579 in Fulton County.

13. The evidences reveal that expenditures for education

have not been in the past, and will not be in 1946-47, sufficient

'~:

to support an adequate program of education in Georgia.

32

2. Present Plan of State and Local School Finance
The present plan of state and local school finance which has been presented revealed the following facts:
1. State school funds for the foundation program of education are, at present, distributed in accordance with the provisions of the Seven-Months School Law of 1937 and the E'qualization Law of 1926. The Seven-Months School Law specifically sets forth the method of distributing funds. Equalization funds, however are distribute'd in accordance with rules and regulations of the State Board of Education. Each local school administrative unit must levy a five-mill tax in order to participate in state school funds. The returns from this five-mill levy are subtracted from the needs of the local school system in computing the amount of equalization funds to be allotted to the system.
2. Funds for the local support of education are derived almost entire'ly from local tax levies on property. For current expense purposes, all county school systems, except for four counties holding constitutional charters, must levy a five-mill tax and may levy as much as 15 mills. The tax limitations of the four counties holding constitutional charters and all independent school systems are specified in the individual charters. Independent school systems have a distinct advantage over the county school systems in that they levy taxes on the basis of the total tax digest, whereas counties levy school taxes on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions..
3. Mos.t s.chool house cons.truction in Georgia has been financed by local school tax bonds. For this purpose bonds. may be issued upon approval of the electorate up to seven percent of the assessed valuation of property within the boundaries of the system. It is the opinion o:f the attorney general that the School Act of February 1, 1946, gives. school authorities. the power to levy an annual tax for school house construction over and above the 5- to 15-mill maintenance levy authorized by the Constitution. 'This. interpretation of the. law has not yet been tested in the courts.
4. Federal funds for vocational education of less than college grade' are now allotted to Georgia under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the George-Deen Act of 1936.
33

Georgia received $174,945.56 in 1945-46, under the SmithBughes Act; and $422,403.20 under the terms of the GeorgeDeert Act. The George-Deen Act has bee'n superseded by the George-Barden Act of 1946. This act becomes effective July 1; 1947; and if funds authorized in the bill are appropriated by Congress, the amount of federal funds annually allotted to Georgia for vocational education will be almost doubled. In addition to these federal funds, $504,408.39 in state funds, and $948,402.20 in local funds were expended for vocational education during 1945-46. State and federal funds for vocational education are distributed to local school systems on. the basis of requests which must be approved by the State Board of Education and the U. S. Office of Education. These requests must set forth specific plans for utilizing the funds.
5. In addition to the state funds for the foundation program of education and state and federal vocational funds, the State annually expends funds for free textbooks, audio-visual aids, library books, the administration of the school lunch program, vocational rehabilitation, county school superintendents' salaries, the state schools for the deaf and blind, and the operation of the State Department of Education.
3. Evaluation of State Plan of Support
. An analysis of Georgia's present plan of state support for education revealed the following principal weakne'sses.
1. Only seven months of education is guaranteed, although two additional months work is made possible through equalization funds.
2. Since tax assessment valuations vary greatly from county to county, the school tax digest is not an equitable measure of the ability of a county or city to raise tax revenues.
3. De'nsity of population of the county as a basis for calculating pupil-teacher ratios does not take into account the greater birth rates evident in rural areas or differences in the ratio of whites and Negroes in the county.
4. The practice of allotting funds for transportation partially on a mileage basis does not encourage economy in routing. Experience does not show that the cost of operating a bus 20 miles a day is half that for operating a bus 40 miles.
34

5. The practice of allotting administrative funds to a sy:stem on the basis of the state teachers' salaries received by the system. gives the counties with the poorest prepared teachers the least amount of money for other current expenses and instructional aids.
6. The state program of support makes no provision for capital outlay nee'ds.
4. Recommended State Foundation Program
The plan of state support for the foundation program of educatiOn proposed by the Survey Staff is essentially a plan for requiring each loc~l system to exert an equitable local effort and for supplementing from state funds the yield of that local level sufficiently to meet the needs of a foundation program. By this plan. the inequalities of opportunity between counties to the extent of the foundation program can be eliminate'd and the local burden of tax support can be adjusted to local tax-paying ability. The state foundation funds, represent the difference between the financial needs of the school systems of Georgia and the ability of these systems to support education.
In the proposed plan the financial needs of a school system are defined in terms of salaries, transportation costs, other current expenses, and capital outlay.
1. Salary needs for professional personnel should be determined on a 12-months basis, for all school systems in accordance with a state minimum salary schedule. The number of teachers allotted to a school system should be dete'rmined on the basis of average daily attendance per square mile separately for white and Negro schools in line with the density table proposed in this section. The Survey Staff recommends the continuance of state pay supplements for principals and instructional supervisors on the basis of qualifications and the number of teachers supervised. These supplements should not be dependent upon matching by the local school system and sliould be made to both countyJ and independent school systems. These supplements would be added to the teacher salary needs to obtain the total salary needs of the system.
2. The State should own and operate the school transportation system, as is recommended in Chapter VII. Until this is
35

put into operation, however, costs of transportation should be computed as a part of the financial needs of each county school system. The transportation needs should be recomputed annually according to a per pupil allowance scale, based on the density per square mile of daily attendance transported, omitting any area of the county not served. Transportation needs should be computed separately for whites and Negroes.
3. Other current expenses include costs of administration, maintenance, fuel, supplies, utilities, etc., and should be computed as a constant amount per allowable teacher unit; that is, per teacher allowed on the state teacher allotment schedule. The amount per teacher unit should be set annually by the State Board of Education. The Survey Staff recommends $200 per year per teacher unit at present. This sum should be' increased to $300 as soon as funds are available.
4. Capital outlay constitutes a definite part of the financial needs of a school system. The sum of $200 per allowable teacher unit is recommended. Dividing the average life of a classroom, 25 years, into the average normal cost, $5,000, yields this figure. The State Board of Education should determine annually what amount per teacher unit should be allowed.
The sum of these four items constitutes the financial needs of a school system for a foundation program. From these total needs the ability of the local school system to raise local tax revenues should be deducted to determine the amount of state funds needed.
A measure of ability to pay should be as nearly uniform for all counties as possible, and should be beyond manipulation from within the county. An economic index of tax-paying ability in which the state's total ability is 100 percent and each county's index represents a percentage of this total ability has been calculated. Economic factors included in computing the index are:
1. Percent of property taxes paid. 2. Percent of public utility taxes paid. 3. Percent of effective buying power. 4. Percent of retail sales. 5. Percent of motor tag taxe's paid. 6. Percent of state income tax paid.
36

By the use of this index each county's equitable share of the total local effort required for the local systems of the State can be determined. Two methods of applying the index of economic ability to the school tax digest are presented. In the first method, the economic index is applied to the return of a 9-mill levy on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions for both county and independent school systems. In the second method, the economic index is applied to the return of a 7.5mill levy on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions for county school systems and on the total school tax digest for independent school systems or the actual digest from which they collect school tax revenue. Both of these plans would call for approximately $9,000,000 of local tax effort to meet the total needs of the foundation program of education.
The recommended plan of state support for the foundation program of education totals the four items of financial need, charges back the system's share of local effort computed by applying the economic index of tax-paying ability to the total local effort expected, and determines the difference which constitutes the state's payment to the system.
Based on teachers' salaries now in effect, 1945-46 average daily attendance figures, and the recommendations for current expense, capital outlay and transportation needs, the foundation funds calculation would be as follows:
Salaries -----------------------------------------------------$34, 156,902 Other current expenses_____________________________ 4,484,400 Capital outiay -------------------------------------------- 4,484,400 Transportation ----------------------------------------- 3,509,754
Total needs of foundation program____$46,635,456 Local effort required__________________________________ 9,000,014
Net state foundation funds__________________$37,635,442
5. Proposed Plan for Distributing State and Federal Vocational Funds
It is the belief of the Survey Staff that the plan of distribution used by the Federal Gov~rnment in distributing funds for vocational education to the several states is a sound plan for distributing state and federal funds within a state.
37

The distributable state funds for vocational education should be apportioned among the various vocational fields in accordance with needs as determinecl annually by the State Board of Education.
Determination of the share of these funds distributed to local systems should be on a percentage basis as follows:
(1) Agricultural Education: The percent that the farm population of the county is of the total farm population of the State.
'
(2) Homemaking Education: The percent that the rural population of the county is of the total rural population of the State.
(3) Trade and Industrial Education: 'The percent that the non-farm population of the county is of the total non-farm population of the State.
(4) Distributive Education: The percent that the total population of the county is of the total population of the State.
The total state appropriation of $1,000,000 plus the funds received from the Federal Government should be distributed, after deducting approximately $375,000 to be used for the North and South Georgia Trade Schools and for administration, state-wide training programs, in-service training, etc., in accordance with the percentages obtained from recommended formulae.
6. Other State Educational Funds
In addition to the state funds needed for the foundation program of education and the program of vocational education, the Survey Staff recommends that the following amounts be made available for the specific purposes liste'cl below:
1. School and public library funds_____________________ $ 750,000 2. Free textbooks and multi-sensory materials____ 1,500,000 3. School lunch program_____________________________________ 200,000 4. Vocational rehabilitation ----------------------------- 500,000 5. State Schools for the Blind______________________________ 160,000 6. State Schools for the DeaL______________________________ 232,000 7. County school superintendents' salaries__________ 355,000 8. State Department of Education____________________ 400,000
Total ----------------------------- --------------------------- $4,0 97, 000
38

7. Total State Funds Needed
In order to determine the total state' funds needed to finance public education of less than college grade in Georgia, the state funds needed for the foundation program, vocational edu.:. cation program, and other state educational funds are added.
The funds listed for the foundation program of education in section four were for illustrative purposes only and were based upon 1945-46 average daily attendance figures and present (1946-47) state teacher salaries. In order to obtain the state funds needed for the foundation program of education, the
figures as given in section four must be adjusted in accordance
with the following factors: (1) The Survey Staff has recommended that state teacher salaries be raised to insure a fouryear college professional trained beginning teacher a minimum salary of $2400; and (2) the Survey Staff recommended in Chapter IV of the report that the state program of public education be extended to include the twelfth grade'; and (3) the Survey Staff recommends that the allowance per teacher unit for other current expenses be increased to $300.
After making the needed adjustments as indicated above, the total state funds needed for public education of less than college' grade for 1947-48 are as follows:
1. Foundation program of education Total needs -----------------------------------------------$63, 62 5,651 Local effort required________________________________ 9,0 00,014
State funds needed ______________________________________$54,625,637
. 2. State funds for vocational education____________ 1,000,000
3. Other state educational funds________________________ 4,097,000
Total state funds needed for public education of less than college grade_______$59,722,637
Organization of the State Department of Education
Summary
Responsibility for the administration of public education of less than college level in Georgia is vested in the' State Board of Education and its executive officer, the State School Super-
39

intendent. The State Department of Education is the legal administrative agency of the Superintendent.
The personnel of the department increased from 97 in 1938 to 219 in 1945. Most of this incre'ase was caused by expansion of the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation and the addition of new divisions. The older divisions remained constant or showed decreases.
There are, at present, twelve divisions of the State .Department of Education.
The Division of School Administration and Adult Education is responsible for providing assistance to school officials in solving administrative problems, administering the Seven Months' School Law and the Equalization Law, and providing statistical information and adult education.
The Division of Supervision, through its staff, recommends annually, allotments of teachers to be paid by the state; assists superintendents in requisitioning textbooks; reports to the State Department on conditions that exist in the schools; reports to
accrediting agencies and recommends policies for accrediting; n assists new superintendents in fulfilling the' duties of their of- '
fice; and participates in the program of in-service teacher education.
The Division of Teacher Education, Certification, and Cur~ riculum prescribes standards for teachers; approves teacher education programs; cooperates with all institutions preparing teachers; and administers certification of teachers.
The Textbook and Library Division is responsible for procuring and distributing textbooks and other instructional aids and for assisting schools and communities in the selection, planning for use, and actual use of textbooks and other instructional aids.
The Division of Vocational Education assists in the development of temporary vocational services as needed; and sponsors trade' and industrial education, vocational agriculture, homemaking education, and distributive education.
The Division of Vocational Rehabilitation cooperates with the Federal Security Agency, which pays all administrative cost ;~ of the program, including guidance and placement service; and /j:
40

contacts and rehabilitates .physically handicapped persons through physical restoration and training.
The Division of School Building Service is responsible for reviewing plans for school building construction in connection with the school building code'; and for aiding school officials, upon request, with initial planning of school plants.
The School Lunch Division aids in the planning and setting up of lunchrooms, approves programs for receipt of aid, distributes funds, and audits and checks expenditures of lunchroom funds.
The Division of Bookkeep1ing is responsible for maintaining accurate over all records of the financial transactions of the State Department of Education.
The Division of Commodity Distribution in cooperation with federal agencies, supervises the distribution of donated foods.
The Division of War Surplus Properties aids public schools in securing war surplus properties.
The State De.partment is responsible for the operation of three types of special schools: The School for the Deaf, the School for the Blind, and the trade schools.
Recommendations
On the basis of criterria presented in Chapter XIII, it appears that a rather complete reorganization should be made in the Georgia State' Department of Education. The Survey Staff recognizes that the work of the present State Department of Education is carried on under handicaps of organization which the proposed reorganization would eliminate. The basic plan of reorganization recommended is a reduction of divisions from thirteen to four. Reorganization into these four divisions would carry the following advantages:
(1) The State Super,intendent would have a reasonable number of department heads with whom to confer in formulating policies and to whom to delegate administrative responsibilities.
(2) Higher salaries could be' paid to four department heads than thirteen so that Georgia could enter the market for nationally recognized authorities in the various fields of education.
. 41

(3) Coordination of work in homogeneous areas of servic.e will be facilitated, although coordination among the four divisions will still have to be accomplished through the State Superintendent and the leadership of the division heads.
(4) A greater degree of continuity of policy is possible with fewer divisions headed by outstanding men.
The accompanying chart outlines the proposed plan of State Department organization.
An analysis of the proposed State' Department of Education reorganization reveals that in addition to the inclusion of the services of the present thirteen divisions, certain new services are recommended. These include the services of a director of state schools who would be responsible for the operation of the state schools for the blind, the deaf, and the delinquent children. The plan would also provide a director of curriculum development and superv,ision with specialists to work with school systems, local faculty groups, regional and state groups in planning and developing educational programs in the fields of: (1) creative expression, (2) the tools of learning, (3) health, physical education, and recreation, (4) guidance, (5) resource-use education, and (6) social relations. There would also be a director of exceptional education to assist the public schools of the state in planning programs of education for exceptional children.
Many state departments have a division of research. At present the Education Panel performs this service. The Joint Committee on 'Teacher Education of the Board of Regents and State' Board of Education, however, has recommended that a Bureau of Educational Research and Field Service be established as a division of the College of Education of the University of Georgia. Under this plan, research service would be furnished the State Department of Education by the bureau. If this bureau is not established, there would then be a definite need for the establishment of a division of educational research in the State Department of Education.
It is recommended that the State School Superintendent and the State Board of Education endeavor to secure as the four assistant superintendents men who posse'ss a national reputation in their respective fields of education. Professional employees of the department should be qualified as to educational
42

.. ~.-
PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
I ., STATE' BOARD OF EDUCATION I I I. STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION

'1

Assistant Superintendent for 'Assistant Superintendent for Assistant SU.!>erintendep.t for Assistant Superintendent for

Administration and Finance

Instruction

Vocational Education

Vocational Rehabilitation

1. Director Administrative 1. Director Curriculum De- 1. Director Administrative 1. Director Field Operations

Supervision

velopment and Supervision

Supervisors

a. Industrial, tuberculosis,

8 assistants

of Instruction

8 area asf;!istants

workshops, and honie

2. Director Financ!l

a. Creative Expression

2. Director Agricultural Edu-

industries specialists

1 assistant

1 specialist

cation

b. Services for blind

~ 3. Director of Building

C\:1

Service

b. Tools <>f learning . 1 specialist

2 assistants 3. Director Homemaking Edu-

c. Business enterprises d. District offices (4)

2 assistants

c. Health, Physical Educa-

cation

e. Local offices (12) .

4. Director Transportation

tion, and Recreation

2 assistants

2. J:)irectOr Technical Services

2 assistants

1 specialist

4. Director Trade and Indus- a. Physical restoration

5. Director Distribution and

d. Guidance

trial Education

K Guidance, training, a-v.d

Procurement

1 specialist

1 assistant

placement

6; Director Statistics and

e. Resource, Use Educa- 5. Director Distributive Edu- 3. The organization of this di-

Reports

tion

cation

vision is annually approved

7. Director School lunch and

1 specialist

!assistant

by the State Board of Edu-

Commodity Distribution

f. Social Relations

6. Teacher Training in coop- cation and the Federal Se-

4 assistants

1 specialist

eration with Teacher Edu- curity Agency

8. Director War Surplus

2. Director Teacher Personnel Cation Institutions

Properties

2 assistants

9; Director State Schools

3. Director Library Service

1 assistant

4. Director Negro Education

1 assistant

5. Director Exceptional Edu-

l>',_

cation

6. Director Multi-sensory Aids

and Textbook Selection

background and experience, with not less than a Master's degree and five years of professional experience.
It is recommended that definite personnel policies be adopted and followed in regard to selection, tenure, qualifications, and compensation scale.
Summary of Recommendations
It is the conviction of the Survey Committee that the legislature, as soon as possible, should:
I. Legislation: Pass a comprehensive school law, to replace the Seven Months School Law and the Equalization Law, which would:
A. Provide for state financial support of public school education in the manner proposed in Chapter XII of the report and summarized in this chapter, including in such support funds for capital outlay, and until the State Board of Education shall own and operate a school transportation system, including in such support funds for school transportation.
B. Permit county hoards of education to assume res.ponsibility for the liquidation of all district bonds outstanding at the time a county-wide bond issue is voted.
C. Permit the State Board of Education to issue a sufficient amount of serial bonds, to be sold when funds are needed, to purchase county or city bonds bearing as low a rate of interest as would be required to liquidate an equal amount of state bonds.
D. Provide that the State Board of E:ducation approve all school bond issues.
E. Permit the' State Board of Education to own and operate a school transportation system.
F. Provide the State Board of Education with regulatory powers over school transportation until state ownership and operation are begun.
G. Provide for centralized purchasing of school trans-
44

portation equipment and supplies until state ownership and operation may be effected,
H. Permit local boards of education to use funds derived from taxation for the school lunch program.
I. Provide that school lunchrooms be required to meet approved health and sanitation standards.
J. Provide for a 12-grade plan of educational organization.
K. Clarify the taxing power of county administrative units for current building purposes.
L. Extend the provisions of the School Act of 1946 with respect to children living near county lines. A limit of as much as five miles to the nearest school might well be establishe'd,
M. Remove the homestead exemption for school taxing purposes.
N. Permit the State Board of Education to set the pattern for agreements between county systems and between county and independent school systems. These agreements should be subject to review by the State Board of Education.
0. Require definite qualifications of all County School Superintendents and. the State School Superintendent as recommended in Chapter XI.
P. Encourage the merger of independent school systems with county school systems.
II. Constitutional Amendments:
The legislature should submit to the electorate constitutional amendments to:
A. Permit county boards of education to choose the county school superintendent by appointment rather than by popular vote if the county so prefers.
B. Remove the details of county school organization from the Constitution and enact same in the statutes of legislature.
C. Permit the joint operation of school systems by two or more counties.
45

< :JIL Appropriations:
A. Appropriate for the bie'nnium beginning Japuary 1, 1947, funds amounting to $54,729,716 per year to be used by the State Board of Education as provided by the proposed comprehensive school law; and thereafter such amounts as the State Board of Educa.tion shall advise are needed to finance an ade quate educational program for Georgia.

B. Appropriate annually such funds as may be needed to provide free tuition or scholarships for selected teacher trainees from the several counties of the State'.

C. Continue to appropriate direct to Teacher Retirement Board funds required for that service, which is not covered by the scope of this report.

IV, Resolutions:

A. By resolution charge the State Board of Education to:

1. Establish community and comprehensive secondary schools to serve the educational needs of all age groups throughout the State twelve months each year and including the twelfth grade.

2. Establish a salary schedule for teachers which will provide a four-year college professionally trained beginning teacher a minimum salary of $200 per month worked, those teachers who work twelve months to thus draw twelve months' pay.

3. Establish as the standard credential for teach-

ing in Georgia a Professional Teachers Certificate

based upon completion of a planned four-year

curriculum or more'- all other certificates to be

designated as prov.isional, and a wide differential

in salary schedule to be provided between pro-

',., ''"

visional and professional certificates.

4. Reorganize the State Department of Education in
line with recommendations of Chapter XIII of the report.

46

5. Extend the School Library and Free Textbook programs on a per-pupil budget basis to include multi-sensory aids.
6. Provide training opportunities for school lunchroom supervision and managers.
B. By resolution charge the State Board of Regents to: 1. Expand personnel and facilities of the College of Education, University of Georgia, to provide for new training requirements of school leaders at graduate levels. 2. Allocate responsibility for definite types of teacher training to appropriate institutions. 3. Provide each institution with funds for a budget in teacher e'ducation.
C. By resolution charge the State Board of Education and the State Board of Regents jointly to: 1. Develop an adequate program for the professional education of teachers. 2. Submit biennially to the legislature a joint report on the status and the needs of teacher education in the' State.
47

CHAPTER II
LEGAL BASES OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
Education in the United States is a function of the State. Education is not mentioned in the Constitution of the United States as one of the functions delegated to the Federal Government. Hence, by inference, it was reserved to the States.
In Georgia, as in the other 47 states, the will of the electorate concerning education is expressed in the State Constitution and in the laws enacted by the legislature. Eight different constitutions have been adopted by the people of Georgia: 1777, 1789, 1798, 1861, 1865, 1868, 1877, and 1945. Except for the constitution of 1789, all have definitely placed responsibility upon the State Legislature to establish a system of public education financed through public taxation. The State Legislature through its enacted statutes makes definite provisions for the organization and operation of the public schools.
The statutes of the legislature are' carried out in part or in whole by the responsible administrative agencies. In Georgia, the authorities responsible for the administration of public education are the State Board of Education, the State Board of Regents, the county boards of education, and the' independent boards of education.
In setting forth the legal bases of public education in Georgia only those legal bases now in effect are considered herein. Obviously a study of all constitutions, boards, and statutes not now in effect would constitute an undertaking too voluminous to be included here. This study de'als with public education of less than college grade. Therefore, the legal basis for the operation of the University System of Georgia is not treated in any detail.
Basic Constitutional Provisions
The Constitution of Georgia prov;ides for free public schools to be supported by taxation. It further stipulates that separate schools shall be maintaine'd for the white and colored races. Section I of article VIII of the constitution reads as follows:
" .The provision of an adequate education for the citi-
49

zens shall be a primary obligation of the State of Georgia, the expense of which shall be provided for by taxation. Separate schools shall be provided for the white and colored races."1
The above paragTaph outlines in brief the policy of the State toward education. In addition to this general policy statement the constitution further provides for a State Board of Education, a State Board of Regents, School Superintendent, county boards of education, the election of county school superintendents, taxation by counties for education, the protection of existing independent school systems, contracts for care of pupils between county and independent boards of education, and the right of boards of education to accept bequests, donations, and grants for the use of their respective systems of education. The constitution prohibits the establishment of any new independent school system.
The constitution further places a limitation upon the public debt of any political division of the State at seven percent of the asse~sed value of all taxable property therein.2
Thus within the framework of constitutional provisions and limitations the legislature of the State finds its legal restraints. Within these constitutional boundaries the legislature must set up its own statutory boundaries for administrative action.
Statutory Provisions
In line with social advancement and right thinking, the State Legislature has increasingly recognized the responsibility of the State to support e'ducation. It is through the statutes of the legislature that the will of the people is most actively expressed. People have come to recognize the essential need for equal educational opportunities. Thus, in keeping with this trend of thought the State has through statute's of the legislature assumed an increasingly greater share of its obligation to education.
'The legislature, in the discharge of its responsibilities, has passed statutes relating to education. Prior to 1900 these laws were for the most part of a local nature and had little effect
'j
.l
1 Constitution of the State of Georgia: 1945, article VIII, section 1, paragraph 1. 2 Ibid, article VII, section VII, paragraph 1.
50

upon the general growth and improvein.ent of education. After 1900, the legislature began to pass laws with i~creasing
frequencythathad far-reaching effects upon education throughout the State. Some of the more important of these laws are mentioned briefly herein.
(1) The McMichael Law of 1905 and its amendments provided for counties and local scho.ol districts to tax their property up to five mills for educational support.
,(2) The laws of 1911 placed increased responsibilities upon the State Department of Education. In this same year an amendment was passed authodzing state support for "a thorough sys~ tern of common schools" rather than for "the elementary branches of an English education only." Prior to this time high schools could not receive state support.
(3) In 1917,,the legislature accepted the matching provisions of the federal Smith-Hughes -Act.
(4) The Barrett-Rogers Act of 1919 provided an annual ftind of '$100,000 which was gradually incre'ased to $400,000. This fund was to aid consolidated elementary schools and four-year high schools;
(5) An act of 1919 specified that 50 percent of all state revenue should be spent on the public schools. This act has never been carried out.
(6) An equalization act was passed in 1926 allocating a one~ half cent (later one cent) gasoline tax and a one-cent kerosene tax to education. These funds were used to give greater aid to those counties least able to support a program of education.
(7) In 1935 and 1937, statutes were enacted allocating taxes and license fees on the sale of malt beverages and wine to a free textbook fund.
(8) In 1937, a law known as the Seven Months School Law was passed. By the terms of this law those counties most sparsely populated receive the greatest benefits. This law defi nitely placed the major burden of school financial support upon the State.
(9) Since 1937, laws have been passed creating a Teachers'
51

Retirement System and abolishing districts as political subdivisions of the county board of education.
The laws mentioned above represent only a small proportion of those enacted by the legislature. They are sufficient, however, to demonstrate the increasing share that the State has assumed of its educational responsibility.
At the present time, there are in force statutes relating to the organization and duties of the State Board of Education, the duties of the State School Superintendent, the operation of the Free Textbook Commission, the distribution of state funds to equalize educational opportunities, the' duties and responsibilities of county boards of education, the duties and responsibilities of county superintendents of schools, the procedure for merging independent school systems into the county system, the payment of teachers, school building construction, observance of special days, the annual school census, health, instructions in special subjects, protection against fire or stampede hazards, compulsory school attendance, vocational education, vocational rehabilitation, illiteracy, crimes, and the operation of the Teachers' Retirement System.
These statutes togethe.r with constitutional provisions relating to education constitute the legal framework within which administrative boards and officers find their authority for action. Administrative boards and officials must of course look to the courts from time to time for decisions relative to the validity of statutes. The opinions of the attorney general are likewise impo.rtant guides in ascertaining the breadth of action that may be taken relative to any particular law.
Constitutional Boards and Officials
In Georgia, the constitution provides for a State Board of Education, a State School Superintendent, a Board of Regents for the University System of Georgia, county boards of education, and county school superintendents. The constitution also grants authority for independent boards of education in existence at the time of adoption of the constitution to continue to operate. These constitutional boards for the most part are given their duties and responsibilities through legislative statutes.
The State School Superintendent is the executive officer of
52.

the State Board of Education and is the administrative official charged with the responsibility of carrying out its policies. The State Board of Education is given considerable latitude in setting up its policies and regulations. The legislature has in some laws set up the method of operation and administration, but has tended to grant these powers to the State Board of Education. This is recognized as a desirable practice by authorities in the field of government. By giving the State Board of Education considerable quasi-legislative powe'r, changing conditions can be met more adequately. The Chancellor of the University System is not mentioned in the State Constitution, and is appointed by the Board of Regents.
On the local level county boards of education also have considerable quasi-legislative power. This power has been grante'd by numerous statutes. In many instances there is little difference between quasi-legislative power and administrative action. Thus, the county school superintendent, as the constitutional executive officer of the county board, plays a leading role in the local control of education. The supe.rintendents of the independent school administrative units are not mentioned in the State Constitution, and are appointed by their respective boards of education.
Summary and Conclusions
From the foregoing analysis of the legal bases of education in Georgia, the following facts are drawn:
1. Education is a function of the State.
2. The policy of the electorate concerning education is expressed in the State Constitution.
3. It is the will of the electorate that an adequate education be provided for all citizens.
4. The will of the electorate concerning education is ex~ pressed most actively through the legislature.
5. The Legislature looks to the constitution for restraintB upon its power rather than for an enumeration of its powers.
6. The legislature has through its statutes placed an increasing share of the educational burden upon the State'. This
53

is as it should be and is the only way by which equal educational opportunity 'may be provided. 7. The legal boundaries of education in Georgia are set forth in the 'basic law of the constitution, the statutes of the legislature, court decisions, o.pinions of the attorney gen~ eral, and the quasi-legislative rules and regulations of the state, county, and independent boards of education.
1
I
54

CHAPTER III
THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE PEOPLE
A view of the educational status of Georgia's youth and adult population is necessary '"before any meaningful analysis of Georgia's educational program can be made. The brief picture presented herein deals with such vital information as: school attendance, drop-outs, retardation, college entrance of school..:age youth, illiteracy, number of ye'ars of school completed, and wage or salary income according to educational status of the adult population. The youth and the adult population are treated separately.
School Age Youth
School attendance. The percentage of Georgia youth 5-17 .; years of age by age groups attending school in 1930 and 1940 as compared with the average attendance in the United States for 1940 is given in Figure 1.
Except for children five years of age there was a definite increase in the percentage of Georgia children attending school in 1940 as compared with the percentage in 1930. It is interesting to note from Figure 1 that the percentage of attendance in Geotgia was not so great as the percentage of attendance in the United States for any of the age groups shown. The graph shows clearly that Georgia youth begin to drop out of schooi rapidly after reaching their fourteenth birthday or at the time they would normally enter high school. It is for the age groups corresponding to the high-school years that school attendance is poorest in Georgia as compared with the United States. The greatest gain in the percentage of children attending school, however, was registered by these same high-school age groups (14-17 years) from 1930 to 1940. There is still vast room for improvement, since in 1940 the following Georgia children were not in school: 60,532, or 92.9 percent, of all five-year-olds; 60,046, or 11.7 percent, of all 6-13 years of age; 27,705, or 21.5 percent, of all 14-15 years of age; and 63,966, or 49.4 percent, of all 16-17 years of age.
Considered in terms of race, the attendance of Georgia whites was much better than the attendance of Negroes. Figure
55

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

IOOo/o

I

5 YEARS OLD

LEGEND:

IIIIIl GEORGIA.-1930

SSl GEORGIA-1940

~ u.s.

1940

6 TO 13 YEARS OLD 14 TO 15 YEARS OLD 16 TO 17 YEARS OLD

TOTAL 5 TO 17
FIGURE I SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN GEORGIA 1930 AND 1940
COMPARED WITH U. S. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE-194oa
au. S. Census, Second Series, 1940, Table II

2 shows the percent of Georgia youth 6-17 years of age attending school by race for 1930 and 1940. The percentag~ attendance of whites was 12 percent greater than for Negroes
in 1930 and 7.7 percent greater in 1940. The percent of children attending school in 1940 was greater than in 1930 for
both whites and Negroes. The greater ga.in from 1930 to 1940,/ however, was made by Negro children.

to 20 3o 4o so ao 7o so
WHITE xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx::
1930
NEGRoMMRUlMMMRHHlMRHl.MIMB~

90 too%

WHITE iiiiiii~i~i~ii~i~~~ii~~~~ii
1940
NEGROMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM'MMMM'MMJ:MMMM:

FIGURE 2
PERCENT OF GEORGIA YOUTH 6-17 YEARS OF AGE ATTENDING SCHOOL, 1930 and 1940a
au. S. Census, Population, Second Series, 1940, Table 11.

Drop-outs. The number and the percentage of school age youth leaving school at various grade levels are factors highly indicative of the future educational status of Georgians. Likewise, they are a barometer pointing to the degree to which the educational system is fulfilling its obligations to society.

Table 1 gives the number and the percentage of school age youth dropping out of white schools from 1932 to 1943. Since the number of students enrolle'd in the first grade has consistently been greater than the number of school age youth six years of age, drop-outs have been calculated beginning with the third grade. A study of the table reveals that of 56,304 white students enrolled in the third grade in 1934 a total of 34,512, or 61.3 percent, had dropped out of school before reaching the e'leventh grade. It is significant to note that the greatest number of white students left school after completing the seventh grade.

57

For Negroes the percentage of .youth dropping out of school is much greater than for whites. Table 2 shows the loss of Negro students due to drop-outs from 1932 to 1942. As with the white.s, the number and the percentage of Negro drop-outs have been calculated beginning with the third grade. In 1934, there we:re 36,672 Negro youth enrolled in the third grade, whereas in 1942 there remained only 3,074 enrolled in the eleventh grade-in other words, a loss of 91.6 percent. The greatest loss in numbers occurred between the third and fifth grades, but the greatest percentage loss occurre'd between the seventh and ninth grades.
The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 lead to the conclusion that in 1942 less than 40 percent of Georgia's white youth and only 9 percent of her Negro youth reached the eleventh grade. Now that Georgia has a compulsory attendance law with legal teeth these figures should materially improve.

Retardation. Closely allied with the problem of school dropouts and attendance' is the problem of grade retardation. For the purposes of this study, all students who are over the normal ~ age for the grade in which they are enrolled are regarded as 1 retarded. A two-year age span is regarded as normal for each grade; for example, all children in the first grade who are six or seven years of age are considered as not being retarded.

Table 3 shows the number and the percentage of enrolled pupils retarded by grades for the school year 1943-44. The table reve'als that 20.3 percent of aU white students and 49.5 percent of all Negro students were retarded at least one year in 1944. For both whites and Negroes the greatest percentages of retarded pupils are in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades.
Retardation on such large scale~ not only contributes materially to student drop-outs but also is costly in terms of actual dollars expended for education.

Further insight into the problem of retardation is gained by

a study of Figure 3. This figure compares the number of stu-

dents enrolled in grades one through eleven for 1938 and 1945.

The dotted line on the chart labeled "IDEAL" represents the

::.,

percentage of pupils who would be enrolle'd in each grade

~;

under an ideal or near-perfect situation. A large part of each

58

TABLE 1
STUDY OF DROP-OUTS IN WHITE SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA . 1932- 1942 a

Year
1932 1934 1936 1938 1940 1942

Grade
1 3 5 7 9 11

Number
88,569 56,304 49,222 . 43,324 31,320' 21,792

Loss grades 3 to 11

Loss from preceding biennium
7,082 5,898 12,004 9,528 34,512

Percent
12.58 11.98 27.71 3o.42 61.30

a Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Report, 1931-1932.

TABLE 2
STUDY OF DROP-OUTS IN NEGRO SCHOOLS IN GEORGIA 1932- 1942 a

Year
1932 1934 1936 1938 1940 1942

Grade

Number

1

93,860

3

36;652

5

23,513

7

13,647

9

5,549

11

3,074

Loss grades 3 to 11

Loss from preceding biennium

Percent loss from preced-
ing biennium

57,208 13,139
9,866 8,098 2,475
33,578

60.95 35.85 41.96 59.34 44.60
91.61

a Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Reports, 1931-32 to 1941-42.

59

bar which extends above this dotted line represents retarded

pupils. For example, in 1938, 33.6 percent of .all Negro pupils

were e'nrolled in the first grade, whereas the ideal percentage

would be 9.1 percent. Where the bar fails to reach this dotted

.,..,'

line, the distance from the bar to the line represents drop-outs.

For example, in 1938, only .7 of one percent of all Negro pupils

were enrolled in the eleventh grade, whereas the ideal would

be 9.1 percent.

A view of Figure 3 shows a definite improvement from 1938 to 1945 fo.r both Negroes and whites. In other words, the num- her of pupils retarded and dropping out of school both materially decreased from 1938 to 1945. The greater improvement was made by Ne'groes but this was to be expected, since their situation was poorer.

Coilege entrance. A study of the number of students gradu-

ating from Georgia white accredited high schools and the num-

ber entering Georgia colleges annually shows conclusively that

great improvement has been made in education in recent years.

Figure 4 shows graphically the number graduating from Geor-

gia accre'dited high schools and entering Georgia colleges from

,

1905 to 1945. A study of this graph indicates that from 1905

to 1915, Georgia high schools existed largely for the purpose

of educating those who planned to enter college. After 1915,

the high schools began to reach the mass of the people and the

number graduating annually increased rapidly. S.ince the pass-

age of the Seve'n-Months' School Law in 1937 the number

graduating from accredited high schools annually has increased

from 16,008 in 1935 to 22,377 in 1940. Figure 4 shows that

the number of graduates entering Georgia colleges increased

gradually to 1935 when enrollments tended to level off. During

the war years there was a decrease in college enrollments due

to the high-school graduates entering the armed force's. With

the cessation of hostilities and the gradual return to normalcy,

the number of high-school graduates and the number entering

college annually should increase. The number entering college,

however, will be materially limite'd for a time because of in-

sufficient higher educational facilities.

Adult Population
In the brief analysis made herein of the educational status .j
of Georgia adults all persons 25 years of age and over are con-

60

sidered adults. This age has been selected, since the vast majority of all people have completed their formal education by their twenty-fifth birthday.
Y:ears of school completed. Figure 5 presents graphically the percentage of Georgia adults having completed various levels of education by race for 1940. The graph shows that in 1940, 2.9 percent of all white adults and 14.1 percent of all Negro adults had never attended school. Including this no-education group with the group having one to four years of education, it is found that 16.6 percent of all white adults and 58.6 percent of all Negro adults have less than fifth-grade education. For the specific levels of educational attainment above the seventh grade the percentage for whites greatly exceeds the percentage for Negroes. The percentage of adults having four years of high-school training or more was 23.6 percent for whites and 3.6 percent for Negroes. The median number of school years completed by Georgia white adults in 1940 was 8.4 as compared to 4.2 for Negroes.1
Illiteracy. Figure 5 further shows that in 1940, 6.5 percent of all Georgians 25 years of age and older had never attended school and 30.1 percent had completed less than five years of schooling. In other words, according to Selective Service standards,2 30.1 percent of all Georgia adults were illiterate in 1940. This figure must of course be tempered by those more ambitious and intelligent individuals who have educated themselves through their own effort.
Further insight into the illiteracy question is gained by studying certain draft registration data. Between May 15 and September 15, 1941, 11,950, or 4.4 percent, of all white Selective Service registrants and 35,610, or 23.6 percent, of all Negro registrants in Georgia signed their draft registration cards with an X mark or reasonable facsimile thereof.3 These X marks tell the story only too we'll when it is considered that only .8 of one percent of all white registrants in the United States used a mark and only 12 percent of all Negroes. By this criteria,
1 U. S. Census, Population, Second Series, 1940. 2 "Those who have not completed more than fourth-grade schooling or its equivalent are termed illiterate."-Lewis B. Hershey, Selective Service in Wa17time (Second report of the Director of Selective Service, Government Printing Office, 1943), as quoted by C. L. Rice in A Plan for the Interpretation of Certain School Systems of the United States (unpublished dissertation), Teachers College, Columbia University, 1944. 8 Rice, Op. cit., Table 13.
63

TABLE 3
NUMBER AND PERCENT OF ENROLLED PUPILS RETARDED BY GRADES 1943 - 1944 "

Grade

Enrollment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total

65,367 52,590 51,311 50,781 48,488 44,786 41,278 35,391 27,926 22,794 18,069 458,781

White
Number retarded
7,258 9,320 10,939 12,786 13,029 11,633 10,042 7,883 4,941 3,173 2,151 93,155

Negro

Percent retarded

Enrollment

Number retarded

11.1

71,813

24,029

17.7

34,252

18,344

21.3

31,888

18,130

25.2

29,102

17,773

26.9

24,710

14,874

26.0

20,113

11,805

24.3

16,070

9,352

22.3

9,707

4,983

17.7

6,750

2,920

13.9

4,820

1,752

11.9

3,210

993

20.3

252,435

124,955

Percent retarded
33.5 53.6 56.9 61.1 60.2 58.7 58.2 51.3 43.3 36.3 30.9 49.5

a Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Report, 1943-1944.

62

Georgia's rate of ill:iteracy among whites was highest in the nation, and among Negroes it was exceeded only by South Carolina and M'ississippi.
Educational level and income. The low e'ducational status of Georgia people is costly in terms of general economic wellbeing. A study made by the Committee on Education of the United States Chamber of Commerce concluded that areas low in educational status have correspondingly low wage or salary income, home values, per capita retail sales, magazine circulation, and telephone service.4 Figure 6 shows the relationship between annual wage or salary income by years of school completed for the Southern States in 1940. This chart shows that persons of high educational attainment tend to fall in the higher income brackets.
Educational Rank
The average Georgian feels that his children have a right to the same opportunity that other children have. They have this right but have as yet to receive the opportunity. Such educational opportunities as Georgia children have received fall short of the opportunities offered to the average American boy and girl.
There are many factors that measure either directly or indirectly the educational status of a state. Table 4 shows 21 of these factors. In the table, Georgia's rank among the 49 school syste'ms of the nation is shown.
A study of Table 4 reveals many interesting facts. Fo.r those factors measuring educational load, Georgia ranks among the highest ten in the nation. On the other hand, Georgia's wealth and ability to support an educational program are low. Inevitably such factors have led to the fact that Georgia ranks fortyfourth in the median level of support per classroom unit maintaine'd by the status.
.I
Georgia ranked first in percentage of selective service registrants rejected because of education deficiencies. Only one other state had a greater percentage of children ages 16 to 17 not in any school in 1939-40, and only two states had a greater
4 Education and Invesbnent in People. Washington, D. C.; U. S. Chamber of Commerce, 1945.
65

THOUSANDS 25

20

LEGEND:

-

NO. GRADUATES

NO. ENTERING

GEORGIA COLLEGES

J ~
v \

j
15
7
I
10
f

I

5

v........ "' ~
0 lii"llllllllll

I(
=. ...........

1905

1910

1915

1920

19.25

1930

1935

1940

1944

FIGURE 4

WI-liTE GRADUATES OF GEORGIA ACCREDITED HIGH SCHOOLS ENTERING GEORGIA COLLEGES-1905-44a

aGeorgia Accrediting Commission, Official Bulletin, 1945-1946.

COLLEGE. 14 YEARS OR MO~f:.
HIGH SCHOOL 14 YEARS

TO 499

500 TO 999

INCOME GROUPS (DOLLARS)

1000
TO
1499

1500 TO
1999

2000
TO
2499

2500 TO
2999

3000 TO
4999

5000
AND OVER

PERCf:NT 100

90

80

70

60

GRADE SCHOOL

18

50

YEARS OR NONE

40

30

20

10

NUMBER OF CASES

588

1406

1737

1700

1137

412

581

0 146

FIGURE 6
ANNUAL WAGE OR SALARY INCOME BY YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED-1940 7707 Persons Receiving Wage and Income Only. Regardless of Time Worked. Native White Males, 35-44 Years of Age
in Cities of 250,000 or More

SOUTH REGION Source: U. S. Chamber of Commerce, Education, An Investment in People, 1944, p. 24
__________ . ....... .....~_.__

FIGURE 5
PERCENTAGE OF PERSONS 25 YEARS OLD AND OVER. BY YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED. BY RACE FOR THE STATE
1940 1ooo/or------r------~-----.,-----.------.------,------,------~

eor------r-----f------;------r-----4------;------r-----;

sor-----+------r-----4-----1------r-----;------r-----i
LEGEND:
7or----t----t----l----ll--~t===~~--t----J
r~::::":::m'"<U'.Ufl~'"' fi!J~J;lNGGRO
6or------r-----4------+-----~----
.TOTAC:.
sor-----+------r-----i-----1------r-----+------r-----i

40~----~-+.:.~.--+------+-----1r-----+------+----~r-----~

;~...
30~------~-f~J---i-------;-------+-------r-------+-------r--~--~

'!?

lt."

.;t;

~ ~*,___ 20 1-------l---l;fi --

:;..
!

~,.,

* ~

;:; j 1~ ;~ ~.:'-_. ~;' :: 10

.~. iii~

!

=',!._.:.=._.. .....'

::::

m!# ,il.~_!,i I' ~ ~~ ~ ~~~ :~; ~ lIr~il_l H t :l,,i,I,JI_,_.
O ~~~. .~~GUR~A~D~E!!~[i ~~~~~G~R~ALD.E.,~~~~~4~Y~E~IAWUJRmS~~~~.y~4~Y~E~A~RS~

NO SCHOOL
YEARS COMPLETED

14
YEARS

GRADE 5-6
YEARS

7-8
YEARS

HIGH SCHOOL
1-3 YEARS

OR MORE
COLLEGE 1-3
YEARS

Source: U. S. Census, Population, Second Series, 1940, Table 13.

TABLE 4 (continued)
GEORGIA'S RANK ON SELECTED FACTORS AMONG THE 49 SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 1939-40 a

Georgia's rank
47 5 15 2 7 4
3
3 1

Title of index-1989-1940 data
Percent of children in private and parochial schools in 1939-1940.
Percent of children ages 5 to 17 not in any school.
Percent of children age 5 not in school.
Percent of children ages 16 to 17 not in any school in 1939-1940.
Percent of adults ages 25 and over who have never had any schooling.
Percent of adults 25 and over who have had less than 5 years of schooling.
Percent of registrants who signed their registration cards with an X because they could not sign their own names.
Percent of men in 4-F classification.
Percent of selective service registrants rejected because of educational deficiencies.

Summary
The review of the educational status of Georgia's youth and adults that has been presented leads conclusively to the fact that the educational status of Georgia people is far below the national average and, in fact, near the .bottom rung of the educational ladder representing the 48 states. Considerable improvement has been made in the last few years but much more remains to be done. Some of the most pertinent facts brought out by the analysis are:
1. The percentage of Ge'orgia children attending school was greater in 1940 than in 1930.
2. School attendance in Georgia is not so good as school attendance in the nation as a whole.
3. School attendance of whites is better than that of Negroes.
a John K. Norton and Eugene S. Lawler, An Inventory of Public School Expenditures in the United States. Vol. 2, Washington, D. C., American Council on Education, 1944, pages 809-311.
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percentage of men in 4-F selective service classification. There were only three state's in which a greater percentage of adults 25 years of age and over have had less than five years of schooling.

Table 4, in general, presents a picture revealing Georgia as high in illiteracy, failure to attend school, and educational load; but low in median level of support per class.room, percent of income spent on public education, and ability to support education.
TABLE 4
GEORGIA'S RANK ON SELECTED FACTORS AMONG THE 49 SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 1939-40 a

Georgia's rank

Title of index-1939-1940 data

44

Median level of support per classroom unit maintained

by the states in 1939-40.

8

Number of children ages 5 to 17 per 1,000 of total

population.

44

Income per capita of total population.

44

Income per child ages 5 to 17.

44

Percent of all income spent on all state and local

government functions.

32

Percent of income spent on public elementary and

secondary education, current expenses only, including

transportation costs.

11

Percent of income necessary above amount expended

to equalize to the national median level of support

per classroom unit.

45

Amount per child ages 5 to 17 actually expended on

public education, the index based on all the 5 to 17

year old children in the state.

44

Amount per child in average daily attendance ac-

tually expended on public education.

44

Amount per child ages 5 to 17 which would have

been available had all states made the same effort,

an effort equal to the national average effort.

43

Amount per child in average daily attendance in

public school which would have been available had

all states made an equal effort.

6

Percent of income that would have been necessa1y

to educate in public schools all children ages 5 to 17

to the national median level, including children in

private schools and children not in school in 1939-

1940.

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CHAPTER IV
THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM OF THE SCHOOL
Introduction
The purpose of Chapter IV is to examine the present instructional offerings and to indicate the nature of an ideal educational program to meet the needs and interests of all the people of Georgia. The survey committee suggests many changes-changes in (1) scope and number of persons to be reached by the school, (2) nature of the instructional program, (3) organization of the school, (4) kinds of teachers needed, (5) the school year, and (6) amount of financial support needed.
The chapter is organized into five major parts: (1) Point of View and the Implications of This Point of View for Teachers, Administration, and the Instructional Program, (2) Evaluation of the Present School Program, (3) Proposed Organization of the New School, (4) Description of the Community School, and (5) Description of the Comprehensive Secondary School.
Point of View
In America the school is the institution charged with the responsibility of providing appropriate educational experiences for the people. The effectiveness of these educational experiences is determined by the extent to which the socially approved purposes of the school are realized. The point of view expressed in this chapter describes the school whose primary purpose is to provide educational experiences that will promote the ideals of democracy.
Democracy as a way of life involves common interests and purposes, and concerns itself with the promotion of these. Democracy is concerne'd with helping individuals to become intelligent and skillful in dealing with problems with which they are confronted and w:ith helping individuals to work together in the promotion of common interests of the community, state, nation, and world. In other words, d.emocracy is concerned both with the intelligence and worth of the individual and with helping each individual to develop a sense of social responsibility-a concern for the probable effect on self and others of all that he' does individually or as a member of a group.
71

4. Approximately 60 percent of all white students and 90 percent of all Negro students drop out of school before completing the eleventh grade.
5. In 1944, 20.3 percent of all white students and 49.5 percent of all Negro students were retarded in school grade progress at least one year. Many of these students were retarded two, three, and more years.
6. More than one-fourth of all Negro pupils are enrolled in the first grade.
7. During the war years the number of high-school graduates decreased. In like manner, the number entering colleges decreased from 1940 to 1944.
8. In 1940, the median number of school years completed by Georgia white adults was 8.4 as compared to 4.2 for Negroes.
9. According to the 1940 U. S. Census, approximately three percent of Georgia white adults and 14 percent of all Georgia Negro adults had never attended school.
10. According to Selective Service standards approximately thirty percent of all Georgia adults were illiterate in 1940.5
..j
5 See footnote two and related data for explanation of Selective Service standard.
7v

d. Selecting the best plan and putting the plan into operation.
Implications of Point of View for Administration
Considerable modification in the administrative organization of the school will need to be made if the foregoing point of view is to function. Some of the more important implications are that the schools should be so organized and administered that:
1. Students will have opportunities to work at the solution of their own problems. This will mean, in many instances, more flexible schedules and less "lock-step" action in the school.
2. Teachers and students will engage in problem-solving rather than in placing emphasis upon learning subject matter as an e'nd in itself. For example, students dealing with problems of controlling mosquitoes should, under the supervision of the teacher, actually participate in controlling mosquitoes in the community.
3. There will be continuous intelligent adjustment of the program to meet new conditions.
4. Educational experiences will be provided for persons of all ages in the area served by the school.
5. The facilities and services are available to the community twelve months in a year. In other words, the services of the school plant and personnel will make of the school a real community center.
Implications of Point of View for the Instructional Program
The people of Georgia are becoming increasingly concerned about a school program that will provide educational experiences in the real and vital problem of living for all the people. The'y want a richer and more varied program with facilities and services available to all persons in a community. These concerns have been expressed during the past two years by more than 20,000 lay and school people who have been studying and planning educational programs for Georgia schools.
Planning groups in all parts of the State have proposed and are now working at developing a school that reaches more of
73

That the school should be concerned with such purposes as are stated above is forcefully brought to our attention when we observe that individuals. and groups face such problems as: acquiring skill in the use of the tools of learning, making occupational adjustments., establishing homes., maintaining health, developing social understandings, earning an adequate living, and other problems the solutions of which have important implications. for the individual and our way of life'. It is imperative that each of the problems faced by individuals or by groups be solved intelligently and with concern for all of those affected by the solutions. The school must become a dynamic force if the American ideals of democracy are to be preserved and promoted. This objective gives direction to the school program.
Implications of Point of View for Teachers
It will be readily observed that the application of the foregoing point of vie'w will necessitate considerable modification in the procedures used by many teachers. The teacher will need to:
1. Study each learner and understand him physically, mentally, and emotionally.
2. Know first-hand each learner's environment.
3. Become skillful in sensing problems faced by each learner. It should be emphasized that the teacher should deal with problems other than those of which the learner is already aware. In other words, the philosophy expressed here does not imply that pupils should work only at what suits their fancy or passing concern. Learners should be led to discover and to solve real and vital problems of living.
4. Become intelligent and skillful in promoting reflective thinking. This will involve guiding the learner in:
a. Discover.ing and recognizing personal problems, and problems of the community, state, nation, and world.
b. Proposing possible solutions for dealing with the problems.
c. Testing all possible solutions.
72

131; and pneumonia, 1,581 deaths. The number of cases of hookworm each year continues to be large; more than 3,300 cases were reported in 1944. However, no systematic examinations have been made to determine the total infestation. It is probable that the number of cases reported represents only a small percentage of the actual cases.
Inadequate diet contributes to the cause of many diseases. A diet survey of 1,542 white children in Georgia schools reveals that in 1945, 26 percent of the children were eating an adequate diet; 35.7 pe'rcent, a fair diet; and 38.3 percent, a poor diet.
The prevalence of some of the diseases may be due to inadequate sanitary facilities and poor housing conditions in the homes and schools. Only 29.1 percent of the people of the State are home owners, 37.7 percent of the homes have running water, and 6.8 percent of the homes have no toilet facilities. Six percent of the white schools and 43 percent of the Negro schools have either surface privies or no toilet facilities at all.
Creative ex;pression. Not so generally recognized as problems in health and economics are problems which individuals have in satisfying their desire to express themselves in creative ways. The arts have, since the beginning of time, been an integral part of the life of every individual. Man sang, danced, painted, worked with wood, and wove beautiful textiles because he wished to express his emotional reactions to life, to communicate an idea, or to fulfill a need arising from his daily life. The art processes belonged to every man and needed no explanation or justification. The individual today has lost none of his inherent urge to create and to express himself. When this urge is blocked, the individual becomes a repressed personality; and he finds it impossible to make a real contribution to his own or his group's living. The community 'faces a real and v:ital problem in atte'mpting to restore the arts to their natural place in the. life of each person and of the community itself. A program of creative self-expression, providing experiences that afford personal satisfaction not otherwise obtainable, should be a part of every school.
Choosing an occupation. The occupation that an individual
75

the people-preschool, out-of-school youth, adults, and a highe'r percentage of the 6-to-18-year-old group. They want not only the school to do a better job of teaching reading, writing, arithmetic, and the other tools of learning; but they also want to enrich the offerings in many other phases of living with which they believe the school should concern itself. The several areas of instruction are named and a few facts are given to indicate the reasons for including these areas in a proposed school program.
Tools of learning. In spite of the fact that for many years educators have been trying to find better ways of teaching the "three R's," there is considerable evidence that many individuals in Georgia are handicapped because they lack the ability to read with comprehension, to write with clarity, and to use numbers with effectiveness. Illiteracy still exists in rather large numbers. During a four-month period in 1941, 44 percent of all white registrants and 23.6 percent of all Negro registrants signed their draft registration cards with a cross mark. In an eight-month period in 1942, for every 1,000 white inductees 45.50 were rejected for educational deficiencies; and for every 1,000 Negro inductees 256.29 were rejected for the same reason.
A study of pupils enrolled in the third grade in 1934 reveals that approximately 61 percent of the white and 91 percent of the Negro children droppe'd out before graduation in 1942. Almost 50 percent of the white and 78 percent of the Negro dropouts occurred between the seventh and eleventh grades. In 1940, only 21.4 percent of those graduating from high school entered a Georgia college (fe'w enter other colleges). The average white adult has finished only 8.4 years of school. Schools need to continue to work on the problems of improving the instructional programs in the tool subjects-reading, writing, and numbers-and to hold more of our youth in such a training program.
Health. Deficiencies, as revealed by the health records, indicate some of the problems which people have in maintaining good health. More than 65,000 persons in Georgia have serious physical handicaps. These handicaps affect seriously their ability to work or attend school. Preventable dise'ases take a heavy toll of lives each year. In 1944 tuberculosis caused 1,107 deaths; diphtheria, 40; influenza, 742; syphilis, 372; pellagra,
74

of serious import are continually arising in a person's relations with other people-at home, in the school, and in the neighborhood community. There are problems concerning government, world relationships, labor unions, churches, and other organized groups.
~~- problems of human relations in large measure give
rise to problems in school discipline, juvenile delinquency, and crime. Perhaps much of our adult crime and insanity could have been avoided by proper attention to these problems. When problems of social relationships are not dealt with, frustrations result which interfere with an individual's mental and physical processes to such an extent that his work is inefficient and unsuccessful.
It is necessary to help children and adults face and solve these problems of human relationships. Instruction in human relationships should occupy a prominent place in the curriculum of our schools.
Earning a living. The destiny of Georgia is largely bound up in the -ability of her people to produce commodities and services demanded by society. One of the reasons for the low standard of living in the State is attributable to the fact that so, many of our people have had no tra:ining for the occupations in which they engage.
The farmers of Georgia are confronted with unprecedented problems growing out of the rapidly changing conditions of agriculture. Many of their problems grow directly out of the changes that are taking place in the types of farming. For example: In 1914 Georgia farmers harvested 5,157,000 acres of cotton while in 1945 they harvested only 1,250,000 acres. This represents a decrease of more than 75 percent in the acreage of cotton harvested between 1914 and 1945 and is the most drastic change that any major farming type has ever. undergone in. the history of American agriculture.
This change in farming type has brought on a general revolution in the farming of the State. The present farmers are confronted with a multitude' of new problems, the principal one of which is maintaining their farm income out of the new crop and animal enterprises that are coming in to take the place of cotton. Thousands of new problems are encountered in the
77

engages in is iJTiportant to himse~f and to society. Society needs the highest contr.ibutiQn. that each individual can make through. his occupation. For the individual, economic security, standar.d. of living, and happiness de:r;>end in large measure on his occupation.
Almost every person must make occupational choices at one time or another. Georgia in 1940 according to U. S. Census reports had 82 percent of her male population in the labor force or employed as homemaker,s. An estimated 51,000 enter the labQr force annually from Georgia schools. Many have not chosen an occupation at the time they are expected to enter tha labor force.
Changes in occupational opportunities and mobility of population complicate the problem of choosing an occupation. In 1940, over one-th:ird of Georgia's employed persons, not including those engaged in homemaking, were engaged in agriculture. There has been since 1910, however, a decrease in the number engaged in agriculture and an increase in the number in other occupational fields, such as manufacturing, personal services, wholesale and retail services. Two out of three rural farm youth are leaving the farms to find employment elsewhere. The urban population almost double'd during the thirty years just preceding the war. A recent study made by the Education Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board predicts that by 1950 there will be more people engaged in manufacturing than in agriculture.
The school should prov:ide help for individuals at any age at which a contribution can be made to wise occupational choices.
Social relationsh~ps. A large proportion of the problems which people feel is in the re'alm of social relationships. Many adults have expressed it as, "Getting along with other people." For the child, there is seldom any such generalization. The problems are specific and immediate. "Why won't they let me play?" is an example. Another, "I want to do my part at home, but work is tiresome and I want to play." Or, again, "I want to please' Mother, but I can't remember what to do." Children may complain, "I can't have any fun in the park because somebody is always tearing up the swings and seesaws." Problems
76

The schools of the State must provide training opportunities for all our people to enable them to become more proficient in dealing with these problems of earning a living.
Using money wisely. Related to the other economic problems is the way money is used. The American people spent 70 percent as much in 1945 for alcohol, soft drinks, ice cream, candy, and coffee as was spent for food in 1939. During 1945, there was twice as much spent for tobacco and alcoholic beverages as for meat. Actually, one-half as much is spent for such nonessentials as movies, cosmetics, alcohol, tobacco, and soft drinks, as for food, including candy, coffee, and ice cream. Instruction in the use of money will result in a wiser use of this resource.
Utilizing natural resources. Natural resources are also being wasted and unwisely used. A re'cent survey made on soil erosion in Georgia reveals that almost one-half of the land has lost onefourth to three-fourths of its topsoil, and nearly 17 percent has lost over three-fourths of the topsoil and some subso:il.
A forest survey reveals that our forest resources are' not being used wisely. The supply of saw timber in the State has been decreased by five billion board feet in the last ten years. There are in Georgia two million acres of land which should be planted to trees. In addition, it is has been estimated that forest fires destroy five million dollars worth of timber annually in the State. These are but two examples of the lack of intelligence and skill in using our natural resources. The school should help make the people sensitive to and concerned about these situations.
Evaluation of the Present School Program
The Survey Committee is deeply app.reciative of the great progress made in many of the schools in the State during the last several years. It is also conscious of the fact that many schools would have provided a much better instructional program had money and other facilities been available. The program recommended by the committee in the following sections of this chapter would have been realized in many schools had adequate support been available.
The evaluation of the present school is made to point up the inadequacies as the Committee sees them in our present pro-
79

production of hay, grain, truck crops, dairy products, poultry, livestock, peanuts, and tobacco.
The changes taking place in type of farming in Georgia demand more extensive acreages and more farm machinery. For the State as a whole the average size farm increased almost 35 percent between 1920 and 1940. In general, the changes of mechanization on farms were indicated by the trend in the use of tractors. In 1940 there were over five times as many tractors in use on Georgia farms as in 1920.
Besides these immediate problems on their own farms, present farmers are' also confronted with the problem of understanding the reason for these changes and what to expect in the future. Present farmers need to understand what is taking place in the South, in the nation, and in the world that affects their lives, their business, and their future.
In 1940 Georgia had 201,254 persons engaged in distributive work activity. The personnel turnover ratio in these businesses exceeds 20 percent yearly and four out of five small store owners go into bankruptcy within a period of five years from the time they open their establishments.
The buying public pays for the inefficient and outmoded ways of business that is generally practiced in the d:i:stributive establishments. Fifty-nine percent of the consumer's dollar goes into the cost of distributing goods as compared with 41 percent going into the cost of production and manufacturing, which means that cost of distribution is excessive and disproportionate. One of the principal ways to reduce this cost is to train the vast number of workers in sales and management so that they may provide the buying public with skillful services and efficiently operated businesses.
The trend in industrial employment in the State has shown a definite increase during the past twenty years. In 1920, 17 percent of the employed workers in Ge'orgia were in industrial employment. In 1940, 37 percent of the employed workers were in industry. Mass production, specialization, the disappearance of recognized trades, and the development of new trades due to inventions, new processes, new materials, and changing public demands create many new industrial occupational problems.
78

toilets, and playground. Children memorize the health rule's but little guidance is provided in developing good health habits. Recreation and physical activity are too frequently unsupervised.
(3) Opportunities for growth in the creative arts are all too limited. Except in centers of wealth little or no provision is made for "making things" and satisfying the urge to create.
(4) There are only a few schools in the State where attention is given to occupational guidance. In too many schools the program is limited to reading about occupations. Too few boys and girls get a chance really to study occupations, study their own capacities, and have the benefit of a counsellor.
(5) Social problems are talked about and reading is done in the civic and social science books, but the masses of students have little help in learning under guidance to become skillful in solving these problems.
(6) Opportunities to prepare for earning a living are all too few. At present, such a program is in operation in less than one-half of the high schools. More than one-half of the high-school boys and girls get no help with these problems and only a small percent of out-of-school youth and adults get assistance.
(7) Utilizing money and the natural resources is a part of instructional programs of a small percent of the schools.
Proposed Organization of the New School
To improve the present program the Survey Committee believes that state and, local administrators should give consideration to the deve'lopment of types of school organization that will promote a more functional program.
Schools in the past were planned to serve primarily the children of approximately six to sixteen years of age. To provide for these children, two schools were created-the e'lementary school for .younger children of ages six through twelve, or grades one through seven; and the secondary school for older children of ages thirteen through sixteen, or grades eight
81

gram. The major inadequacies are:
(1) The school does not reach enough people. It is largely limited to the age group, 6 to 18. About 90 percent of the 6 to 13 age group is reached but only about 65 percent of the 13 to 18 age group. We are losing from school too many students after the'y reach thirteen yeais of age.
(2) Little is done for the pre-school child except in centers of wealth. There is practically no program except college offerings for the 18 to 25 years of age group. The adult educational opportunities are limited to instruction in only a fe'w areas and are available to a very small percent of the people.
(3) The methods of teaching place emphasis upon the accumulation of subject-matter rather than upon the development of abHities to use subject matter in life situations.
(4) The school plant and facilities are used only nine months in the year.
(5) Many of the school facilities are poorly adapted to an action program.
Below are statements that point toward some of the short comings in the major instructional areas:
(1) Too many schools are primarily concerned with helping childre'n to acquire certain subject matter assigned in a text book. In these schools all students of a class work at the same time, and all are expected to learn the same amount of subject matter. Not enough emphasis is placed on the application and the use of the subject matter in life activities. The rules of grammar are memorized but seldom use'd; languages are talked about but seldom practiced; mathematical principles are verbalized but seldom used. Writing is talked about, but little c.reative writing is done.
(2) In the field of health children read and discuss the importance of cleanliness and sanitation to good health and too often do nothing about the dirty classrooms,
80

classes for men might consist of home planning, house painting, land-scaping, hog and poultry raising, and gardening. Adults and older youth will frequently want to use the community school shop, canning plant, library, recreational, and other facilities.
In the pages that follow the Survey Committee suggests in some detail a program for children and adults to be carried on in the community school.
TOOLS OF LEARNING:
Child level. Skills in reading, writing, number relations, speaking, and listening, should be well-developed as necessary tools to be used in the solving of all problems of learning and of living and not as an isolated part of the instructional program. The time at which a child may begin to acquire skills in tool subjects is largely determined by the extent to which he is provided with opportunities for experiences which reveal the need for and the uses of such tools in the solution of problems.
The school should work with parents to see that children have rich and varied experiences to secure reading readiness. There should be opportunities for listening to stories read and told; looking at books and caring for them; taking trips; learning to get along with other children; working puzzles, etc. Other types of experiences should include the use of pencils and chalk, in purely manipulative activities, writing down what the child says and letting him see how it looks and sounds; using numbers in functional situations such as counting children, learning to distinguish coins of different values and differences between a quart of milk and a pint of milk. There should .be opportunities to talk informally about experiences and to listen to experiences of others, and opportunities to learn new words.
The school should provide for a continued program of reading readiness, with rich and varied experiences; for the grouping of children according to ability for reading purposes; for much reading material of varying difficulty; and for use of reading in solving problems..
Children, in groups, should have the opportunities to set up
83

through eleve'n. This organization was effective for the purpose for which it was created.
It is believed that two schools may still meet the demands of the people, if modification in the present organization is made. One school, which might be called the community school, could serve the children of elementary-school age, the preschool children, and the adults. Another school, which might be called the comprehensive secondary school, could serve the youth of secondary-school age and non-school youth of the community.
Detailed descriptions of the service, and the facilities of the community school and the comprehensive secondary school follow.

The Community School
The community school should be close to the people in providing educational opportunities for all the people. The school will need to make its staff, equipment, facilities, and plant available. and accessible'. To secure widespread participation in any organized program for adults the facilities of the school must be located near these people. For the school to render effective service to pre-school children the area served by the school must not be too large. It is advisable that children of elementary school age not travel very far to receive the benefits of the program of the school. It seems, then, that the educational center should be located near the above-named groups if the services of the school are to be fully available to them.

Program and services of the community school. The elementary school will provide instruction in individual and group problems in the tools of learning, in healthful living, in creative activities, in the use of money and resources, in social understandings, and in recreation.

The preschool children in the community school will be provided instruction and services such as physical examinations, immunization clinics, tonsil clinics, story hours, and play activities.

Women will be interested in attending organized classes in dress-making, inte:dor decorating, preparation of meals, re-

.

decorating furniture, poultry raising, and the like. Organized

82

so that all individuals may have experiences in speaking and in listening. Amateur dramatics groups and the like may be organized.
Adults should .be provided help in such problems as making applications and reports of various kinds; such as income tax reports, drawing up contracts, entering upon loan agreements, constructing a family or business budget, bookkeeping, and the like. Such experiences involve specific use of the tools of writing and of numbe'r relations.
Reading clubs, literary societies for creative experiences, may be organized. The school should make available all its facilities and personnel to help in encouraging and in giving instruction and guidance to such groups.
HEALTH:
Child level. The community school should help individuals to deal with those problems in health which may be revealed by a survey of individual and community needs. Pupils, with teacher supervision, can be led to recognize and to become concerned with specific health problems through survey activities.
Classroom experiences should be centered on joint pupilteacher efforts to find solutions for their problems and to carey out those solutions. For example, even the' youngest children, becoming fatigued during the school day, may decide that a period of time for rest and sleep is desirable. The problem involved jn this decision has not been solved until children are resting or sleeping as a result of their activity. In like manner, groups may be led to conclude that individual protection from many diseases may be increased through immunization; that hand-to-mouth transmission of disease may be curtailed by hand-washing before eating; that more satisfying play activities may be secured through avoidance of over-exertion, overzealous competition, unfair tactics, and other stimuli to mental and emotional disturbances. Health instruction to aid such experiences as solving these problems cannot be given in isolated periods, but should relate to the entire daily life of every individual in the school.
The use of the lunchroom provides opportunities for develop-
85

penmanship standards. and should be encouraged to work for improvement. They should have opportunities for functional writing situations with emphasis on "writing so others will enjoy reading it," in such activ.ities as the school newspaper and the writing of letters.
Opportunities for dealing with real number situations should be provided. Pupils might measure lumber to be used in building a playhouse, compute interests on their bank accounts, etc. The school should provide for drill in skills for which children have been led to recognize .a need.
For the' development of skills in speaking and listening, the child should have opportunities for speaking and listening in real audience situations; for setting up group standards for speaking and listening; and for informal discussions. Special help should be given to children with speech defects.
A considerable degree of proficiency, according to the ability of the individuals, may be expected by the time the child reaches the age of twelve. Grade promotions, however, should not be based solely on such proficiency. As the child comes to need and use more complex expressions of ideas, he will need to make evaluations of what he re'ads and hears. The use of information in arriving at the solutions of problems, at all levels, provides means by which the pupil can learn to distinguish facts from fancy, truths from misleading propaganda. Familiarity with and wide use of books, newspapers, and other written material, films, radio and other oral media, are essential to sound progress in acquiring the tools of learning.
Adult level. The success which men and women may have in solving all the'ir problems is determined to some extent by their ability to read and to listen with understanding, to speak and write effectively, and to use numbers correctly.
Adults should find in the school the reading material needed to help them solve problems. Guidance should be provided to help them locate information and to use it. The library should be kept open at convenient hours the year round and should contain a wide variety of books and magazines.
Opportunities for group discussions of problems and experiences, as well as real audience situations, should be provided
84

Such groups, with the school leaders, may be led to conclude that community-wide activities to improve the water supply, to provide immunization against disease, to arrange ;for community recreational activities, to arrange. for "summer-roundup" examinations and other care for preschool children, should be part of the school program.
Adult classes for instruction in such areas as first-.aid, homenursing, pest and insect control, and community nutrition, may be organized as ne'eded. Informational s:ervices of many types should be made available at and through the school at such times as individuals and groups may desire them.
Personal guidance and help, largely in djrecting individuals to appropriate medical or service agencies, should be available, and individuals should be encouraged to use the school as a coordinating agency.
CREATIVE EXPRESSION:
Child level. The child finds expression as naturally in song, rhythm, paint, clay, and wood as he doe's in words. The kinds of experiences which he may have will be influenced by the characteristics of the community in which he lives. For example, where natural clay is found, modeling may be specially emphasized.
All children should be given opportunities, by parents and teachers, to hear good music and to become familiar with facilities such as the piano, record-player, rhythm instruments, printed and original songs. The child's expre'ssion of his own feelings and thoughts through song, rhythm instruments, and rhythm dancing should be encouraged.
Opportunities to become familiar with books should be given. Stories should be read and told to the child, and picture and story books should be made available for him to read. Efforts of expression in words should be stimulated through his telling and writing of stories and poems and plays.
Opportunities for experiences in creative expression with ~:mch materials as crayon, paint, clay, wood, paper, and metal should be provided. Brushes, simple hand-tools, and simple machine-tools should be available for working with materials.
87

ing proper dietary habits. Use of toilets and of other building and ground facilities offers situations in which the "Problems of sanitary and wholesome surroundings may be dealt with.
Experiences should be provided for all children, according to their level of ability and experience', in the solving of problems in control of communicable diseases; keeping healthful classrooms and buildings; physical growth and education; nutrition; recreation; safety; correction and prevention of physical defects; personal cleanliness; and mental attitudes.
Pupils should be encouraged to seek for the information needed .in the solution of their problems, and teachers should help them find and use such knowledge as, may be' gained from textbooks, library material, visual aids, and the recountal of experiences of members of their own group-including parents, teachers, and others.
The school should provide for medical examinations, including the "summer round-ups" for the detection and treatment of remedial defe'cts of preschool age children. The well-lighted, comfortable, and attractive building in which happy, healthy teachers are ever alert to the physical needs of the children, contributes to the development of mentally fit and emotionally balanced individuals.
Adult level. Through the agency of the community school, adults may be led to have' a concern for and to work for a solution of those problems .affecting the health of the individual and the community.
The most important service of the school in this area may be to bring together the efforts of all those agencies working toward improvement. The Parent-Teacher Association, Civic Clubs, health and welfare boards, and the medical profession may unite their efforts to combat disease, to correct physical rlr rcts, and to secure for the school, the home, and the community the wholesome environment that makes for healthful, happy living.
For example, a group, meeting at the school, may arrive at a decision to make treatment available to individuals affected by hool(worm, to correct the unsanitary conditions responsible for the disease, and to make permanent the precautionary measures.
86

The elementary school should begin and maintain a careful, accurate, and complete record of an individual's experiences, aptitudes, abilities, interests, and traits of character, to be made available to the individual's counse'lor at the secondary-school level.
Inasmuch as too many of our elementary-school pupils fail to attend high school, there is a need for counseling in the late ele'mentary grades. This counseling should have as its chief objective helping the pupil to make a wise choice as to whether or not to continue formal education or what alternative to choose, and helping the pupil in adjusting to the next situation whether educational or otherwise. In most cases this will involve establishing good :relationships between the pupil and his high-school teachers, especially the counselor.
Adult level. The program in occupational guidance for adults is centered in the community school with that institution maintaining a live contact with the secondary-school center and drawing upon it for facilities and services when nee'ded.
The six phases of the program: occupational information, individual inventory, counseling, exploration and use of training opportunities, placement, and follow-up, all have their place in the needs of adults. The need for occupationai information for various individuals may be of several kinds, such as; a survey of occupational fields for an adult whose small business has faile'd, a study of jobs for a man who has considerable information and whose health needs have made it necessary for him to leave his desk job for out-of-doors works, or some specific information about a trade for a recent graduate of the secondary school. The personal inventory for one person may be on file and may need only follow-up notations, or for another it may involve building up a body of information such as should have been begun in the elementary school and continued in the secondary school.
In order to carry out such a program as this, the community school will need such facilities as filing space that can be kept locked to protect confidential information, conference rooms available for day and night use with individuals or groups, equipment for giving such tests as will be used often, space for proper care of equipment drawn from the secondary school center, and library rooms with reading space suitable for adult
89'

Parents and teachers should give sympathetic guidance and help in the procuring and the use of materials and facilities. Evaluation of early activities, particularly, should not be based on adult standards, but upon the degree1 of satisfaction derived by the individual, in his efforts for creative expression.
Ample time, at home and at school, must be provided. Many of the activities at school may be related to classroom experiences with free time allowed for special activities.
Classroom space and also a special music room, specially equipped arts rooms, and a shop with work benches should be included in the facilities of the school.
Adult level. Adults should find in the community school help they need in choosing ways to satisfy their desires for creative expression. The school should provide guidance in the selection of activities related to the interests and the occupations of the people, and should provide opportunities for experiences in suitable activities.
Men and women should have access to a workshop, arts rooms, sewing room, and the like, where they may make things, both for use and for enjoyment. Useful articles of furniture for the home, objects of decorative value, gadgets for the farm, call for many kinds of materials and the tools with which to work. These materials, plus competent instruction and guidance, should be provided.
Individuals should be given opportunities for experiences in singing, dancing, painting, and using language to express their feelings and thoughts. Help should be given for group planning and for activities such as dramatic productions and group singing.
CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION:
Child leel. A pupil's effective choice of an occupation is somewhat remote from the community school, since few such choices are made .between the ages of 5 and 12.
During this period, however, individuals have a tendency toward hero worship and "choose occupations" regularly on this basis. These interests should be used as opportunities for helping the individual to gain elemental knowledge' of occupations and to recognize, to some extent, the factors entering into a wise occupational choice. m
88

elationships1
major part the school can play with adults will' be in Janning and canying out g~o-qp enterprises. These may establishing a desirable home situation, building and r in community canning plants, service and civic ~lubs, cliurche's, labor unions, the government, and the like.
~s and individuals may desire help in other types of s such as individual use of governmental services, and tity agencies or organizations.
lNG MONEY:
level. The community school which is building its inlal program around the needs of the people it serves vide a definite place in that program for helping chil-
deal intelligently with their problems of utilizing
nstructional program of the school in this area will h current personal problems of the individuals at their level of experience and development. The teacher iscover the amount of money the pupils get individually a group through allowances, gifts, and earnings, the vhich they make of the mone'y, their interests, abilities, like. The individual and group problems discovered
five-year olds will doubtless be quite different from the twelve-year olds. Children from comparatively homes will have quite different problems from those te from poorer homes.
ences which would be offered boys and girls in the .ry grades are: buying lunches, refreshments, toys, material, gifts, and clo~hing, and choosing entertains well as utilizing class funds or other funds belonge group.
e responsibility of the school to see to it that the child experien((es is led to consider the effect of any potenha~e not only on the individual himself but also on '!, his community, and all others affected by the pururthermore, the teacher should see to it that the child pportunity to utilize intelligently any commodity or 1rchas~d by him. These two aspects of utilizing. money

>s pose'rving ng for erving
~ounds
ources >vided ilizing 1erals. >hlets, ;o the chools pment reas.
round ride a .ity to ms of
atural 1ed so study 1er as
s will In an a that unity, erned !e relment farmasider >r the
such
~tural
crops, oiling etc.

use. Much information about training opportunities and occupations should be on file.

The same person who is responsible for counseling in the upper elementary grades might serve as adult counsellor, and might make appointments for counseling services to the staff of the secondary school center when needed.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:

Child level. Tests to discover social needs of individuals are available and should be used as an assistance to the classroom teache'r in observing each child. Full anecdotal records shall be kept on individuals, and in addition objective data should be secured and used regularly in determining individual and group needs.

Problems of face-to-face social relationships arise in the home, in the school, and in the neighborhood. Problems of secondary social relationships arise between individuals, organized groups, and governments.

Below are some of the kinds of problems of social relation- .,

ships faced by most individuals and groups. Such problems

~
I

should constitute the basis for the program in social relation-

ships in the schools.

1. How to work together cooperatively in home, school, and community.
2. How to play together at home, at school, and elsewhere.

3. How to make oneself acceptable to and a part of the social group.

4. How to make use of community and governmental facilities and services.
5. How to help de'cide what to do.

6. How to deal with people who are different.

7. How to understand strikes and wars and elections.

8. How to help the Red Cross and other agencies.

9. How to act in emergencies such as floods.

Adult level. 'The school should work' with ind'ividual adults and with groups of adults to help them solve their problems of

90

An instructional program in homemaking designed to help individuals with the planning and doing aspect of their homemaking problems will require teaching materials and facilities. A relatively large classroom or work room should be' provided where groups of homemakers, under the leadership of the homemaking teacher, may work at the problems. Teaching materials such as books, bulletins, and magazines, should be available for the use of the homemakers of the community. Equipment should be available in sufficient quantities to help develop skills. This e'quipment would include that necessary for sewing, food preservation, food preparation, and the like.
In rural communities where farming is a major occupation the community school should provide opportunities for farmers to grapple intelligently with any agricultural difficulty. The instructional program in this area for adults will probably not be the same in any two communities and will doubtless vary in any one community from year to year. The following type problems would, however, probably be included in the teaching program in many communities; planning the farming program, growing arid preserving food for the family, feeding livestock, terracing farm land, establishing meadow strips, repairing farm machinery, and establishing a permanent pasture.
Since the instructional program will be designed to guide farmers in thinking and in doing, there will be need for materials and facilities. There should be a relatively large work room equipped with tables and chairs. Teaching materials including books, bulletins, magazines, films, and slides, should be available'. A farm shop with facilities for making and repairing farm and home equipment should be provided. Facilities for preserving food-a community food processing plantshould be available to the families of the community. Other facilities such as pruning shears, terracing levels, spraying outfits, and a seed-treating equipment, should be available for use in developing skills and in carrying out plans in the farming program.
In communities of a thousand people there are usually a sufficient number of adults in the distributive occupations to authorize' a school program to help these individuals to become more intelligent about distributing goods and services. The program will usually deal with the following areas: nierchan:..
95

and what it will buy become a definite part of the instructional program of the school.
In order for the school to be able to carry out with children a program in utilizing money there should be on hand in the library of the school books and pamphlets on consumer education and child growth and development, as well as films, slides, and other visual aids dealing with aspects of the problems of utilizing money.
Adult level. One of the largest groups of problems faced by adults of any community is that of utilizing money. The school which is concerned about helping adults to solve these problems will doubtless see to it that opportunities to plan for using money more wisely are provided.
Problems of adults in this field will be found to be quite numerous and will vary a great deal between one community and another. The instructional program should be made up of specific problems, such as, providing food, health, clothing, housing, transportation, utilities, education, and recreation, as well as those growing out of occupational pursuits.
In order to be of service to adults of the community in utilizing money the school should provide through its library the best information possible on consumer education as found in books, pamphlets, magazines, films, and slides. Research publications on consumer goods will be found to be especially helpful and should be provided and used in the program of the school in utilizing money.
UTILIZING NATURAL RESOURCES:
Child level. A few elementary schools of the State have shown that much can be done in developing good habits of thinking and doing on the part of children in utilizing the natural resources around them.
The elementary program in utilizing natural resources will vary with different groups and with different communities, as well as with changing times. For instance, the program with a group of five-year-olds will differ from that of a group of eleven-ye'ar-olds; the program in a rural community will vary from that in an urban community; and the program in watrtime will be quite different from that in- peace-time. Some of
92

The Comprehensive Secondary School
The survey committee believes that there is a need for developing a comprehensive secondary school in reach of all regularly enrolled youth from 13 to 18 years of age and for those not regularly enrolled from 18 to 25 years of age. There should be a minimum of one such school in each county where there are as many as 150 youth between the ages of 18 and 25 years.
The school should provide for the needs of high-school students including the twelfth grade and for young men and women of the community up to 25 years of age.
The school should be located in the center of the population of the age group to be served. It should be kept as close to the people as possible. On the other hand, nearness to the people is not so important a factor in locating the secondary school as it is in placing the community school. The number of people served should be sufficiently large to justify the provision of adequate personnel and facilities for carrying out an effective school program for this group. Since the members of the group will require highly specialized training, there will be the necessity of having groups of 200 or more students in one center. This means that the comprehensive secondary school should be located so that it may serve several communities, an entire county, or a larger area.
The comprehensive secondary school should provide those facilities for which youth have a need, and which they use in working toward the solution of their problems involved in preparing for college, for an occupation, and for taking their places as good citizens in the community, state, and nation. These needs will probably call for a well-equipped and wellsupplied library of books, bulletins, periodicals, films, recordings; laboratories for sciences, homemaking, agriculture, trades, distributive occupations, and the professions; shops and equipment for working with wood, metal, electricity, auto mechanics; office machines for business training; movies and art rooms and materials; and space and equipment for health and physical education and recreation.
The following pages conta~n a detailed description of the program envisioned by the survey committee for the age group of 13 to 25.
97

Materials which will help to make intelligent planning will . be required. These should consist of books, pamphlets, magazines, films, and slides. It is very desirable to have as much experimental data as possible about the various problems. These materials should be a part of the library collection in the school.

In executing plans, particularly of farmers in rural communities, facilities arE? required which, in many communities, they do not now possess, . Thes.e facilities vary with the kinds of problems dealt with but generally consist of tel"racing levels, terrace construction equipment, drag pans, equipment for planting forest seedlings, timber,.cruising equipment, and posttreating equipment. ,

Some of these facilities ate too expensive and too limited in
use for one personto own. Some of the smaller and-less e:Xp.en-
sive equipment the .school should haye in sufficient qu~ntity for group use.. Other. larger and more. expensive equipment
can probably best be procured and operated on a cooperatiye basis.

The program of the school in utilizing natural resources s'ho~ld

' '

be earefully planned so as to make the best use of the service.s of

other agencies; such as, Soil Conservation Service, Forest Serv-

ice, .and Extension Service; The technicians with these agencies

can be of much help in. carrying out the educational program

of the school in this field.

EARNING A LIVING:
Child le~el. It is assumed th~t ~hildren under: twelve years of age do not have probiems in earning. a living in sufficie'nt number and intensity to cause the school to provide a program for this age group. The community school will, however, need to assume the responsibility for helping adults to deal with problems in earning a l~ving.
Adult lervel. The instructional program in homemaking for adults will vary with communities and with the problems faced by home make'rs in the different communities. Homemaking problems of adults in Georgia communities usually include those of: child care and guidance; food production, preservation, and preparation; clothing, selection, and construction; house repair, and maintenance; and management of low incomes.

-94

mal, full-time school attendance; they should be led to recognize the school as a place where they can expect to receive friendly, sympathetic help with any problem they may have. If an individual feels the need for greater proficiency in any of the tool subjects, he should find help from the school in acquiring it. Furthermore, the school should keep in contact with graduates and other drop-outs to be able to suggest furthe1 help to attain specific ends. For instance, if an individual is placed in a job that will require a specific mathematical ability, the school should recognize from its re'cords the individual's probable need for help and should offer it. :rf an individual is placed in a situation where he will need to speak publicly, the school should determine from his record his probable needs for further assistance and should offer it.
Complete library facilities should be available at such times as the older youth can use them to gain ne'eded information or to read for pleasure.

HEALTH:

,.

High school youth. The high school youth's entire program

~. of activities should be "graded" to his own physical an'd mental

ability. Health instruction should be given at the time and to

the extent that it will help him toward a solution of his prob-

lems in developing those habits, ideals, and attitudes which

lead to the maintenance of his own health and that of others.

Every student should have the benefit of periodic, thorough examinations. A school nurse, or "health coordinator," should help the student in the follow-up of such examinations to secure appropriate treatment. Over-anxiety in regard to detected defects in vision or hearing, dental needs or effected tonsil:3, should be avoided but an awareness of their existence should lead toward a student-choice to secure' remedial treatment.

Participation of students in a program to coordinate the efforts of all community agencies should be secured by the health coordinator and all teachers. Surveys of community needs and a study of the prevention and control of communicable diseases, the elimination of sources and causes of dise'ase, the development of healthful surroundings in the school and community, are examples of problems which students may suggest or recognize as proper areas of study.

99

TOOLS OF LEARNING:
High School Youth. Reading, writing, speaking, listening, and using numbers should be one of the primary concerns of the comprehensive secondary school.
Reading should be encouraged for acqmrmg information needed in solving problems and for pleasure. A wealth of reading material should be available. Guidance in selecting material on the basis of individual re'ading ability should be provided. In every school activity the ~taff member:s should encourage appropriate reading activities at the highest level of the individual student's ability. Tests of speed and comprehension should be given as often as necessary to help each student know his reading achievements, progress, and needs.

Many situations should be developed which will give students opportunities to develop proficiency in expressing their thoughts

l

through speaking and writing, in their relationships both with

other individuals and with groups. Students and teachers should

I confer frequently to evaluate progress in legibility of writing,

in clarity of expression in writing and speaking, and in accuracy r

~:

of spelling.

'

Using numbers with speed and accuracy is a skill that cannot be developed and then stored away until youth .reaches maturity. Throughout the secondary school, this tool should be used at every opportunity and the student's proficiency increased steadily. In addition to the improvement of facility in use of numbers of simple arithmetic, the secondary school should provide problem-situations through which students may learn the use of the formula and symbol mathematics of algebra and the space mathematics of geometry.

.Special attention should be given to the arithmetic of the business world, approached through problems that are being solved by the pupils in all areas of the program of the school. Areas of specialization should be available, such as bookkeeping and the like.

Many students, through the school guidance program, will discover needs for languages other than English. 'These languages should be available to those who need them.
Older youth. As young pe'ople complete their period of for-

98

CREATIVE EXPRESSION:
High-school youth. The desire for creative expression is no less real for the boy or girl entering high school than it is for the child in kindergarten. The activities which may be developed may vary in different communities. The kinds of natural resources of the area, types of occupational interests of the people, and the size of the school will influence the selection of the activities. For example, in a small school, there might be little chance' of finding enough candidates who "want to play in the band" to make a school band possible.
In the secondary school there should be a growing emphasis on appreciation and interpretation of music, art, and literature. More opportunity should be offered for group expression in choral speech, choral singing, orchestra or band; in school publications, dramatic productions, assembly program, interclass and radio broadcast. Special rooms for music, art, and shop experiences should be provided; and special guidance and instruction should be given to those who wish to have more individual work.
There should be a workroom in which students can have experiences in working with wood, leather, and metal. Definite arrangements should be made to give students the time needed for these activities. Capable and understanding guidance and help should be available for individual and group efforts carried out in th~ workroom. Drawing materials, a large variety of painting materials, hand and machine tools, leather materials for commercial design process, and weaving materials should be provided.
Older youth. The school should recognize talent or exceptional ability as well as the general need for experiences in creative expression and should be prepared to further the growth of those individuals who may be unable to continue their education in college. It is the responsibility of the school to secure and maintain the confidence of youth, and to help them pursue their interests in creative ability. The school should stimulate and encourage such interests.
In general, the school must make available for all youth in the community the same services and facilities provide'd for the young people regularly enrolled in school. The specially
101

A physical education program in which all students participate according to individual needs and abilities should be provided. Corrective physical activities, as well as widely diverse competitive sports, should be offered.

Experiences favorable to mental health should be offered in a recreational program which students have helped to plan and develop. The school shot11d provide adequate facilities, such as gymnasium, tennis courts, swimming pool, and clinic room; as we'll as many informational materials, such as library and films; and should encourage and guide students to make use of them.

Older youth. Occupational and other activities of youth not in school may present health problems with which they have not had experience. Generally, however, their problems will call for a continuation and extension of the activities pursued in school.

The health record apd history built up by the school during
the youth school experience should be used in providing a con-
tinuing program of guidance and help. The school personnel
~
should be responsible for providing that service.

An important feature of the school program should be the inclusion of all youth in the planning of community health impiovement, and in developing the program of action based on such planning. Developing healthful conditions of work in all community occupations, combating the causes and results of communicable disease, and similar activities are examples.

The facilities of the school gymnasium, tennis courts, swimming pool, library, and etc., should be open at scheduled times for the use of young people not attending school. Supervision by teachers or other trained personnel should be provided. Much of the activity should be planned for as many nights each week as are desirable in the particular community.

Opportunities for group instruction in health problems, such

as first-aid courses, should be provide'd; and encouragement

should be given to- secure and hold the interest of- youth in

.. ~

the problems of maintaining their own health and the health

of others.

100

individual so that he can understand it and use it in making his choices.
3. A skilled counselor should help individuals solve their occupational problems as well as their educational and personal problems. The counselor should help individuals to interpret their personal data, to choose an occupation, to prepare for, and to make progress in the occupation. This involves helping individuals in making plans, in carrying them out, and in modifying them when necessa.ry.
4. Each person should have experience in exploring all existing training opportunities within the school and beyond in relation to his occupational objectives.
5. Each person should have help in placement both for its value in he'lping him enter the labor force and for the value of his experience in going to a central point where the number, kind, and nature of employment opportunities are on file; and in having his needs and abilities made available to all employers in the community on request
6. The school should maintain contact with all schoolleavers and provide additional educational and guidance service suitable to their needs. The individual's experience should be used to evaluate the program of the school.
All members of the teaching staff should understand the program and each one should make his contribution in guidance. A trained counselor should supplement and coordinate their efforts and should have time free from all other duties amounting to one hour per day per 100 pupils for his work at the secondary leve'l. If he is designated to work also with other age groups, additional time will be needed.
There are also certain facilities necessary for the operation of such a program. The counselor should not be expected to attempt his work without office equipment and counseling rooms where the counselor and the student can confer undisturbed.
Ample reading space for students may be found in an adequate library reading room, but space should be provided if there is no such library. There should be .readily available
103

equipped art room, the music room, the stage, and the work room should be open for use as often as there is a need for them. Materials and tools should be made available when needed.
It is the responsibility of the school to see that guidance and help from teachers and others are provided. Competent instruction for more advanced efforts should be provided. The youth should be led to discover their own interests and aptitudes, to choose forms of expression suitable to their own personality and ability. The youth should be led into self-planning and evaluation of their efforts. Increased emphasis on evalution of the product may be placed on the efforts of the more skilled or talented individuals, and all youth should be encouraged to improve their work. Major emphasis should still be directed toward recognition and appreciation of efforts as satisfaction for the individuals.
CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION:
High school youth. Choosing one of the more than 30,000 listed and socially approved occupations in mechanized civmzation is a difficult problem which faces the youth of today. In order to help each individual make the most intelligent choice consistent with all available information about himseif and the world of work the school should give help in six specific ways:
1. Every individual should have experience in acqmrmg comprehensive information about the world of work. This should include specifically occupational requirements, opportunities, and trends, both locally and in the nation as a whole.
2. Each individual should have experience in objectively recognizing his own assets and limitation, and in understanding them as they apply to his occupational choices. At the secondary level many tests should be given to determine interests, intelligence, aptitudes, and achievements; and the results of such tests should be added to the cumulative record of information begun in the community school. All information pertinent to an individual":; present or future needs in making choices should be' recorded. This information should be interpreted to the
102

munity.
6. Participating in school and classroom administration, management, and operation.
7. Participating in social and political issues.
8. Preparing for participation in civic and service organizations, and government.
Many of these problems are of an individual nature and should be attacked as individual problems. The classroom teacher may be expected to do much of the work with individuals, but will need to refer many cases to a trained counseior who should be available to help individuals with educational, personal, and occupational problems.
Many of the problems, however, are problems in which group activity is inherent. Groups may work cooperatively on many problems of social relationships. Group attack on problems should provide students with experience in choosing leaders, in developing ability as leaders, in planning cooperatively, in carrying out plans, in evaluating work, in being tolerant of other people and ideas, and in being personally responsible to the group for carrying out plans delegated to individuals.
Older youth. The age 18 to 25 years is a period which covers for most people entrance into many new experiences. Assuming the duties of citizenship; marriage; entrance upon employment; affiliating with civic clubs, professional groups, and labor unions; establishment of a home are all serious undertakings that involve' human relationships.
The school should have constantly available help for the individual and group problems arising from any of the situations mentioned.
EARNING A LIVING:
The proposed programs for dealing with the problem of earning a living are numerous and are treated under the headings of homemaking, agriculture, distributive occupations, and trade and industrial occupations.
HOMEMAKING:
High school youth. Vocational homemaking education for
105

files of occupational information, files of training opportunity information, and files of community surveys.

'The counselor will nee.d files in which personal records of students can. be kept confidential. He should have an adequate supply of many kinds of tests and a supply of record blanks and other forms.

Older youth. The school should be diligent in maintaining contact with youth after they leave school. It is important for the school to know and record the steps followed by its youth in acquiring further training and in entering the labor force, and to determine and record success or failure. This information can and should be used in evaluating the school program.

It is also important to the individual that the school be in contact with him and give further assistance in any of the six _ features of the guidance program set forth heretofore.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:
High school youth. It is impossible to list all problems involving-human relationships with which the comprehensive secondary school should deal. The nature of the local community, its customs and people, will determine which ones should receive attention at any particular time.

Many of the problems included in the program of the comprehensive secondary school should be a continuation of the problems which received attention in the community school. In addition, other problems, both in face-to-face social contacts and in secondary social relationshipg will be important for these maturing young people. Problems, such as the one's listed below, should constitute thebasis for the school program in social relationships.
1. Making use of community organizations and agencies, governmental services, and educational agencies.

2. Developing good manners.

3. Solving problems of boy-girl relationships and sex problems.

4. Developing personality.

"

<

. 5. Improving physical conditions in school,. home, and com-

104

in sewing, and the like should be provided by the school. The facilities provided for high school youth may be used by the members of the 18 to 25 group.
AGRICULTURE:
High school youth. All farm boys have definite problems in the field of agriculture while they live and work on the home farm. Furthermore, upwards of 50 percent of these boys will continue to have farm problems as they become established in farming of their own. Every farm boy should have the opportunity to choose a vocation that meets his interests, aptitudes, and resources. The community should be interested in having some of the best young men choose to be farmers, and should give all farm boys, while living in the community, an opportunity to contribute to the solution of farm problems with which they are confronted.
The teaching program for high school farm boys should be very carefully set up to. d.eal with problems which the boy faces on his own home farm. This means that each boy should have a "practice program" on the home farm which, in carrying out, would provide him with real problems, the solution of which offers satisfaction and remuneration. The "practice program" should be very carefully set up with consideration of the following factors: the needs and resources of the home farm, the age and interest of the boy, attitude of the parents, etc. Generally the "practice program" of a boy consists of productive enterprises, improvement projects, and supplementary farm jobs not included in other aspects of the program.
To help farm boys carry out programs of this sort there should be a conference room in which much of the planning for the "practice programs" is done as a part of the teaching program. Books, bulletins, magazines, films, slides, etc., pertaining to farm problems, should be provided for use of the boys. In developing skills in the jobs involve'd in carrying out plans, a shop equipped for class use in doing farm shop jobs is needed, as well as other pieces of equipment as seed testing and treating outfits, pruning shears, emasculators, spraying outfits, terracing leve'ls, and the like.
Older youth. Those youth, 18 to 25 years of age, who decide to be farmers should have opportunities to get educational as-
107

high school youth has for its purpose the education of girls and boys (1) to cooperate intelligently with other members of their families in the solution of common problems of home living, and (2) to solve their particular problems of preparation for homemaking such as those of boy-girl relationships, the selecting of mates, planning for the establishment of homes, and gaining understanding and skills needed in starting and maintaining homes.
All girls 14 and 15 years of age should be provided opportunities to participate in classes of homemaking education where' the major emphasis would be placed upon the development of homemaking skills in problems of home living. All girls and boys 16 years of age should have an opportunity to plan and work together toward the solution of their common problems of home living and other social relationships.
To carry on work of this kind special facilities will be required. A relatively large all-purpose room should be provided, whose size depends on the member to be served at any one time, the age groups to be reached, etc.
This all-purpose room should be planned and equipped so that it may be used for homemaking problems in foods, laundry, clothing, and related arts, and family living.
Older youth. Homemaking education for older youth has for its purpose the education of young men and women to solve intelligently their problems arising from establishing and maintaining homes and caring for children. In 1940 in Georgia over 55 percent of the youth of this age group were married. The instructional program for this group would be designed to meet the needs of its participants and would concern itself with problems of marriage; parenthood; home planning and furnishing; money management; food production, preservation, and preparation; clothing selection and construction.
Certain kinds of equipment and facilities. are' needed to carry out the instructional program for the older group. A room designed for discussion group meetings should be available. Books, bulletins, and magazines pertaining to certain aspects of the problems of the instructional program, should be available for use by the youth of the community. Equipment for use in developing skills in food preservation and preparation,
106

instructional program should be based on the needs and interests of the trainees, the distributive establishments, and the community itself. In most cases, however, problems in the following areas would be attached: merchandising, merchandise analysis, displaying, selling, credit and collections, and possible personnel administration, and management.
In carrying on a program of this kind certain facilities are needed. A classroom fitted with tables and chairs, a display case, bulletin board, blackboard, book shelves and magazine racks should be available. Instructional materials pertaining to problems in this area should be provided, such as books, pamphlets, magazines, films, and slides.
Older youth. Instructional programs for older youths in distributive education should be set up and carried out in the same way as those for adults. In smaller cities older youth may be taught in the same classes with the adults. In all cases the program would be provided for those employed in distributive occupations and desirous of up-grading themselves in their work or of earning promotion in that field.
TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS:
High school youth. Trade and industrial training should be provided for those youth who manifest a genuine interest in and a need for that type of training. The program should be open to those who are not going to college, and have decided to enter a trade or want to take the training as a try-out experience in deciding what occupation to enter. This type of training, therefore, should be closely coordinated with the program of the school in occupational guidance.
Preemployment trade training is built around a shop program designed to provide experiences in woodworking, electricity, bricklaying, metal working, sheet metal work, and the like. The shop should be set up to meet primarily the needs of the community or communities served by the school. In communities where carpentry, plumbing, bricklaying, and metal working are the most important trades the shop is planned to provide experiences in these fields.
The program should be designed to provide preemployment training which consists of attaining much of the knowledge
109

sistance in becoming established in farming in the community. For the future good of all rural institutions the school should find a keen interest in placement and continuing education of this group.
The instructional program for the older age group must of necessity be functional or the youth will not participate in it. Some of these youth will be single and still on the home farm with parents while others will be married and firmly established in farming. These and many other factors will determine the content of the training program to be provided these youth. Some of the type problems which will probably be included in the instructional program for these youth are: procuring a farm, planning the total farm program, procuring equipment for the farm, procuring livestock for the farm, and other problems growing out of the farm plan.
To be functional the program of instruction for the 18 to 25 age group must provide guidance both in planning and in executing plans that are made. In planning, a classroom equipped with tables and chairs is needed, as well as teaching materials for the use of the youth. These teaching materials should consist of books, bulletins, and other pamphlets, films, slides, etc. In executing plans the instructional program will, in many cases, call for facilities and equipment with which to develop the skills necessary to carry out the plans of the individuals. These facilities and equipment may consist of a community food-preserving plant, community farm shop, and smaller items such as pruning shears, spraying outfits, terracing levels, seedtreating equipment, and the like'.
DISTRIBUTIVE OCCUPATIONS:
High school youth. High schools in communities of 1,000 people or more should provide training opportunities for students working part time or interested in working part time in distributive occupations. In communities of that size there are usually placement opportunities for as many as twenty students to work part time as a part of the training program.
The instructional program should be designed to help the students to deal intelligently with those problems with which they are faced in carrying on their part time work in distributing goods and services. The problems to be considered in the
108

sential to successful trade experience. The high school leaders should ever be alert to such needs and provide such courses whenever there is: sufficient demand.
The facilities needed for the training program outlined above would probably consist of shops similar to those outlined for high school youth. In most schools the same shops could be use'd, possibly at different hours. Classrooms and facilities for discussions of trade-training problems and for consideration of technical problems should be provided. Pertinent books, pamphlets, magazines, films and slides s:hould be made available for use in the training program.
UTILIZING MONEY:
High school youth. The comprehensive high school which is building its instructional program around the needs of its youth will provide a place in that program to help these youth to deal intelligently with individual and group problems in utilizing money.
Although it will be found that money utilization problems of high school youth vary in different groups as we'll as in different communities, there are certain type problems which will probably be found among most high school groups. Some of these problems are: buying food, providing reading materials, buying clothes, providing entertainment, and planning a class trip.
Many of the problems of utilizing money can best be considered through a closely coordinated youth and adult educational program. A school which is helping high school youth to use money wisely will have nee'd for available informational materials on consumer education consisting of books, pamphlets, magazines, films, slides, and consumer research publications which should be subscribed for and kept on file for use in helping high school boys and girls to attack and solve their consumer problems.
Older youth. A study of the money utilization needs of the older youth of any community will doubtless reveal that these needs are many and quite varied as between individuals. Many persons of this group will be young married couples who need help in planning budgets, in procuring goods and services, and in utilizing goods and services which have been procured.
111

and of developing many of the skills needed by persons engaged in the different occupations in this field. Early in the training program the trainees are provided educational experiences in each of the fields for which the shop is designed, as woodworking, sheet metal work, electricity, etc. After the trainee has had an opportunity to decide which occupation to enter, the training should be more specialized to prepare the trainee for the chosen occupation. In this type training one of the objectives should be to have the trainee to develop sufficient proficiency to get a job as a beginner.
One of the principal factors in the success of the trade and industrial training program is equipment. A large, well-equipped general shop is needed. The kinds of equipment depend on what the major occupations of the community are. In larger urban centers where large numbers are to be trained, unit shops in woodworking, radio, sheet metal working, electricity, and auto mechanics are needed. In addition to shops and shop equipment a classroom should be available for use. Books, bulletins, journals, films, and slides pertaining to various problems in trade and industrial education should be available for use of the trainees.
Older youth. The progTam of trade and industrial training for olde'r youth should be set up in such a way as to meet the needs and interests of the trainees involved. Some of these youth, particularly those who are not employed, should be provided with a shop program similar to that outlined for regular high school youth.
Other youth, who are high school graduates and are employed in industry, should be provided an indentured apprentice program in which the school leaders bring about an agreement between the youth and the employer in which plans for and standards of a training program to last for four to six years are set up. In this program the youth works as an apprentice while learning the trade under an expert workman in the plant. This expert workman is certified for teaching the particular trade. He helps the trainee develop his trade skills on the job in the1 plant and provides four hours per week of related trade training off the job.
Other youth who are employed may be interested only in courses designed to provide further technical information es-
110

lings, and the like. Some of the schools may find it desirable to provide areas of land for development of wildlife preserves, forest areas, fish ponds, and parks.
Older youth. Problems faced by youth 18 to 24 years of age in utilizing natural resources should be determined through a study of the youth involved, their occupational status, their habits and practices in utilizing natural resources, their interests, and abili~ies.
Although the problems to be considered in the instructional program will vary with different groups and different communities, the following type problems may be fairly indicative of those which would be attacked in an urban or semi-urban community: salvaging paper, tin, or other scarce' .resources; preventing forest fires on camp and outings; conserving game; conserving fuel; and formulating national policies regarding area planning in utilizing natural resources. In rural areas problems in the instructional program, in addition to those of the urban groups, may include the following: planning farms, terracing land, transplanting tree seedlings, planting kudzu, establishing fish ponds, and establishing wildlife borders.
To carry out the program in utilizing natural resources there will be a need for informational materials in the form of books, bulletins, and magazines which should be a part of the library of the school. In rural schools where farm problems in utilizing natural resources will be dealt with there1 should be facilities in sufficient quantities to be used for group instructional purposes, such as terracing levels, timber-cruising equipment, tools for planting tree seedlings, etc.
Summary
Chapter IV attempts to give the beliefs regarding the function of public education in Georgia held by the Survey Committee and to provide suggestions for improving the program. No effort is made to give complete details concerning the instructional program for the schools of the State. The committee has proposed a frame-work in which local planning groups may develop a program which will mee't the needs of our people.
The Survey Committee has endeavored:
1. State a basic philosophy, or point of view, regarding the
113

Othel:' persons of this group will still be living in their parental home with an indefinite source of income other than that provided by the parents. Some of these youth will doubtless be concerned with utilizing money as a part of the process of becoming established in occupational pursuits, and will welcome opportunities to work more intelligently on such problems.
One of the limiting factors in planning an instructional program in the area of utilizing money will be that of providing materials which will help to determine the best solution to the differe'nt problems in this area. Only those problems should be considered in the program of the school for which needed materials can be provided. Such materials may include books, pamphlets, and visual aids, which will help to provide assistance in solving problems in utilizing money and the goods and services money will buy.
UTILIZING NATURAL RESOURCES:
High school youth. Problems in utilizing natural resources will vary with different communities. In rural communities the problems will be different from and more numerous than those in semi-urban and urban communities. The problems to be dealt with should be selected after a study has been made of the natural resource utilization needs of the boys and girls, their homes and surroundings, their interests, and their customs.
In an urban high school such a study as is suggested above may indicate that such problems as conserving forests and fields on camping trips, preventing forest fires, conserving fish, conserving game, and utilizing paper should be a part of the instructional program. In rural schools the program may include the above plus such problems for the home farm boys as terracing land, planting cover crops, improving pasture, providing feed and cover for game, and establishing fish ponds.
The instructional program in utilizing natural resources should be designed to help boys and girls to plan intelligently for attacking their problems and to execute those plans skill.fully. This objective requires technical information for use as guides in planning and doing. The library of the school should contain books, bulletins, and magazines which carry technical information in this fie'ld. The school should also be provided with terracing levels, equipment for transplanting tree seed-
112

CHAPTER V
PROVIDING AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF QUALIFIED TEACHERS FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA
The purpose of this chapter is to present (1) data as to the number and qualifications of the teachers now employed and their adequacy for the present program; (2) an analysis of the causes of the present critical shortage, with estimates of the increasing demand and of the numbers which should be provided within the next few years; (3) essentials of an adequate statewide program of teacher education; and (4) suggested next ste'ps in the development of such a program.
Statistics used in this chapter are based largely on data developed by the Educational Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board, supplemented by current 'reports in the State Department of Education. Recommendations as to policy Fepresent the considered opinion of the school leaders in the State and the Nation as expressed in recent studies of the problem.
Nature and Scope of the Problem
The "number one" education problem in Georgia is the teacher supply problem. From the long point of view, if America is to remain free, it is the "number one" social and political problem of the State and of the Nation. It is not a new problem, but it assumes new significance as Georgians and other Americans begin to study their schools in the light of the kind of society they want and the kind of people they want their children to become.
What kind of education do the people of Georgia need and want? The people have, in rece~t years, advanced beyond blind faith in "education" and are now beginning to say what purposes they want education to serve. The question has been . directly put to them in the twelve "spot" counties cooperating . with the Education Panel on the study of local school needs. They have uni.formly concluded that:
1. Schools must take into account the educational needs of
115

function and the purpose of education in a democracy. 2. Suggestion of some major implications of philosophy for
teachers, for administrators, and for the instructional program. 3. Pointing out of some of the weaknesses of the present program of instruction. Criticism is made of teaching procedures and organization of instructional materials. 4. Suggestions for the further development of the two types of public schools. Emphasis is placed upon developing the community school to meet the needs of children and adults, and the comprehensive secondary school to meet the needs of high school and out-of-school youth. 5. Suggest a general framework of an instructional program for both the community school and the comprehensive secondary school.
J 14

2. There were 79,000 emergency teachers in January, 1945; 108,000 in January, 1946; and the number is still increasing.

3. The available supply of elementary teachers will be definitely iess for 1946-47 than at any time during the war.

4. Wealthier states are drawing the better teachers from the other states; cities are taking the better teachers from rural schools.

5. There has been an estimated average drop of one year in the level of preparation of teachers in the United States.
6. In 1920, 22 percent of all college students were preparing for teaching; in 1930, 17 percent; in 1945, 7 percent. There is no available evidence that the trend has turned upward in the number now prepa.ring to teach in the elementary schools.

7. Teachers' colleges are being converted into general colleges, and the heavy pressure of veteran and other college. enrollment threatens to reduce or eliminate facilities for specialized professional education of teachers.

Problem in Georgia. The following statements, selected from the study of the Education Panel on "Teacher Supply and Demand" and from the records of the State Department of Education, indicate the emergency character of the problem in Georgia.

1. By October, 1944, 2,250 Georgia public school teachers had enlisted in the armed forces; 2,500 others had entered into industrial work related to the war effort. Of Georgia's 24,000 teachers, 25 percent either quit teaching or left the State in 1942-43.

2. Between the years 1941 and 1944, 8,246 white teachers and 3,400 Negro teachers were employed for the first time in Georgia.

3. Of the present teaching force, 1,851 white and 2,284

Negro teachers hold county licenses; i. e., cannot qualify

for the lowest certificates issued by the State Department

i

of Education; about 3,500 have emergency ratings and

several thousand others have substandard certificates.

117

every individual and all population groups.
2. The curriculum must deal not only with the "tool subjects" but also with problems of healthful living, with the creative talents of each individual, and with the economic and social problems of the individual, the family, and the community.
3. Every individual must, for his own and for society's sake, be educated in human relations and in civic and political affairs.
The key to this kind of education is the teacher who is able to help young people and adults to think through their problems to solutions which are good for themselves and for others.
Teachers must have superior native ability and must have acquired professional understandings and skill which enable them to be effective in a school program. A democratic state should, in so far as possible, provide s:uch teachers for all its schools. The failure of existing programs to provide enough such teachers is emphasized by the fact that after most of the members of the armed forces have been released from service there is still a great shortage in Georgia.
Although the shortage of teachers is Nation-wide, responsibility for working out the solution lies with the established agencies in each state, the boards of control of the public schools and higher education, and finally with legislative assemblies in each state. It is not only appropriate that the representatives of the people examine the present program and facilities for teacher education, but it is urgent that they take steps to insure a constant supply of teachers of the kind needed.
Teacher Supply and Demand
A national problem. The teacher shortage is not peculiar to Georgia or to the South. Public education everywhere has felt the dislocation of supply and demand. At a recent National Emergency Conference on Teacher Preparation and Supply, called by the National Education Association, the following startling facts were presented:
1. In the United States, approximately 633,200teachers have left the profession since 1939.
116

have the schools had enough qualified teachers, whether the standard be set at one, two or four years of professional training. Table V shows the amount of college preparation of public school teachers in Georgia for the years 1937-38, 1940-41, and 1945-46.
Temporary measures in meeting the emergency in Georgia. It has been necessary to replace approximately 60 percent of the profession who went into the armed service or into better paying positions in industry. Replacements are limited in training and personal fitness for teaching. They include many qualified former teachers who had retired on account of marriage or age, many who formerly held sub-grade certificates, retired members of other vocations, college graduates and former students with no professional training or experience, and teen-age school students. Many of these volunteered to teach as a patriotic service and do not expect to remain in the profession. Most of them unders:tanQ_ that their certification is temporary.

The teacher shortage has, during the war, been met as circumstances permitted. Temporary certification has been authorized; salaries have been increased, first by 25 percent, then by two additional monthly payments; and the legislature has encouraged experienced and qualified teachers to remain in the profession by passing the Teacher Retirement Act. Now, an additional increase of 50 percent in salaries has been assured. There is still no tangible evidence, however, of an upturn in the trend for 1946-47.

Increased postwar demand for teachers in Georgia. Experience has shown in this and other states that under normal conditions, one-sixth of the total teaching force may be expected to leave the profession each year. Applying this ratio to approximate data on the number of teachers in Georgia in 194142, the State has the following estimates of the number of new teachers needed annually for replacement:

Total number of teachers
White elementary schooL______ 10,000 White high schools __________________ 5,000
Negro elementary schooL______ 5,000 Negro high schools__________________ 2,500

Repla.cements needed annually
1,600 800 2,400
800 400 1,200

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4. According to estimates by the State Department of Education in April, 1946, 2,500 teaching positions could not be filled for lack of applicants.
While these statistics point up the extent of the shortage, they also show that the real deficiency is in the quality of instruction provided for Georgia boys and girls. Though the problem is found in every. school system, it affects most seriously the kind of instruction provided for rural children. The wealthier districts attract the better trained personnel from the rural schools, while the latter usually have to fill their places with persons who have little or no preparation for teaching. Cases have been reported of children in the upper grades in rural schools being "taught" by a teacher who had received less "schooling" than his pupils. Superintendents have managed to keep schools open by combining classes, transporting pupils or rapid turnover of temporary teachers. In many instances, a class has had several teachers in the course of a single term.
The wartime crisis in the schools directs attention to the fact that Georgia has never had enough qualified teachers to man her schools. While there has been a steady rise in the level of training of teachers and in the number completing organized professional curricula, no minimum training has ever been fixed by law or regulation. There was no state system for certification of teachers until 1925, when the State Board of Education authorized certificates which merely classified teachers in service. Not until 1937 was it required that all teachers should hE certificated and paid on the basis of qualifications.
Beginning in 1935, new certificates or certificates to beginning teachers required a minimum of two years of college training. In 1945, ten years later, 2,894 white teachers and 2,949 Negro teachers still had less than the standard two years of training.

In 1942, the State Board of Education announced that after

the close of the war, the standard professional certificate would

require four years of college training. In 1946, 9,515, or 56

percent of all white and 5,640, cir 75 percent of all Negro

teachers had less than the p1oposed standard of four years. At no time in the development of public education in Georgia

=1
j

1

118

i

I

Similarly, the Education Panel's study of supply and demand, based on 1944-45 figures, estimates the total annual turnover at 2,715 white and 1,341 Negro teachers.
The same study secured from thirteen sample counties estimates the number of additional teachers that will probably be needed by 1950 to provide new services not now rendered and to provide for additional enrollment due to the increased birth rate and improved administration of the Compulsory Attendance Law. Application of the results from these counties to the entire State shows that 2,630 teachers, in addition to those needed annually because of the normal turnover, will be needed by 1950, distributed as follows:
700 for kindergarten classes.
780 for new high-school services, such as vocational education, health and physical education, social studies, and fine arts.
950 for new primary grades due to increased enrollment.
200 for new upper elementary grades due to increased enrollment.
From the same thirteen counties, information was received that approximately 15 percent of the present white personnel and 23 percent of the Negro personnel are classified by their superintendents as unsatisfactory or teaching for the emergency only. Applied to the State as a whole, these percentages indicated that 2,417 white and 1,722 Negro teachers would be replaced when qualified teachers are available.
Taking into account the normal turnover, the number needed for expanded services and the number now teaching for the emergency only, the Panel's study estimated that in order to raise all teachers to a minimum of four years of college prepal'ation in ten years, the State will have to provide approximately 4,300 white and 2,000 Negro teachers annually.
The normal supply. When these figures are compared with the data on supply, it is obvious that the State is not able at present to fill vacancies with qualified teachers. A study of enrollment in the teacher education institutions in the State indicates that in normal years before 1940, all the colleges for white, both public and private, graduated fewer than 1,000
121

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_:..t:~L.

__:!,r.:.:~~Q~:

I'

TABLE 5
AMOUNT OF COLLEGE PREPARATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN GEORGIA, 1937-38, 1940-41, 1945-46

Glass of CP.rtificate

County licenses and less

....

than one year of college

t-:1 From one to two years of

0

college

From two to three years of college

From three to four years of college

From four to five years of college (bachelor's degree)

Five years of college (master's degree)

Race
White Negro
White Negro
White Negro
White Negro
White Negro
White Negro

1937-38

No.

Pet.

828

5.1

3,146

48.2

2,182

13.7

1,320

20.2

4,939

30.6

938

14.2

1,608

9.9

179

3.0

6,260

38.8

937

14.2

321

1.9

16

.2

1940-41

No.

Pet.

394

2.3

1,594

22.4

. 1,004

6.1

1,404

20.7

4,642 1,907

28.2 .26.4

2,204

13.3

484

6.6

7,342

45.9

1,675

23.4

790

. 4.2

59

.5

1945-46

No.

Pet.

2,246

13.9

2,315

30.1

648

3.7

634

8.2

4,060

23.4

1,826

23.8

2,561

14.8

875

11.4

6,632

38.2

1,907

24.8

1,197

6.9

129

1.7

teacher shortage. Some of these factors are as follows:
1. Many young people from the lower income groups would ente'r teaching but for the prohibitive cost of four years of training in a good professional school.
2. Present salaries (1945-46) do not permit saving for old age security. Provisions for retirement, established by the State in 1943, had a considerable effect in halting a general exodus from the profession.
3. Insecurity of tenure definitely deters some young people from entering teaching.
4. Local regulations against the employment of married teachers and so-called "home" teachers, prevalent in many school systems, drive many good teachers from the profession and result in loss of the time and money spent in their professional training.
Unsatisfactory living and working conditions. While problems related to income and employment are the chief cause of the limited. supply of teachers, unsatisfactory living and working conditions prevalent in schools and school communities tend to lower the teacher's morale and operate to make her ready to leave the profession when other opportunities arise. Some of these factors are as follows:
1. The community sets abnormal social standards to be observed by teachers.
2. In rural areas, it is difficult for teachers to get living quarters with such comforts and conveniences as running water, electricity, and the like.
3. In rural and small urban communities, opportunities for recreation and social life are limited.
4. In rural and small urban communities, the physical facilities at the school are inadequate for good instruction. Poor janitoral services, bad heating and lighting, and the like, make for undesirable working conditions.
Low professional standards. Teaching as a life work will not generally challenge individuals with the highest abilities and ambitions until it has developed adequate standards and opportunities as a profession. The fact that minimum standards
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teachers annually for the profession and that the institutions for Negroes graduated fewer than 300 teachers annually. In 1944-45, the total number of teachers graduated, white and Negro, elementary and high school, was less than 300. The number of students enrolled in teacher education programs has now (1945-46) increased to about 50 percent of the number preparing to teach just preceding the war. It is therefore probable that the public schools must continue to employ undertrained teachers for some time after the close of the war. This is especially true of the elementary grades.
Causes of the Teacher Shortage
Low salaries and other economic factors. 'The crisis in teacher supply has come about largely as a result of salaries that do not meet the cost of living and do not, compete with incomes in other fields of employment. The salary scale in Georgia is among the lowest in the United States. In 1940, Georgia ranked forty-fourth among the states in average annual salaries paid to teachers, according to the Committee on Education of the United States Chamber of Commerce. Although the "take home" salaries of teachers have increased since 1940 in Georgia, other states have also provided for increases. The range in salaries in 1945, assuming twelve months pay for white teachers, was $540 to $1,320. The range for Negro teachers was $336 to $1,122. For the school year 1946-47, the range will be from $570 to $1,842 for Negroes, and from $810 to $1,980 for whites.
The Georgia Civil Service classification shows annual salaries from $900 to $1,740, for clerical workers. Most of these positions do not require any college preparation. The average salary of teachers, according to the National Education Association, is at least $500 less than the average earnings in industry.
Georgia must compete with other states for the services of qualified teachers. In Ohio, for example, the average salaries paid to elementary teachers placed this past year were in excess of $1,500. Average salaries received by beginning teachers of special subjects ranged from $1,700 to $1,950 for their first year. New York State paid them $2,726 per year, and ten other states paid them $2,000 or better.
There are many other factors contributing to the present
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Making Teaching More Attractive as a Life Work

1. Of first importance is the income of Georgia teachers as compared with what it will buy from year to year, with salaries of teachers in other states, and with salaries in other occupa-
;<
tions requiring the same level of ability and training. Leaders of education and the public should see that this problem has constant attention now and during periods of high prices and increased incomes in industry and business.

a. Salary schedules should encourage competent teachers to prepare for teaching, to remain in the profession, and to work in areas where their services are most needed. This means the State Board of Education should revamp its teachers' salary schedule.

b. Salary schedules should be sufficiently high to attract and hold a greater number of male teachers. At present until a person completes high school approximately 90 percent of his time has been under the direct influence of women. This does not make for a balanced personality.

c. The state base pay for those completing the four-year

,

professional curriculum should compete with salaries

open to other college graduates.

d. Supplements should be available for principals, superintendents, and supervisors who have prepared for their special services.

e. Professional standards should be raised by eliminating the lower forms of certificates as soon as possible and by providing superior training opportunities on the undergraduate and the graduate levels.

f. Increments which re'cognize successful experience should make it unnecessary for a classroom teacher to shift to an administrative position or to leave the profession in order to increase his salary.

2. A definite attempt should be made to provide decent housing for teachers in rural districts. The Wagner-EllenderTaft Housing Bill now before Congress, if it should become a law, would enable county and local boards of education to provide modern and convenient teachers' homes at no cost to the school system.

125

for admission to the profession are so low contributes no little to the problem of teacher supply. The well-prepared teacher should be protected from competition of the untrained.
The present state salary schedule invites competition from the untrained. A college graduate with a minimum of professional education receives only $9.50 a month less than a teacher who has prepared for teaching throughout college. The small differential in state pay between provisional and professional teachers does little to encourage college students to prepare on a professional basis for teaching.
A school program based on subject-matter objectives and not consciously directed toward improvement of living has little appeal to individuals with ability and high purpose. This problem is related to the problem of leadership. Many good teachers are influenced to leave the profession because of poor lead ership on the part of the principals and superintendents of schools. Related to this problem is the lack of adequate counseling and guidance in high schools and in training institutions where little effo.rt is made to select the better students for teacher training.
Proposals for Supplying the Teachers Needed
in Georgia Schools
Conservatively, from five thousand to six thousand teachers are needed for annual replacements in the classrooms of the State and would be employed if they were available. Present facilities provide less than one-third of this number of qualified teachers. These facts define a problem so large and complex that it must be accepted as a major responsibility of the State. A solution cannot be reached by dealing with a single phase of the problem. There is need for continuous study, for cooperative action, and for vigorous. leadership.
Analysis of the causes of the present shortage and of the persistent lack of qualified teachers suggests that the first undertaking should be a concerted attack upon conditions which induce competent teachers to leave the profession and which prevent capable young people from preparing for it.
124

take steps that will insure a continued supply of well-qualified teachers for the schools.

A special bulletin on teacher-education outlining the training needed for the several types of school service and describing the programs of the several training institutions would help high-school seniors in selecting the college that they should attend.

Counseling policies in the training institutions should aid student-teachers to prepare for the type teaching for which they are best fitted or to discover other vocations in which they would be more successful.

A state-wide organization of Future Teachers of America with chapters in teacher-training institutions could be used by wise leade'rship to develop interest and purpose and professional ideals among young people in training for teaching.

Essentials of an Adequate Training Program
A comprehensive program for the professional education of teachers will include:

,;f

1. A preservice program for preparing the number and

kinds of teachers needed for replacement and expansion.

2. A professional program on the graduate level to prepare superintendents, principals, supervisors, and others for service as school leaders.

3. Extension and flexible training opportunities and adequate guidance for teachers in service.

Curriculum and facilities for preservice program. Steps have already been taken by the State Board of Education to base the standard professional certificate on a four-year professional curriculum and to discontinue the issuance of lower-type certificates as soon as possible.

This professional curriculum, as recommended in a recent report of the Teacher Education Council to the' Board of Regents and the State Board of Education, should be "as complete, as comprehensive and professionalized as are training programs for medicine, law, and other professions." Organized so as to give proper emphasis to general education, technical >.:;- or "subject-matter" education and professional education, the

127

3. The cost of professional training should be brought within reach of the families of small means by awarding liberal scholarships or free tuition to one or more students from each county whose records in high school or in college indicate a high level of ability and aptitude for teaching.

4. A tenure law should be passed which would make the professionally trained, competent teacher fairly secure in his position.

5. Abnormal restrictions upon the life of the teacher, such as regulations against married teachers and "home" teachers, &hould be replaced by a policy which emphasize's professional qualifications as a basis for employment.

6. There should be continuing publicity through the press, and otherwise, citing examples of good teaching and outstanding community service through the schools and interpreting the place of the teacher in the development of a democratic way of life.

Through cooperation of the public and the profession, teach-

ing may be made a challenging and satisfying life work which

~

will enlist young people with ability and ambition. It will then

be possible to attract the kind of young people who will make

the best teachers.

Selection and guidance. The problem then becomes one of selecting for training the number needed for replacement and expansion. Continuing data on the demand for various services maintained in the offices of the State Department of Education should make it possible to predict with a fair degree of accuracy the numbers to be prepared for each type of service. Only those who show promise of developing the abilities needed by the teacher should be admitted to training or should continue in the profe'ssion. The State Department of Education and the teacher training institutions should cooperate in developing reliable procedures for discovering these aptitudes.

High-school and junior-college guidance services, with the cooperation of the teaching staff, should discover individu~ls who would make good teachers and see that they become familiar with the teaching profession as a choice. It is a primary responsibility of principals and superintendents of schools to

126

prosecution of w'ar.
Local leaders for the public schools of Georgia should have at least one year of professional and technical training beyond the bachelor's degree. The State Board of Education, several years ago, authorized certificates on this level for principals, superintendents, supervisors, and master teachers.
Sala,ry supplements are provided for principals and supervisors. The Georgia Legislature should make it possible for the State Board of Education to do the same thing for superintendents of schools.
In general, leadership on the state and college level should have at least two years of graduate study, with special emphasis upon the are1as of their responsibility. The College of Education at the University of Georgia should have a staff of outstanding instructors in order to make a major part of this training available within the State.
Scholarships should be provided for individuals seeking training on the highest level, especially for those who find it necessary to attend institutions outside the State.
Cost of professional training. Professional education, callingfor mastery of basic sciences and for the development of specific skills, may not rely upon mass education methods and should not be measured by the same per capita costs as general education. Small classes and considerable individual instruction, demonstration and supervised teaching, personnel and travel costs for inservice education and on the job training are expensive but essential in teacher education.
~nifying the program. The program of teacher education involves a series of complicated problems including recruitment, guidance, training, certification, placement, and inservice supervision. Engage'd in one phase or another of this enterprise in Georgia are forty-two colleges, the public schools, and the State Department of Education. Obviously, the first problem in such a situation is coordination.
To promote full use of the resources of these agencies and to provide an instrument for cooperative planning and action, an unofficial and voluntary organization, the State Council on Teacher Education, has evolved through several years of work-
129

professional curriculum will serve as a basis for determining the certification of teachers.
It will be necessary to determine what is an acceptable training program for each type of teacher to be prepare'd and to set up as standards the minimum facilities needed to provide such training. Each institution should confine its program to areas of training for which its administration is willing to provide adequate personnel and facilities.
The same policies should apply to state institutions-the Regents assigning appropriate training responsibilities and, if possible, increased quotas to each state institution. Quotas should be changed periodically as needs dictate.
Providing teachers for rural and elementary schools. Since the total supply of teachers from all institutions in the State normally amounts to less than one1-third of the demand, it is obvious that even with greatly increased quotas these institutions cannot possibly provide the numbers needed, especially for elementary and rural schools. Forty-one of the forty-eight states have faced this problem realistically by providing a number of teachers colleges, each serving a region rather than the entire state. These institutions, located near the people, enroll many who would not enter the larger and more distant colleges, give them the kind of training needed in rural schools, and serve as centers for inserv:ice education in their respe'ctive areas.
lnservice education. Providing enough qualified teachers for annual replacement is not all of the job of teacher education. There are the 9,500 white teachers and the 5,600 Negro teachers now in service whose training is not adequate and who must combine learning on the job with training which will be acceptable for a degTee or a standard certificate. Georgia institutions, in recent years, have made remarkable progress in adapting curricula to the needs of teachers in service and in providing instruction on the job. These services are' essential but expensive because they call for additional skilled instructors, more time for field service, and considerable expense for travel.
Training of leaders. Failure to provide training for leader-
ship in education has the same' implications for peace and l
democratic living as failure to train officers would have to the
128

of the community and at the same time not place abnormal restrictions upon the life of the teachers. Teachers should be called on for jury service, and for active membership in church and civic organizations, and all enterprises for community improvement.
4. By building up in the public consciousness a belief that good teaching is a first need for the community and that teaching calls for the finest abilities and highest professional skills.
The State Board of Education. Since the State Board of Education is legally responsible for promoting an effective school system, its age'nt, the Department of Education, should take a leading part in a program for supplying the numbers and kinds of teachers needed. Through the Division of Teacher Education, it should be active in developing a coordinated statewide teacher education program.
1. The State Department of Education should keep accurate data on the numbers and types of teachers ne'eded for the several school services. It should take the initiative in making known to the public the seriousness of the present shortage of teachers. In cooperation with the Georgia Education Association, civic organizations and other agencies, it should spearhead the attack upon the problems of recruiting an adequate number of superior young people for training as teachers.
2. The State Board of Education should establish as the standard credential for teaching in Georgia the Professional Teacher's Certificate, based upon completion of a planned four-year curriculum. All other certificates should be designated' as provisional and the salary sched-
ule should provide a wide di.fferential between the professional certificate and provisional certificates.
3. The State Department of Education should lead in the formulation of guiding principles for the training and certification of teachers.
4. The State Department of Education should cooperate in the development of standards to be used as the basis for approving institutional programs of teacher education.
131

ing together on common problems. This Council, including representatives of the higher institutions, the public schools, and the State Department of Education, undertakes to clarify the objectives of the program, to encourage institutions in developing their respective programs, and to sponsor joint enterprises which require the resourceg of more than one institution. A member of the Division of Teachelr E'ducation of the State Department of Education serves as coordinator, devoting full time to undertakings s.ponsored by the Council.
Although the Council has been effective in promoting voluntary cooperation, there is still a lack of unified policy in teacher education. There is ne'ed for bridging the gap in responsibility between the State Board of Education which employs teachers and the Board of Regents which provides for their training. Steps have recently been taken to organize a Joint Committee on Teacher Education, composed of three members each from the State Board of Education and the State Board of Regents. This committee' will study the needs of teacher education in the State and make recommendations for action to their respective boards. Through them it should be possible to develop a common policy and an effective program.
Recommendations
Unity does not necessarily imply centralized control. The State Board of Education and the Department of Education, the State Board of Regents and the members of the University System, the public and private colleges, and the local school systems-all have. responsibilities that call for definite action if results are to be secured through cooperation rather than through central control.
The local. community and school system. The local community and school system should help in bringing about conditions that make teaching attractive' as a profession.
1. By revising local policies which now tend to discriminate against elementary teachers, married teachers, or "home" teachers.
2. By providing adequate housing and suitable living accommodations for teachers.
3. By a policy of enlisting teachers in the life and activities
130

ice should be provided as soon as practicable. The General Assembly. As the voice of the electorate dictates, the legislature can further education in many ways. 1. The Legislature should provide the State Board of Edu-
cation with funds that will make it possible to employ skillful and qualified teachers and competent leaders re'gardless of competing demands for manpower. 2. For the purpose of encouraging a superior type of individual to prepare for teaching, the legislature should appropriate funds to be used in providing free tuition or scholarships for selected trainees from the several countie's of the State. 3. The legislature should by resolution charge the State Board of Education and the State Board of Regents with joint responsibility for developing an adequate program for the professional education of teachers and should request of them biennially a joint report on the status and the needs of teacher education in the State.
133

5. The Division of Teacher Education should have adequate personnel and funds to enable it to work through committees, planning groups, and work conferences. The State Board of Education should provide the Department of Education with adequate funds to enable it to exercise its leadership function.

The State Board of Regents. The Board of Regents, through the Joint Committee on Teache'r Education, should have data as to the number of teachers needed for replacements in each type of service, the number that may be reasonably expected from cooperating private and denominational colleges, and the number that should be provided by the University System. In the light of these data:

1. The Regents should ~llqcate responsibility for definite

I

types of training to appropriate institutions under its

direction and should assign to each an annual quota of

new teachers. If it appears that the number of teachers

needed cannot be provided by existing institutions, addi-

tional facilities should be provided.

2. The Board of Regents should provide each institution with funds for a budget in teacher education and should receive from each institution an accounting as to the number of teachers of each type graduated annually.

3. Because of ne'w training requirements for school leaders recently established by the State Board of Education, the demand for graduate study has been vastly increased. Approximately five hundred graduate students in education were enrolled in the summer quarter of 1946. The College of Education of the University of Georgia, in order to me'et this demand, should expand its personnel and facilities to provide training on this level. There is special need for a center in which college teachers and other staff members may work together on problems of teacher education. The University of Georgia, in cooperation with other graduate schools in the State, should deve'lop plans to meet this need.

4. Research and field studies are essential to a balanced program of public education and are properly the function of the University of Georgia. Facilities for this serv-

132

CHAPTER VI
A REPORT OF THE SCHOOL BUILDING STATUS
AND NEEDS IN GEORGIA
In 1944-45 an extensive and comprehensive survey of the school building status and ne'eds was made by the Education Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board of Georgia. The Education Panel, through its field staff, in cooperation with the State Department of Education, the county and independent school superintendents, and the principals, surveyed more than 97 percent of all white and Negro school buildings of the State. The data compiled from this study have been compared with and checked against the statistics compiled in one' hundred Georgia counties in which a comprehensive and definite postwar building program has been completed by a member of the Panel working with the local superintendent and county and city boards of education. The results are that the reports of the originaJ study are very reasonable and reliable. The variation from the true facts is found to l>e less than ten percent. Therefore, many of the data used in this report are taken from the original study. In all instances the data have been checked and rechecked with the most recent information avail"able, with adjustments and corrections made where errors were discovered.
It is not the purpose of this report to give an itemized description of all the essential items of the school plant. Only the plant as a whole will be considered, along with the total additional needs and the obstacles that stand in the way of meeting these needs, with suggestions for remedying the same. A detaile'd description can be had by referring to the bulletin, "A Study of School Buildings in Georgia", published by the Education Panel, Athens, Georgia.
Present Building Status
In 1945, for white students, there were 1,894 separate school plants, or an average of twelve schools per county. As many of these plants have two or more buildings, there' is a grand total of 2,403. Of these, 55 percent are of frame construction with the majority from 20 to 40 years of age. Buildings of this type and age were generally constructed with limited
135

} ..
~
' ' "

sure on the grounds. Forty-eight percent have outside pit toilets, and 45 percent have either outside surface privies or no toilets at all. Eighteen perce'nt have electricity, and 84 percent have heating facilities below the minimum standa rd.
Only 30 percent of the white schools have libraries, 32 percent have lunchrooms, 28 percent have auditoriums, 6 percent have physical education buildings, and 6 percent have health clinics; while only 4 percent of the Negro schools have libraries, 12 pe'rcent have lunchrooms, 5 percent have auditoriums, threetenths of one percent have physical education buildings, and eight-tenth of one percent have health clinics.
School authorities have developed a score sheet through the use of which school plants can be evaluated. The maximum possible score is 1,000 points. If a plant scores less than 300 points when evaluated by this standard, it is considered unfit for satisfactory use. When this criterion was applied to the Georgia schools, it was found that the average white school scored only 443 points; and the average Negro school scored 158 points. According to this standard 40 percent of the white and 95 percent of the Negro schools are at present unfit for ~chool use. Many of these buildings could be renovated and made reasonably satisfactory if sufficient funds were readily available with which to finance the projects, and material and labor were_ available. The majority of the buildings, however, were constructed during the era when individual local districts indepe'ndently planned, located, and constructed buildings, for a limited territory only, with no regard for future developments to meet the needs of a modern school.
Since the local districts have been abolished and the county board has the responsibility of administering the total program, it is found that consolidation into larger units should be encouraged and buildings planned, located, and provided so as to meet more adequately the needs of the community economically and efficiently. The location of a great percentage of the present buildings makes them useless. Many others need to be abandoned and replaced with larger and more accessible ones.
To illustrate, the conditions in one county are cited. The county has five white schools. The total number of pupils in
137

funds; were poorly planned, equipped, and located; and, if adequately preserved, are now wholly unfit and unsuited to a modern school program.
For the Negro youth, there are 2,860 school plants, an average of eighteen per county, consisting of 3,075 buildings, 93 percent of which are of frame construction. One-fourth of all Negro buildings are more than 35 years of age. Seven hundred and ten, or 23.1 percent, are housed in old dilapidated churches, lodges, tenant houses or other privately owned buildings, which were neither constructed nor equipped for school use.
It was found that 18.1 percent of the white and 92.6 percent of the Negro school buildings either are incapable of remodeling or would require extensive repairs to meet a reasonable standard of efficiency. The survey shows that there were 1,086 more colored te'achers employed than there were classrooms in the Negro school buildings of the State. Therefore, it is necessary in 1,086 instances for two teachers to work in the same classroom, in auditoriums or wherever they can provide any temporary space.
In one school visited there were 22 teachers on active duty in a plant containing eight classrooms and an auditorium. Two teachers were in each classroom and six were in the auditorium. Each classroom had from 60 to 80 pupils. While this is an extreme case, the schools are paying salaries to 1,086 teachers in the State to pretend to teach, when they do not have a semblance of a place to call a classroom. The salaries paid to teachers working under the above conditions generally are wasted and the children receive but little value from the expenditures.
For comfort, he'alth, and convenience, the survey shows that 62 percent of the white schools have water under pressure on the grounds; 47 percent use flush type toilets; and 53 percent use outside pit toilets, surface privies, or no toilets at all. Seventy-three percent have electricity, and 50 percent use inadequate, unsatisfactory heating systems. The circulating, jacket heater is considered the minimum for comfort and health that should be approved. One-half of the white schools are below this standard.
Only 12 percent of the Negro schools have water under pres-
136

ings for the children of their systems. In practice, however, it has generally been the responsibility of the local districts. The funds with which to provide these facilities have been derived from:
1. Local districts bonds.
2. County-wide bonds in a few counties.
3. Federal grants, WPA, PWA, FWA, War Emergency, and the like.
4. Donations from individuals, corporations, communities, and philanthropic organizations; and by boards of education from surplus operation funds.
5. City bond issues or grants from city authoritie's.
The results have been that the more progressive communities and the wealthier districts have been able to provide far better facilities than the poorer. This system has been conducive to increasing the inequalities between the different communities. The majority of the grants from the Federal Government has been distributed on a matching basis. Consequently, the stronger communities could more easily provide their part of the required funds, while the weake'r ones could not. Thus the inequalities became greater.
For the last three decades the chief source of revenue in rural sections for school buildings has been from local district bonds and from city bonds in the independent systems. When the maximum amount legally permitted was voted, very few districts were able to provide the minimum facilities required for even the white schools. Consequently, very little or nothing was done to provide facilities for the Negro youth. From the survey made in 100 counties, it was found that the majority of the districts in these counties had voted one or more district bond issues, but less than 5 percent of them had ever spent one dollar of the bond money on Negro school buildings.
Under the district system the inequalities of opportunities exist between the districts in each county to an alarming degree. The records show that in one district, for each dollar per child that could be legally raised from taxes for buildings, a second district in the same county could raise $21. The result is that some districts have provided adequate buildings,
139

regular attendance in the entire county was 446 in elementary and 236 in high school. The' four rural schools were located north, south, east, and west respectively from five to ten miles distance from the central school located at the county seat. Good', permanent, adequate buildings had been constructed for elementary and high-school students at each location. The average daily attendance in the four rural high schools in 1944 was 32, 40, 41, and Ll4, respectively; and the instructional cost per pupil was $219.34, $165.76, $151.45, and $128.33, or more than twice the state average. The county board has now planned to reorganize and to consolidate the high-school departments of these five schools into one central county high school where a better program can be provided for its children at a considerable saving in operation. To do so, additional buildings will be required at the central school, while approximately one-half of each rural school building will be left vacant and useless.
Similar conditions exist throughout the State to a greater or less degree. No reliable estimate can be made at this time on the number or the cost of the new buildings that will be necessitated by consolidation of small schools into iarger units, and the consolidation of high-school grades. The needs will be determined by the extent to which this reorganization will be undertaken and perfected during the next few years. The present indications are that the reorganization will be so extensive that this will be one of the principal causes for additional buildings.
For Negroes very little consolidation has.been done and practically no transportation has been provided. At present 60 per-. cent are one-teacher and 22 percent are two-teacher, or 82 percent of all Negro schools in the State are of the one-and two-teacher type. The majority of these should be consolidated into larger units.
Tables and graphs showing itemized statistical data of the school building conditions in Georgia will be found at the close of this chapter.
How School Buildings Have Been Provided in Georgia
Legally, it has been the responsibility of the county and independent city boards of education to provide school build-
138

buildings are in such a deplorable condition and the needs are so great, county boards throughout the State are in a quandary and do not see any way to improve these conditions. Therefore, all assistance and encouragement possible should be given by the State to assist county school officials in overcoming these problems, and to stimulate the citizens to exert their best effort.

Summary Estimate of School Building Needs of the State
The survey of the school building needs shows that in order to meet the minimum requirements for an adequate school program, based upon present building costs, $83,571,000 will be needed. An itemized estimate is given below:

White Negro

No.

No.

1. Classrooms needed to replace

plants unfit for use.................... 1,610 5,407

Estimated Estimated Total Unit Cost Total Cost
7,017 $3,000 $21,051,000

2. Remodeling and repairing classrooms ......................10,366 1,421 11,787 1,000 11,787,000

3. Specialized classrooms .............. 2,418 1,766 4,184 4,000 16,736,000

4. General service rooms................ 2,070 1,943 4,013 8,000 32,104,000

5. Classrooms needed to
relieve overcrowdedness ............ 626

5 631 3,000 1,893,000

Total estimated cost........................................................................$83,571,000

The above amount does not, by any means, cover the total building needs. It should be noted that only classrooms and special service rooms are included in the above list. Physical education buildings, teachers' and caretakers' homes and garages, are essential if we are to have a modern school system in Georgia. The survey did not cover these items; therefore, an estimate as to the needs and cost for these items is not attempted.

A further study of fifteen rural counties was made in which a detailed building survey has been completed with needs and estimated cost determined. This survey was approved by the county school superintendent and the county boards of education in each county. It was found that 15 counties: Banks, Berrien, Bullock, Carroll (Carrollton not included), Chattooga, Clayton, Dawson, Early, Franklin, Lumpkin, Clarke (Athens not included), Effingham, Liberty, and Long, show a definite need of $5,209,000 in order to meet their building needs as already planned. The preceding sum is an average of $347,000

141

while others have not been able to meet the bare necessities of the community. This study shows that the above conditions in varying degrees are general throughout the State.

Rece'nt legislation in Georgia provided for the State Department of Education to establish a code of school building practices and standards. The purpose of the act was two-fold: first, to protect the public against unnecessary waste of public funds in the construction of school buildings and equipment; and second, to assure the public of safe and efficient buildings properly located to meet the needs of a modern program. The code as established by the State Board of Education provides for the State to approve school building plans and locations before public funds can be spent on school buildings.

Effects of the New State Constitution on the School Building Program

With the ratification of the revised state constitution, the

district system was abolished. County and city boards now are

wholly responsible for providing school buildings for their en-

,,

tire systems, and the major source of local revenue for school

;:1

buildings in the future must come from countywide or city

bond issues, rather than from district bonds, the latter being

prohibited. Under this system building facilitie's within a coun-

ty should become more nearly equalized, although inequalities

between counties will continue, and many counties will be un-

able to provide adequate buildings without state or federal

aid or both.

1. Many districts have bonded indebtedness, and no legal provisions for the county boards to assume these district obligations have been made. Therefore, a county bond issue would place a double tax burden upon those districts which are already bonded.

2. Many districts (generally the wealthier, larger, and more densely populated) have issued bonds and constructed permanent buildings, while the poorer districts have been able to provide only inadequate temporary ones. Therefore, the wealthier districts would not expect to share in the county bond fund in proportion to the poorer districts which do not already have the ne'eded facilities.

Confronted with these conditions at a time when the school

140.

; :

per county. If the independent city systems of these counties had been included, the total amount and average' per county would have been considerably higher than the figures given above. If we assume that the average needs of these counties are the average for the 159 counties and the 56 independent city systems (e'xclusive of Atlanta, Bibb, and Chatham), the needs would be approximately $70,000,000. When combined, these three larger systems would bring the total above the original estimate of $83,571,000. Therefore, it appears that the above estimate is conservative.
Inequalities Among Counties to Finance Their Building Program
A further study of the 15 counties aforementioned reveals that their total bonding ability above the present outstanding district indebtedness is only $1,965,000, or less than 40 percent of their needs.
When studied individually, it is found that four of the above counties have the ability to finance their entire needs through the issuance of county bonds, while three others could not finance 25 percent of their needs. The variation in the eleven poore'r counties ranges from 22 percent to 46.7 percent in ability to meet their actual building needs. (See graph attached.)
Table 6, giving 25 additional systems, shows further the inequalities in ability between counties, to provide school building facilities for their children if each system should issue the maximum amount of bonds permitted by law.
Conclusions
1. The survey shows that, as a whole, the school buildings of Georgia are in a deplorable condition. They are inadequate, dangerous, unhygienic, and ill-located. The State is paying the' greater portion for the operation of the schools and is pledged to increase these expenditures in the future. A large percentage of what is not being spent for operation is wasted, for the lack of sufficient housing facilities. With the increased teachers' salaries promised, this amount will be increased.
2. On account of the district system by which buildings have' previously been provided, inequalities of opportunities in the
143

THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

BERRIEN

.,l

BULLOCK

494.000

CARROLL CHATTOOGA

CLARKE CLAYTON DAWSON
EARLY

LEGEND:
ktlt'mtl ABILITY OF
COUNTY TO RAISE
FUNDS FROM BOND
ISSUES
milii1] ADDITIONAL
MONEY NEEDED

EFFINGHAM

FANNIN

FRANKLIN

roo T'" LIBERTY &iirs

r~+::: LONG

44.500 NEEDED

FIGURE 7
MINIMUM ESSENTIAL BUILDING NEEDS AND ABILITY TO FINANCE CONSTRUCTION IN FIFTEEN TYPICAL GEORGIA COUNTIES

same county among the white students are appalling; an9- the differences between the races are still greater.
3. The abolition of the district system will not remedy the inequalities between the counties, which are as great as the inequalities betwe'en the districts of the county.
4. Countywide and independent city bond issues must be heavily relied on to finance the building program; therefore, all legal impediments regarding .bond issues should be clarified or removed.
5. The State should provide adequate financial aid to counties for capital outlay in such a way as to support and encourage local action.
6. A state finance system should be set up by which the credit of the State would assist counties in obtaining lower rates of interest in bond issues, and would stimulate local effort.
7. The State has assumed the greater part of the responsibility for the education of its youth in so far as current operations are concerned, but to continue increasing its expenditures for these purposes when the money cannot be used advantageously appears to be poor business management. Facilities with which to work and a suitable place in which to work are the first essentials.

Recommendations Necessary for Improving the School



Building Status

Assuming that there will be some type of federal aid for school building within the next few years and that former policies are followed, the money will probably be dispensed on a matching basis. Therefore, if all the children are to be benefited, it is necessary for each county and independent city system to be able to match such grants. Otherwise, the former policy of the strong growing stronger and the weak becoming weaker will continue.

To be able to meet this situation, it is necessary for every county and city system to be able to issue county or city bonds. It is, therefore, exceedingly important that all impediments to a bond issue be removed and every incentive, consistent with good business management, be offered in order to encourage

145

TABLE 6
ASSESSED VALUATION, ENROLLMENT, ASSESSED VALUATION PER PUPIL (WHITE AND NEGRO
COMBINED) AND TOTAL BONDING CAPACITY PER PUPIL IN CERTAIN COUNTIES IN GEORGIA

County

Assessed Valuation

White

Negro

Total

Assessed Bonding Valuation Capacity PPr Pupil Per Pupil

Banks .............. 800,527 1,779

155 1,934

413

29

BBirbabntley..........

52,316,467 1,824,138

9,383 1,534

7,365 16,748 3,120 218

196

1,730 1,054

74

".'i

Calhoun
Camden Charlton

..................................

2,294,153 2,668,279
2,105,919.

702

2,000

2,702

849

59

714

811

1,525 1,749 122

889

194

1,083 1,944 136

o'j

Chatham ...... ,... 72,382,293 13,282

8,266 21,548 3,359 235

.l,.'\

Clinch Coweta Dawson

........................

2,008,934 9,581,430
564,638

782 1,964 1,127

398 2,208
0

1,180 1,702 119

4,172 2,296 161

1,127

501

35

Decatur ............ 6,957,960 2,840 3,164 6,004 1,158 81

EEFHDomfaofrbuiasnegnyrghutshheehralatm.ym.......................................

16,042,020
3,997,976 5,118,852 1,354,568 6,243,753

2,513
1,323 3,492 2,923 3,594

3,408
877 2,179
0 142

5,921 2,709 190

2,200 1,817 127

5,671

902

63

2,923

463

32

3,736 1,671 117

MHeearirwdether......

1,146,616 4,642,031

1,368 1,960

749 2,979

2,117 4,939

541

38

939

66

RSUeincmihoimnnoolne.d...............................

50,357,741 1,496,700
713,316

9,165 1,182 1,767

5,801 14,966 3,364 235

917

2,099

713

50

0 1,767

403

28

W Waasrehin.g..t..o..n.............

11,133,984 4,417,632

4,411 1,966

1,731 3,314

6,142 1,812 127

5,280 . 836

59

Fulton-Atl~~onta 363,361,760 I 50,701 20,609 71,310 5,096 357

Atlanta only ....379,110,802 31,930 16,490 48,420 7,829 548

144

5. A state-financing plan for county and independent school

bonds should be set up. It appears feasible that the State

could issue a sufficient amount of serial bonds at a very low



rate of interest, to be sold when funds are needed, to purchase

county or city bonds bearin$ as low a rate of interest as would

be required to liquidate an equal amount of state bonds. This

method would be an incentive to local effort and assurer them

against waste and extravagance in local financing, without

cost to the State. Compared with the interest rates at which

county and district bonds have been floated throughout the

State for the past 25 years, one~-half to two-thirds of the inter-

est cost could be saved by the above state-financing method.

North Carolina has a state plan somewhat similar to the afore-

mentioned which has proved very satisfactory.

In order to show the need for some type of state financing, an example of one district in a central Georgia county is cited.

In 1921 one district voted a $45,000 district bond issue. The interest rate was six percent. A thousand dollars of the principal was to be paid annually for 16 years; then $2,000 per year for the next seven years; and thereafter $3,000 per year for five years, when the entire issue would be liquidated. A school building was constructed, and a bond tax was levied. For seve'ral years the bond payments were met as the bonds matured. The surplus funds, which should have been deposited in a sinking fund for the reserve to be used when the bond payments increased, were used in the current operation of the school. Consequently, by 1943 the district had defaulted in the payment of interest and bonds approximately $4,000. Therefore, a constitutionai act was passed by which refunding bonds were issued. Twenty-seven thousand dollars worth was required to liquidate the original issue. These bonds were to bear 51/2 percent interest and to mature $1,000 per year from 1944 to 1970, when the entire bonded indebtedne'ss would be liquidated. The results are that when the original $45,000 is finally paid, the interest alone will amount to $66,880; and the interest and principal combined will amount to $111,880. The citizens of this district are being taxed at prese'nt 131/2 mills for bond purposes alone. In April, 1946, the school building was destroyed by fire with only $25,000 insurance coverage. Since then the children are being taught in the court house, store buildings, and other temporary quarters. The

147

local. citizens to put forth the maximum effort. To this end the following suggestions are made:
1. As an incentive to the voters of a county to support a countywide bond issue, legislation should be passed that would permit or require the county boards of e'ducation to assume full responsibility for the liquidation of all district bonds outstanding at the time a countywide bond issue is voted. This method would equalize the tax rate on all tax payers in the county and would favorably influence the voters of those communities which now have a local school bonded indebtedness against the district.
2. A plan of state school support, such as is outlined in Chapter XII of this report, should be set up in which funds for capital outlay would be included on a per teacher unit basis. ':fhe normal average cost of a classroom, $5,000, divided by the average life of a classroom, 25 years, yields the amount of $200 which the Survey Committee believes is a reasonable amount to allow per teacher unit for building funds.
3. If recommendations of Chapter XII are not followed, then in order to enable those counties which could never provide for their children adequate school buildings from local resources and to encourage and stimulate the citizens in all other counties to expend the maximum local effort, provisions should be made for a permanent state equalization building fund of at least $2,500,000 per year. This fund should be
disbursed according to the needs of each county in accordance
with a formula to be adopted by the State Board of Education. The formula to be adopted should be such as would stimulate local effort and at the same time require every county to make a maximum effort to finance its needs before such a county could participate in the State fund.
4. Provisions should be made for adequately trained personnel to be set up in the State Department of Education to carry on a continuous statewide survey and planning program in order to enable the State Board of Education to distribute the funds in accordance with the needs. If capital outlay funds are included in total needs of a school system, as outlined in Chapter XII, this personnel would assist local survey and planning programs.
146

CHAPTER VII
SCHOOL TRANSPORTATION IN GEORGIA
Development and Scope of School Transportation Program
The development of school transportation in Georgia closely parallels the school consolidation movement. The program of consolidation of rural schools in Georgia was begun immediately following World War I. Prior to that time only consolidation that did not require transportation was perfected. Highschool facilities were provided only in the' larger towns, cities, and private or regional state schools. Consequently, only those rural young people who could afford to attend a boarding school or furnish their own transportation to some city school were able to obtain a high-school education. To remedy this condition the more progressive districts combined, voted bond.'3, and built larger schools for elementary and high-school students. In order to combine the small schools into larger ones that would better meet the local needs, transportation was essential. All-weather roads were problems in every community. The Model T chassis with a homemade body generally was the best available equipment. Consequently, long hauls and large consolidations were impractical. The results were that small district elementary and high schools were established and located with but little regard for future' development and needs of the entire county. Transportation was then, and has continued to be, the major determining factor in the development of the total rural school program.
Transportation was considered a local district ov county responsibility. The State assumed no responsibility until 1926 when a one-half cent per gallon tax on gasoline was allocated to the local school systems as an e'qualization fund. This could be used for any legitimate purpose, including transportation in the operation of the schools. Many districts and counties found it necessary to charge monthly transportation fees of its pupils. Practically all districts levied a district tax and used a part of it to help defray transportation costs. In most cases, county boards made small annual donations to the districts unless the county boards had assumed full responsibility for transportation. State equalization funds gradually incre'ased, which enabled the county boards to give the districts greater
149

county board of education is in debt $14,000 and has no way to re'build. It is estimated that it will cost $115,000 to rebuild and provide adequate facilities at the present cost of construction. Without outside help, 300 children will be deprived of even the minimum facilities to which they are entitled.

1938 1940 1942 1944 1945

~
~ ~"'-~ ~~
~

CHATHAM STEPHENS MURRAY WALKER LONG TOWNS JEFF DAVIS CATOOSA POLK DEKALB

~
~
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~
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~~
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~~
I
~~
~~~
~~~

CHATTAHOOCHEE

TEN LOW COST SYSTEMS- 1945 TEN HIGH COST SYSTEMS - 1945

STEWART TALBOT

RANDOLPH TERRELL

WILKINSON

HOUSTON

HANCOCK

MITCHELL

BURKE

s 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

FIGURE 8

PER PUPIL COST FOR TRANSPORTATION 1938 TO 1945
Source: Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Re,ports, 1938 to 1945.

assistance. In general, district control and operation with county boards providing some financial assistance were the rule.

With the adoption of the Seven Months School Law in 1937, provisions were made for the State Department of Education to provide transportation aid through the equalization fund to the county boards of education. The transportation aid was based upon the type of equipment used, the number of stude'nts transported, the number of miles hauled, and the type of roads over which the pupils were transported. With this additional aid equipment was greatly improved, transportation fees were discontinued, and consolidation was stimulated.

During the four-year period from 1938 to 1942 the number

of all-steel bodies increased from 780 to 2,086; the number

of pupils transported increased from 141,854 to 177,734; and

the total annual cost of transportation increased from $1,909,-

540 to $2,602,113. Three types of ownership of transportation

equipment have been, and still are, used generally throughout

the State': (1) county or district ownership and operation,

.,

(2) joint ownership (county or district owning the bodies and private operators owning the chassis), and (3) contracts with

~'.'

private operators. The general trends recently have been to-

ward public ownership and operation, which have proved to

be somewhat less expensive.

Since 1942, transportation problems have greatly increased. Very little new equipment has been available even at wartime prices. Repairs have be'en difficult, and the cost of upkeep and operation has likewise been unusually heavy. With good equipment a. 15 percent annual replacement is considered reasonable to provide safe and efficient transportation. The equipment throughout the State, howeve'r, has become badly depleted during th~ war period. Only 300 busses, or 10.8 percent, were available to the schools during the term 19441945; and many of these were second-hand. Because additional busses could not be obtained or financed, it has been necessary to add additional routes to the normal routes served by the present busses. The result is that during the 1944-1945 term, 1,900 second and third routes to school each morning and afternoon were served by busses from other regular routes. Such conditions require students to leave home at daylight

150

on which only two pupils were transported. The cost was $105.00 per month for nine months, or $472.50 per year per student.
The instances cited above are only a few of the practices that are common throughout the State and that should be corrected.
The records show that 186,826 pupils were transported during 1945.:.46. It is estimated that 95 percent of these were white. No statistics are available to indicate the total additional number that should be transported if and when the consolidated program is completed. Twenty-five thousand white and 75,000 Negro students, in addition to the 186,826 being transported at present, are conservative estimates.
A comprehensive detailed study of the transportation system in Georgia was made by the Education Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board in 1944. This report gives a clear picture of the present facilities and conditions in the State. Copies are available for further study; therefore, many detailed statistics are omittted to this report. It should be pointed out, howeve'r, that during the year 1945-1946 there were 2,822 busses which traveled 135,762 miles daily, to transport 186,826 pupiis at a cost of $3,689,279, or $19.75 per pupil.
The transportation program that has grown to such magnitude within a quarter of a century has done so without much conscious planning or serious consideration and with little or no regard for a long-range program.
The responsibility and the management generally have been left almost entirely to the district trustees, which often resulted in duplication of routes, expensive operation, and inefficient service. In a smaller number of counties the county boards of education have inaugurated a countywide program which more nearly meets the minimum standards for equipment, operation, maintenance, re'cords, and reports. Inefficient management, however, under either system, is a heavy drain on the resources of the schools. Under provisions of recent legislation all districts have been abolished and the county boards have full responsibility for providing transportation. With 159 counties in the State and with many inexperienced and untrained officials in matters of transportation little improvement can
153

and often return after sundown. One first-grade child remarked that she never saw the sun on school days, while at home.

Although the cost of replacements of busses has been small during the war years, the total annual transportation cost has steadily increased. The state school superintendent's reports show that the average number of pupils transported daily increased from 141,854 in 1938 to 186,826 in 1946, or 31.6 percent; while the average annual cost per pupil increased from $13.36 to $19.75 or 47.8 percent, during the same period.

Attention is called to Table 2 G in the appendix which re-

veals statistically the growth of transportation in the State.

It is found that transportation cost is second only to teachers'

salaries in the items of school expenditures. During 1945, the

cost of transportation was 9.19 per cent of the total expendi-

tures of the school budget in Georgia as compared with 6

percent for the nation. While only 9.19 percent of the total

State school budget is spent on transportation, it should be

remembered that practically all of this cost is carried by the

..;...

rural comities. In many rural counties from 15 to 20 percent

.:'+
~

of the total budget is spent for transportation.

The annual cost per pupil in the different counties of the State varied from a low of $8.86 to a high of $83.40 in 1945. Figure 8 shows the difference in cost among the local systems.

Density of population, road conditions, distance transported, methods of ownership and operation of equipment, and management, all play a vital part in determining the cost of transportation and the efficiency of the program. From a study made by the Education Panel recently many instances were discovered which reveal poor organization, extravagances, and a nee'd for better supervision and regulation. In many instances two or more busses traverse the same routes for considerable distances where one bus could serve all the pupils on the route just as well. Others transport pupils from one community by a good school to a school in another district on account of prejudice against the adjoining school. In several counties pupils are transported from one part of the county through the county seat-a distance of six to ten miles to school in the opposite' part of the county. In one instance a county board contracted with a private bus owner for a route

152

are not authorized by law. Boards of education generally feel that they have a moral obligation to protect children injured in bus accidents to the extent of guaranteeing all necessary hospitalization and medical care.
Major Problems
A study of the development and scope of Georgia's school transportation program revealed many factors which affect the efficiency of the system. The major problems confronting school authorities in regard to school transportation are set forth herein.
Administration. The abolition of school districts now places the full responsibility for the administration of the school transportation system upon the county board of education. This places an additional responsibility upon the county superintendents. Many of these superintendents are inexperienced, untrained, and wholly incapable of properly administering the transportation program efficiently and economically.
Equipment. During the war years comparatively few busses have been replaced. Consequently, the greater part of the busses now in use need replacing. It is estimated that at least 1,400 units are needed for replace'ment of wornout busses. In addition, at least 1,000 other units are needed to eliminate present second and third-trip routes. Since the beginning of the war, the cost of busses has increased as much as $500 to $800 per unit. At prevailing prices it will cost more than $5,000,000 to purchase the busses needed. At present, however, busses at any price' are not available to meet these needs.
Existing equipment is owned and operated in three different ways. Ownership and operation by the county have proved to be the most economical of the three. Where ownership and operation are on a joint county-private operator basis, the problem of securing new equipment is further complicated and as a general rule is more costly. Likewise, counties where equipment is owned solely by the private operator, are finding it increasingly difficult to secure operators at a reasonable bid.
Maintenance. Because' of the present age of most Georgia school busses, maintenance has become an increasingly acute problem. Too few counties have a systematic maintenance and
155

be expected over the previous system.
The present law re'lating to pupil transportation was passed more than two decades ago. It permits county boards of education to provide pupil transportation whenever such is deemed necessary for the best interests of the school.. The State Board of Education has no legal authority to prescribe minimum standards for school transportation equipment, nor to regulate the operation of school busses. Georgia is one of the few Southern States which does not vest regulatory authority in the State Board of Education. An analysis of the legal provisions for pupil transportation in the different states shows that transportation is considered essential to all pupils and that its cost are generally accepted as necessary items of school expenditures. It is recognized in the laws of every state as a legitimate item of school expense.
The transportation program has grown to such an extent that it can no longer be considered a local function of the schools. The State is now providing indirectly through equalization and administrative funds the greater part of the expenditures. Yet legally, it has no control, regulation, or supervision of the transportation program. In order to assure safe transportation to protect taxpayers and to assure the public against waste and extravagance, it is necessary that the State De'partment of Education be given authority to regulate and supervise the program. Otherwise, the individual systems will continue to show vast differences in the cost of transportation.
The matter of liability insurance in school transportation has been given but little consideration in Georgia. Consequently, no consistent policy has been adopted among the counties. Some counties that own and operate busses carry liability insurance, while a great many others do not. Private operators in some counties are' required by the county boards to carry insurance for the protection of the students. The boards usually pay these contractors an additional amount sufficient to pay the insurance premiums. Others do not carry any protection.
A comparison of the available data reveals a marked discrepancy between the amount paid for insurance and the amount of damages collected. The State Auditor has consistently pointed out that expenditures for school bus insurance
154

saving when quantity purchases were made. If Georgia should purchase 800 busses per year and could save an average of $500 per bus, a net saving of $400,000 in transportation expenses could be effected annually. A change in the pre'sent laws may be necessary in order to effect this saving. The State would have to either purchase the busses, or serve as purchasing agent for the counties. Local school systems are not legally permitted to incur financial obligations which cannot be liquidated within the current year. Therefore, appropriate legislation is necessary to permit county boards of e'ducation to issue certificates of indebtedness or short term notes to be extended over a period of four or five years, with which, to purchase school busses, if county ownership is to be encouraged.
Alabama has recognized its obligation to provide some protection to its students, and the State has appropriated $50,000 annually to the Workmen's Compensation Board for the purpose of adjusting any and all claims wherein school children or public employees are involved in accidents. The appropriation greatly exceeds the' adjustments made. In North Carolina the State BoarQ. of Education is required to set aside sufficient school money to reimburse parents up to $600 for actual cost incurred because of school bus accidents. Neither of these states acknowledges liability on the part of the State in case of accident.
In Kentucky, school boards have been exempted from legal liability; but the courts have recognized a moral responsibility with the result that $5,000 to $30,000 policies are strongly urged in the "Transportation Manual" issued by the Kentucky Department of Education. Kentucky has also arranged to pool the school bus insurance in the State whereby the expenditures for premiums have been reduced by two-thirds.
North Carolina has adopted an entirely different program from other Southern States in school transportation. Local district and county operation have been abolished. The State Department of Education has assumed all responsibility for the program. As a result the annual cost per pupil transported for a number of years has only been 60 to 75 percent as costly as it has been in Georgia for the same period. A detailed study of the North Carolina system reveals that:
1. The State owns and operates all school busses and trans-
157

repair program in operation. As a result, many school busses have become inoperable long before necessary. Repairs at commercial garages are expensive and difficult to obtain. Those counties operating a central garage and maintenance service as a part of the transportation program have experienced difficulty in securing parts and labor. Those countie's with efficiently managed central garages, however, have as a rule operated their system more efficiently and economically. Their busses have a longer operative life.
Operation. Most counties, re'gardless of the type of transportation system in effect, have experienced difficulty in securing physically and morally competent drivers. The cost of securing these drivers has increased greatly in the last five years. The problem of operating the transportation system is further complicated in many instances by road conditions. In some areas of the State, consolidation has been distinctly limited because of roads that are impassable in wet weather. In mountain areas there are some roads impassable in good weather.
Finance. In view of the immediate need for new equipment, school authorities are confronted with the problem of financing needed new equipment. Under existing laws, school boards must pay for transportation equipment within the school year. This fact makes it imposs.ible for many countie's to purchase the equipment that is needed even if it were all available. In counties where it would be more economical to change their system to public ownership of busses, it is virtually impossible to do so in one year because of this legal restriction. The increasing cost of transportation has in many instances eaten into othe'r school budgetary items. As a result, other phases of the school program have suffered.
Program in Other States
In order to present some worthwhile suggestions for the improvement of the transportation program in Georgia, a study of several other states has been made, which is worthy of serious consideration.
In Alabama, it was found that a great saving in the purchase of school busses was possible through quantity purchases. Prior to the war, some Alabama counties were able to save from $400 to $800 per bus from what individual operators were paying for similar units in Georgia. Other states reporte'd an equal
156

conclusions are drawn:
1. School transportation has become the second largest expense item of operation in the educational program. The cost has been increasing annually and the indications are that it will continue to increase as the program is expanded. Local control and administration without any state regulation or supervision, have been expensive and inefficient, resulting in a vast difference in the cost per pupil among the counties.
2. On account of war conditions the transportation equipment in Georgia is in a deplorable condition, and very limited in quantity. To meet the needs it is estimated that 800 new units per year will be require'd for the next four years to provide a reasonable satisfactory service, and the annual cost of transportation will amount to approximately $4,500,000 per year.
3. 'The per pupil cost in the State has increased annually from 1938 to 1945 from $13.36 to $18.74, or 40.2 percent. The cost per pupil in the various counties varied in 1945 from a low in Chatham of $8.86 to a high in Chattahoochee of $83.40. The cost in the othe'r 157 counties comes between these two extremes. There does not appear to be any good reason why the operation of school busses should cost two, three or four times as much in one county as in another. It is due largely to good management or the lack of it. Some of the reasons for these variations are listed as road conditions, density of population, methods of operation, and the degree of efficiency of administration in the systems.
4. The laws regarding pupil transportation were passed two decades ago, and placed full responsibility for transportation on the County Boards of Education. The State has no regulatory authority, nor responsibility in matters of transportation, although the State either directly or indirectly bears the greater part of the cost.
5. Transportation cost can be reduced by providing for a cooperative plan for the purchase of new school busses. Other states claim a saving of $400 to $800 per bus in purchasing large quantities of busses on competitive bids at the state level. A saving of $500 per bus in the purchase of 800 busses annually would effect a total yearly saving of $400,000. It is recommended that appropriate legislation be passed to permit
159

portation equipment.
2. The purchase of school busses, prior to the war was made at a saving of from $200 to $600 per unit for similar busses purchased in Georgia.
3. The supplies and equipment for repairs and upkeep are purchased at a 25 to 40 percent discount.
4. Repair garages are maintained and operated locally and regionally, somewhat similar to the method used by the State Highway Department in Georgia.
5. Gas and oil are supplied free of state and federal taxes.
6. All operation is strictly regulated and supervised and controlled by the State Department.
7. Routes are systematically planned, to eliminate duplication, overlapping, retracing, and detouring off the established routes, to the extent that school district lines and county lines are forgotten.
8. The use of school busses for extra-curricular activities and non-essential purposes is strictly regulated.
9. Standard safe equipment is provided for all pupils.
10. Students are carefully selected, trained, and supervised in driving busses at a uniform salary.
11. Accurate uniform records are kept for e'ach bus.
12. Every community is given equal service, in so far as it is possible to provide it, at state expense.
The records show that the program has been unusually successful, economical, safe, and efficient. Local political influence has been reduced to a minimum, mileage has been reduced, qualified business administrators control and manage' the entire program, and variation in the cost between local systems has been consistently reduced. Although more than threefourths of the bus drivers in North Carolina are high-school students, the records show that the number of accidents resulting from school transportation is one of the lowest in proportion to the number hauled, of any of the Southern States.
Summary and Conclusions
From the study of the school transportation program in Georgia presented in this chapter the following summary and
158

some extent on the following basis: counties to be divided into three classes-densely populated, medium, and sparsely; then a per pupil amount to be allotte'd on average daily attendance of the transported pupils for each class-for example, $12.50 in class one, $15.00 in class two, and $17.50 in class three; the cost above this amount to be supplied from local funds.
11. Multiple routes, that is, the using of one bus to traverse more than one route to the same school, is an undesirable practice. Multiple trips may be considered ,feasible where the highways permit a better than average' speed and where the population is dense and the routes are short. The practice of using a school bus for double and triple trips to the same school greatly inconveniences all of the pupils. This practice should be eliminated as quickly as finances will permit. Pupils should not be required to spend more than one hour on a bus morning or evening.
12. Inasmuch as boards of education act in a governme'ntal capacity in arranging for pupil transportation, all liability and property damage insurance should be omitted. Records show that pupils transported to and from school are safer than those walking along highways.
13. Automotive engineers hold that a properly maintained school bus should operate for as much as 200,000 miles and should have a total life for most types of routes, of nearly twenty years. It is understood, of course, that certain fast-moving parts, tires, and batteries would need replacement from time to time. In normal times a properly maintained all-steel body on an average length route will become obsolete before wearing out. Authorities in the field of school transportation gPnerally recommend that where busses are county owned one or more central garages with competent mechanics be maintained if there are as many as fifteen busses. School systems with only a few busses may find it profitable to make arrangements with adjoining school systems or with county boards of commissioners of roads and revenue for a program of supply and maintenance.
14. A state-owned and operated transportation system, similar to the North Carolina program, appears to offer many advantages over the present system used in Georgia. It is recommended for consideration and study. Should this type of pro-
161

fleet purchases of school busses at the state level.
6. The present state laws do not permit a county board of education to extend the payments for school busses over a period of years. Since school busses are normally used from 5 to 8 years, it is recommended that the payments of school busses should be extended over a five'-year period. Therefore, appropriate legislation to permit county boards of education to issue certificates of indebtedness or short term notes with which to purchase new school busses should be passed. This practice is followe'd in several of the Southern States.
7. Greater emphasis should be placed upon the selection and training of school bus drivers, and the Department of Public Safety should inaugurate an in-service-training progTam for school bus drivers, it is recommended that all school bus driv~rs be given tests by the State Patrol for driving skills, and that operator's license for school busses be issued only after the applicant satisfactorily demonstrates his knowledge of traffic laws and driving skills. The practice of issuing by mail a driver's license to school bus operators should be discontinued. Boards of education should be extremely careful hi se'lecting drivers who are physically fit and are of good moral character.
8. By the more extensive use of student drivers, considerable savings could be realized. These drivers should be carefully selected and trained. In North Carolina where 75 percent of all the drivers are students, the accident record is much lower than that of Georgia.
9. The structure of all school busses should comply with a state minimum standard prescribed by the State Board of Education. Appropriate legislation should be passed to require the State Board of Education to establish minimum standards for the construction of school busses. This practice will eliminate unsafe and hazardous equipment from use in transporting pupils to and from school.
10. State aid for pupil transportation affects the local policies in providing adequate and proper educational opportuni- ties for all children. Therefore, state aid should be disbursed in such manner that it will be conducive to good school for all children and at the same time be conducive to economical operation. If the administration is to remain in the hands of county boards, it is recommended that state aid be disbursed to
160

recommends a state-owned and operated system, and suggests a state-regulated system if the first method is not used. Of the'se two systems the first has proved to be the more effective and economical. The systems are described herein.
State-owned and-operated school transportation system. This is the type of system now in operation in North Carolina. The system as it operates in North Carolina has been previously described. In order to establish such a system in Georgia, it would be necessary to enact legislation giving the State Board of Education the power to own and operate the schot~l transportation system. Legislation to establish a state system of school transportation should be written in such a manner as to authorize the State Board of Education to:
1. Take over the title to all busses now owned by the counties and to purchase bodies and chassis from private1 owners.
2. Equalize further the educational opportunities among the school systems of the State by assuming the full control and burden of transportation.
3. Purchase all equipment and supplies centrally on the basis of competitive bids.
4. Establish a statewide system of repair and maintenance garages either in cooperation with the' State Highway Department or individually.
5. Establish a uniform salary schedule for bus drivers.
6. Establish a program of school bus driver education and certification in cooperation with the State Department of Public Safety.
7. Establish school bus routes and schedules annually.
8. Establish rules and regulations for the school transportation system re'lative to the duties and responsibilities of system superintendents, principals, mechanics, and bus. drivers.
9. Establish minimum standards for the construction of school bus bodies.
10. Make any other rules or regulations necessary for the efficient operation of a state-owned and-operated transportation system not in conflict with state law.
163

gram be adopted, the method of distributing state funds to local systems, as suggested in the prece'ding paragraphs, would not be necessary under a state program of this type.
15. Transportation must keep pace with consolidation, buildings, construction, and reorganization of the school programs. The immediate primary need is to provide relief for those already being transported. To do this will require at least, from the best information available, 800 to 1,000 new busses for replacement. Then to provide for the extended second and third trips an equal number is badly needed. A. minimum of 800 new units per year over a period of four years, however, would probably enable the schools to operate successfully. After the equipment is built up to the standard, the number of busses required for replacement annually would be reduced to approximately 400 per year.
Until Negro schools can be consolidated and buildings constructed, only immediate facilities for Negro high-school transportation will be provided. Eventually, Negro transportation will increase and facilities will have to be provided for them.

An expenditure per year for the. next four years for new

busses based on the present cost will amount to $1,800,000 if

l:
:~

the actual needs are met~ In addition to the above capital out-

lay the operation, if figured at $100 per month per bus for

nine months on only 3,000 busses, will cost $2,700,000 annually.

When combined, the total annual expenditures for transporta-

tion will amount to $4,500,000 per year, with no provisions

for additional aid to the Negro youth. This amount is only an

estimate; but it represents an increase of only 30 percent over

the present year, whereas teachers' salaries will be increased

approximately 50 percent. In view of the fact that transporta-

tion equipment is in a deplorable condition, the estimate given

appears to be a minimum for reasonable efficiency.

Recommended Program
From the analysis of the school transportation program which has been made herein, it is evident that improvement can be made in the system now in effect. Taking into consideration the present problems, the syst~m now in effect, the1 opinions of authorities in the field of school transportation, and the experience of other states, the Survey Committee suggests two different methods of improving the system. The committee

162

CHAPTER VIII
SCHOOL AND PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE IN
GEORGIA
History of Library Service in Georgia
Establishment of library commission. Georgia was the first southern state to recognize the state's responsibility for free public library service. The General Assembly of 1897 created a Library Commission composed of four citizens appointed by the Governor for terms of three years each, and the State Librarian, member ex officio. The purposes for which this Commission was created were set forth in the law as follows:
"The Commission shall give advice and counsel to all libraries in the state and to all communities which may propose to establish them, as to the be'st means of establishing and administering such libraries, the selection of books, cataloging and other details of library management and may also send. its members to aid in organizing new libraries or improving those already established. The Commission may also conduct a system of traveling libraries and circulate such libraries within the state among communities and institutions, free of cost except for transportation."
Since this original Act provided no funds, the Commission carried on its activitie's without state funds until the law was amended in 1919 to provide an annual appropriation of $6,000. A professional librarian was employed as executive s.ecretary with one assistant; quarters were provided in the State Capitol and the active work of the Commission began in January, 1920, with the first purchase of books and establishment of a lending service to libraries, schools, communities without libraries, and to individuals.
Increases in appropriations for the Commission were granted in 1924 and in 1935. Increases in book collection and staff have scarcely been commensurate with the steady increase in demands for service, but the same general program still continues to be carried on to the utmost extent of present facilities under the State Board of Education.
Library Commission transferred to State Department of Edu-
165

State-regulated school transportation system. At present the State Board of Education has no authority to regulate school transportation in Georgia. Placing regulatory power over the transportation system in the hands of the State Board of Education would definitely make for improvement in the efficiency of the system. Statutory legislation for this purpose, however, should not shackle the state with specific regulations that may become outmoded with the advancement of time. Such legislation as might be passed should enable the State Board of Education to 1:egulate the operation of the school transportation system in a manner that would make for greater service, safety, and efficiency. Thus empowered the State could:
1. Regulate school bus routes to the extent that du-plication, retracing, and local political influence would be minimized.
2. Set up driving regulations and school bus driver qualifications in cooperation with the Department of Public Safety.
3. Establish minimum standards for the construction of school busses to be used in the State.
4. Establish a minimum salary schedule for school bus drivers.
The power to regulate the operation of the school transportation system would make for greater efficiency than presently found and would effect some saving in costs. No considerable saving would be realized, however, unless the legislation enacted for the improvement of the transportation system makes it possible for the counties to purchase all busses and repair parts centrally through the State'. Regardless of whether or not changes are made in the school transportation system, there is a definite need for legislation authorizing centralized purchasing of school transportation equipment and supplies. This is an obvious means of saving the people of Georgia approximately $500,000 a year.
164

examinations or require submission of credentials; to establish the qualifications of those seeking certificates as librarians and to issue certificates of librarianship to qualified persons, in accordance with such rules and regulations as it may prescribe." This law further provides that:
"After January 1, 1938, any public library serving a political subdivision having over five thousand population according to the last official federal census and every library operated by the State or its authority, including libraries in institutions of higher learning, shall not employ in the position of librarian or full time professional assistant in the library, as defined by this Board, a person who does not hold a librarian's certificate, issued by the Board. No public funds shall be paid to any library failing to comply with the provisions of this Act. Provided, however, that nothing in this Act shall apply to law libraries of counties andjor cities, or to libraries of public elementary and high schools."
State aid for school libraries. In 1937 the State Board of Education set aside $100,000 to be used as a matching fund to aid in the purchase of books for elementary schools. In 1939 this amount was increased to $150,000 and aid was extended to the high schools. This allocation has continued to be made annually as a part of the Textbook and Library Division budget. Since 1937 a professional librarian has been employed to help plan and supervise the state school library program and to give help and guidance to individual school libraries.
W P A program. During the nine-year period from December, 1933, to March, 1943, Georgia took advantage of the opportunity to increase and expand local public library facilities throughout the State by participating in the CWA, FERA, and WPA programs, inaugurated by the Federal Government to give employment to needy men and women. The Library Commission acted as official sponsor of each of these library programs, the most extensive of which was the WPA state'-wide library project, which began operation in February, 1936.
At the beginning of the statewide WPA library project, 115 counties in Georgia had no public library service whatsoever, while many other counties had only a small subscription library, or library operated by some local organization with volunteer
167

cation. At the re'quest of the Georgia Library Association and the Library Commission the General Assembly at the 1943 ses~ sion abolished the Library Commission, transferring its services and functions to the State Board of Education. This action came about as a result of the extensive school library program inaugurated in 1937, described elsewhere in this report, and the emphasis placed upon coordinating school library and pub~ lie library activities into a unified library program, especially in rural counties. Responsibility for future public library de~ velopment was hereby placed under the same authority on the state level as for school library development and other forms of education, thus recognizing library service as an integral part of the educational system of the State.
County library law. The developme'nt of public library service throughout the State brought about the need for library leg~ islation in addition to the municipal library law, enacted in 1901, under which provision was made for incorporated towns and cities to appropriate funds for the maintenance of free public libraries to serve the people living in such towns.
In 1935 the General Assembly enacted a law which author~ ized political subdivisions, other than municipal corporations, "to establish and maintain public libraries for purpos.es. of edu~ cation and to support such libraries by current revenue."
Such political subdivisions may contract with each other for library s.ervice, or with municipal corporations, already main~ taining libraries. Further provisions are made for creation of library boards, employment of librarian and other pers.onnel, administration of the library and acce'ptance of gifts, bequests and donations, including federal aid.
The new constitution of the State of Georgia, Section 4, Item 14, under Taxation by Counties, delegates to counties the right to levy a tax "to acquire, improve, and maintain Certification Law."
The need for appropriate legislation to set up and maintain standards for library personnel in public libraries brought about the passage of the state law for the certification of librarians by the Gene'ral Assembly of 1937. This la.w created a State Board for the Certification of Librarians, authorized to "establish grades of certificates for librarians, to prescribe and hold
166

rural areas of the State. This amount was increased to $150,000 for the fiscal year 1945-46. This appropriation made it possible for the State to capitalize on the extended program of library service which WPA funds had established under the sponsorship of the state1 library agency.
Present Service
Organization and administration. State funds for the development of an over-all program of library service in Georgia are administered through the Textbook and Library Division of the State Department of Education.
Funds for both school and rural library service are allocated on a per teacher basis. The major portion of these funds is allotted to counties for the purchase of materials, and all orders are placed through the Department of Education. The State pays two-thirds of the order on school funds; and the local system, one-third. No matching is involved in the rural fund, since the requirements for using this fund demand a considerable financial outlay on the part of the respective counties. Several of the requirements are:
1. The library must be under the control of a legally con- stituted municipal library board which contracts with the county for service, under a legally constituted county library board or under a county board of education. Where library boards already exist and are recognized as assuming responsibility for public library service, it is considered highly desirable to work through the existing board or reorganize the existing board rather than to set up a new library board.
2. The library must work out and put into effect a program of service that will reach rural communities. Allowing county people to come to the town library will not be considered sufficient.
3. The library must be sufficiently supported by local funds to guarantee effective distribution of material. The state aid fund is not designed to take the place of any local funds and will not be available to a library whose budget is decreased.
4. The librarian in charge of the library must be certificated
169

librarians in charge. There was not a bookmobile in the State and less than a dozen counties had countywide library service whereby the rural people could get books to read.
The WPA library program was set up with two aims: (1) The organization and operation of "demonstration" public libraries in communities where inadequate or no previous library facilities existed; and (2) extension of the services of established public libraries by providing library clerks to assist the regular staff. Local communities desiring to start a library or libraries operated on a private basis by local organizations, which desire'd to obtain the services of WPA workers as library clerks, were required to set up a legally constituted library board, provide quarters, furniture, and equipment, and some nucleus of a book collection.
Response to the offer of WPA aid for public libraries was almost overwhelming, so the WPA library program grew and expanded as rapidly as it was possible to find qualified WPA personnel to serve as library clerks. A popular form of WPA aid was that of the WPA traveling library workers. This led to WPA aid in securing regular bookmobiles in about thirty counties, where local sponsors were able and willing to provide funds for the construction of a standard bookmobile body on an automobile chassis furnished by WPA. The WPA library program also included a training program for WPA library personnel.
At the peak of the statewide' WP A library project there were fifteen trained librarians on the state supervisory staff, 450 library clerks operating library projects or assisting in library extension services of established public libraries, in 137 counties in the State. One hundred and seven of the 115 formerly unserved counties were being provided with some library seJ.vice at this time'. During the six years' operation of the statewide library project, the Works Projects Administration spent $1,314,777 for library service for the people of Georgia. This program was discontinued in March, 1943.
State aid for rural pu'blrc lihrary service. In 1944 at the request of interested citizens, the Georgia Library Association, and other organizations throughout the State, $100,000 was made available to the State Board of Education to be used for the development and expansion of public library service to the
168

TABLE 7
PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE IN GEORGIA 1938 - 1945

1938

1940

1942

1944

1945

Population served.... 1,470,038 1,987,709 Number of books...... 893,194 987,456 Circulation................. 4,495,951a 5,512,361a

1,951,641 1,782,216 1,164,794 1,220,475 5,795,717a 4,155,961

2,097,207 1,320,361 4,818,969

a Libraries recorded increasingly large book circulation for 1938, 1940, and 1942, since during these years the WPA statewide library project was in most active operation.
The table shows that combined book collections in Georgia public libraries was 1,320,361 volumes in 1945. In other words, public libraries have .4 of a book per capita. Book circulation averaged 2.3 books per capita for population served and 1.5 books per capita for the State as a whole.
From county to county there is of course wide variance in library services available. Figures 9 and 10 show library services available by counties for 1938 and 1945. These spot maps show 28 counties in 1938 and 25 counties in 1945 without a public library. In 1945, there were' 112 counties with a countywide library service as compared with only 24 in 1938.
State and local funds expended for public library service from 1938 through 1945 are shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8
STATE AND LOCAL FUNDS EXPENDED FOR PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN GEORGIA, 1938 - 1945

1938

1940

1942

1944a

1945a

State............................ None Local........................... 491,535 Total........................... 491,535

None 345,302 345,302

None 411,083 411,083

20,204 518,896 539,100

75,665.96 632,534.12 708,200.08

a Public libraries make their reports for the calendar year; therefore the state funds shown here for 1944 (6 months) and for 1945 do not agree with figures in the State Department of Education, which are compiled for each fiscal year ending June 30.
School: library service. In 1944-45 all counties in the State used school library matching funds. Part of it was used to strengthen the traveling service to schools, but the major por-

171

by the State Board for the Certification of Librarians.
5. All books purchased with this fund remain the property of the State.
Books and other library matermls are being placed in reach of Georgians through elementary and high-school libraries and community libraries, giving countywide or regional service. Books are carried throughout the county or region by means of bookmobiles, school buses, privately owned automobiles, and through cooperation with home demonstration agents, county ::tgents, instructional supervisors, visiting teachers, county superintendents, and other county workers as well as by parcel post and express.
The' county or independent school superintendent is the local administrative head responsible for the expenditure of school matching funds. The legally constituted county or regional library board is the local administrative head responsible for expenditure of rural library funds.
State rural library funds have been used to stimulate the establishment of multi-county or regional libraries. It has been found that by pooling local and state funds available to counties that several counties can finance a more effective library service than can be established and maintained on an individual county basis. There has not been sufficient experimentation to determine the maximum population which can be served through a regional unit.
Through the pooling of resources in the eight regional libraries now established in the State, trained library personnel with clerical assistance are developing an over-all program of library service which is reaching citizens of all age levels and is becoming a strong educational agency in the respective counties of each region.
Public Library service. Annual reports for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1945, show that 157 public libraries are providing free public library service in 134 counties. These' libraries reach 2,097,207 people, or approximately 67 percent of the state's total population. Table 7 shows public library circulation and population served in the State from 1938 to June 30, 1945.
170

Legend>
County -Wide Public Libraries Meeting State Standard
County Wide Public Librariea Meeting Standards of American Library Association
[ill} Municipal Public Libraries
Regional Library Syatems
mru Counties Without a
Public Library

-
~ ._'
\ \,

I \ ,'--

!

\ - --

Legend: Public Libraries Estab.. lished Prior to 1936 Public Libraries Estab... lished under W.P.A. State Wide Library Project County-Wide Public Libraries Counties Without A Public Library
FIGURE 9 PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE GEORGIA 1938

one-half times superior to what they were in 1939-40.
Library extension service. The service of lending books and supplying information on a wide variety-of subjects to libraries, schools, organizations, communities without libraries, and to adult individuals living in sections of the State not reached by a local library, which was the original activity of the former Library Commission, has been carried on as a part of the general library program of the Division of Textbooks and Library Service, State De'partment of Education.
The book collection has grown through the years to 50,000 assessioned volumes, supplemented by files of magazines, pamphlets, clippings, and other printed materials generally used in libraries.
Book loans are made to individuals and groups to meet specific needs, and sizeable colle'ctions of books are placed in schools and public libraries to supplement their holdings. This service is entirely free, other than the slight cost of postage both ways; and the special library parcel post rate makes the postage negligible.
The1 library Extension Service reached 350,000 citizens in the State through the lending service in 1945 and handled an average of 12,000 requests, coming largely by mail from every section of the State.
State cataloging service. At the request of the Georgia Library Association a central cataloging service was set ilP in the fall of 1944, as a part of the state aid program to school and rural public libraries. Such libraries as may desire this service, receive catalog cards from all books bought with state funds. A nominal charge of five cents per set of cards is made against their state quota of funds.
Two hundred and forty-three libraries are using the service regularly. By the end of the first year of the central cataloging service, 35,000 cards had been made and distributed for 6,103 different titles to 243 libraries. This service demonstrates the economy of centralization of routines which consume the' time of many librarians and prevent librarians at the local level from giving the reading and reference guidance that is so badly needed. This service also makes it possible for libraries without trained librarians to have an accurate index to the book
175

Legend> County-Wide Public Libraries Meeting State Standards
I
County Wide Public Libraries Meeting Standards of American Library Association Municipal Public Libraries Regional Library Systems Counties Without a Public Library
,,.

FIGURE 10

PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE

GEOR<:iiA 1945

'

Southern Association standards call for $1.00 per pupil per year in high schools. If the high schools in Georgia met this standard, $249,629 would be needed for the high schools alone. American Library Association standards call for $1.50 per pupil per year for adequate service which would increase the amount to $1,077,312. These per pupil expenditures do not include money for audio-visual materials.
Georgia is meeting the standard of five books per pupil as far as actual number is concerned, but a check on the classrooms and school libraries shows that many of the books counted are not titles that will or can be used to enrich the school curriculum or meet individuals needs and interests.
Standards public library. The American Library Association in its Post-War Standards for Public Libraries sets up the following minimum per capita standards of support for varying stages of development of library service in areas with 25,000 population and over:
For limited or minimum service~~~~~--~----~--~$1.00 per capita For reasonably good service~------~------~-~---- 1.50 per capita For superior service_~~--~-~-------------~---~-------- 2.00 per capita
In setting up these standards the American Library Association recognized that there were' areas in which the stage of development in size of library service units had not been achieved, and recommended that pending the eventual organization of larger units, a minimum annual income of $6,000 for service of a limited sort be secured.
These same national standards point out: "The total book stock of a public library should be sufficient to insure at all times an adequate collection for consultation and home use." Minimum standards for number of volumes are shown in the following table:

Population of Library Area

Volumes per Ca.pita

6,000-10,000 ~---~-~~--~~---~-----J 3.0 up to 25,000 volumes 10,000-35,000 --------~-~--------- 2.5. up to 70,000 volumes 35,000-100,000 ----~--~----~------ 2.0 up to 175,000 volumes 100,000-200,000 ----~--~---~---- 1.75 up to 300,000 volumes 200,000-1,000,000 ------------- 1.5 up to 1,000,000 volumes
Over 1,000,000 ----------------- 1.0

177

Standards for circulation of books are: (1) For adult books: 3 to 10 volumes per capita for the population of 15 ye'ars of age and over; and (2) for children's books: 10 to 30 volumes per capita for the population from 5 through 14 years of age.
To date no library unit in the State is able to meet any one of these standards.

Georgia Needs

In view of the analysis which has been made herein, the following summary of library needs is giv.en :

1. Complete state library coverage. There are still (December, 1945) 25 counties without any public library service and 22 counties without countywide library service.

2. Larger units of library service. Only 28 counties in the'

State are large enough according to recommended na-

tional standards to render effective service as separate

library units. Six out of these 28 counties already form

hea.dquarters for service to one' or more counties. The

other large counties should be encouraged to join with small counties in the extension of library service. Smaller

~~.

counties with low income not adjacent to larger counties

.j

should receive a larger portion of state aid to enable

J

them to set up multi-county library service. There are

already eight regional library units in the State. At least

three such units should be formed each year.

3. More trained library personnel to provide not le'ss than one trained librarian for every 10,000 urban population and 25,000 rural population or major portion thereof. This would require a minimum of 187 trained librarians exclusive of school and college librarians. We now have 77. In addition to one trained librarian for each regional unit we need a partially trained pe'rson with four years of college. For the high schools alone we need approximately 296 librarians with 12 hours training and 40 with 24 to 30 semester hours. training.

4. Bookmobile service to all rural sections of the State. The minimum need is 63 bookmobiles, if the counties will share bookmobiles with other counties. Th~re are now 23 bookmobiles in the State serving 29 counties.

178

5. Books to meet the minimum of one book pe~ capita for public library service1 At least 1,500,000 books would be needed. We now have only .4 of a book per capita.
6. Additional funds. At least $3,123,723, or $1.00 per capita, is needed. While this amount will not reach minimum standards, an increase in library resources up to $3,123,723, or $1.00 per capita, for .both school and public libraries to be reached in the next six years will assure a much expanded and much more effective library program for the State. Of this amount the' State will need to furnish approximately one-fourth, or $750,000. The State now furnishes $300,000.
17~

collection.
Public and school personnel. The reports sent in to the Accrediting Commission in 1945 show that 296 librarians from the 578 high schools in the State had less than the minimum state requirements of 12 hours training in library science. Of the 157 Southern Association schools reporting, 46 had librarians whose training did not meet Southern Association standards.
Annual reports from public libraries in .1945 show that Georgia now has 23 library systems with fully trained administrative heads. There are 134 libraries with untrained head librarians.

Comparative Study

Program in other states. Practically all of the states have some form of state library extension agency to promote the establishment of libraries and the extension of library service. In addition, 20 states have some type of direct state aid to local libraries. Among states making appropriations for state aid to public libraries at the present time are:

Arkansas (for biennium 1943-45) ----------------------------$ 89,800 Michigan (for year 1944-45) ----------------------------------- 300, 000 North Carolina (for biennium 1943-45) __________________ 250,000
Ohio (for biennium 1943-45) ------------------------------------ 100,000 Virginia (for biennium 1944-46) ------------------------------ 100,000

Ge~rgia is a little above the middle among southern states in percent of population reached with some library service, but low among the states in the nation. Some of the figures for percent of population with library services are:

Massachusetts __________100%
% 0 hi 0 -------------------------- 99
California __________________ 98% New J e'rsey ______________ 95%

North Carolina ____________77% Georgia ________________________67% Kentucky ___________________ 66% Tennessee ___________________ 62%
Virginia _____________________ 53 %

Minimum standards (schools). State school library standards call for an expenditure of twenty-five cents per pupil per year in the elementary grades and fifty cents per pupil in high school. This would call for an annual expenditure of $226,846 for school library materials, not including audio-visual aids.

176

CHAPTER IX
FREE TEXTBOOK SERVICE IN GEORGIA
History of Textbook Service
Legislation. The 1935 session of the General Assembly passed a law providing that if the sale of malt beverages was legalized by vote of the people, the revenue derived from the sale should be used for furnishing textbooks free to the children attending the common schools.1
The General Assembly in 1937 allocated the tax on the sales of wine to the purchase of free textbooks.2
The voters approved the sale of malt beverages and the first free textbooks were furnishe'd by the State beginning July 1, 1936. Free textbooks for the fiscal year 1936-37 were furnished in the subject fields of reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic for grades one to six inclusive.
The 1937 .session of the General Assembly passe'd what is commonly known as the "Free Textbooks Law". This law authorizes the State Board of Education to make an adoption or listing of textbooks and furnish such books free to the children attending the common school system.3
Textbooks AdoptiOn and Distribution. Acting under the authority of the textbook law passed in 1937, the State' Board of Education entered into a multiple listing (the listing of several titles in each area for each grade) or adoption of textbooks during the early fall of that year. From the multiple listing of textbooks the school authorities of each local school system were authorized to select whatever books were best suited to their educational ne'eds. Textbooks were furnished free to all pupils from the first through the eleventh grades.
In 1939, the State Board of Education set up what is known as the "Budget Plan" of distributing free textbooks. This plan was to take the money appropriated for furnishing free textbooks and set up a proration of it to each of the school systems on a per pupil basis according to grade. The superintendents of the various local school systems were then authorized to
1 Georgia Laws: 1935, p. 78. 2 Georgia Laws: 1937, p. 860, section 10. 3 Georgia Laws: 1937, p. 896.
181

6. Expansion in the program would be encouraged throughout the State.
7. Schools would operate lunchrooms on a non-profit basis.
8. Schools would meet requirements for partiCipation.
Eligibility of schools for participation in program. Schools participating in the program are required to meet certain basic requirements. The'se requirements are that~
1. The school is of high-school grade or under, and is under the jurisdiction of the State Department of Education.
2. Low income and needy children directly benefit.
3. Meals are offered to all children attending the operating school.
4. Meals are served without cost to all children unable to pay.
5. There is no discrimination or segregation of any sort between paying and non-paying children.
6. All funds accruing from the operation of the school lunch program are used only in maintaining the program, in reducing the price of meals to paying children or in improving the quality of the meals.
7. The school shall not decrease its contribution to the program because of the receipt of payments from the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
8. The estimates of receipts and expenditures. shown on application indicate that ne'ed for assistance actually exists.
9. Only one type meal is offered to all children, except that Type C (milk only) may be offered to all children who bring their own lunch.
10. Meals served will meet the minimum requirements for the type of lunch for which reimbursement is claimed.
11. All foods purchased by participating schools shall be at prices no higher than generally prevail in the area.
189

requisition books listed by the State Board in any quantities necessary to meet their educational needs up to .the amount of their allotment. The State Board also provided that the local school systems might use up to twenty percent of their textbook allotment for the purchase of library books without having to match it.
'This plan of providing a multiple listing of textbooks and the budget plan of distribution was rated as the best in the nation by no less an authority than Dr. John W. Studebaker, U. S. Commissioner of Education. This Georgia plan has been adopted in whole or in part by most of the southeastern states furnishing textbooks free.
Due to lack of sufficient appropriation both the budget plan of distribution and the use of textbook money for the purchase of library books was discontinued in 1943.
Organization and Administration
The free textbook program is administered by the Division of Textbooks and Library Service of the State Department of Education. The State Board of Education has the responsibility for setting up the machinery for the formal adoption of textbooks that are to be made available to the schools and for entering into contracts with publishers.
In the past, all textbooks that have been adopted by the Board have been recommended by professional committees. The membership of these' committees is made up of people of recognized ability in the elementary and secondary fields and in special subject areas.
Each individual school system, through its superintendent, selects its texts from those approved by the State Board of Education. Requisitions are sent to the State Department of Education and the department handle's the ordering of textbooks and the payment of bills.
Present Program
Since 1943, school systems have requisitioned textbooks as needs developed. The requisitions have to be approved by the supervisor of the area in which the system is located and these approved orders are filled if funds are available. There has
182

cause of labor and building material difficulties. Thirty-five more schools made application for participation but could not be approve'd because of insufficient federal funds. At least 25 other schools would have applied had sufficient funds been available for reimbursement.

In addition to the schools operating under the state program, there are approximately 200 other schools operating lunchrooms without federal aid. For the most part, these are high schools.

Table 13 compares the coverage of the school lunch program for the school years, 1943-44, and 1944-45, and 1945-46 through February 28. A view of the table shows a yearly increase in the number of counties and schools participating as well as in meals served and meals served free.

Funs available1 for the operation of school lunchrooms in Georgia are shown in Table 14. A study of the table indicates that school lunches are served at approximately one-half their actual cost. In other words, the average 10-cent school lunch costs 20 cents to prepare and serve.

TABLE 13
GEORGIA SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM 1943 - 44 THROUGH FEBRUARY 28, 1946

Counties participating.... School participating......... Meals served..................... Meals served free.............

1943-44
154 1,109 21,173,295 153,140

156 1,262
28,143,249 3,962,026

1945-46a
159 1,301 22,106,973 2,503,630

a 1945-46 figures are complete through February 28, 1946. Meals served and meals served free will be approximately 50 percent greater for the entire school year.

TABLE 14

FUNDS AVAILABLE FOR OPERATION OF GEORGIA SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM, 1944 - 45 and 1945 - 46a

-=-o
Sale

---
of

--=-o---=-----------l'-----,1::.::-9:..
lunches.............................................

::42,:4o2_94,1-704=7-5.~0-4_:___,--:21,904950-4,86a1

3.

os-

Federal aid................................................... 2,100,204.20

1,685,702.71

Other sources...............................................

190,799.50

180,956.95

Value non-cash income...............................

113,062.46

85,081.53

Total............................................................... 4,833,263.20

4,042,554.24

a 1945-46 figures are complete through February 28, 1946. Figures for the year should be approximately 50 percent greater than shown.
Needs

Lunchrooms and meals. According to a study made recently

191

The net cost of furnishing free textbooks to the schools in 1937-38 amounted to $2.78 per pupil. This was the first year that schools had been furnished textbooks for all subjects and all grades and represented the initial cost in starting the program. The average annual cost of textbooks, excluding 193738, has been 84 cents per pupil. The program has not provided for anything except minimum replacement in the past four years and it has been necessary for schools to continue using badly worn books and titles that are now out-of-date.

Comparative Statistics
Comparative statistics for Florida and Louisiana are given in Tables 11 and 12. These States were selected because their free textbook program most nearly parallel that of Georgia.

TABLE 11
TEXTBOOK COST IN FLORIDA FOR THE SCHOOL YEARS 1938 - 1939 THROUGH 1944 - 45, INCLUSIVE

Year

Enrollment

1938-1939 ................................ 393,702 1939-1940 .:.............................. 396,988 1940-1941 ................................ 404,446 1941-1942 ................................ 401,307 1942-1943 ................................ 392,908 1943-1944 ................................ 349,676
1944-1945 ................................ 396,352 Annual Average .................... 396,482.71

Expendittues
$395,67 4.66 180,375.71 296,362.48 524,741.19 444,462.66 452,031.32 418,137.01 373,113.14

Per Pupil Cost
1.01 .45 .73
1.31 1.13
.90 1.05
.94

TABLE 12
TEXTBOOKS COSTS IN LOUISIANA FOR THE SCHOOL YEARS 1937 - 1938 THROUGH 1944 - 45, INCLUSIVE

Session

Elementary

1937-1938 ................................................ .79

1938-1939

.99

1939-1940

.79

1940-1941

.61

1941-1942

.67

1942-1943

.75

1943-1944

.89

1944-1945

.88

High School
3.81 3.76 2.52 2.29 2.41 2.32 1.74 2.49

Total
1.32 1.53 1.15
.98 1.05 1.08 1.06 1.19

The average annual expenditure per pupil for textbooks in Florida is 94 cents for the years 1938 through 1945. Florida states that "Biennial general revenue (for 1939-40) appropriation of $500,000 was vetoed by the governor. Expenditures
were made from y,; mill ad valorem levy which was intended

184

counties have fewer than 20 schools operating lunchrooms, one person could possibly supervise more than one county. Any money used for supervision should be spent as near the school as possible.
Training of supervisors and personnel. There is a very definite need for better trained supervisors and managers. This need cannot be met until some provision is made for training courses to be set up on a state, district, and county basis.
From questionnaires sent to 127 schools of all types, it was found that the majority of white workers in lunchrooms have academic training of eighth grade average. The Negro workers have' academic training of fifth grade average. This means that training programs must be planned on the educational level of the workers. Program planning takes time and certainly needs financial aid and qualified personnel. The reasons for this needed training on the part of managers and workers are very evident on visits to school lunchrooms. The district supervisors find workers who need:
a. To improve personal appearance and hygiene. b. To improve' personal habits. c. To improve working standards. d. To improve sanitary standards. e. To improve food preparation methods. f. To improve food serving methods. g. To improve method of cleaning all parts of lunchroom.
These things can be improved only after the workers have been given some training and have a personal interest in their job.
Correlation of program with nutrition and health education.
If the school lunch program is to become an integral part of the entire school program, there is a need for some concentrated effort to be made in correlating the program with nutrition and health education. After all, health, to a great extent, depends upon the daily intake of food.
Studies made during the past school year of food habits and diets among school children show that (1) children leave home for school after having little or no breakfast; (2) many children in rural areas leave home before seven A. M. and do not
193

should be taken that no system requisition against these funds except where need for new or additional materials can be clearly justified. If in the opinion of local authorities some of the textbook money can be used to better advantage for the purchase of library books, this expenditure of textbook funds should be allowed.
Additional funds. An annual budget of $1,500,000 should be appropriated for the free textbook program. This appropriation would make it possible' to return to the budget basis of distribution and would provide approximately $1.50 per pupil plus administrative costs. With an average expenditure of $1.50 per pupil a planned and adequate free textbook program can be maintained.
Multi-sensory teaching aids. No program for furnishing materials for schools is adequate without provision of such teaching aids as motion picture projectors, radios, record players, and the like together with wide selections of films, recordings, etc.
186

return until 5 P. M. or later; (3) children from many homes are habitual coffee drinkers; (4) children do not get the required amount of milk in daily diet; (5) lunch at school is the best and most adequate meal that many children have; (6) children need to learn to eat new foods-bread and meat is the diet of too many; (7) children of farm families are not so we'll fed (from balanced diet standpoint) as other children; and (8) children of working mothers are not so well fed (from balanced diet standpoint) as other children.
Studies of this kind show definitely that much work must be done through health and nutrition classes. To do this there is a need for materials for teachers to use and personnel to prepare materials.
Federal funds. Georgia is now using more than her quota of federal funds becaus~ of the fact that funds not used by other states have been reallocated to states needing additional help. Georgia's allotment for the school year 1945-1946 was $1,600,000. By the end of the school year an additional $1,000,000 will be used to reimburse schools, making the total expenditure of federal funds approximately $2,600,000. If necessary expansion takes place', there will be a need for at least $4,000,000 in federal funds to carry the program on the present basis.
State funds. The State Budget Commission allotted $42,000 for the school lunch program for the fiscal year July 1, 1945, to June 30, 1946. The amount is 1.6 percent of the amount of federal funds spent in the State. Comparatively speaking, this is a very small amount to spend and expect a good job to be done.
If the program is to expand to meet the needs, at least $200,000 in state funds is needed for (1) expansion of the program; (2) better supervision of program by employing county or area supervisors; (3) putting the qualified lunchroom manager on a professional basis; (4) employing better lunchroom personnel; (5) making the program an integral part of the entire school program by helping teachers and others interested with materials for nutrition and health education; (6) putting on training programs in sanitation, meal planning, food buying, food preparation and serving, and re'cord keeping; (7) matching federal appropriation on a dollar for dollar basis the first year and on a two dollar for each one dollar of federal funds
195

same time the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as a means of helping farmers to dispose of surplus produce, set up a plan for purchasing and distributing to schools and institutions food that would otherwise go to waste.
These two federal agencies working together helped communities that would furnish space, equipment, and other facilities, in establishing lunch rooms at school so that a hot meal could be served to the children at noon. Through this help, 999 schools in Georgia we're able to establish lunch rooms.
The Work Projects Administration was abolished in February of 1943. The State Department of Education, realizing the g-ood already accomplished and the evident need in all schools for this type of program, decided to sponsor the program and to work toward making the hot lunch an integral part of the entire school program.
The U. S. Department of Agriculture worked out a plan for reimbursing schools for food purchased locally and used in preparing hot lunches at school. 'The State Department of Education acce'pted sponsorship of this reimbursement program in March of 1943 and has continued sponsorship since that time.
Present Program
Agreement with federal agency. The State Department of Education signed an agreement with the Production and Marketing Administration of the U. S. Department of Agriculture whereby it was agreed that:
1. The U. S. Department of Agriculture would reimburse schools through the State Department of Education for food purchased for use in pre'paring hot lunches for school children of high school grade and under.
2. Records would be checked by the State Department of Education showing how each school spent federal funds.
3. Supervision of the program on a statewide basis would be furnished by the State Department of Education.
4. Reports would be submitted monthly to the' U. S. Department of Agriculture.
5. Training would. be given to lunchroom personnel by the State Department of Education.
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CHAPTER XI
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
The Constitution of Georgia stipulates that:
The provision of an adequate education for the citizens shall be a primary obligation of the state of Georgia, the expense of which shall be provided for by taxation. Separate schools shall be provided for the white and colored races.
The purpose of this chapter is threefold:
1. To describe the organization or administrative pattern by which the State carries out the constitutional mandate cited above;
2. To present certain accepted principles and standards for judging the value of the administrative pattern and how it operates at both state and local leve'ls; and
3. To present recommendations which, if adopted, should make for greater effectiveness in carrying out the constitutional mandate of the people.
Legal Bases of Administration
Policies concerning public education are dete'rmined by the people through their constituted representatives. These are set down in written form in the constitution and statutes of the State, and in regulations of operating bodies such as boards of education.
It is generally agreed that a state constitution is a statement of fundamental and relatively permanent policies of government. Its provisions, consequently, should be broad and gene'ral in character rather than specific and detailed: Statutes, on the other hand, should reflect the changing points of view of the people as to how the constitutional policies should be applied at a given period. Accordingly, the statutes should be less general and somewhat more concerned with details than the constitutional provisions; nevertheless, the statutes ought not to go beyond basic plans of organization and basic princi-
197

In so far as possible, food shall be purchased which has been locally produced.
12. The school shall purchase such foods as the U. S. Department of Agriculture may announce as being in abundance and shall encourage the maximum consumption of such foods by children.
13. The school shall accept in as large measure as is consistent with good program operations, such foods as the U. S. De'partment of Agriculture may offer for donation.
14. The school has proper facilities for storing, preparing, and serving food required for type meal for which application is made.
15. Daily records of activities in lunchroom are kept and the required monthly report is made in correct form, and such report is submitted on time.
Administration of the program by the State Department of Education. 'The State Department of Education is the rei3ponsible agency for the development and administration of the statewide school lunch program. Through the facilities of the school lunch division the State Department administers the program.
The personnel of the school lunch division interprets. the program to state and local education and lay groups; prepares and distributes literature and informational materials to all schools in regard to the lunch program; encourages expansion of the program by giving on the scene aid in planning; establishes standards for the operation of the program; and keeps all records and reports relative to the operation of the program.
Program. During the 1945-46 school year there were 1,300 schools in 159 counties participating in the school lunch program. As of February 28, 1946, these schools had served more than 22,000,000 meals, or an average of 210,488 daily. This number represented 38.5 percent of all Georgia children in average daily attendance at school. Compared with meals served daily in 1943-44, this represents an increase' of more than 100 percent.
For 1945-46, there were 61 schools approved but not operating lunchrooms. The majority of these were not operating be-
190

Other than the foregoing, no qualifications for membership on the board are expressed in the State Constitution. Membership on a board of education should be safeguarded from the taint of political reward. Appointments should be based on general capability, breadth of vision, and the belief in the advantages and necessity of public education, among others. These and other attributes of an effective board member are so largely intangible as to be incapable of measurement by such quantitative devices as to the number of years of schooling and the like. It is believed unwise to establish detailed qualifications by law.
Members serve for seven-year terms, the expiration date's of which are staggered to prevent a complete turn-over of the board at any one time. The staggered term-endings also te'nd to prevent partisan control of the board.
The Board of Regents. In addition to the State Board of Education, which administers the "lower" schools, a Board of Regents is empowered to govern, control, and manage the University System of Georgia. The University System comprises all of the state-supported institutions of higher education, the Agricultural Extension Service, and the agricultural experiment stations. All three are enterprises in public education.
The Board of Regents is a constitutional body of 15 members appointed by the Governor, one from each Congressional District and five from the State at large. Each member is appointed for a seven-year term, and the' terms are staggered. The Regents appoint their own chief executive officer, called the "chancellor", for an indefinite term. The heads of the several institutions and several units are responsible through the chancellor to the Board of Regents.
A single board for all state-supported education enterprises.
Although not an essential part of this study, some comment is perhaps appropriate about the desirability of a single board to manage all state-supported educational activities. Administration reaches its highest efficiency when like functions or activities are grouped together under a single controlling agency, and when the line of responsibility flows directly fr<;>m a single body or official to the agents who put the program into effect. With a single controlling body, broad policies can be adopted
199

by the Agricultural and Industrial .Development Board of Georgia, there is a definite need for 1,000 additional lunchrooms if the majority of children of school age are to have a hot lunch at school. Figure 11 presents a graphic picture of meals now served and needed in the public schools of Georgia. According to this graph approximately 33 million meals were served in 1945-46. The actual needs are shown as 98 million or 65 million additional meals.
Adequate lunchroom facilities. There is a need for improvement in physical facilities in approximately 80 percent of the present lunchrooms. Many lunchrooms are now set up and ope'rated in makeshift quarters. Some are housed in basements, classrooms, office space, hallways, and garages. In one Georgia county where 13 lunchrooms are operated only seven of the lunchrooms are adequately housed. The other six are operating in makeshift quarters. This is one of the wealthier counties of the State. Some of the needs are: (1) Enlargement of space to -take care of increiase in number of meals being served; (2) installation of three-well sinks for use in preparation of food and for dish washing; (3) increased and proper storage space and equipment; and (4) equipment of right size and type to prepare and serve food to the sehool enrollment in the shortest time and in the best way. For example, many schools are still trying to prepare food for 208 or 300 children on a family size wood, oil, gas, or electric stove.
The lack of adequate lunchroom facilities and sanitary conditions reported by the field supervisors propose definite needs to be met. To promote the health of school children through the lunchroom program, there is a need for requiring school lunchrooms to meet approved health and sanitation standards similar or superior to those required for approved public eating places.
Increased supervision. There is a very definite need for more and better supervision of the school lunch program. The four field supervisors at present have about 325 schools in their respective territories. If each supervisor visited two schools a day every day of the school year, she could not visit every school in her territory. Provision should be made for assisting counties with employing county supervisors where there is a sufficient number of schools operating lunchrooms. Where
192

3. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in the technical study of school administration, including school finance and supervision.
4. At least 5 years' experience in the actual administration and supervision of schools, three of which should have been in Georgia.
Relationsh,ips of the State Board to the State School Superintendent. The large majority of state boards of education are appointed in part or in whole by the Governor, usually subject to confirmation by the State Senate or legislature. It is believed by some, however, that a policy-making body for public function should be chosen dire'ctly by the people at a non-partisan election rather than by gubernatorial appointment. In the event that the body is so chosen, the policy-making group should appoint its chief executive officer for an indefinite term.
The latter plan has at least one serious practical disadvantage. Persons suitable for membership on the board must conduct a state-wide campaign for the position. As a result, persons well qualified for membership, and who would accept appointme'nt by the Governor, often cannot be induced to become candidates even if the special, non-partiSian election method is used.
If the' minimum measurable qualifications for the state superintendency are set high enough, and if the people are reasonably watchful of the interests of their children, the present method of selecting the State Board and the~ State School Superintendent and the relationships that presently exist between them have definite advantages in Georgia. One of these is the potentially high caliber of the board under the present plan. Another is the independent position that a state school superintendent may take when he feels a governor is educationally wrong. The latter is especially important when a governor has large fiscal and budgetary powers.
Local administration. The local operation of school systems in Georgia is delegated by the constitution or other law to county or independent school boards.
Each county, exclusive of any independent school svstem
within it, is by law a single school district o"r "administ~ative
unit". In 155 of the 159 counties the control and management
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1943-44 194445

MEALS NEEDED n

MILLIONS---0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

FIGURE 11

MEALS SERVED IN SCHOOL LUNCH ROOMS IN GEORGIA1944 TO 1946
* Estimated figure, 22,106,973 actual meals served through February 28,
1946.
** Number of meals needed if every child in A. D. A. was served one meal
a day for 180 days.

with advisory duties and recommending power. Previously these boards also had taxing power.
The selection, qualification, and other details concerning membership on local boards of education and of trustee will be presented in a subsequent section. of this chapter.
'Educational organization. The state of Georgia is committed by statute to the 11-grade plan of educational organization1 The first seven grades constitute the elementary school; and the re'maining four grades, the secondary school. By statute, however, local administrative units may establish kindergartens and twelfth grades provided state funds are not used for their support.
With the exception of Georgia and two other states, all of the states of the union have 12-grade school systems. The other two states are taking or ,have recently taken steps to adopt the 12-grade plan. In some states as many as fourteen grades are found in certain school systems. The following education organizations are fairly common:
(1) Eight-year elementary school, four-year secondary school.
(2) Six-year elementary school, six-year secondary school.
(3) Six-year elementary school, three-year junior high school, three-year senior high school.
The most recent development in educational organization is the so-calle'd 6-4-4 plan, with a six-year elementary school, a four-year secondary school, and a four-year junior college.
It is recommended that Georgia officially commit itself to the 12-grade plan by amending the Seven Months' School Law to permit state monies to be used to support the twelfth grade. It is believed desirable also that as soon as it is financially possible, provision be' made for kindergartens with state support.
Governmental Responsibility for Public Education
It should be repeated .that public education is a fundamental responsibility of local, state, and fe'deral governments each of which must perform its proper functions. Considerable con-
1 Changed by 1947 legislation to 12 grades.
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basis for following years; and (8) providing for an adequate food supply so that each child will receive at least one-half of his daily dietary needs.
These funds should be allotted to counties on a matching basis or on the equalization basis and to be used to match the federal appropriation on a 50-50 basis for the year 1947-48 and finally to contribute toward meeting federal appropriation on the basis of $3.00 to $1.00 ($3.00 State to $1.00 Federal) by 1955, if the pending federal bill is passed by Congress.
Legislation. There is a need for legislation authorizing local boards of education to spend tax monies for the school lunch program. At present an opinion of the Attorney General specifically prohibits the e'xpenditure of school funds for the school lunch program.
196

ingly, the state of Georgia by law has stopped in-and properly-to compel reluctant local officials to do what should have been obvious if the benefit of the children had been their first concern.
The management of the school money is a function of school administration that cannot be allocated exclusively to a single level of government. Yet federal, state, and local governments have recognized responsibilities for different aspects of the problem. For example, it seems clear that since public education is a function of the states, each state should support at least a foundation program. Local financial participation should be encouraged by distributing state school monies on the basis of an objective formula requiring a uniform local effort that is within the me'ans of the least wealthy administrative unit. The local financial management of schools should be independent of the fiscal management of any other local government unit. Further, if the local school system can afford to do so, it should be encouraged to finance a program that goes beyond the foundation level. When the combine'd effort of state and local financing is below the needs of a reasonable foundation program in any state, the Federal Government is obligated to assist, its participation being on the basis of an appropriate formula applied to the needs and abilities of the several states.
Another aspect of money management is the handling of bond issues for school building construction. Because bonds and bond interest are paid by means of taxes raised locally, this aspect in Georgia has been locally administered. Examples of waste are so numerous as to cast serious doubt on the method. It is obvious that any community has a limit to its total taxraising ability. If waste occurs in one phase of its financial operations, the tax resources available for other purposes are lowered by the amount of that waste. Further, in most school administrative units building construction takes place perhaps once within a generation. The knowledge and skills required to plan and to finance school buildings are highly technical, involving accurate facts about economic and market conditions, interest rates, legal stipulations, and the like. In normal times the aggregate value of school building construction going on in the State may total millions of dollars. The financial problems involved in the various localities are substantially the same in principle. The skill and "know-how" of finance experts,
205

ples to be observed in operating the school system.
The regulations of operating agencies, commonly called "administrative law", are concerned more or less with operating policies and with the minutiae of administrative practice. The closer the agency is to operating situations, the greater is the amount of detail which must concern it, generally speaking.
In addition, it is generally agreed that many details of administration must be handled according to accepted practice based on common sense. No body of laws and regulations can be devised to meet every day-to-day contingency; nor is it important or desirable for it to do so. The courts recognize this, commonly giving effect to it in their decisions.
General Patterns of School Administration in Georgia
State Board of Education. The State Constitution provides for a State Board of Education. The powers and duties of the Board in general are to establish rules and regulations for the operation and supervision of the public schools of the State. The board also has general supervision over the State Department of Education.
.The .constitutions of 18 other states (1940) provided for state boards of education. It is believed that, .on the whole, constitutional provisions for such a board is desirable because it helps to remove _the'. board from the. influences of partisan politics. A con~titutional .basis for the bo~rd is subject to the objection that changing needs can be less readily met than if the board were based on legislative statutes. By constitutional provision, however, the powers of the board are subject to statutory law, thus making it more or less amenable to changing conditions.
One member is appointed to the State Board of Education by the governor, subject to confirmation by the Senate, from each of the ten Congressional Districts of the State. Persons employed in a professional capacity by a public or private educational institution or connected with a school-book publisher are specifically barred from membership. No members ex-officios are provided under the constitution, which is in keeping with a pronounced national trend to eliminate persons with little or no direct interest in education but who held memberships by virtue' of their election to state offices.
198

to cause unsound and unnecessary routing practices. Driver qualifications vary with the counties, much as happened in the case of teachers a generation or more ago. The prices paid by the' several counties for identical busses and supplies vary greatly.
School transportation as it is now administered in Georgia seems to be an example of handicapping the children because of inefficient local management in too many instances. North Carolina, which has adopted state management, ranks near the top in providing good school transportation at a relatively low cost. It ranks at or near the top in safety. On a natide-wide basis school transportation seems to be an example of an activity which may be in a transitional stage from local management to state control.
In summary, it is apparent that some aspects of school administration can be' performed best at the local level, some at the state level, and some at least in the case of financial equalization on a nation-wide basis, only at the federal level. The principle should be continuously recognized that a function of school administration ought to be performed at the governmental level at which the best results can be obtained for the children and the taxpayers.
Characteristics of Local School Administrative Units in Georgia
What an "administrative unit" is. The public schools in virtually all of the state's are operated locally through an organization called a "local administrative unit". Examples in Georgia are the 155 county units such as Fulton or Echols county, which are organized under general laws; the four complete county units such as Chatham county, which are organized under special laws; and the 41 independent units such as Atlanta or Barnesville, which are also organized under special laws. In addition, some independent units, while retaining their legal independence, are operated more or less as a part of the surrounding county unit. Examples are Hawkinsville in Pulaski County and Hartwell in Hart County.
Most of the local administrative units in Georgia, through their respective boards of education, operate what amounts to two systems of schools, one for whites and the other for Ne-
207

which tend to unite rather than to divide the effort expended in behalf of public education.
Close relationships and integrated or coordinated efforts can be more effective'ly achieved through a single governing body than when the development of specific aspects of public education is diffused among two or more responsible' agencies. Conversely, lack of coordination, duplication of effort, and consequent ineffective action accompany a division of authority.
Further, in view of the increasing number of fe'deral-state relationships in public education, it is believed that a single responsible state body can work more effectively with federal agencies than can two or more separate bodies.
It is recommended, therefore, that serious thought be given to supplanting the present State Board of Education and the present Board of Regents with a single state Board of Public Education. Further consideration should be given to the following:
1. The size and composition of the board, in order that it may be competent to function in the several educational areas under its jurisdiction.
2. The division of re'sponsibility between a board having jurisdiction over all areas of education and the administrative head of each area.
State School Superintendent. The State School Superintendent is designated in the constitution as the executive officer of the State Board of Education. He is elected in the same manner, at the same time, and for the same term as the Governor. His qualifications and compensation are fixed by statute.
At present the required qualifications, in addition to certain intangibles, include three years' experience as a teacher, or, in lieu thereof, a diploma from a reputable' college or normal school, or five years' experience in the actual supervision of schools. He must be at least 30 years of age.
It is recommended that the intangible elements be eliminated from the law, and that measurable qualifications such as the following be established:
1. At least 30 years of age.
2. At le'ast a Master's degree.
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Number of square miles

Number of counties

100 to 199, inclusive________________________________ 21

200 to 29 9, inclusive________________________________ 38

300 to 399, inclusive________________________________ 41

400 to 499, inclusive ------------------------------- 35 500 to 599, inclusive________________________________ 11 600 to 699, inclusive________________________________ 8 700 to 799, inclusive________________________________ 2 800 to 899, inclusive________________________________ 2

900 or more'--------------------------------------------- 1

Total ------------------------------------------------- 159
Sha.pe. The shapes of the counties are almost as numerous as the counties themselves. Although many are of a roughly rectangular form, the effects of rivers, mountain ranges, early roads, and political manipulations are all evident. A few of the shapes, drawn to scale below, sugge'st problems of locating school buildings and of transporting children that school administrators must solve in the county school administrative units.

FIGURE 12
Shapes of County School Administrative units in Georgia, 1946.

209

of the district is de'legated by the constitution to a five-man county board of education. The board is virtually independent fiscally; it may recommend a maintenance tax from 5-15 mills which county fiscal authorities must levy, but its taxing power for current building purposes is not clear. The constitution designates the county school superintendent as the executive officer of the board.
Four counties-Bibb, Chatham, Glynn, and Richmond-were established by special laws as complete county units. All of the public schools in these countie's are under the jurisdiction of boards of education chosen and organized in various ways.
Approximately 55 "independent" school systems, found in many of the cities and several small communities of the State, exist under special laws or charters. Of these, 41 are now operating independently; the remainder are operated in conjunction with county systems. The public schools in the 41 systems mentioned are under the jurisdiction of boards of education which are completely independent of surrounding county school systems. 'The boards vary in the degree in which they are fiscally independent. 'The present state constitution forbids the organization of new independent systems.
Several of the independent school boards have contracted with c.ounty boards of education to bring about more or less joint operation of the two systems. Under this plan the legal identity of the independent system is retained, but the schools under its jurisdiction are to a considerable degree under the control of the county board of education.
Some county and independent boards of education also have contractual arrangements whereby one of the' systems takes care of some of the pupils of the other system on an agreed financial or other plan.
Prior to the adoption of the amended State Constitution in August, 1945, counties were divided into what amounted to subdistricts, each of which was partially under the jurisdiction of a local board of trustees. These sub-districts were in effect abolished by the present constitution, although provision was made for the reestablishment of local trusteeships by the legislature. The School Act of 1946 (Culpeper Law) authorized county boards of education to appoint local boards of trustees
202

go beyond school administration, penetrating the' fabric of tradition and the social, cultural, and economic interests of the people.

Royston, for example, is a center of population in Franklin County and a trading center for its area. It lies adjacent to Hart, Madison, and Elbert counties, and is a center of social and economic interests for some of the people of the'se counties as well as for a portion of Franklin County. Commerce, in Jackson County, is but a few miles from the Madison, Banks, and Franklin county lines. It is likewise a center of social and economic activities for the people residing in the nearby portions of these counties. The metropolitan area of Atlanta breaks over the' Fulton County boundaries into DeKalb, Rockdale, Cobb, and other surrounding counties.

Problems in local school administration are created not only by population centers which lie close to county boundaries but also between the centers within a county. Not infrequently two or more centers within a county are not large enough to justify separate schools, especially high schools, on the basis of the number of children each serves. Yet local pride and rivalry, economic interests, and perhaps other elements operate to prevent the establishment of schools which will best serve the nee'ds of the children and the communities.

The largest population center and the hub of social, cultural, and economic interests in many counties, however, is a county seat that is centrally located. An example is Madison in Morgan County.. In this and other similar instances the people have moved or are moving to establish larger high schools, since educational, social, and economic interests center about the same place.

Wealth. A significant measure of wealth for purposes of

school administration is the net assessed property valuation

(tax digest) per pupil in average daily attendance in each of

the county administrative units. The typical county school ad-

ministrative unit in 1944-45 (using the 1944 tax digest and at-

tendance data) had a net property assessment of $948 per

pupil. The smallest was $235 in Union County; and the largest,

$5,010, in Fulton County, the ratio being 1 to 21.3. The glar-

-:

ing differences in local wealth per pupil are the basis of equally

glaring differences in the amount of local taxes that can be

211

fusion has arisen at times in the minds of many people as to what these functions are at the three levels of government.
Some see so clearly the local responsibilities that they recognize but few on the part of the State. Others believe the State should directly control and operate the schools in order to do away with local inefficiency. Some assert that it is time for the Federal Government to assume certain educational functions which customarily have been considered as belonging to the states. Not only must the distinct .responsibilities of each level of government for public education be clearly recognized but they also must be carried out in practice to avoid overlapping and confusion.
Within the framework of the State Constitution and the statutes, the people determine and set up the basic organization of the public-school system. Too little or too much may be left to the discretion of the state legislature. For example, it is not
believed desirable that the details of local organization pe
included in a state constitution as is the case in Georgia in connection with the county school systems. These details are of a kind that change as conditions change. They should be amenable to more rapid legislative action than is possible through the justifiably slow method of institutional ame'ndment.
The actual organization and operation of local schools has been delegated throughout the Nation to a local unit of government which generally is responsible to the State rather than to civil units responsible for other aspects of local government. Clearly, local organization, operations and initiative in a democracy are functions of the local administrative unit. The school program, for example', is of vital local concern and to achieve effectiveness it must be locally administered. As a means of safeguarding the educational program from local indifference or abuse, however, the State is obligated to establish minimum standards or requirements that must be met.
What schools the children should attend is a matter that seemingly should be of local concern only. But with county boundary lines that do not follow natural community boundaries, the welfare of the children living near a county line may be jeopardized. In principle, such a condition should be remedied by local agreement; however, many instances indicate that the local authorities do not adjust the situation. Accord-
204

Instructional Cost Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

White

Less than $15.00____________________ $15.00 to $24.99____________________ $25.00 to $34.99___________________ 7 $35.00 to $44.99____________________ 28 $45.00 to $54.99____________________ 63 $55.00 to $64.99____________________ 35 $65.00 to $74.99____________________ 12 $75.00 or more______________________ 14

Negro
14 82 47
9 1 1

Total ----------------------------- 159
a Five counties reported no costs for Negroes.

15 4a

School enrollment. The county administrative units in the school year, 1944-45, averaged 2,277 white pupils enrolled. The smallest number, 115, was enrolled in Dougherty County; and the largest number 21,012, in the Fulton County unit. The average for Negro pupils was 1,262 per county, varying from none in Dawson, Fannin, and Forsyth counties to 8,499 in the Chatham County unit. The combined totals of whites and Negroes averaged 3,539 pupils per county unit. The smallest total number of pupils, both white and Negro, 365, was found in Chattahoochee County; and the largest number, 25,387, was found in the Fulton County unit.
Three county school administrative units enrolled fewer than 1,000 white and Negro pupils combined-Chattahoochee, 365; Echols, 677; and Quitman, 884. Eighteen county administrative units had fewer than 1,500 pupils of both races. By race, 74 counties had enrollments of fewer than 1,500 white pupils and 115 had fewer than 1,500 Negro pupils.
In a subsequent portion of this chapter the number of pupils in all school syste'ms, county and independent, will be analyzed.
I
Teachers allotted by the State. For the current school year, 17,782 teachers, white and Negro, were allotted the county school administrative units in accordance with the Seven Months' School Law. Teacher allotments are computed on the basis of average daily attendance and density of population. The county system averaged 112 te'achers a unit. The number of teach-
213

however, usually can be assembled e'conomically only for the State as a whole. It seems to be a logical function of the state educational administration to approve the terms of bond issues in order to conserve the tax resources of local communities. This is especially true when the foundation program of education includes direct state aid for capital outlay.
The administration of the teaching staff is another example which shows in sharp outline the proper allocation of functions by governmental level. Only the local administration-specifically, the principal and school superintendent-can know enough about the effectiveness of a given teacher to recommend his employment or reemployment. Clearly, the state school administration is too far away from operating conditions to handle this function of teacher administration effectively or economically.
The problems in the preparation of teachers, on the other hand, are so broad and involve such expensive facilities that it is impossible for most local administrative units to pay the costs. Yet every community nee'ds competent teachers. To supply the demands, all of the states have provided educational facilities for the preparation of teachers. The administration of teacher preparation clearly seems to be feasible at the state level only.
In the past, the licensing of teachers was a local function, with the result that the qualifications of teachers varied widely. Gradually this function was placed in the hands of the state school administration. Here a competent staff and adequate records can be assembled to apply reasonably uniform standards in the evaluation of an applicant's qualifications. The result has been, on the whole, a marked improvement in the teaching force.
The manage'ment of the school transportation systems in Georgia has been, and. is, a local concern, with the State sharing a portion of the cost. When transportation systems were small, local management was adequate. As they grew, however, problems of routing, driver qualifications, and purchasing became serious. At present the cost of transportation is second only in amount to '.eachers' salaries in most counties. Ample evidence is available to show inefficiencies in the local operation and financing of school transportation. Local pressure is exerted
206

dependent units now operating. Bremen was allotted 12 teachers in 1946-47 as compared to 14 in Tallapoosa, also in Haralson County. It is believe'd to resemble Tallapoosa in many respects.
Population. The total populations of the independent school administrative units varied in 1940 from 1,665 in Chickamauga to 302,288 in Atlanta. The typical independent unit had 7,125 inhabitants. Two of the units had fewer than 2,000 inhabitants (Chickamauga, 1,665; and Bremen, 1,708). F'ive others had populations of less than 3,000 persons. Only three exceeded 25,000 (Atlanta, 302,288; Columbus, 53,280; and Rome, 26,282). As a whole, the inde'pendent administrative units are in relatively small cities and towns. Following is a summary.

Population 1940

Number of Independent Units

Less than 2, 00 0------------------------------------------ 2 2,000 to 2, 999---------,---------------------------------- . 5 3, 000 to 3,999------------------------------------------- 7
4,000 to 4, 999____________c_______________________________ 1
5,000 to 5,999-------------------------------------------- 2 6, 000 to 6,999-------------------------------------------- 3 7,000 to 7,999-------------------------------------------- 4 8, 000 to 8,999-------------------------------------------- 1 9, 000 to 9,999------------------------------------------ 2 10,000 to 10, 999---------------------------------------- 3 More than 11,000-------------------------------------- 11

Total -------------------------------------------------- 41

Wealth. The assessed valuation of property for each pupil in average daily attendance (using the 1944 tax digest and attendance data) for the typical independent administrative unit was $2,790. Exclusive of Bremen, the smallest was $931 in 'Tallapoosa; and the large'st, $8,969, was in Atlanta, the ratio being 1 to 9.6. The marked difference in local wealth per pupil are evident. In a subsequent portion of this chapter direct comparisons will be made between the county and the independent administrative units. Following is a summary.

215

groes. Nearly all local administrative units have' two or more schools for whites, and most of them have more than one school for Negroes.
An administrative unit should not be confused with an "attendance" unit or area. For example, Jersey School in Walton County serves pupils who are assigned to it on the basis of where they live in the county. It contains two attendance units, one for elementary pupils and the' other for high-school pupils. Both are housed in the same building. This is common in Georgia. But the Jersey School is part of the Walton County administrative unit. Similarly, the Howell School in Atlanta serves pupils assigned to it from a specified area in that city, but the school is a part of the Atlanta independent administrative unit.
The distinction between an "administrative" unit and an "attendance" unit or area is that the forme'r is an over-all operating unit in a locality, while the latter is an area from which pupils are assigned to a given school for instructional purposes. It is a part of an administrative unit and has no final administrative responsibilities beyond what are necessary to operate the individual school within the policies and the rules of the administrative unit and within state laws, of course. Where local boards of trustees exist, they are, under present laws, advisory to the local school or the: county unit; they have no administrative authority.
Characteristics of County School Administrative Units in Georgia
County school administrative units in Georgia vary widely in area, shape, topography, land use, population, location of population centers, wealth, pupils enrolled, and the number of teachers allotted on the basis of present state laws. All of these characteristics are of practical importance in operating school systems.
Area. The 159 county units (including the area of independent systems within their borders, which cannot be deducted on the basis of available data) vary from 125 square miles for Clarke County to 912 square miles for Ware County. The typical county has an area of 350 square miles. The following summary is based on data in the United States Census of 1940:
208

white. pupils enrolled in the 40 systems for which figures are available. The smallest number, 368, was enrolled in West Point; and the largest number, 35,331, in Atlanta. The average number of Negro pupils was 1,090 per independent unit, varying from none in Chickamauga to $17,504 in Atlanta. The combined whites and Negroes averaged 4,010 pupils per independent unit.
Eleven of the 40 operating independent administrative units enrolled fewer than 1,000 white and Negro pupils combined. Eighteen had fewer than 1,500 pupils of both races. By race, 23 had fewer than 1,500 white pupils and 33 had fewer than 1,500 Negro pupils.
It should be noted that 13,470 pupils (8,122 whites and 5,348 Negroes) in 1944-45 were in independent units which in 194647 are being operated more or less as parts of county administrative units.
Teachers allotted by the State. In the current year, 2,868 teachers, white and Negro, were allotted the 41 independent school administrative units (including Bremen) by the State Department of Education. This is an average of 70 per independent unit. The number of teachers, white and Negro combined, allotted per unit varied from 10 in Chickamauga ,(no Negroes) to 1,017 in Atlanta.
Thirty of the 41 systems were allotted fewer than 40 white teachers, and 38 were allotted fewer than 40 Negro teachers. Twenty-one were allotte'd fewer than 40 teachers, white and Negro. combined.
Summary. The typical independent school administraitve unit in Georgia has the following characteristics:

ltein

''Average''

Range

Population ................................................ 7,125

Tax digest ................................................$3,857,143

Tax digest per pupil in A.D.A............. $2,790

Instructional cost per pupil in A.D.A.

White ................................................ $56.95

Negro ................................................ $26.20

Enrollment

White ................................................ 2,920

Negro ................................................ 1,090

Teachers allotted by the State................

70

1,665 to 302,288 $609,557 to $379,110,802
$931 to $8,969
$30.64 to $106.32 $14.87 to $ 38.24
368 to 35,331 0 to 17,504 10 to 1,017

217

Top,ography. Some of the operating problems of county school administration grow out of topography. Lumpkin and other North Georgia counties are mounhiinous, with narrow and often unimproved roads and scattered populations. The Piedmont area, as in Jackson and Clarke counties, has high hills as well as flat areas. In South Georgia there are flat lands with fertile farming areas on the one hand and timberland or swamps on the other. These topographical characteristics affect schools in that they determine in part the living habits of the people and community boundaries.
Land use. Land use more or less determines production areas, which in turn affect the density, habits, and wealth of the population. All pose problems in school administration. Land use in Georgia varies from the mining, timber, and wate'r power areas of North Georgia, through the small farms of the Piedmont section, to the fruit farmers, larger farms, heavy timberlands, swamps, and seacoast areas of Middle or South Georgia.
Population. The population of a school administrative unit is anothe;r important characteristic because it is the largest number of persons that can be aided by the schools within the unit if the education of adults as well as of children is considered a part of the school program. The larger the population, the larger the group that must be considered.
Exclusive of the inhabitants of the independent systems within their borders, the populations of the county school units varied in 1940 from 2,964 in Echols County to 117,970 in Chatham County. The typical county school unit had 11,650 inhabitants. Seventy-three had fewer than 11,000 inhabitants, and five (Chatham, 117,980; Fulton, 90,598; Bibb, 83,783; Richmond, 81,863; and DeKalb, 70,381) had more than 30,000 persons in 1940. Three of these-Chatham, Bibb, and Richmondare complete county units administering schools in both urban , and rural areas. It should be noted that although the civil unit of Fulton County had a population of 392,866 in 1940, including Atlanta, the Fulton County school administrative unit had but 90,000 inhabitants.
PopulatiOn centers. The location of population centers within county school administrative units is one of the most important characteristics of such units because of the perplexing operating problems that are created. In fact, these problems often
210

handicapped; and only 11 (6.7 percent) of the county systems could raise more than $10 a pupil from local property taxes as compared to 31 (77.5 percent) of the independent units.
TABLE 15
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE TAX DIGESTS PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN THE COUNTY AND INDEPENDENT SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS IN GEORGIA

---~~G.:..::ountyc___ __

Independent

Tax Digest Per Pupil in A. D. A.

Number Percentage Number Percentage

Less than $500............................................ 6

3.8

$500 to $999.................................................. 85

53.6

$1,000 to $1,499.......................................... 46

29.0

$1,500 to $1,999.......................................... 11

6.9

$2,000 to $2,499.......................................... 5

3.1

$2,500 to $2,999.......................................... 2

1.2

$3,000 to $3,499.......................................... 2

1.2

$3,500 to $3,999..........................................

$4,000 to $4,499.......................................... 1

.6

$5,000 or more.............................................. 1

.6

1

2.5

3

7.5

5

12.5

9

22.5

7

17.5

6

15.0

2

5.0

2

5.0

3

7.5

Totals .................................................... 159 100.0

40a 100.0

a No data for .Bremen.

All of the differences cited emphasize the decidedly more

favorable position of the independent units for solving admin-

istrative proble'ms which have their basis in local financial

ability. The independent group can and generally does add

more to the foundation program than the county systems in the

way of services, fields of instructional activity, equipment, and

building facilities.

.

Instructional cost per pupil, etc. The typical independent unit spent $4.59 (8.8 percent) more per white pupil and $3.30 (14.4 percent) more per Negro pupil in average daily attendance

Instructional Cost, Etc.

County

Independent

Whites: Typical (media) cost______________ $ 52.36
Lowest ---------------------------------- 26.22 Righest --------------------------------- 115.84 Negroes: Typical (media) cost______________ 22.90 Lowest ----------------------------------- 7.38 Highest --------------------------------- 58.74

$ 56.95 30.64
106.32
26.20 14.87 38.24

219

raised to support the services needed beyond those paid by the State. Thus, in Union County $1.18 per pupil could be raised by a 5-milllevy, while in Fulton County $25.05 per pupil could be so obtained. The implications in the' way of administrative problems that these differences raise should be obvious. Following is a summary.

Tax Digest Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

Number of Counties

Less than $500----------------------------------------- 6 $500 to $599----------------------------------------- 8 $600 to $699------------------------------------------ 13 $700 to $799-------------------------------------------- 22 $800 to $899------------------------------------------- 20 $900 to $999-------------------------------------------- 22 $1,000 to $1,099-------------------------------------- 16 $1, 100 to $1, 199--------------------------------------- 8 $1,200 to $1,299--------------------------------------- 9 $1,300 to $1 ,3 99-------------------------------------- 7 .$1,400 to $1,499--------------------------------------- 6 More than $1,500------------------------------------- 22

Total ____---------------------------------------- 159

Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance. Problems of organization and administration are reflected in the instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance.
In 1944-45 the typical county systems spent $52.36 for each white pupil attending daily, varying from a low of $26.22 in Baldwin County to a high of $115.84 in Chattahoochee County. For Negro pupils in average daily attendance the typical county spent $22.90, with a low of $7.38 in Tattnall County and a high of $58.74 in DeKalb County. Comparisons with the independent units and with certain national data will be made later in this chapter. Following is a summary, classified by race.

212

TABLE 16
COMPARISONS OF EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN 1944- 45 BETWEEN COUNTY AND INDEPENDENT SYSTEMS IN GEORGIA

County

Independent

Instructional Cost Per Pupil
in A. D. A.

I I White

Negro

White

Negro

Nbuemr -

cePnetra-ge

Number

Per-
centage

Num-1 Perber centage

Nbuemr-1 cePnetar-ge

.... Less than $15.00....
$15.00 to $24.99......

....

$25.00 to $34.99...... 7

I ................

I

14 82

4.4 47

9.1 53.3

........

30.5 1

................

1 I 2.6
17 44.8

2.5 16 42.2

$35.00 to $44.99...... 28 17.6 9

$45.00 to $54.99...... 63 39.7 1

$55.00 to $64.99...... 35 $65.00 to $74.99...... 12 $75.00 or more........ 14

22.0 7.5 8.8

......1..

5.8 4

.6 11

......7. ......

16 6 2

10.0 4

27.5 40.0 15.0
5.0

................

1.0.....4. ............

I 159 I 100.0 I 154a I 1oo.o 1 40b 1 1oo.o 1 38c 1 1oo.o

a Five counties reported no costs for Negroes. b No data for. Bremen.
c Two independent systems reported no cost for Negroes.

The variations in expenditures are caused by a variety of factors. In many instances the taxable wealth is a controlling factor, especially in the county units and in the smaller independent systems. One of the serious administrative problems growing out of a dearth of taxable resources is how to provide what is necessary beyond the barest of essentials.
A word of caution should be expressed. Low costs may be an indication of penurious or poor administration. The aim of good school administration and the organization set up to achieve it should be to get the most for the available monies, not to build up comfortable balances at the expense of the pupils. Except for a reasonable fund reserved for contingencies, the school monies should be spent as fully as possible for purposes that enhance the value of the schools to the pupils, communities, the State, and the Nation.
School enrollment. The county school administrative units average consistently fewer pupils than are found in the independent systems, as shown in the accompanying data.
221

ers, white and Negro combined, allotted per county unit varied from 15 in Chattahoochee County to 660 in Fulton County.
Forty-one county sy~tems were allotted fewer than 40 white teachers, and 91 were allotted fewer than 40 Negro teachers. Six of the county systems had fewer than 40 teachers, white and Negro combined.
Summary. The typical county school administrative unit in Ge'orgia has the following characteristics:

Item

"Average''

Area ........................................................350 sq. mi.

Population .............................................. 11,650

Tax digest .............................................. $2,012,820

Tax digest per pupil in A.D.A...........

$948

Instructional cost per pupil in A.D.A.

White .............................................. $52.36

Negro .............................................. $22.90

Enrollment

White ..............................................

2,277

Negro ..............................................

1,262

Teachers allotted by the State............

112

Range
125 to 912 sq. mi. 2,964 to 117,970 $244,669 to $64,618,342
$235 to $5,010
$26.22 to $115.84 $ 7.38 to $ 58.74
117 to 21,012 0 to 8,499 15 to 660

In addition, it was found that the shape of the counties, their topography and land use, and the location of their population centers varied widely, and that these often were basic elements to be considered in the solution of school administrative problems.

Characteristics of Independent School Administrative Units in Georgia
The independent school administrative units in Georgia vary widely in population, wealth, pupils enrolled, and the number of teachers allotted on the basis of present state laws. Area, shape, topography, and land use within the independent units are believed to be of minor importance because these units are generally confined within the civil boundaries of cities or towns.
Forty-one independent school administrative units are being operated (1946-47) by their respective boards of education. One of these, Bremen, assumed full operating status in 1946-47. Complete data about it are not presently available. It is located in Haralson County; had a population in 1940 of 1,708 as compared to 1,665 in Chickamauga, the smallest of the in-

214

a system of schools is operated locally. An "attendance unit",

on the other hand, is an elementary or high school, ordinarily

operated as a part of an administrative unit. Rarely if ever in

~

Georgia has. an administrative unit operated with only one

,

attendance unit.



Establishing appropriate standards for local administrative

units has been the object of intensive investigation in many of

the states and by competen~ authorities on school organization.

Although the authorities are not in complete agreement as to

certain details, enough has been commonly accepted to provide

a basis for judging the patterns found in Georgia in the light of

conditions peculiar to the State.

The standards which follow are based upon the studies of the southern school administrators who have met together for several years to consider administrative problems peculiar to the South, as well as upon the investigations and writings of Dawson, Moehlman, Strayer, Reeder, and others who are recognized authorities in the field. These standards are expressed in general terms for the most part, but some quantitative guides also are suggested on the basis of research findings. The evaluation of the administrative units in Georgia is based on comparisons between the facts previously presented in this chapter and the standards.

1. The administrative unit should be based on the function
it is to perform, which is assumed to be the operation of all phaS!es of the schools within its boundat;ies. It
should therefore be adjusted primarily to educational,
social, and economic needs rather than to arbitrary opinions of size, numbers, and financial ability, or to existing boundaries of other governmental divisions of the state such as municipalities or counties.

The county and independent school administrative units of Georgia have as their sole function the operation of all phases of the school systems within their boundaries. The units have not been adjusted to arbitrary opinions as to size, number, financial ability, area, shape, population, school enrollment, or wealth.

On the other hand, the school administrative units have been adjusted primarily to the boundaries of existing counties and

223

Tax Digest Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

Number of Independent Units

Less than $1 ,800a------------------------------------- 4 $1, 800 to $1, 999--------------------------------------- 5 $2, 000 to $2, 199_____________ ___________________________ 7
$2,200 to $2,399--------------------------------------- 1 $2,400 to $2, 59 9--------------------------------------- 1 $2,600 to $2,799---------------------------------------- 2 $2, 800 to $2,9 99--------------------------------------- 5 $3,000 to $3,199--------------------------------------- 4 $3,200 to $3, 399--------------------------------------- 2 M'ore than $3,400____________________________________ 9

Total (no data for Bremen)____________ 40
a Tallapoosa, $931; Chickamauga, $1,286; Vienna, $1,319; Eastman, $1,415. None between $1,415 and $1,800.
Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attend. The typical unit among the 41 independent systems at present operating, excl\}sive of Bremen, spent $56.95 per white pupil in average daily attendance in 1944-45, varying from $30.64 in Tallapoosa to $106.32 in Atlanta. For Negro pupils in average daily attendance, the typical independent unit spent $26.20, with a
low of $14.87 in Tallapoosa and a high of $38.24 in Atlanta.
Following is a summary.

Instructional Cost Per Pupil In Average Daily Attendance

White

Less than $15.00____________________ $15. 00 to $24.99___________________ $25.00 to $34.99___________________ 1 $35.00 to $44.99____________________ 4 $45. 00 to $54. 99____________________ 11 $55.00 to $64.99____________________ 16 $6 5.00 to $74.99____________________ 6 $75.00 or more_____________________ 2

Negro
1 17 16
4

Total ---------------------------- 40a
a No data for Bremen. b Two systems, Chickamauga and Tifton, reported no costs for Negroes.
School enrollment. According to the data for the school year, 1944-45, the independent administrative units averaged 2,920
216

final administrative authority, the constituency of each attendance area or sub-community nevertheless should have a means by which its desires can be made known to the board of education.
Under the School Act of 1946 (Culpeper Law) advisory groups were authorized for each school in the county systems, subject to appointment or election by the county boards of education. These groups have recommending power only; but, since they are likely to include public-spirited or locally influential persons, their recommendations should be considered carefully by the controlling board.
It is suggested that these advisory groups be made mandatory rather than permissive, and that they be sele'cted to serve a sub-community rather than the constituency of individual schools. In some areas where more than one school is operated in a sub-community, there is no real necessity for more than one advisory board.
5. An administrative unit should be fiscally independent of
other governmental agencies.
No other civil agency should be able to control the budget, income, or expenditures of a school administrative unit so long as these are within the law. The evidence on this point, however, is not wholly conclusive.
Under the constitution the county administrative units actually are fisca.lly independent insofar as the county-wide school tax levy of 5 to 15 mills is concerned. The county fiscal authorities must levy a school tax within these limits upon recommendation of the county board of education.
It is not clear, however, how the county board may exercise its apparent legal power to tax for current building purposes (See Chapter 32-909, Georgia Code of 1933, as amended by the School Act of 1946); that is, whether or not it must recommend such a tax to county fiscal authorities who may or may not act upon. the recommendation. The fiscal power of the county board of education concerning this tax should be clarified by appropriate' legislation which should preserve the virtual fiscal independence which that board now has in connection with the 5- 15 mill levy.
225

Comparisons Between County and Independent School Administrative Units on the Basis of Selected Characteristics
Not only do the differences in characteristics within the two main categories of school administrative units in Georgia indicate some of the problems that the State and its local officials must face, but the State must also meet certain problems that grow out of the differences between the county and independent units. The following comparisons are believed to be pertinent.
Wealth. The amount of taxable property supporting each pupil in average daily attendance (based on tax digests and attendance data for 1944-45) indicates how pronounced the differences are between the county and independent school administrative units on an operating basis. Every comparison favors the independent units. Thus, the typical tax digest per pupil in average daily attendance in the county group was about one-third that of the independent group. In fact, the typical digest for the county group was only slightly larger than the smallest for the independent units. The smallest in the county group was about one-fourth that of the smallest in the

Tax digest per pupil in average daily attendance

County units

Independent units

Typical (media) tax digest________$ 948 Smallest ------------------------------------ 235 Largest -------------------------------------- 5, 010

$2,790 931
' 8,969

independent units; and the largest in the county group was only somewhat more than half (56 percent) of the largest among the independent units.

The accompanying table further emphasizes the dis.parities between the two groups in tax resources supporting each pupil in average daily attendance. For example, 57.4 percent of the county school administrative units had less than $1,000 a pupil in their tax digests, compared to 2.5 percent in the independent group. On the other hand, but 6.7 percent of the county group had more than $2,000 a pupil compared to 77.5 percent of the independent group. Reduced to a 5-mill levy, this means that more than half of the county units could raise not more than $5 a pupil, whereas but one of the independent systems was so

218

new independent school administrative units continue to "be forbidden (as it is at present by the State Constitution), but that every legal means should also be taken to encourage the merger at least of the smaller independent systems with their respective county school organizations. Because the people of the independent systems which thus far have considered such mergers generally desire a professional chief school administrator, it is recommended that the constitution be amended to make permissive the appointment of county school superintendents by the county boards of education.
7. The boundaries of the administrative unit should coincide as far as possible with those of natural communities.
Under modern conditions of transportation and communication, present-day communities extend well beyond what previously were believed to be community borders. These natural communities frequently are coterminous with trading areas. In Michigan, for example, the hardware trading are'a is being tested experimentally as a basis for school administrative units.
Assessment and tax-collection p.rocedures and cooperation with established welfare agencies may be facilitated, however, when the boundaries of the administrative unit coincide with those of municipalities and counties. But when the latter boundaries clearly divide a natural community, they probably should be disregarded.
It is generally agreed that the county administrative unit, which is one of two basic administrative units in Georgia, is much superior to the small-district type. The expense of conducting high schools can be borne by all alike; supervisory and other services are' more easily provided; and educational opportunities tend to be more nearly equalized for children from rural and urban areas and from poorer and wealthier sections of the county. These advantages are especially evident in Georgia in those counties which include towns and cities but which have no independent systems within their borders.
Even the complete' county administrative unit, however, has distinct disadvantages which also can be seen in Georgia. It is an artificial area, based on civil boundaries that often have little relation to the present common education, social, and eco-
227

than did the typical county system. Measured in terms of services or supplies, it is believed that these differences are significant. In terms of taxable property supporting each pupil, however, it seems apparent that the county units as a whole are extending a greater relative effort per pupil than the' independent units.

It should not be inferred, however, that all of the independent units. are providing an adequate instructional program as measured by costs per pupil. The most recent national data available are those published by the United States Office of Education for 1941-42. Since then virtually ail of the states including Georgia have increased their expenditures for instructional purposes. An approximation of the relative place of Georgia (both county and independent systems) may be seen in the following figures, which include teachers' salaries and other instructional expense.

Area

Instructional Cost Per Pupil in Average Daily
Attendancea

Continental United States____________________ $75.91

Average, 11 southern states_______________ 35.33

Florida -------------------------------------------- 51.33

Louisiana -------------------------------------------- 44.96

Virginia ---------------------------------------------- 40.76

T ennessee' ------------------------------------------ 38.43

Kentu,cky ----------------------------------------- 37.84

North Carolina --------------------------------- 35.32

GE 0 RGlA ------------------------------------------- 33.74

South Carolina -------------------------------- 30.46

AIabama -------------------------------------------- 29.68

Arkansas ------------------------------------------- 26.04

Mississippi ----------------------------------------- 20.08

a Figures based on percentages derived from "Advance Statistics of State School Systems", U. S. Office of Education, Education for Victory, June 3, 1944.

During the year, 1941-42, for which the data were compiled, Georgia spent for instructional purposes approximately 44 percent of the national average and 95 percent of the average for the eleven southern states listed. Had Texas, Oklahoma, and Maryland been included, the average for the southern states would have' been somewhat higher.

Further comparisons between expenditures for the county and independent systems are shown in the accompanying table.

220

adequate wealth impedes effective educational administration.
8. Flexible boundaries sbould be maintained to facilitate adjustments for shifts in population and wealth.
Shifts in population and wealth make it virtually mandatory that the boundary lines of any school administrative unitcounty or natural community-be flexible. It may be desirable occasionally to gerrymander boundaries to bring enlightene'd groups into a given unit in order to improve the constituency of that unit and to obtain the benefit of the group's aid in developing an effective local program.
The School Act of 1946 encourages flexibility for the county units. The laws which govern the annexation of territory to a municipality also provide some flexibility for the independent units.
9. The size of the administrative unit should be variable. With exceptions to care for special situations, it should be large en,ough in terms of the number of persons to be served and the financial ability to meet local tax needs beyond reasonable state aid to permit the organization of a complete system of elementary and secondary schools, with provision for adequate administrative and supervisory personnel and for other desirable services beyond the foundation program.
The administrative unit should not be so large that the people lose interest in: the schools, or that home-school coope'ration is endangered because of the remoteness of the central administration from operating situations. On the other hand, it can be' too small for educational efficiency. Ordinarily, administrative units include two or more attendance units or areas.
A large administrative unit in itself is not an absolute guarantee of an effective educational program, but it does provide the framework upon which competent leadership may build such a program. This framework is commonly present in the small administrative unit.
The smallest (not the ideal) administrative unit in which de'sirable services even in modified form can be provided is believed to be one having a school population from 1,500 to 2,000 persons and employing from 40 to 50 teachers, according to
229

Enrollment

County

- Inde-pen- dent

White pupils:

~

Average per unit______________________ 2,277

Smallest unit ----------------------------

115

2,920 368

~~..

Largest unit ----------------------------- 21,012

35,331

Negro pupils: Average per unit______________________
Smallest unit ---------------------------Largest unit ------------------------------

1,262 0
8,499

1,090 0
17,504

Total pupils, white and Negro: Average per unit______________________ 3,539

Smallest unit ---------------------------

365

Largest unit ---------------------------- 25,387

4,010 599
52,835

It is generally conceded that some approximate minimum number of pupils is necessary if a school system is to provide . an adequate program with qualified personnel, sufficient supplies and equipment, and acceptable buildings, but without excessive cost to the taxpayers. It is apparent from the table that many of the school systems of the State, especially those in the independent group, are small insofar as numbers of pupils are concerned.

TABLE 17
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN GEORGIA WITH FEWER THAN CERTAIN MINIMUM NUMBERS OF PUPILS ENROLLED IN 1944-45

Gounty

Independent

Item

Number Percentage Number Percentage

Fewer than 1,000 pupils, both races........ 3

1.8

11

27.5

Fewer than 1,500 pupils:

Both races .............................. ................ 18

11.3

18

45.0

White pupils ............................................ 74

46.6

23

57.5

Negro pupils .......................................... 115

72.4

33a

82.5

a Two reported no Negro enrollments. No data are available for Bremen.

How Well Do Administrative Units in Georgia Meet Accepted Standards?

Before considering appropriate standards for local administrative units, it should be emphasized again that an "administrative unit" is the area in or the organization through which

222

as shown in the following summary:

Administrative unit
County:

Number enrolled, 1944-45

Fulton --------------------------------------------- 25,387 Chatham ------------------------------------------ 23,3 96 Bibb -------------------------------------------------- 18,349 Richmond _____:_________________________________ 15,575
DeK a Ib -------------------------------------------- 9,389 Glynn ------------------------------------------- 9,230
Independent:

Atlanta ------------------------------------------ 52,835 Colurnbus ---------------------------------------- 10,990
It should be noted that four of the six county systems reaching or approaching the standard organization were those organized as complete county school administrative units. Because of the decrease in enrollments cause'd by the departure of war workers, Glynn County would not now be included in the group.

The number of teachers, 275 to 300, for a standard organization is met or approached by six administrative units in Georgia on the basis of teacher allotments for 1946-47, as follows:

Administrative unit
County:

Number of teachers allotted, 1946-47

Fulton ---------------------------------------------- 660 Chatham ------------------------------------------- 469 Bibb ------------------------------------------------ 348 Riehmond ----------------------------------------- 340 DeKalb --------------------------------------------- 245
Independent:
Atlanta -------------------------------------------- 1,017
The complexity of the problem is increased by the legal necessity for operating what are in effect separate school systems for whites and Negroes within all of the administrative units having pupils of both races. Except at the top level of local administration-i.e., the board of education and the superin-

231

municipalities, rather than to the educational, social, and economic needs of natural communities. Perhaps when the units were established, it was the intention that they should meet these needs; but with certain exceptions they often fail to do so in practice. 'The existence of small independent systems such as Lawrenceville and Calhoun side by side with county systems having similar educational needs are examples. More. will be said on this point later in this section.
Progressive as the types of administrative units in Georgia may have been, it is believed that the time has come for certain indicated reforms. These will be set forth in some detail later in this section.
2. The administrative unit should be controlled centrally by
a lay board which, under state laws, should have final determination of policies and their applications within the local unit. It should operate through a chief executive officer.
It is believed that the present legal organization of the administrative units in Georgia conforms in principle to this standard. Certain detailed changes, however, which should make local operation more effective will be recommended subsequently.
3. No boards subordinate to that of the administrative unit should have legal power to make final decisions.
If such power is granted subordinate groups, confusion in administration is almost inevitable. With the removal of taxing power from the local boards of trustees (not to be confused with the county boards of education), not only was a source of considerable administrative rivalry and confusion taken away but the road was also open toward developing school "systems" in the several counties. In some instances such systems previously existed in name rather than in fact because of the' real or supposed power of the local boards of trustees.
4. The initiative of the constituency of attendance areas or sub-community groups should be protected by appropriate means.
Although it has been stated emphatically above that no group subordinate to the local lay board of education should have
224

Administrative unit

Unit enrollment Combined enrollment

Tallapoosa ------------------------------------ 781 Bremen (Operated with
county in 1944-45) Haralson County ______________________ 2,837

3,618

Eastman --------------------------------------- C04 Dodge County __________________________ 3,926

4,730

West Point ----------------------------------- 847 Hogansville --------------------------------- 1,348
Troup County -------------------------- 3,024 (With LaGrange) ___________________ (5, 172)

5,219 (10,391)

Winder ------------------------------------------ 877 Barrow County ________________________ 2,070

2,947

Commerce -------------------------------- 878 Jackson County ----------------------- 3,731
Barnesville ----------------------------------- 1,055 Lamar County -------------------------- 1,328

4,609 2,383

Trion ------------------------------------------- 1,249 Chattooga County ____________________ 3,717

4,966

Cartersville _-------------------------------- 1,264 Bartow County ________________________ 4,631

5,895

Elberton ---------------------------------------- 1,270 Elbert County __________________________ 2, 965
Carrollton ------------------------------------ 1,479 Carroll County _______________________ 6,349

4,235 7,828

Toccoa ------------------------------------------ 1,498 Stephens County ______________________ 2,245

3,743

The foregoing summary shows that if these small independent units were combined with their respective county systems, no unwieldly administrative units would result. Only three of them-Walker, Carroll, and Troup County including LaGrange -approach the 10,000 school population suggested for a standard organization. On the other hand, the educational needs of each one of these independent units are in a large part similar to those of counties of which they are part. It is probable that some interests would oppose the mergers suggested be-

233

The fiscal independence of the independent administrative units varies in degree with the charters or special laws under which each operates its schools. Some seem to be wholly dependent upon city councils in fiscal matters; others, less so. It is not believed desirable to make a broad recommendation on this point, as charters can be' amended if local authorities .believe it necessary. For the present, at least, it is believed that the need for any changes in fiscal relationships between the independent school administrative units and the municipalities in which they operate can be determined be'st by those close to the immediate situations and should originate with them.
6. An administrative unit should embrace an area in which the common educational interests of rural and urban territories can be harmonized and combined.
The school system can help to achieve social unity and to minimize rural, suburban, and urban conflicts by bringing boys and girls from country and city together in the same schools or school system.
The administrative units in Georgia which meet this standard most conspicuously are Bibb, Chatham, Glynn, and Richmond counties. All of these are organized as complete county units for school administration under special law's, and all four contain rather large cities as well as rural areas. The rapid decrease in the number of independent administrative units and the proposed unification of the schools in the metropolitan area of Atlanta indicate a trend toward realizing the intent of this standard. It is probable, however, that some of the present independent administrative units in the larger cities will persist indefinitely.
The data presented in the preceding section of this chapter show that 20 of the 41 presently operating independent administrative units are in communities of fewer than 7,000 inhabitants; i.e., small cities and towns. A study of the 20 individual units indicates that their educational, social, and economic interests are tied more or less closely to those of surrounding rural areas. In 18 of the independent systems the enrollments are so low as to make union with the county systems desirable educationally as well as administratively.
It is recommended that not cnly should thE; establishment of
226

county administrative units should not have the same opportunity that independent systems have to select a chief exe'cutive officer primarily on the basis of his professional qualifications. Such an amendment would, it is believed, be one means of encouraging the independent systems to merge with the county units for e'ducational purposes.
Tax assessment procedures in Georgia also constitute a handicap in the merger of independent and county school systems. A given property within an independent system commonly seems to be assessed at a higher valuation for municipal taxes than the same property for county taxes. In addition, the homestead exe'mption applies in the case of the county property. Thus, if an independent system joins a county administrative unit, the tax resources for the combined unit will not equal the combined tax resources before the merger. The total revenue after the merger consequently will be less than the total under separate operations.
To correct this situation cited it is recommended that, if possible, the homestead exemption be removed for school purpose's, or at least reduced to the present constitutional minimum of $1,250. It is also recommended that assessing practices be established by law on a reasonable uniform basis and enforced throughout the State.
Not only should the independent systems be encouraged to unite with the county systems, but some steps also seem necessary to establish county administrative units with a sufficient minimum number of- pupils to make operations educationally and financially more effective. The accompanying map (Figure 13) shows the counties with fewer than the' recommended minimum of 1,500 enrollment.
Since there is no way to increase the number of pupils within a county except by a limited number of mergers with independent systems, other remedies must be employed. The ideal seemingly would be a complete reorganization of all administrative units of the State on the basis of natural community boundaries, to be determined by careful studies. This remedy would require basic changes in the constitution and statutes. Thorough study of the possibilities and shortcomings of this plan is recommended.
235

nomic needs of the people served, however satisfactory it may have been in the past. Relatively large natural communities do not follow arbitrary political and civil boundarie's. If county boundaries are strictly adhered to, odd attendance areas result along the county borders. As a result of splitting several of the original counties into additional counties, many of the present units do not have a sufficient number of persons of school age or sufficient wealth to permit the development of sound educational programs at reasonable expense.
For example, Arlington lies almost on the county line between Calhoun and Early counties. The' people in that part of Calhoun County close to Arlington look to it as an economic and social center. A logical school administrative unit would include the areas in both counties around Arlington, Commerce in Jackson County, and Royston in Franklin County. Other examples show the splitting of natural communities by county boundaries.
The School Act of 1946 (Culpeper Law) has taken a forward step toward solving the attendance problems of children living within two miles of county lines. The law prescribes that these children may arrange to attend the schools in the adjoining county. If county school officials fail to make suitable arrangements, parents may force action by mandamus.
While the complete county administrative unit is a desirable and forward-looking expedient, especially as implemented by that portion of the School Act of 1946 cited in the preceding paragraph, it should not be considered the final step in desirable school administrative organization. If, however, county units must be accepted for some years to come, the boundaries for school purposes should not be too rigidly observed.
It is recommended that legislation be enacted which will carry still further the intent of the School Act of 1946 in establishing flexible county boundaries for educational purposes. It is further recommended that steps be taken to establish school administrative units ultimately upon the basis of rather large natural community areas, coterminous when possible but not necessarily so with the boundaries of established governmental units. As an intermediate step, legislation should be enacted permitting the joint operation of school systems by two or more counties where the small number of school-age persons or in-
228

A study of the map reveals that most of the county units with enrollments smaller than the recommended minimum of 1,500 are adjacent to one or more counties also having relatively small enrollments. Combinations of two or more of these counties for school administration purposes only would be feasible except in those cases where geographic factors clearly interfere. The plan. also might well be applied to other countie's which enroll fewer than 5,000 pupils.
Until a better remedy, such as complete reorganization, can be found, it is recommended that appropriate legislative action be taken to permit counties to contract with one another for the complete joint operation of their schools. It would also be necessary to amend the constitution to permit the appointment of county school superintendents.
10. Attendance units within the administrative units should be arranged so far as is consistent with the welfare of the pupils to have at least 175 pupils in a six-year elementary school, with at least seven persons engaged in teaching, counseling, and library service; and a six-year secondary school of not fewer than 300 pupils, with at least twelve persons engaged in teaching, counseling, and library service.7
It should not be inferred that meeting the recommended minimum numbers of pupils in elementary and secondary attendance units will insure a desirable educational program. These minimum recommendations are the smallest numbers of pupils for attendance units in which the beginnings of a desirable program can be had without excessive cost. Better programs can be provided, generally at proportionately less cost per pupil, in substantially larger attendance units. On the other hand, it is possible for the small attendance unit to provide a reasonably good program if the people can and will pay for it; but it is expensive. Neither the State of Georgia nor most of its communities, it is believed, can afford an adequate school program in small attendance units.
A study of 463 of the four-year high schools for whites in
7 "Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America,'' Research Bulletin ,of the National Education Association, April, 1944, p. 50
237

the southern school administrators2 and other authorities who have studied the problem.
In a unit with fewer than 40 teachers it is believed that a superintendent is almost certain to spend a part of his time uneconomically,3 or he may receive a salary so small that he feels he must divide his energies between the schools and outside business interests.
Improvement in services and economy in operation increase until an administrative unit reaches a school population of about 10,000 persons and employs from 275 to 300 teachers.4 This is called a "standard organization". In this 5tandard organization it is not necessary that any individual in the administrative and supervisory organization combine functions and services in more than one major field of activity. That is, persons can be used solely in the field of their special qualification rather than having to divide their efforts between two or more functions or services.
Data p-resented in Table 17 (page 180) show that slightly more than 10 percent of the present county systems and nearly half of the 41 independent units now operating had smaller total numbers of pupils enrolled in 1944-455 than the recommended minimum. On the basis of the total number of teachers allotted by the State, only six of the 159 county administrative units are below the recommende'd minimum of 40 white and Negro combined.6 About half of the independent systems, however, have fewer than the recommended minimum.
The standard organization, with 10,000 enrolled, was met or approached by eight of the administrative' units in Georgia
2 Edgar L. Morphet, ed., Building a Better Southern Region Through Education (TalJabassee, Fla.: Southern States Work-Conference on School Administrative Problems, 1945), p. 187.
3 Alonzo 0. Brisco, Size of the Local Unit for Administration an'd Supervision of PubBe School& (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers ColJege, C'olumbia University, 1935).
4 Edgar L. Morphet, ed. op. cit., p. 187.
II These data were the most recent available when this study was undertaken. It is believed, however, that the present situation is substantially the same as in 1944-45, although a few changes may have occurred as a result of the 1945 Compulsory School Attendance Law.
6 The combined totals for the two races are used because it is not believed feasible or desirable to recommend separate administrative organizations for the whites and Negroes. The races, of course, must be separated for teaching purposes.
230

In special situations, especially where the population is sparse or transportation is difficult because of topography, it may not be possible to adhere to minimum standards. In such cases the one- or two-room elementary school and the small high school may have to continue by force of circumstances. Also, while the consolidation of secondary schools has continued steadily, it will be some years before an ideal state situation can be' approached.
The largest enrollment recommended for an elementary school is 1,000; and for a si:X-year high schoo.l, 1,500. In congested urban areas or where land values and economic costs are high, it may be necessary to exceed these limits.
Summary of recommendations. The following recommendations have been made with the purpose of improving the school administrative units in Georgia:
1. School administrative units in Georgia should be adjusted primarily to the educational, social, and economic needs of natural communities rather than to the boundary lines of governmental units such as municipalities and counties. Such boundary lines, however, should be used when cpnverrient. Ultimately, th:e county school adminjstrative unit should be superseded by a unit established on a large-community basis, its composition to be determined by careful studies of local needs.
2. Legally established advisory groups, with recommending power only, should be mandatory. The'se should be established on the basis of sub-communities rather than for individual schools.
3. The taxing power of county administrative units for current building purposes should be clarified by appropriate legislation. The virtual fiscal independence of the administrative units which is now in effect should not be encroached on.
4. The merger of the independent administrative units with county school systems should be further encouraged by appropriate legislation. Such legislation should protect both parties from exploitation by the other. If possible, some compulsion should be authorized to force obviously needed corrections, as demonstrated by objective studies
239

tendent-combined local administration is difficult practically if not impossible legally. The principal of a white school can hardly administer the Negro school in his sub-community even if it were desirable that he do so. The data in Table 17 (page 180) show that 74 county administrative units and 23 of the independent systems had fewer than 1,500 white pupils enrolled in 1944-45, and that 115 of the county units and 33 of the independent systems had fewerthan 1,500 Negro pupils. Further, 41 of the county units and 30 of the independent systems are allotte'd fewer than 40 white teachers; and 91 of the county units and 38 of the independent systems are allotted fewer than 40 Negro teachers.
It is apparent from the data presented here and elsewhere in this chapter that many of the school administrative units of Georgia, especially the independent systems, are too small for an effective school program and efficient educational administration in the' light of the standards proposed by competent southern and other authorities. Certain remedies are indicated.
It has already been suggested that every legal encouragement be given the independent systems, especially the small ones, to combine with the administrative units of their respective counties. The following tabulation shows the total enrollments that would have resulted in 1944-45 if this combination had be'en in effect. The county in each case is indented.

Administrative unit

Unit enrollment

Lawrencevil1e ------------------------------ 59 9 Buford ------------------------------------------ 800
Gwinnett County ______________________ 5,458

Combined enrollment
6,857

Calhoun ---------------------------------------- 661 Gordon County ________________________ 4,008

4,669

Cochran ------------------------ ______________ 718 Bleckley County _____________________ 1,481

2,199

Vienna ---------------------------------------- 750 Dooly County ---------------------------- 3,129

3,879

Chickamauga ------------------------------- 751 Walker County ------------------------ 6,516

7,267

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County hoards of education. The state constitution specifies that county boards of education (except in the four counties mentioned above) shall be selected by the grand jury of each county and shall consist of five freeholders who are citizens of the respective counties. No other qualifications are specified in the constitution. The' statutory qualifications are:
1. Good moral character.
2. Fair knowledge of the elementary branches of an English education.
3. Favorable attitude toward the common school system.
4. No pecuniary interest in the publication or sale of school books.
5. Not a resident of a portion of the county having a board of education of its own-receiving its pro rata share of school funds directly from the State School Superintendent and having no dealings with the county board of education.
6. Not a member of the grand jury in session at time of selection.
7. No two members from the same militia district or locality..
By constitutional mandate, members of the county boards of education serve five-year terms, one term expiring each year. The constitution also prescribes that official meetings of the board shall be open to the public.
Members of boards of education have no personal authority over the schools. Their authority is collective and ~ay be exercised legally only as they act as a body. The many statutory powers or duties of the county boards of education are detailed aspects of the constitutional authority of such boards to control and manage the county school district. Following are a few examples of the specified powers and duties:
1. With the county school superintendent, to make rules and regulations to govern the county schools.
2. To recommend a tax levy between 5 and 15 mills for support and maintenance.
3. To employ teachers.
241

cause the wealth concentrated in these ce'nters would be drawn

upon through county-wide school taxes to help equalize oppor-

tunities in the rest of the respective counties. It is submitted,

however, that much of the wealth of these centers is drawn

from the trade' coming to them from their counties. Further, if

equalization on a state-wide basis is justifiable, it should be

equally justifiable on a county-wide basis. The intangible

gains such as understandings of problems common to both the

urban and the rural areas; partial removal, at least, of rural-

urban antagonisms by means of such understandings; and the

extension of a better quality of secondary education to the

rural youth should result in long-run benefits to both the popu-

lation center and its county.

,

Some of the county and independent systems are taking advantage of the legal provisions permitting contracts with each other for instructional purposes. Such arrangements should be encouraged by additional legislation, if necessary, that would make contractual relationships still easier to effect and which would protect both the county and the independent unit involved from exploitation by the other. Further, since all school administrative units, county and inde'pendent, are part of the state's public-school system, the taxpayers of the State' should be protected from the unnecessary expenditures inherent in an inefficient over-all plan of organization. This protection might take the form not only of encouraging mergers as sugge'sted above, but also of some compulsion to bring about obviously needed corrections.

Under present laws it is somewhat difficult in practice to combine county and independent systems because the citizens of the independent units frequently wish a superintendent who is chosen by appointment on the basis of his professional preparation and experience rather than one whose chief practical qualification is that of vote-getting. If an independent system merges with a county unit, it must, under present laws, accept a superintendent who is elected by popular vote.

It is recommended that a constitutional amendment be adopted which will permit counties to appoint the county school superintendent rather than elect him by popular vote. No independent system in Georgia now chooses its superintendent by popular election. There seems to be no logical reason why

234

special laws are appointed by their respective boards presumably on the basis of their professional qualifications.
The qualifications prescribed by the' present statutes are:
1. Three years' "practical experience in teaching".
2. (a) Possession of a first-grade high school license; or in lieu thereof a diploma from a literary college or normal school; or (b) five years' experience in the actual supervision of schools; or (c) standing an approved examination before the' State Board of Education. To become a candidate, the person seeking the superintendency must file a certificate of qualifications under one of these plans with the State Board of Education.
3. Good moral character, and never convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude.
Many specific powers andjor duties of the county school superintendent are contained in the present statutes. Some specific examples are :
1. To enforce all rules, regulations, and instructions of the State School Superintendent.
2. To act as the medium of communication between the State School Superintendent and subordinate school of-' ficers.
3. To enforce all regulations, etc., of the county board of education not in conflict with state laws.
4. To serve as secretary ex officio of the county board of e'ducation.
5. To audit all accounts before application is made to the county board for payment.
6. To visit at least once every sixty days every school in his district that receives state aid.
7. To suspend any teacher for specified reasons, subject to appeal.
8. To make an annual report to the grand jury and to place his books before this body for examination.
Staff of the county school superintendent's office. The size
243

TtNN.



Fewer than 1,000 enrolled

lmmfrrl Between 1,000 and 1,499

e .Independent system

(Lamar contains the independent system of Barnesville. Bleckley contains the independent system of Cochran).

An enrollment of about 10,000 pupils is recommended for a "standard'' administrative <:'unit.

FLA
FIGURE 13 COUNTY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS WITH
FEWER THAN 1.500 PUPILS ENROLLED IN 1944 45

official is not specifically recognized in either the state constitution or the statutes. In the largest schools an assistant principal and other officials with more or less administrative authority also are found.

The powers and duties of a principal are subject, first, to general state laws; and second, to state school laws and board regulations, both state and county. In many detailed matters of individual school administration, however, the principal operates administratively as the representative of, and as a subordinate to, the county school superintendent and the county board of education. The extent of his powers and duties thus varies with the administrative practices in the several counties and with his personal competence and initiative.

Local boards of trustees are authorized (but not prescribed)

by the present constitution. By statute they may be appointed

or otherwise chosen by county boards of education. They must

number from three to five members for each school in the

county. Each member must be a freeholder, a resident of the

county but not necessarily of the school-attendance area which

he is appointed to serve, and "manifestly interested in educa-

tion". The term of office is four years.



Local boards of trustees by statute have advisory and recommending powers only. Nevertheless, the proximity of their members to the immediate situation and their local influence combine to make them useful and valuable adjuncts to the administrative organization.

Working relationships between the county school organiza-
tion and the attendance units. The boards of trustees of the individual schools are advisory to the county bo.ard of education, without express or implied administrative responsibilities or authority over the local school or its principal. Their status as an official recommending body and often their personal influence, however, give their advice considerable weight.

The principals or head teachers are subordinate administratively to the county board of education and its chief executive officer, the county school superinte'ndent. Their authority and responsibilities are delegated to them expressly or by impli-
~ation.
The county school administration should work out with the

245

Georgia for the year, 1943-44, showed the following facts:

TABLE 18
THE ENROLLMENTS AND COSTS PER PUPIL IN 463 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA

Enrollment

Number of high schools

Median cost per pupil in average daily
attendance

Range in cost

Less than 40............................ 32 40 to 59.................................... 66 60 to 99.................................... 135 100 to 199................................ 146 200 to 299................................ 52 300 to 499................................ 19
500 or more.............................. 13

$ 91.03 106.67
88.95 77.81 7o.42 58.58 82.35

$11.12 to 210.61 38.58 to 232.50 34.69 to 210.07
39.15 to 174.82
38.35 to 111.00 34.78 to 102.09
47.35 to 106.83

Costs have risen since these data were compiled, but the largest item of cost-teachers' salaries-has increased fairly uniformly. It is believed that the figures in the summary indicate relationships that are substantially in effect at present.
If a minimum enrollment of 200 pupils be set for a four-year high school and 300 pupils for a six-year high school, it is apparent that the' large majority of secondary schools in Georgia are below the minimum for an effective educational and financial program. High schools smaller than those recommended are luxuries that Georgia can ill afford. It is recommended that suitable steps be taken by the State Board of Education to see that state funds are no longer dissipated to support small high-school attendance units. Every legal encouragement and even some compulsion should be accorded boards of education to combine four-year high schools that have fewer than 200 pupils. The six-year high school with approximately 300 pupils ultimately should be adopted as the state minimum. It is not believed necessary that every county have at least one high school unless geographic factors make it necessary.
No study is presently available concerning the enrollments and costs of individual elementary schools. A steady decrease in the number of one and two-teacher schools, however, has occurred. The problem of combining elementary schools is less pre'ssing because costs are generally lower than in high schools. Also, small children should be required to spend as little time as possible .riding school busses.

238

immediate repair, for example. Also, unforeseen needs for small amounts of specialized supplies occasionally arise; and at times the principal may need funds to pay transportation charges for items sent to him "collect". Neither he nor the teachers should be expected to make these payments from their personal funds.
The remedy for the situation is the' use of a separate supplies and emergencies budget for each school for the purpose of making certain authorized expenditures estimated yearly by the principals and the county superintendent. When the county board of education has approved each budget and has included it in the financial plan for the county, each principal should be' permitted to buy or draw against the budget without again having to seek specific authorization. The plan should be safeguarded by making careful advance estimates and by requiring that the principal furnish a copy of an invoice or receipt to record his purchase. The budget accounts should be audited periodically-perhaps monthly-by the county school superintendent.
A variation of this method is to place a small petty cash fund in the hands of the principal and permit him to pay emergency expenses from this fund. All payments should be covered by receipts, and the fund should be audited periodically. From $10 to $25 should be sufficient for such a fund. The maximum amount that may be spent at one time probably should be specified.
Suitable working relationships must also be established to arrive at acceptable solutions of emergency problems which do not involve expenditures. In general, the principal should be empowered to do whatever is clearly needed when it is needed. He should be considered the administrative head of the school and responsible (with sufficient authority) for all that takes place in the school. If principals are carefully selected, their common sense should be relied on by the county administration. When it is discovered that a principal cannot meet emergencies satisfactorily after suitable instruction, he probably should be replaced.
The Independent Administrative Unit
The independent school administrative units are organized
247

of local situations.
5. The constitution should be amended to permit county boards of education to choose the county school superintendent by appointment rather than by popular vote if the county so prefers. The need for this change has been demonstrated in several connections in the improvement of the county school administrative unit in Georgia.
6. Constitutional amendments and othe'r legislative action should be taken to permit the joint operation of school systems by two or more counties, and to encourage contractual relationships between county and independent systems .
.7. Legislation should be enacted extending the provisions of the School Act of 1946 with respect to children living near county lines. A limit of five miles or more to the nearest school might well be established.
8. Every legal encouragement should be extended to establish attendance units of sufficient size to make possible an 'improved school program at reasonable cost. The need for such encouragement is especially urgent at secondary-school level. The survey method recommended in the next chapter as a basis for the distribution of state school aid would be a long step in eliminating small and expensive attendance units that are demonstrate'd to be unnecessary.
9. The homestead exemption, at least for school-tax purposes, should be abolished in the interest of encouraging mergers of independent and county school systems. If this is not presently feasible, the constitutional limitation of $1,250 should be adopted by appropriate legislation.
Internal Organization of Local Administrative Units
The County
The county as an administrative unit. The present state constitution designates each county, exclusive of independent systems within their boundaries, as one school district, the control and management .of which is vested in a county board of education. Four of the counties-Bibb, Chatham, Glynn, and Richmond-are organized under special laws.
240

can usually be reached quickly by telephone. The principal, however, should be empowered to do whatever is needed when it is needed. A supplies budget or a petty cash fund should be employed in much the same manner as explained for the . sehools of the county systems.
Relationships Between County and Independent Systems
The county and independent school administrative units are legally separate. If, however, the citizens of the independent system vote to annul their special school law and become a part of the county school system, the area of the independent system must be accepted as a part of the county unit as soon as suitable arrangements can be made to absorb it. Previously in this chapter it has been recommended that legislation be enacte'd to facilitate these mergers.
County and independent systems may contract with each other for the joint building and maintenance of high schools to be located in the municipality for the joint use of the countr and city chHdren. Legal provision is made for the simultaneous issuance of bonds to finance the construction of such buildings and simultaneous tax levies to pay the principal and interest of these bonds.
As quasi-corporations, county and independent boards of education may contract with each other for instructional purposes. It is common in Georgia for some "county children" to attend the schools, especially the high schools, of independent systems. The need for these arrangements provides specific evidence of the desirability of reorganizing school administrative units on the basis of natural communities.
In some instances, independent systems have virtually passed under the control of the county administrative unit by agreement, although the independent unit has retained its board of education and its legal identity. Such agreements should always be reduced to writing and should be spread over the minutes of the respective boards. Unfortunately, this has not always been done. The arrangement commonly has been made because of la-rger financial resources than are available if a complete merger were affected. This reflects back upon inadequate tax.ing and assessing practices. It has the disadvantage of resulting in more or less divided authority, with the
249

4. To suspend the county superintendent and;or teachers for certain reasons.
5. To consolidate schools.
6. To hold title to all public school property under the jurisdiction of the board.
7. To provide transportation for pupils and teachers ,(not mandatory).
8. To fix the amount, denomination, etc., of the county-wide bonds for school purposes, and to call an election to authorize bond issues.
9. To borrow money to operate the schools, under specified conditions.
10. To employ a Visiting Teacher or other attendance officer.
The bonding power of the county board of education is limited by the application of app.ropriate provisions of the state constitution. By statute', the county board also has the power to. tax for current building needs. How this tax shall be administered is not clear in the statutes.
The boards of education in the four counties operating under special laws have essentially the same powers and duties as the other county boards of education. The number of members and the methods of selection vary with the charters. For example, Bibb County has a self-perpetuating board, a method of control which is not believed wise for managing public enterprises. The board of education in Richmond County is selected on the basis of area representation, also a method not believed desirable for effective school administration.
The county school superintendent. The county school superinte'ndent is a constitutional officer, designated by that instrument as the chief executive officer of the county .board of education. The constitution specifies his election by the people for a four-year term concurrent with the terms of other county officials. His qualifications are prescribed by law. The net effect of the constitutional provisions for the county school superintendency make it, first, a political office and, second, a professional one.
The superintendents of the four counties organized under
242

school administrative units can be made throughout the State, it is again recommended that legislation be enacted to facilitate the joint operation of the schools of two or more counties. As state'd before, this will require certain constitutional amendments among which must be that of permitting county boards of education to choose the county school superintendent by appointment. If this were done, two or more county boards of education might engage the services of a professionally qualified superintendent to serve as the joint executive of the several boards.
Recommendations
The following recommendations grow out of the material presented in this section :
1. County boards of education should be chosen by the people at a non-partisan election held separately from the general elections, preferably in the spring of the year.
About 85 percent of the school boards of the Nation are chosen by popular election. In states with county systems about 70 percent are named by the electorate. In nearly 60 percent of the cases re'ported, the school board is chosen at a special election.
Admittedly, both good and bad boards are chosen under any , plan that is used. Since the schools are perhaps closer to the lives of most people than any other single governmental agency, and since in most of the counties of Georgia more is currently spent for public education than for any other public enterprise, it is believed desirable that the electorate .should choose the policy-making body directly. Because by and large the people desire good schools for their children, there is believed to be less likelihood for political domination if board members are chosen at a special non-partisan election than otherwise. Further, if the people have been competent in the past to elect a county school superintendent, logically they ought to be considered competent to elect the board to which he is responsible.
2. The county school superintendent should be appointed by the board of education if the board is chosen by popular election.
The county school superintendent as an executive officer is placed in the position of serving two masters if he is chosen
.251

of the staff of the county superintendent varies with the size and complexity of the job to be done. All boards of education are' required by law to employ an attendance officer. Such officer probably constitutes the minimum staff.
Instructional supervisors are employed in 63 counties to assist the county school superintendent in performing the educational duties of. his position. The duties of the instructional supervisors vary. Essentially their province is the improvement of learning of the pupils by means of improving the teaching.
Some instructional supervisors, however, have more or less responsibility for administrative work, usually but not always of a kind that grows out of their educational activities. The e'xtent to which they are concerned with administration depends upon such factors as the desires of the county school superintendent and their own competence, initiative, or aggressiveness.
Jeanes supervisors are employed in 88 counties for essentially the same type of service in the schools for Negroes as the instructional supervisors provide in the schools for white children. They sometimes are delegated more or less administrative duty in connection with the schools for Negroes.
The counties with large enrollments employ other specialists as they are needed or desired. There is no pattern common to these counties.
All of the county school systems operate bus fleets of varying size. The bus drivers, while not accurately members of the staff of the county school superintendent, are responsible to him directly or through an official subordinate. Some county school systems operate garages and building repair services with one or more persons employed in each. These employees are also directly or indirectly responsible to the county school superintendent.
One clerical employee and sometimes more are commonly found in the offices of most county school superintendents. The number varies with the needs of the respective superintendents.
Local schools. In most but not in all of the county systems, the individual school is administered by a principal or what in practice amounts to a head teacher. The principal as a school
244

worked out by the county administration, the professional staff, and the lay public.
5. Sound working relationships should be established between the central office and the school principals and staff to insure reasonably effective day-to-day administration.
6. The limits of the responsibilities and authority of principals should be worked out between the administration and the principals in accordance with the established policies of the administrative unit, and these limits should be known to all concerned.
7. In order to care for emergencies, budgets should be set up for each school, or a small petty cash fund established for each, safeguarded by simple but adequate accounting procedures, upon which, after adoption by the board of education, principals may draw without further authorization.
8. Sui'table legis[ation should be enacted to permit the State Board of Education to set the pattern for agreements between county and independent school systems. These agreements should be subject to review by the State Board in order to protect both parties as well as to insure the best local use of state funds.
9. The School Act of 1946 with respect to children living near county lines should be liberalized, as recommended elsewhere in this chapter.
10. County boards of education should be encouraged to contract more freely with one another for the joint use of services and personnel when such agreements will help to insure a better school program and more effective use of available funds.
Revision of School Laws
The school laws of Georgia, as is the case in many of the states, are in serious need of codification. All of the laws of the State concerning education, including those concerning the so-called "common schools", the Georgia School for the Deaf, the School for the Blind, the Speech Act of 1945, and others, should be carefully studied by the attorney-general's
253

principals, teachers, and the lay public the general policies of

the school system within state laws and regulations. The rela-

tive part that each group has in determining policies, of course,

depends upon circumstances. For example, the lay public
..

'

should have' a prominent part in determining the program of

the schools, with the professional staff establishing policies to

apply the program. More specifically the county school super-

intendent should decide with his principals what immediate

authority they have and what is clearly outside of their prov-

ince. They should decide together about such details as the

public use of the school plant, the purchase of supplies, the

procedures for handling routine administrative matters such

as required reports, what steps they may take to meet emer-

gency repairs and other needs, and the like. The authority of

each principal should be commensurate with the responsibili-

ties he is expected to assume. The extent of the responsibilities

and authority of the principals should be made known to them

and to all others concerned-this should not be left to chance.

Because the schools are scattered in location, satisfactory working relationships must be established between the central office and the principal if reasonably efficient daw-to-day administration is to be had.

One of the pressing problems is the purchase of supplies and equipment, and the handling of emergency needs. It seems obvious that most of the purchasing should be done' on a county-wide basis in order to benefit insofar as possible from quantity prices. Thus, coal can probably be purchased most economically in large quantities for spot delivery or delivery by trucks hired by the county board of the several school plants. Chalk, paper, books, office supplies, cleaning supplies, gasoline, and the like are other examples in which savings may be made through large purchas.es.

Emergency needs for certain supplies and repairs, however,

cannot be well managed on a strictly county-wide basis. A

common defect of county school administration is that the

county board has the funds while the principals have no money

with which to meet emergencies as they arise. It should be

\

possible for them to expend small amounts in order to save

the county from spending a much larger sum later because of

the cumulative damage that may result from not making an

_.,

246

administrative units of the State. Each county is designated in the constitution as one school district, exclusive of any inde- ' pendent systems within its borders. The control of the schools is vested in a county board of education chosen by the grand jury for five-year terms which are staggered. A county school superintendent is designated by the constitution as the chief executive of the county board of education. He is elected by the people and serves for four years. Essentially he is as much a political officer as he is an educational executive.
County boards of education are authorized to appoint local boards of trustees for each school to serve in an advisory capacity. These boards have recommending powers only.
Four counties are organized under special laws, choosing their boards of education according to their .respective charters. They appoint their chief executive officers. In these counties all schools are under the administration of the county board of education.
The independent administrative units are organized under special laws. Each has a board of e'ducation of varying numbers of persons chosen in various ways, and each appoints its own chief executive officer. The powers and duties of these boards are essentially the same as those of the county boards. At present 41 independent administrative units are' operating school systems, although others still retain their legal identity.
Educational organization. Georgia is at present committed legally to the 11-grade plan of education organization.8 The first seven grades constitute the elementary school; and the last four, the high school. Georgia is one of three states which has kept the 11-grade plan. The other two states are reported to be taking steps to adopt the 12-grade plan.
Characteristics of local administrative units in Georgia. On the whole, the local school administrative units in Georgia are relatively small in school population, in number of teachers allotted by the State, and in assessed valuation per pupil in average daily attendance. About ten percent of the county units and nearly half of the independent units have a smaller school population than competent southern and other authori-
8 Since the writing of this report 1947 legislation has made 12 years of public educa tion permissive.
255

under special laws or charters which vary in specific details. The schools of all operating independent units, however, are under the immediate management and control of boards of education which occupy essentially the same position locally that the county boards of education occupy in the counties.
The membership of the independent boards varies in number and method of selection. Some are elected by the people; others are appointed by city councils. Their terms of service' also vary with the respective charters. Their powers and duties are essentially the same as those of county boards of education, but in specific instances they may be broader or more limited.
A superintendent of schools is the chief executive officer of the independent board of education. He has no constitutional status, as has the county school superintendent; nor has it seemed necessary that he should have. He may or may not be mentioned in the charter. Without exception, the superintendent is appointed by the independent board of education presumably on the basis of his professional qualifications. His term is indefinite. His powers and duties are delegated to him by the board either expressly or by implication.
The superintendent's staff depends upon the size and complexity of the school system. Some have only an attendance officer; others have one or more specialists depending on local needs. Clerical assistance is generally provided except perhaps in the smaller independent units.
The individual schools in the independent administrative units are operated either by principals or head teachers. The relationships between the principals and the superintendent can be closer than is the case in the county units because of the small geographic areas commonly involved. In the complex larger systems, however, these relationships may be indirect and no closer than in the county systems.
As in the case in the county systems, suitable working relationships must be worked out between the central office and the principals. Ordinarily the principal should be considered the head of his school and responsible for all that takes place therein. The problems concerning emergencies are somewhat 1ess acute than in the county systems because the central office
243

tween the two systems. Independent units may, by vote of the people, terminate their independent status and become parts , . of county units.
All of these relationships should be facilitated by law and by other legitimate means in order to improve public school administration in Georgia.
Relationships between .county administrative units. Because of small school populations and small tax ~esources to support each pupil, contractual relationships between and among adjoining counties should be legally encouraged, even to the extent of making certain fundamental constitutional amendments.
School laws. The school laws in Georgia, as in some of the other states, are in serious need of codification. Obsolete provisions have been retained. Duplications and ambiguities are common. As a whole, the present school laws need careful revision.
Recommendations
It is recommended that:
1. Administrative activities be carefully allotted to the level which can best perform them regardless of vested interests or tradition.
2. No change be made in the method of choosing the' State Board of Education, the State School Superintendent, or the Board of Regents if the present pattern of state school administration is retained.
3. The qualifications of the State School Superintendent be as follows:
a. At least 30 years of age.
b. At least a Master's degree'.
c. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in the technical study of school administration including school finance and supervision.
d. At least 5 years' experience in the. actual administration and supervision of schools, three of which should have been in Georgia.
257

independent system being in a position to resume full operations, or with the county unit withdrawing from the agreement.
It is recommended that suitable legislation be enacted to authorize the State B.oard of Education to set the pattern for such agreements, which should be subject to review by the State Board for the protection of both the county and the independent systems as well as for the best use of state' funds. On the whole, close cooperation between the county and independent school administrative units in the same geographic area should .be encouraged legally and by every other legitimate means available.
Intercounty Relationships
Intercounty relationships chiefly have concerned what schools should be attended by children living near county lines. Although prior to 1946 the statutes provided for such children, school officials of adjoining counties were reluctant to make the necessary agreements because of the loss in average daily attendance (upon which the allotment of teachers is partially based) that might be incurred. Difficulties in arranging suitable bus transportation were also involved. The School Act of 1946, however, opened the way for parents of children living within two miles of a school in adjoining county to compel school officials to act by means of mandamus procedure.
The improved provisions of the School Act of 1946 in the foregoing respect are a forward step, but should be further liberalized by extending the distance to not less than five miles, providing no school in the county in which the child resides is ner.:rer.
In some instances county school systems have agreed with each other to share in the salaries of professional workers such as instructional supervisors. In the' interest of better school programs and economy, this practice should be extended not only to other counties but also to other personnel and, when possible, to bus transportation. As quasi-corporations, county boards of education would seem to be within thei:t;" rights to make greater use of the contract method.
As explained previously in this chapter, some countie's have too small a school population to insure a good school program at a reasonable cost. Until a fundamental reorganization of
250

ministration or supervision, three of which must have been in Georgia.
e. Never convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude.
11. Legally established advisory groups, with recommending power only, .be mandatory. These should be established on the basis of sub-communities rather than for individual schools.
12. The homestead exemption be removed for school-tax purposes. If this is not presently feasible, thel constitutional limitation of $1,250 should be adopted by appropriate legislation. Every one who can should have the privilege of aiding public education financially.
13. The taxing power of county administrative1 units for current building purposes be clarified by appropriate legislation. The virtual fiscal independence of the administrative units which is now in effect should not be encroached on.
14. The merger of the independent administrative units with county school systems be further encouraged by appropriate legislation. Such legislation should protect both parties from exploitation by the other. If possible, some compulsion should be authorized to force obviously needed corrections, as demonstrated by objective studies of local situations.
15. Constitutional amendment and other legislative action be taken to permit the joint operation of school systems by two or more counties.
16. County boards of education be encouraged to contract more freely with one another and with independent systems for the joint use of services and personnel when such agreements will help to insurEil a better school program and more effective use of available funds.
17. All contracts or agreements between county systems and between county and independent systems be reduced to writing and spread over the official minutes of the respective boards of education.
18. Suitable legislation be enacted to permit the State Boards
259

by the electorate-the board, to which he is legally responsible; and the people, upon whose votes he must depend. There is justification in his election by the people, however, if the board of education is appointed, as his office is the only one through which pe'ople can exercise any direct control over their school system. Logically, it seems that such control should be exercised over the policy-making body rather than over its executive officer.
3. The following qualifications are recommended for the county school superintendent:
1. At least 25 years of age.
2. At least a Bachelor's degree.
3. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in school administration including supervision.
4. At least five years' experience in actual school administration or supervision, three of which must have been in Ge'orgia.
5. Never convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude.
These qualifications are not believed to be especially high, as the regional accrediting associations have established the Master's degree as the standard for the school principal. It is believe'd that a county school superintendent should have had special preparation in school administration beyond experience as a teacher or principal because many of the problems he must solve require technical knowledge. Physicians. are not licensed without approved professional preparation; it seems equally logical that the person who ought above all others to be the educational leader in his county should have at least a minimum of technical preparation for his work.
These qualifications might well be established for the superintendents of independent units, although studies have shown less need. The qualifications of the superintendents of independent systems in Georgia have been found to be superior to those of the county school superintendents.
The following recommendations have been explained previously in this section:
"
4. The educational policies within a county should be
252

CHAPTER XII

SCHOOL FINANCE IN GEORGIA
Introduction
Dollar expenditures do not constitute an infallible measure of the educational opportunity afforded children. Money, however, is a universal medium of exchange and a study of ex.:. penditures reveals what school authorities have had with which to purchase educational opportunity for the children under their charge.

The nature of our national and state forms of government is such that all tax revenues do not find their way into one central till. It is inevitable, therefore, that revenues available for education will vary between the states and within the states because of differences in wealth or ability and relative effort. The philosophy of our form of government is that all individuals shall have equal rights and opportunities. This point of view implies that it is the responsibility of the Federal Government to equalize' opportunity among the states and of the state government to. equalize opportunity among the individual schools of the county.
It is the primacy purpose of this chapter to analyze the public school finance pattern of Georgia to determine the effort and relative ability of the state and local government units to support education, and the inequalities existing in educational opportunity in. the State, and to propos.e means for distributing, state school funds to more nearly equalize educational opportunity in the State.

This chapter is divided into seven major parts. These sec-

tions are as follows: (1) Status of school finance in Georgia,

(2) present plan of state and local school finance, (3) evalua-

tion of state plan of support, (4) recommended state founda-

tion program, (5) proposed plan for distributing state and

federal vocational funds, (6) other state educational funds,

and (7) total state funds needed for public education.



L STATUS

1. Present Status of Public School Finance in Georgia
One of the best measures of the relative status of the state's

261

office or other .appropriate agency. Obsolete provisions should be removed, ambiguous or conflicting provisions should be clarified, certain details which should be administered by regulation of the State Board of Education rather than by statute should be covered with broad provisions, and like subject matter should be brought together insofar as possible.
The resulting code should be introduced as a bill having the recommendation of the attorney-general's office or other appropriate agency and. should be enacted as soon as possible in the interest of sound state school administration.
Summary and Recommendations
Summary
The responsibility for public education belongs in part to three levels of government-federal, state, and local. In the administration of public education each of the thre'e levels can perform certain functions better than the other two. The principle should be consistently observed that each activity in the administration of the schools should be performed at the governmental level which can best carry it on.
Federal level. The administration of public education in Georgia at the federal level is concerned with the distribution of federal funds to aid vocational education. No attention has been given to this phase of school administration as it is primarily concerned with finance and is treated in the following chapter.
State level. At state level the administration of public education in Georgia is vested in the State Board of Education for the lower schools and the Board of Regents for higher education. Both are constitutional boards. The members of both are appointed by the Governor subject to confirmation by the state senate. They serve seven-year terms which are staggered.
The State School Superintendent, designated by the constitution as the chief executive officer of the State Board of Education, is elected by the people for a four-year term. A chancellor appointed for an indefinite term by the Board of Regents serve's as its chief executive officer.
Local level. The local administration of public education in Georgia is performed through the county and the independent
254

the effort that would have been necessary to equalize to state and national medians in 1939-40 are given in Table' 20. The states shown are ranked according to the percent of the total state income2 spent on education. Compared to the 13 states shown, Georgia ranks 9.5. In other words, column 2 shows that 8 of 13 southern states exerted a greater effort to support edu-
cation in 1939-40 than Georgia. Georgia spent 2.45 percent of its total income for education as compared to 2.57 percent for
the nation as a whole. Actually it would have taken 2.93 percent of the total state income to equalize' expenditures of the low cost systems of the State to the state median and 4.52 percent of the total income to equalize expenditures in the State to the national median.
TABLE 20
RELATIVE EFFORT MADE BY THE STATES IN SUPPORTING EDUCATION, IN SUPPORTING ALL STATES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT, AND EFFORTS THAT WOULD HAVE BEEN NECESSARY TO EQUALIZE TO STATE AND NATIONAL MEDIANS"-1939-1940b

c Percent of
income spent on all government
functions

OUknliatehdomSatat.e..s...........

11.2 12.4

Mississiipp 16.2
South Carolina 10.9

North Carolina 11.3
Alabama ............ 11.2

LToexuaissia.n..a...............

14.1 10.8

Tennessee GEORGIA

........

10.2 9.5

Kentucky Arkansas

....................

10.1 10.1

Florida Virginia

..........................

12.9 8.2

c Percent of
income spent on education
2.57 3.69 3.41 2.86 2.84 2.74 2.71 2.71 2.51 2.45 2.45 2.37 2.15 2.09

c Percent of income that would have been necessary to equalize to state
median level of support
2.98 3.98 4.04 3.63 3.16 3.24 3.33 3.00 2.73 2.93 2.62 2.72 2.45 2.32

c Percent of income that would have been necessary to equalize to national level of support
2.98 4.76 8.86 4.98 5.02 5.77 3.92 3.32 4.29 4.52 4.18 5.99 2.83 3.47

a When ungrouped scores or other measures are arranged in order of size, the median is the midscore or midpoint in the series.
b An Inventory of Public School Expenditures in the United States, Volume II. 744 Jackson Place, N. W., 'washington, D. C.: American Council on Education. 1944.
c Income is defined as the total income of the total population of the state.

A prime consideration in determining a state's status relative to public school finance is the relative ability of the state to support education. Relative ability is best measured in terms of a state's total income. Total income may be defined as the

2 Total state income may be defined as the total money value of all earnings of all individuals and corporate bodies of the state for the year.

263

ties in school administration recommend. A large number of the attendance units have fewer than recommended minimum numbers of pupils. The result is too often an inadequate school program, especially in the high schools, and higher costs per pupil than are necessary.
The county administrative units are confined within the county boundary lines. These frequently divide natural communities which have common educational, social, and ~conomic interests. Although the School Act of 1946 has provided the means for some alleviation of the situation for children living near county lines, the artificiality of the county administrative unit cannot be removed without a sweeping reorganization on a state-wide basis.
Working relationships within school administrative units. A common defect of a geographically large unit of school administration, such as the county, grows out of the' fact that individual schools are more or less remote from the central officer. The county administration has the money and the local schools have the emergency problems, some of which involve expending funds immediately in order to avoid the cumulative cost of repairs that are delayed.
Good working relationships are necessary between the central administration and the individual schools. These include the determination of general policies by the lay public, the professional staff, and the central administration; the application of these policies to the school program; and the handling of routine matters of administration within state laws and the local general policies. The principle should be observed that the head teacher or principal within an individual school ought to have the authority and means to do whatever is needed when it is needed. Those matters which can be taken care of best on a county-wide basis, however, should be determined and should be so handled.
Relations.hips between county and independent administrative units. The1 county and independent school administrative units often work together on a contractual basis. In some instances the independent units have virtually become parts of county units although retaining their legal identities. In others instances, county children are served by the independent units, especially at high-school level, on the basis of agreements be-
256

for the fiscal years 1937-38 through 1944-45. The figures in this chart reveal that state funds for education increased from $14,132,567 in 1937-38 to $21,040,196 in 1944-45. During the same period, the allocated federal funds increased from $640,209 to $4,047,212. When combined and added to the insignificant amounts of grants, earnings, and balance carrie'd forward, the total funds available for disbursement by the State Department of Education increased from $14,827,253 in 1937-38 to $25,762,802 in 1944-45. The increase in federal funds for education during this period was due to the expansion of vocational rehabilitation facilities and the inception of a vocational defense training program and school lunch program. The vocational defense training program was a war-time activity and no longer exists.

TABLE 21

INDEX OF RELATIVE ABILITY OF THIRTEEN SOUTHERN STATES TO SUPPORT EDUCATION BASED ON 1940 DATAa

Income received per capita
United States .................. 573 Florida .............................. 465 Texas ................................ 422 Virginia ............................ 455 Oklahoma ........................ 354 Louisiana .......................... 350 Tennessee ........................ 325 Kentucky .......................... 330 GEORGIA ........................ 321 North Carolina ................ 317 Alabama .......................... 264 South Carolina ................ 281 Arkansas .......................... 253 Mississippi ........................ 195

Index
100 81 74 79 62 61 57 58 56 55 46 49 44 34

Income received per school age child (ages 5-17)
$2,539 2,094 1,696 1,648 1,360 1,349 1,256 1,244 1,202 1,106 936 . 950
932 693

Index
100 83 67 65 54 53 50 49 47 44 37 37 37 28

a An Inventory of Public School Expenditures in the United States, Volume I. 744 Jackson Place, N. W., W'ashington, D. C.: American Council on Education. 1944.

265

4. Steps be taken to study the desirability of a single lay board for the control of all public e'ducation in Georgia. (This perhaps is incidental to the present study but a recommendation which should be given serious consideration.)
5. The 12-grade plan of educational organization be adopted, with the first six grades constituting the elementary school and the second six grades constituting the secondary school.
6. The details of county school organization be removed from the' state constitution and enacted in the form of statutes.
7. School administrative units in Georgia be adjusted primarily to the educational, social, and economic needs of natural communities rather than to the boundary lines of governmental units such as municipalities and counties. Such boundary lines, however, should be used when convenient. Ultimately, the county school administrative unit should be superseded by a unit established on a large-community basis, its composition to be determined by careful studies of local needs.
8. County boards of education be chosen by the people at a non-partisan election held separately from the general elections, preferably in May or June.
9. The constitution be amended to permit county boards of education to choose the county school superintendent by appointment rather than by popular vote if the county so prefers. The need for this change has been demonstrated in several connections to improve the county school administrative unit in Georgia.
10. The qualifications of the county school superintendent be as follows:
a. At least 25 years of age.
b. At least a Bachelor's degree.
c. At least 15 semester hours of graduate work in school administration including supervision.
d. At least five years' experience in actual school ad-
258

It should be borne in mind that the funds shown in Figure 14 were not all disbursed to county and independent school systems. Operating and capital outlay cost for the State Department of Education, the free textbook program, the vocational rehabilitation program, the school for the blind, the school for the deaf, and the vocational trade schools must be paid from the total funds available to the State .Department of Education.
The actual state grants in aid to county and independent school systems from 1937-38 through 1944-45 are shown in Table 22. This table does not separate funds by source but shows the item of cost for which the funds were allocated. An analysis of this table reveals that state grants in aid to county and independent school systems increased from $13,033,404 in 1937-38 to $23,286,744 in 1944-45. These state grants included both state and federal funds. Figures are not yet available for the school year 1945-46 and for the year 1946-47. It is anticipated, however, that state grants in aid for teachers' salaries alone will amount to approximately $23,000,000 for the school year 1946-47. This will be in effect an increase of more than 150 percent in state aid for teachers' salaries over 1937-38. Individual teachers' salaries have increased approximately 100 percent since 1937-38.
It is impossible from available records to secure a complete and accurate picture of total revenues available for education in Georgia. Local school officials in making reports to the State Department of Education have not separated tax revenues collected for operation and capital outlay. This has been particularly true for district taxes. Table 23 shows local tax revenues available for education. This table shows a total figure only and does not differentiate between taxes for operation and bonds. This table reveals an increase in local tax for education revenues from $10,796,503 in 1937-38 to $13,043,613 in 1943-44.
A change in tax rate for school purposes as permitted under the new Constitution became effective on August 13, 1945. Prior to August 13, many counties had made their levies under the provisions of the old Constitution which limited them to five mills county-wide and five mills local district.
From the best information available there were 62 counties that levied a five mill county-wide tax under the' provisions of the old Constitution during the school year 1945-46. Of these,
267

of Education to set the pattern for agreements between county systems and between county and independent school systems. 'These agre'ements should be subject to review by the State Board in order to protect both parties as well as to insure the best local use of state funds.

19. Legislation be enacted extending the provisions of the School Act of 1946 with respect to children living near county lines. A limit of as much as five miles to the nearest school might well be' established.

20. Every legal encouragement be extended to establish attendance units of sufficient size to make possible an improved school program at reasonable cost. The need for such encouragement is especially urgent at secondary-school level. The survey method recommended in the next chapter as a basis for the distribution of state school aid would be a long step in eliminating small and expensive attendance units that are demonstrated to be unnecessary.

21. The educational policies within an administrative unit be worked out by the central administration, the professional staff, and the lay public.

22. Sound working relationships be e'stablished between the central office and the school principals and staff in both county and independent school administrative units to insure reasonably effective day-to-day administration.

23. The limits of the responsibilities and authority of principals be worked out between the administration and the principals, in accordance with the established policies of the administrative unit; and these, limits should be known to all concerned.

24. Budgets be set up for each school, or a small petty cash

fund establish~d for each to care for emergencies. These

should be safeguarded by simple but adequate account-

ing procedures, upon which, after adoption by the board

of education, principals may draw without further au-

thorization.



260

Independent city systems are not included, since the new Constitution did not affect their tax-levying status.

Accurate information is difficult to obtain where schools are operated under a system permitted by the old Constitution. Reports of local districts are unreliable and often not available.

Below is a tabulation showing the number of counties levying different millage for the 1945-46 school year.

Number of counties
75 1 7
24 10
4 4 33 1

Number of mills levied
5
6 7 10 12 13 14 15 17

Total 159
To secure a complete picture of total revenues available for the support of ~ducation on the local level, it is necessary to add all state grants in aid to all local tax revenues, loans, earnings, donations, and balances brought forward from previous years. According to the annual reports of the State Department of Education the total revenues available for the support' of education were as follows:
1937-3 8 ---------------------------------- $28,384,743.13 1939-40 ---------------------------------- 29,701,537.74 1941-42 -------------------------------- 37,669,778.74 1943-4 4 --------- ----------------------- 43,033,307.92 1944-453 ------------------------------- 37'771,499.00
Expenditures. Expenditures for public education in Georgia have increased greatly since 1937-38. Table' 24 shows public school expenditures in the State from 1937-38 through 1944-45. An analysis of this table reveals an increase from $26,927,405 to $37,771,499 in 1944-45. The increase was ac~ually greater than indicated by these figures, since district expenditure's are not included in the 1944-45 totals. The total expenditures for
3 Does not include district revenues.
269

public school finance is current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance. Current expenditures include all school revenues expended with the exception of expenditures for capital outlay and debt service. Table 19 shows current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance for six southern states for the fiscal years 1941-42 and 1944-45. A study of this table reveals that Ge'orgia ranked fourth among the six states shown in current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in both 1941-42 and 1944-45. From 1941-42 to 194445, current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance increased in all of the six states. Georgia registered a percentage increase of 43.2 percent during this period. Three of the six states (Kentucky, South Carolina, and M'ississippi), however, had greater percentage increases than Georgia; and three had gre'ater increases (Louisiana, Kentucky, and South Carolina). This table clearly indicates that Georgia has not proceeded alone in increasing expenditures for education.
The National average for current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in 1941-42 was $98.31.1 This average expenditure for all state's was close to twice that of Georgia. There is no reason to believe that the ratio of difference has changed materially since 1941-42 as such data as are available indicate that most states have increased their expenditures for education in somewhat the same proportion as Georgia.

TABLE 19

CURRENT EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR SIX SOUTHERN STATES-1941-42 AND 1944-45a

State

1941-42

Rank

Per pupil cost

Louisiana

1

$65.93

Kentucky

2

51:38

MSAGoeliausosbtrhigasmisaCipaapr.i.o....l...i.....n......a..........

3 4
5 6

45.51 44.57
39.75 31.52

1944-45
Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6

Per pupil
cost
$92.37 77.21 66.00 63.84 53.79 45.67

Percentage in-
crease from 194142 to 1944-45
40.1 50.3 45.0 43.2 35.3 44.9

a Annual Reports, State Department of Education of listed states. Published data for other southern states for 1944-45 are not yet available.

The relative effort made by the Southern States in supporting education, in supporting all state and local governments, and

1 "Advance Statistics of State ~chool Systems" Education for Victory, Washington, D. C.; U. S. Office of Education, 1944.
262

PERCENT

100

I III

90

LEGEND:

miiiJ GA.

1939

80 1-1--l~-l-.....-1~-l-+-f-+--+-f-1--f---lf-f--f-_,1--f--l 1SSSJ GA.

1945

EZZa SOUTH

1942

70 60 50

lo+~f--+--+-~f--~~ ~~ ~+-% -~~~+~~--~~~~1~ ~-+- --++-+---1---11-+-t-+--~-+-+----t~-r~-~--~+f----+t~~ --_-_--,~t~---++-+---1--~E~~~3~~f~ u-. +s+. --+~--19++42----++--~~--++~~~ ~

40 30 20

~ ~~~ ~~ ~~!~ ~ ~ ~~:%~:~~ ~=~:~~~-+--+1--+ +-~+~-~-~~~~--+~ +----~+-+--~-~1- -~+~-~-+-~~~-~+- ~-~+~-~~-++-~~~

~~~ ~ 10 1%1 El

~~ ~~ ~~ ~m ~~ .......,., s m~~ (1!1~ m~ rnrnB ...l...li~::.~E

0

GENERAL CONTROL

1N~TRUCTION
AL SERVICE

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

FIXED CHARGES

AUXILIARY AGENCIES

DEBT SERVICE

CAPITAL OUTLAY

FIGURE 15

PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL FUNDS EXPENDED FOR MAJOR EXPENSE PURPOSES -GEORGIA, 1939 and 1945, S. E.

STATES, 1942, and UNITED STATES, 1942

__ .ill

Source: Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Reports, 1938-39 and unpublished data for 1944-45, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, 1941-42.

total money value of all earnings of all .the individuals and corporate bodies of the state for the year._ In Table 21, the re'lative ability of 13 southern states to support education is presented. An ind.ex of each state's ability is given. This index was obtained by dividing the average total income of all the 48 states and the District of Columbia into the total income of each .state. The index figure 100, therefore, represents the average income of all the states and the District of Columbia. The table shows both income received per capita and income received per school age child. The ability of a state to raise tax revenues is directly related to income received per capita, whereas ability to provide educational opportunity is directly related to income received per school age child.
A study of Table 21 reveals that 7 of 13 southern states had a gre'ater income for both per capita and per school age child than Georgia. It is significant to note that of the five southern states with less ability tb support education than Georgia (North Carolina, Alabama, South Carolina, Arkansas, and Mississippi) only Arkansas failed to exert a greater effort to support education. This fact is revealed by comparing Tables 20 and 21. Georgia's income received per capita in 1940 was $321 as compared to $573 for the nation as a whole'. The income received per school age child for 1940 was $1,202 for Georgia and $2,539 for the United States. It is interesting to note that the index of income received per capita was greater than the index of income received per school age child in all of the southern states other than Florida. This means that these 12 states had more' children to educate per adult than the average state.
The data presented heretofore relative to the status of public school finance in Georgia reveal that Georgia ranks low among the states in relative ability to finance education and has not exerted an effort equal to the national average effort. Current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance for Georgia are approximate'ly' half that of the nation I}S a whole.
2. Trends in School Support
Receipts by sou'rces of revenue. The fact that Georgia is coming to recognize its financial responsibility to education is evidenced by the increasing anriual state appropriations made for education. Figure 14 shows income receipts available to the State De'partment of Education from state revenue allotments
264

opportunity for the children of .the State. The value or purchasing power of the dollar must be considered.
Table 25 presented herein shows the instructional cost in Georgia per pupil in average daily attendance, per pupil in average daily attendance adjusted for the purchasing power of the dollar, per pupil per day in session, and per pupil per day in session adjusted for the purchasing power of the dollar by race for the school years 1937-38 through 1944-45. In columns three and five of this table the value of the dollar has been adjusted in accordance with the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumers' Price Index for Cities plus war adjustment increments as determined by the National Education Association Research Service.
An analysis of this table reveals that the instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the State increased from $27.71 in 1937-38 to $46.28 in 1944-45. When these figures were adjusted for the purchasing power of the dollar, however, the actual value increase was from $27.19 to $34.93. A comparison of columns two and three shows this relationship of per pupil in average daily attendance expenditures by white, Negro, and total for the five different years given.
An even better comparative picture of expenditures for instructional purposes is obtained when columns four and five of Table 25 are studied. A comparison of these' figures reveals that the instructional cost per pupil per day in session increased from 17 to 27 cents from 1937-38 to 1944-45; but when the purchasing power of the dollar is taken into consideration, the increase is from 17 to 20 cents per pupil per day.
273

STATE
1937-38 ,--::x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x=x~$.14,14-;-;3;:-;,5;;-;6;-;;7,-----------_,
1939-40 xxx:xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx:xxxx: $15,689,586 1941-42 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx:x $15,193,582 1943-44 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx:xxxxx $17,718,271 1944-45 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx:xxxxxxxxxxxxx $21,040,196

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1937-381XXX

$640,209

1939-40 xxxx $651,106

1941-42 xxxxxxxx $2,802,985

1943-44 xxxxxxxxxxx

$3,212,958

1944-45 lxxxxxxxxxxxx $4,047,212

GIFTS AND DONATIONS

1937-38 XX

$40,510

1939-40 1

$18,619

1941:42 1

$13,944

1943-44 X

$25,583

1944-45 X

$35,053

~------~~----------------------------------~

'.
.: ~.

1937-38 1 1939-40 1

1941-42 1

1943-44 11

1944-45 XI

$1,435
$ 216 $ 185 $1,957 $9,280

EARNINGS

BALANCE FROM PREVIOUS YEAR

1937-38 =n:---------$12,532

1939-40 1

$ 7,706

1941-42 XXX 1943-44 xxxx

$613,346 $819,762

1944-45 XXX

$631,060

TOTAL

1937-38 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx $14,827,253 1939-40 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx:xx. $16,367,233 1941-42 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx: $18,624,041

1943-44 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx $21,778,531 1944-45 .x:xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx $:?..5,762

Millions

5

10

15

20 .

25

FIGURE 14

:..

INCOME RECEIPTS FROM STATE REVENUE ALLOTMENTS,

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 1938-1945

Source: Reports of the State Auditor of Georgia for the yeara ending June 30, 1938, 40, 42, 44, and 45.

Instructional cost, Figure 16 shows the percentage of Georgia school systems educating children at different instructional cost expenditure levels by race for the school year 1944-45. A study of this figure reveals a wide variation in expenditures for instruction among the various county and independent school systems of the State. The instructional expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance .ranged from less than $10 to $60 for Negroes and from less than $10 to more than $100 for whites. The greatest percent (56.37) of the school systems of the State spent from 20 to 30 dollars for instruction per Negro pupil in average daily attendance, while the greatest percent (33.49) of the school systems in the State spent from 50 to 60 dollars for instruction per white pupil in average daily attendance.
Figure 16 indicates that educational opportunity within the State has not been equalized. The figure further reveals that educational opportunity in some school systems is woefully inadequate, whereas in other school systems expenditures per pupil indicate a fairly adequate program.
Qualifications of teachers. One of the best indications of the educational opportunity afforded the' children enrolled in a school system is the educational qualifications of its teachers.
It is generally accepted that a teacher should be a college graduate. According to this standard, 53 percent of all white and 77 percent of all Negro teachers were not fully qualified in 1943-44. 'This information is presented in Table 26.
When the average qualifications of all teachers in the various school systems were considered, it was found that the average training of white teachers by syste'ms varied from one year in Gilmer county and other counties to four years in the city of Columbus and many other systems. The average training of Neg.ro teachers varied froni a county license (or no college training) in Echols and many other counties to four years in Gainesville, Atlanta, and many other systems. The better trained teachers are found in those' school systems capable of paying the best salaries. The children living- in those counties. of meager financial ability will continue to receive inadequate and unequal educational opportunities until financial equality is more nearly attained through increase'd state funds distributed on an equalization basis.
275

36 counties reported that the districts levied local district taxes amounting to $272,746. Thirteen counties levying under the provisions of the new Constitution levied only 5 mills, while 83 counties levied from 6 to 15 mills, wtih one levying 17 mills.
If 100 percent of the taxes levied for school purposes (other than for bonds and interest on bonds) for the year 1945-46 were collected, the income would amount to: County-wide, $5,900,092; local district tax, $272,746; total possible revenue for 1945-46 equals $6,172,838. These figures do not include taxes that were raised in the independent school systems of the State.
Should all county systems levy the full constitutional limit of 15 mills upon the tax digest, the total income from local revenue' for county school systems for another year would be increased by approximately $2,932,000.
All the above figures for revenue would actually be reduced for the reason that 100 percent is never collectible.

TABLE 22
STATE GRANTS IN AID TO COUNTY AND INDEPENDENT SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1937-38 THROUGH 1944-45a

1937-38 1939-40 1941-42 1943-44 1944-45

Teachers' salaries

Administration

Equalization

Lunchroom, !lational defense,
Vocational foundation Education grants, etc.

Total

$ 8,946,265 $ 308,974 $3,171,389 $605,775 $ 1,000 $13,033,404 9,096,847 1,020,685 3,768,475 749,150 .................. 14,635,157 9,466,778 935,760 3,770,700 793,555 1,717,484 16,684,277 10;995,880 1,168,626 4,822,972 767,765 2,291,563 20,046,806 13,606,798 1,045,410 4,940,447 753,705 2,940,384 23,286,744

a Reports of the State Auditor of Georgia for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1938, 1940, 1942, 1944, and 1945.

TABLE 23
COUNTY-CITY-DISTRICT TAX REVENUES FOR OPERATION AND BONDS, 1937-38 THROUGH 1943-44a
1937-38 .......................................................................... $10,796,503 1939-40 .......................................................................... 11,062,923 1941-42 .......................................................................... 10,917,840 1943-44 .......................................................................... 13,043,613
a Annual Reports of the Georgia State Department of Education, 1937-38, 1939-40, 1941-42, and 1943-44.
268

TABLE 26
THE NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF WHITE AND NEGRO SCHOOL TEACHERS BY THE LEVEL OF CERTIFICATES HELD BY THEM FOR THE YEAR 1943-44a

1943-44

1948-44

Class of certificate

Number

Percent

White

Number

Percent

Negro

0 County license.......................... 1,295

7.7

2,015

26.6

1-A certificate ............................ 1,164

7.1

952

12.5

2-year certificate ...................... 4,273

25.7

2,077

27.5

3-year certificate ...................... 2,066

12.7

774

10.6

4-year certificate ...................... 6,971

42.0

1,689

22.2

5-year certificate ........................ 820

4.8

45

.6

----------------------------------

TOTAL ................................16,589

100.0

7,552

100.0

a Teacher Supply and Demand in Georgia, Education Panel, Athens, Georgia, 1945 pp. 11 .and 12.
Physical facilities. The school plant facilities available in a community limit in many instances the educational opportunity available to the children of the community. The survey of school buildings in Georgia conducted by the Education Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board in 1944 revealed many facts of vital importance. A few of the'se facts relating directly to educational opportunity are set forth herein as follows:

1. Libraries were found in 30 percent of the white schools, lunchrooms in 32 percent, auditoriums in 28 percent, auditoriumgymnasiums or gymnasiums in 6 percent, and health clinics in 6 percent.

2. Libraries were found in 4 percent of the Negro schools, lunchrooms in 12 percent, auditoriums in 5 percent, auditoriumgymnasiums or gymnasiums in .3 percent, and health clinics in .8 percent.

3. More than 50 percent of all the school buildings of the State fail to provide appropriate rooms and other building facilities to carry on a good school program.

4. Ability to finance the construction of school buildings varies greatly among the counties. For example, Dawson County by bonding to the limit, could raise sufficient funds to provide for only 24 percent of its minimum building needs, whereas many other counties can raise more than sufficient funds to provide for their minimum building needs.

277

TABLE 24
PUBLIC SCHOOL EXPENDITURES, 1937-38 THROUGH 1944-458

Function

1937-38

1939-40

General control ......................................$ 847,467 $ 838,395

Instructional service ............................ 16,722,816 18,262,065

Operation and maintenance.................. 1,910,914

1,920,997

t\:) ~
0

Fixed charges ........................................

b

Auxiliary agencies ................................ 2,424,469

354,759 2,788,488

Debt service ............................................ 3,557,208

4,012,195

Cap.tal outlay ........................................ 1,464,531

861,626

TOTAL ............................................$26,927,405 $29,038,525

1941-42
$ 921,071 20,494,466 2,298,455 485,906 3,275,853 3,013,189 1,738,549
$32,227,489

1943-44
$ 1,275,267 24,165,469 2,531,759 585,939 4,742,217 .3,108,800 1,008,810
$37,418,261

1944-45 c
$ 1,272,177 25,288,764 2,121,216 607,576 5,597,113 2,104,736 779,897
$37,771,479

Percentage gain or loss-1937-38 to 1944-45
+ 50.12 + 51.22 + 11.01
+130.86 - 40.83 - 46.75
+ 40.27

a Annual Reports of the Georgia State Department of Education 1937-38, 1939-40, 1941-42, 1943-44 and 1944-45. b Included in operation and maintenance. c Does not include district expenditures.

TABLE 27

WEALTH PER CHILD IN A. D. A. AS MEASURED BY PROPERTY DIGEST AND PROPERTY DIGEST ADJUSTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH INDEX OF ABILITY-1944

County

Total tax Total adjusted digest per tax digest per
pupil in pupil in
A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

Appling ..............$ 599
Atkinson ............ 723 Bacon ................ 731
Baker .................. 929
Baldwin ............ 1,236

Banks ................ 670

BBBBaeeanrrrrrtoioHewwnill......................................................

781 1,334
932
735

BBBilrbeacbnktll.e.e.y.y........................................

2,748 916
1,079

Brooks Bryan

................................

984 1,325

BBBuuulrtltkosech................................................

768 980 1,652

Calhoun .............. 831
Camden .............. 1,820

Candler .............. 801

Carroll ................ 775

Catoosa .............. 548

Charlton Chatham

........................

2,138 3,246

CCCChhhlaeaarrttktotaoekhoeog.e.o.a.c....h......e......e....................

2,264 749 954
1,148

Clay .................... 707

Clayton Clinch

..............................

947 1,968

CCCoooblfqfbeue.i.t.t...............................................

1,412 631 685

Columbia ............ 1,291

CCCooraowwkeft.ao...r.d.......................................

841 1,404 1,012

Crisp .................. 959

Dade .................. 1,395

Dawson

416

Decatur .............. 1,202

DeKalb .............. 2,729

Dodge ................ 660

$ 657 663 907 629
1,314
558 947 1,335 1,477 891
2,964 972 818 942 998
1,081 945
1,633 758
1,424
1,086 864 604
1,640 3,572
2,954 829 973
1,074 839
880 1,649 1,191
756 794
943 987 1,320 897 1,154
1,087 418
1,169 3,332
656

County

Total tax Total adjusted digest per tax digest per pupil in pupil in
A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

DDoooulgyherty........

834 4,141

EDEcaohruolgyllsas................

818 841 2,151

Effingham ........ 1,373

EEFEamvlbnaaennnrsitune.l.........................................

1,090 796 601 539

Fayette .............. 639

FFloorysdyth................................

1,749 346

GFFruiallmtnokenrlin................

615 5,010
860

Glascock ............ 426

Glynn .................. 1,924
Gordon .............. 900

Grady 588

GGHHHrwaaaenlbielcennorn.esc.e.hk.t.at..m.............................................

717 893 1,967 987 778

Haralson ............ 1,030

Harris Hart Heard Henry

..................................................

2,224 568 509
1,085

Houston ............ 1,058

IJrawckinson..............

868 817

Jeff Davis .......... 758

JJJJaoeensfhfpkneeisrnrossnon......................................

1,325
667 957 543

JLoanmesar................

1,039 1,290

Lanier 573
Laurens .............. 796

LLLeiinbeceortlyn............................

1,671 1,067
717

728 4,346
947 898 1,448
1,043 1,135 1,005 1,046
559
666 1,773
559 889 4,579
910 681 1,802 1,048 854
862 922 1,621 1,015 777
1,126 1,558
714 532 1,017
1,019 940 976 767
1,297
918
1,0~7
676 863 1,369
722 822 1,022 1,102 777

279

1944-45 would probably equal about $42,000,000 if district expenditures were included. During the school year 194o-47, expenditures will probably total more than $50,000,000 because of the anticipated 50 percent increase in teachers' salaries and increased tax rates on the local level now permitted by the Constitution adopted in August, 1945.

When expenditures are viewed by functions, it is evident from Table 24 that the greatest dollar increase has been for instructional service but the greatest percentage increase has be'en for auxiliary agencies. The growth of expenditures for auxiliary agencies has been due to the institution of the fed.. erally supported school lunch program and the expansion of transportation facilities. It is interesting to note that expenditures for capital outlay and debt service actually decreased during the period under review. This decrease was d:ue to the virtual cessation of school house construction during the war years. This period of building inactivity has resulted in a backlog of building needs which will take several years to overcome ,(see Chapter VI, The School Plant). Figure 15 compares the percentage of school funds expended for major expense purposes in Georgia with the Southeastern states and the United States. This chart reveals that a greater percentage of the school dollar goes for instructional service and auxiliary agencies in Georgia than in other southeastern states or the United States and less for general control.

An analysis of expenditure' increases is more meaningful when

viewed in terms of expenditures per pupil in average daily

attendance and per pupil per day in session. Furthermore, the

most valid financial measure of educational opportunity is in-

structional cost, although more school finance authorities use

current expenditures for operation as thei:['l measure of educa-

tional opportunity. The Survey Staff, howeve'r, feels that cur-

rent expenditures do not afford a valid measure because of the

transportation variable. For example, a city and county school

system may each spend $80 per pupil in average daily attend-

ance for current operation; yet the city system would probably

have no transportation cost while the county might be spending

$20 per pupil for transportation.



An increase in expenditures for instructional service, however, does not necessarily indicate an increase in educational

272

TABLE 27 (Continued)

City

Total tax Total adjusted

digest pertax digest per

pupil in pupil in

A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

Rome .................. 2,438 Tallapoosa ........ 745 Thomaston ........ 2,006 Thomasville ...... 1,787 Tifton ................ 1,460

2,471 814
1,875 1,758 1,853

City

Total tax Total adjusted

digest per tax digest per

pupil in pupil in

A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

Trion .................. 1,842 Valdosta ............ 1,883 Vienna ................ 1,023 Winder .............. 1,498

2,039 2,254
893 1,816

vast differences in local wealth per child in average daily attendance between the various school systems of the State, as shown in Table 27, and the small units (county and independent) school systems to which state funds are distributed and which operate schools. An analysis of the size of local school units has been made in Chapter XI of this report. This analysis revealed that most Georgia school systems are too small to operate efficiently.
4. Analysis of Expenditures
The fact that state funds for education increased from 13 to more than 23 million dollars' from 1937-38 to 1944-45 may raise a question as to how this additional revenue was spent. An analysis of expenditures by major expense items for the years 1938-39 and 1944-45 is presented in Table 28. This table also compares the percent that each item is of .total expenditures with the average percents for the South and the Nation in 1941-42. A study of Table 28 reveals the following pertinent facts:
1. The percentage of expenditures for general control in Georgia, compared to the total expenditures, has decreased from 3.69 percent in 1939 to 3.37 percent in 1945. The average for the two years was 3.53 percent, as compared with 4.85 percent in the Southeastern State's and 4.38 percent for the Nation.
2. For instructional service Georgia showed an increase from 63.89 percent in 1939 to 66.93 percent in 1945, while the Southeast spent 63.91 percent and the Nation 63.01 percent.
3. For maintenance and operation Georgia shows a decrease from 7.35 percent in 1939 to 5.62 percent in 1945, against

281

TABLE 25

INSTRUCTIONAL COST IN GEORGIA PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE ADJUSTED FOR PURCHASING POWER OF THE DOLLAR, AND PER PUPIL PER DAY IN SESSION ADJUSTED FOR PURCHASING POWER OF THE DOLLARWHITE, NEGRO, AND TOTAL FOR THE SCHOOL YEARS 1937-38 THROUGH 1944-45a

Years
(1)

Average cost per pupil in average daily attendance
(2)

Average costb per pupil in
A.D.A. adjust>d for pur-
chasing power of the dollar
(3)

.A,verage cost per pupil per
day in session
{4)

Average cost perb pupil per day in session adjusted for purchasing
power of the dollar
{5)

1937-38
White

................

36.11

35.44

.21

.21

Negro Total

..................................

11.89 27.71

11.67 27.19

.08 .17

.08 .17

1939-40
White

................

39.24

39.38

.22

.22

Negro ................ 13.81

13.80

.09

.09

Total .................. 30.53

30.50

.18

.18

1941-42

White ................ 40.82

35.40

.23

.20

Negro ................ 15.63

13.56

.10

.09

Total 31.88

27.65

.18

.16

1943-44

White ................ 55.57

42.85

.31

.24

Negro 20.59

15.88

.12

.09

Total 42.90

33.08

.25

.19

1944-45

White Negro

................................

58.22 24.40

43.94 18.42

.33 .15

.25 .11

Total 46.28

34.93

.27

.20

a Annual Reports of the Georgia State Department of Education, 1937-38, 1939-40, 1941-42, 1943-44, and 1944-45.

b Figures shown herein adjusted for purchasing power of the dollar in accordance with the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumers' Price Index for cities (1935-39 prices equal 100) as shown in N. E,. A. Research Service "Schools and Current Economic Trends," 1946, No. 1, September, 1946.

3. Inequalities in Educational Opportunities in Georgia
Educational opportunity may be measured in terms of several diffe.rent factors. No one factor is an infallible measure within itself. To understand fully the inequalities in educational opportunities in Georgia, the various factors under consideration must be studied in the various county and independent school systems within the State. The factors considered in the analysis made herein are instructional cost per pupil, qualifications of te'achers, physical facilities, and local wealth and ability to raise tax revenues.

274

TABLE 28
A COMPARISON OF EXPENDITURES BY MAJOR EXPENSE ITEMSGEORGIA 1938-39 AND 1944 COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGE FOR THE SOUTH AND THE NATION FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 1941-42a

Major
exvense items

Georgia

1938-39

1944-45

South
1941-42

Nation
1941-42

General control .................................. 3.69

3.37

4.85

4.38

Instructional service ........................ 63.89

66.95

63.91

63.01

Operation and maintenance.............. 7.35

5.62

8.05

12.48

Fixed charges .................................... .67

1.61

2.39

3.49

Transportation .................................. 7.90b

9.19c

Total aux. agencies............................ 7.90

14.82

9.02

6.00

Debt service ........................................ 4.74

5.57

4.74

4.70

Capital outlay .................................... 11.76

2.06

7.02

5.94

-------------------------------

Total expenditures ....................100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

a Biennial Survey of Education, U. S. Office of Education, Washington D. C.: 1941-42, and Annual Reports of the Georgia State Department of Education.
b Duplication.
c Duplication-includes $1,487,458 federal funds for lunches.

Increased term. An indication of how the school children of the State benefited directly from the increases in state school funds is revealed by a study of Figures 17 and 18 showing the number of students attending schools for various length of terms. The number of white children attending schools operating from 171 to 180 days increased from 374,222 to 460,164 from 1939-40 to 1944-45, whereas the number attending schools operating from 131 to 140 days decreased from 42,718 to 761 during the same period. The increase in the length of terms of Negro schools was greater than that of whites. The number of Negro children enrolled in schools operating from 171 to 180 days increased from 98,960 in 1939-40 to 151,269 in 194445. During this same period the number of Negro children attending schools operating from 131 to 140 days decreased from 90,550 to 40,515.

Increased services. Since 1937-38, many services have either been added or increased in the public schools. The school lunch program was instituted during the period and it is estimated that 33,200,000 meals were serve'd to school children during the 1945-46 term. Except for the state administrative cost this program has been financed by the Federal Government, fees from children and local donations. This program has contributed much to the health and welfare' of thousands of Georgia children. Transportation and library facilities have been ex-

283

INSTRUCTIONAL EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN A. D. A.
SIOO AND OVER

811.42

$90 TO SIOO SBOTO $90 S7oTo sao 560 TO $70 $50 TO $60 S40TO $50
S30TO 540 S20TO 530

.94 .94
~ 9.43

LEGEND:

t\\'%\1 WHITE

I

I NEGRO

~

15.57

~33.49
.49
-\.~28.37
~ I
f=1 2.:5 ~:8.02
11.27 I
~ I 1.4.2

56.37

SIOTO 520


'26.47

LESS THAN $10

1.47
~ 2.~4

PERCENT 10

20

30

40

50

60

FIGURE 16

Percentage of Georgia School Systems Educating Children at Different Instructional Cost Expenditure Levels

Under 120 days (6 Months)

193 9-4 0 I=X~X-'-1-!-I------,--3_6'+/-9, _3_0---+/--------clc-----+

-+--' 1941-42
1943-44 1945

11xX~"X'+X~-/l/....--'/f--I------o:4;81-'--,::-247';;--,:;:3-;;-;:47/1\-7:00::-/----'

1:------:

il---+1

I

I

1--

--+ --r

121-130 days (6-6% Months)

XX/ I 31,1508 I

I

I

I I 67 I I I I

1 /269 I I I I

1 /397 I

I

I

I

131-140 days (6%-7 Months)

1939-40 X4:X I

190,5501

I

I

1941-42 XXX I

199,0041

I

I

1943-44 XX/ I

163,5651

I

I

1945 XXI I

140,5151

I

I

141-150 days (7-7% Months)

Xi /4,554

I I

X/ /1,893

I I

1 /1,311
I 11,064

I I I I

rl51-160 days (7%-8 Months)

1939-40 XI I 9,6519 I

I

I

1941-42 XX/ I 38,4111 I

I

I

1943-44 XX! I 48,8411 I

I

I

1945 XXXI I 50,7915 I

I

I

161-170 days (8-8% Months)

X/ /1,304
I 11,112 I I 994

I I I I I I

1 /1,139

I I

171-180 days (8%-9 Months)

1939-40 XXXXI

98,9601

I. I

1941-42 XXXXX/ 127,9171

I

I

1943-44 xxxxx I 139,3181

I

I

1945 XXXXXX/ 151,2891

I

I

Thousands 0 100 200 300 400 500

Totals

XXXXXXXXXXXI I 273,4165

XXXXXXXXXXI / 269,2188

XXXXXXXXXI I 256,0168

XXXXXXXXI

I 249,6129

0 100 200 300 400 500

FIGURE 18
NEGRO PUPILS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS OPERATING FOR VARIOUS LENGTHS OF TERMS (Gross Enrollment)
Source: Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Reports 1939-1945.

5. The average value of school property in the State is $101 per pupil enrolled. The average in the nation is $371 per pupil enrolled.
The facts set forth above serve to emphasize the fact that thousands of Georgia school children daily attend school in buildings that are inadequate. There is little hope for a reme'dy to this situation except through state or federal aid or both. (See Chapter VI, The School Plant).
Variations in wealth. County and independent school systems in Georgia secure local revenues for the support of education through property taxes. The wealth per child in average daily attendance, as measured by the property digest, therefore constitutes a measure of the ability of the system to support education locally. Because of variations between counties in assessment procedures, however, the tax digest is not a reliable measure, of ability. Therefore a true picture of relative wealth per child cannot be secured unless the property digest of each county is adjusted in accordance with a reliable inde'x of wealth. Such an index has been computed and will be presented in detail in a later section of this chapter.
Table 27 shows the wealth per child in average daily attendance by school systems as measured by property digest and the property digest adjusted in accordance with the index of ability. A study of this table reveals vast differences in wealth per child in average daily attendance between the various school systems of the State. For example, the 1944 total adjusted tax digest per pupil in average daily attendance was $368 in Towns County and $4,579 in Fulton County. The spread between systems on the actual 1944 tax digest was even greater. In 1944, the total tax digest (unadjusted) per pupil in average daily attendance was $235 in Union County and $5,010 in Fulton County.
In the discussion of trends in state school support, in a previous section of this chapter, it was pointed out that state school funds increased from approximately 13 million dollars in 1937-38 to more than 23 million dollars in 1944-45. A referral to Figure 16, however, reveals that this increase in state school funds was insufficient to equalize educational opportunity between the various school systems of the State. This failure to equalize educational opportunity has .been due to the
278

fined. It seems reasonable that the average for teachers should be much higher than the average that includes almost the entire labor force of the nation. Teachers have invested ye'ars in educational preparation and have perfected professional skills that justify superior salaries. In 1940 the average American adult had reached an educational level somewhere near the end of first-year high school; the average public-school teacher had completed six or seven additional years of high-school and college preparation."4

A research study conducted at the University of Florida in

1946 reached the conclusion that a single teacher could not

maintain a decent standard of living on less than $2,300 per

year. This estimate includes all living expenses plus insurance,

retirement, and income tax payments.

It is recommended that state funds be increased to guarantee

.

a four-year-college professionally trained beginning teacher a

minimum salary of $200 per month for each month worked.

This would give a teacher a guaranteed salary of $2,400 provided she worked 12 months. Teachers are at present required to work for one week prior to the beginning of school and one week after the close of school. Most teachers therefore now work for nine and one-half months. In keeping with the recommendations made in Chapter IV of this report, e:xpressing the need for a 12-months educational program, it is felt that the State should make it possible for local school systems to inaugurate such a program by providing for a maximum of 12-months pay for teachers. Time spent by teachers in attending summe'r schools should be counted as time spent on the' job prov:ided the teacher is engaged in a professional improvement activity which has been approved- by the local board of education employing the teacher.

At present, a four-year-college professionally trained beginning teacher makes $1,692 per year for nine and one-half months. In order to effect the recommended increase in teachers' pay, it would be necessary, if all teachers worked 12 months, therefore, to increase state teacher salary funds ap-

4 "Schools and Current Economic Trends, No. 2." Washington 6, D. C.: National Education Association, Research Division. October, 1946.
287

TABLE 27

WEALTH PER CHILD IN A. D. A. AS MEASURED BY PROPERTY DIGEST AND PROPERTY DIGEST ADJUSTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH INDEX OF ABILITY-1944

County

Total tax Total adjusted digest per tax digest per
pupil in pupil in
A. D. A. A. D. A.

County

Total tax Total adjusted digest per tax digest per pupil in pupil in
A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

(1)

(2)

Appling ..............$ 599
Atkinson ............ 723 Bacon ................ 731

BBaalkdewr i.n.............................

929 1,236

BBBBaaaennrrtrkoosHwwil.l.......................................................

670 781 1,334 932

BBBilebercbrkiel.e.n.y.............................

735
2,748 916

BBBrrroayonaktnlsey................

1,079
984 1,325

$ 657 663 907 629
1,314
558 947 1,335 1,477 891
2,964 972 818 942 998

DDoooulgyhe..r..t.y.....................

834 4,141

DEoaurlgyla.s.................

818 841

EEcf fhionlgs h am........

2,151 1,373

Elbert ................ 1,090

EEFmavnaannnsiunel..........................................

796 601 539

Fayette .............. 639

Floyd 1,749

Forsyth Franklin




346 615

Fulton 5,010

728 4,346
947 898 1,448
1,043 1,135 1,005 1,046
559
666 1,773
559 889 4,579

Bulloch Burke

................

768 980

1,081 945

GGilalmsceorck............................

860 426

910 681

1.!

CBCaaulmthtsdoeunn............................

1,652 831
1,820

1,633 758
1,424

GGloyrndnon................................

1,924 900

1,802 1,048

Grady 588

854

CCCCCaahahntraaordrtoohlltlseaolarmn......................................................

801 775 548 2,138 3,246

1,086 864 604
1,640 3,572

GGHHHrwaaaelnbielcennorne.sc.e.hk.t..a.t...m..........................................................

717 893 1,967 987 778

862 922 1,621 1,015 777

Chattahoochee .. 2,264

2,954

CCChhlaearrtkotoekoeg.e..a.............

749
954 1,148

829 973 1,074

Clay 707

839

Clayton Clinch

................

947 1,968

880 1,649

Cobb .................... 1,412

1,191

Haralson ............ 1,030 Harris ................ 2,224 Hart .................. 568

1,126 1,558
714

Heard Henry



509 1,085

532 1,017

HIJraowcukisnstoon.n...........................................

1,058 868 817

1,019 940 976

Coffee Colquit

t

631 685

756

Jeff Davis .......... 758

767

794 Jasper 1,325 1,297

Columbia ............ 1,291

CCooowket.a.................................

841 1,404

CCrriaswpfo..r.d...............

1,012 959

943 987 1,320 897 1,154

JJJJooeenfnhfkenesisrnoss.no..n...............

667 957 543 1,039

918 1,0)?7
676 863

Lamar 1,290 1,369

Dade .................. 1,395

Dawson

416

Decatur .............. 1,202

DeKalb .............. 2,729

Dodge 660

1,087 418
1,169 3,332
656

LLaanurieerns..............

573 796

722 822

LLLeiinbeceortlyn............................

1,671 1,067
717

1,022 1,102
777

..
~ ~ :? ..~-

279

AVERAGE SALARY
2200r----B-A,S-ED--O-N-O~F-F-I-C-IA-L-FrIG-U-R-E-S--r----~~~~~~~~

800~----~----~------._----~-----
:, ........:.I .........:

1937-38 1939-40 1941-42 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47

1 a U. S. teachers
average aalary

U. S. teachers
average purchas ing power

Georgia teachers average aalary

Georgia teachers average purchas.. ing power

FIGURE 19

TEACHERS SALARIES AND AVERAGE PURCHASING POWER, GEORGIA AND THE UNITED STATES-1937-38 THROUGH 1946-47
( Purchaaing power computed through use of BLS Consumers' Price Index for cities-1935-39 prices=100)

TABLE 27 (Continued)

City

Total tax Total adjusted

digest per tax digest per

pupil in pupil in

A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

Rome .................. 2,438 Tallapoosa ........ 745 Thomaston ........ 2,006 Thomasville ...... 1,787 Tifton ................ 1,460

2,471 814
1,875 1,758 1,853

City

Total tax Total adjusted

digest per tax digest per

pupil in pupil in

A. D. A. A. D. A.

(1)

(2)

Trion .................. 1,842 Valdosta ............ 1,883 Vienna ................ 1,023 Winder .............. 1,498

2,039 2,254
893 1,816

vast differences in local wealth per child in average daily attendance between the various school systems of the State, as shown in Table 27, and the small units (county and independent) school systems to which state funds are distributed and which operate schools. An analysis of the size of local school units has been made in Chapter XI of this report. This analysis revealed that most Georgia school systems are too small to operate efficiently.
4. Analysis of Expenditures
The fact that state funds for education increased from 13 to more than 23 million dollars from 1937-38 to 1944-45 may raise a question as to how this additional revenue was spent. An analysis of expenditures by major expense items for the years 1938-39 and 1944-45 is presented in Table 28. This table also compares the percent that each item is of total expenditures with the average. percents for the South and the Nation in 1941-42. A study of Table 28 reveals the following pertinent facts:
1. The percentage of expenditures for general control in Georgia, compared to the total expenditures, has decreased from 3.69 percent in 1939 to 3.37 percent in 1945. The average for the two years was 3.53 percent, as compared with 4.85 percent in the Southeastern State's and 4.38 percent for the Nation.
2. For instructional service Georgia showed an increase from 63.89 percent in 1939 to 66.93 percent in 1945, while the Southeast spent 63.91 percent and the Nation 63.01 percent.
3. For maintenance and operation Georgia shows a decrease from 7.35 percent in 1939 to 5.62 percent in 1945, against

281

8. The average salary of Georgia teachers was $714 in 193738 and will be approximate'ly $1,455 in 1946-47. At the same time, however, the average salary for teachers in the Nation increased from $1,374 to $2,150. When the purchasing power of the dollar is considered, the average salary of $1,455 for Georgia teachers will buy $978 of goods and services in terms of 1935-39 prices. From $978, however, there must be subtracted $72.75 for teacher retirement and approximately $155.25 for income tax. After making these deductions, which were not made in 1937-38, the teacher has an equivalent of $750 on which to live.
9. The expenditure for instruction per pupil in average daily attendance in 1944-45 ranged from $60 to less than $10 for Negroes and from more than $100 to less than $10 for whites.
10. In 1944-45, the training of teachers varied from one year of college training as an average for a school system to four years of college training as an average.
11. The ability of counties to finance the construction of school buildings varied greatly. For example, one county by bonding to the constitutional limit could raise sufficient funds to provide for only 24 percent of its present minimum building needs, whereas other counties can raise more than sufficient funds.
12. Because of variations between counties in assessment procedures, the tax digest is not a reliable measure of local ability to finance education. According to data in this chapter, whereby the property digest is adjusted in accordance with a reliable index of ability, the total adjusted tax digest per pupil in average daily attendance was $368 in 'Towns County as compared with $4,579 in Fulton County.
13. The evidences reveal that expenditures for education have not been in the past, and will not be in 1946-47, sufficient to support an adequate program of education in Georgia.
II. PRESENT PLAN OF STATE AND LOCAL SCHOOL FINANCE
Funds expended for public education of less than college grade are, for the purpose of this chapter, divided into (1) foundation program funds, (2) local school funds, (3) voca-
291

Under 120 days (6 Months)

1939-40 XI I 371 I

I

I

1941-42 x I I 496 I

I

I

1943-44 1

I 257 I

I

I

1945 XI I 384 I

I

I

121-130 days ( 6-6 .! Months)

XXI 12,9131

X I 231

I

X I 571

I

None I

131-140 days 1939-40 XXI I 42,7118 1941-42 XI I 3,0619 1943-44 I I 1,7811
1945 I I 7611

(6.!-7 Months)

I

I

I

I

I

I

I I I

I I I

141-150 days
XI 113,8611
I I 293 I
I I 42 I
I None!

(7-7.!

Months)
I I
I I
I. f I I

151-160 days 1939-40 XXI I 74,350 1941-42 X I I 22,723 1943-44 XI I 9,729
1945 XI I 5,959

(7.!-8 Months)

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I I I

161-170 days (8-8.! Months)

~I I 2,6121

I

I

I I 3,2241

I

I

--+l~1~,8~8o~l---+l-~l

I 1,3111

I

I

I I
I I

171-180 days (8.!-9 Months) 1939-40 XXX I X374,222XXI XXX I 1941-42 XXX I X470,719XXI XXX I 1943-44 XXX I X458,629XXf:XX.:X.71- - 1
1945 XXX I X460,164XXI XXX-I--I Thousands 0 100 200 300 400 500

Totals XXXX 511,047XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX 500,547XXXXXXXXXXX xxxx 472,375XXXXXXXXX_I_ XXXX 468,571XXXXXXXXI 0 100 200 300 400 500

FIGURE 17
WHITE PUPILS ENROLLED IN SCHOOLS OPERATING FOR VARIOUS l,ENGTHS OF TERMS (Gross Enrollment)
Source: Georgia State Department of Education, Annual Reports, 1939-1945

counties having a population density of more than two hundred (200) per square mile.
(b) Group II shall embrace all independent school systems riot included in Group" I.and all counties having a population de'nsity of not less than seventy-five (75) and not more than two hundred (200) per square mile.
(c) Group III shall embrace counties having a population density of forty-five (45) or more and less than seventy-five (75) per square mile.
(d) Group IV shall embrace counties having a population density of nineteen (19) or more and less than forty-five (45) per square mile.
(e) Group V shall embrace counties having a population density of less than nineteen (19) per square mile.
(Annual Determination)
Section 5. The' State Board of Education shall annually determine, subject to such variations as in its discretion may be necessary, the number of teachers to be employed for the minimum term prescribed by section 1 of this Act, upon the basis of average daily attendance for the pre'ceding school year, as follows:
(a) For school systems in Group I there shall be allowed one teacher for each forty pupils and major fraction thereof in the elementary grades, and one teacher for each thirtyfive pupils and major fraction thereof in the high school grades.
(b) For school systems in Group II, there shall be allowed one teacher for each thirty-five pupils and major fraction thereof in the elementary grades, and one teacher for each thirty pupils and major fraction thereof in the high school grades.
(c) For school systems in Group III, there shall be allowed one te'acher for each thirty pupils and major fraction thereof in the elementary grades, and one teacher for each twentyfive pupils and major fraction thereof for the high school grades.
(d) For school systems in Group IV, there shall be allowed
293

panded as have vocational education services. These increased and added services have strengthened the Georgia public school program.

Teachers' salaries. The greate'st part of all increases in state

school funds has gone to teachers' salaries. This fact was re-

vealed by Table 28 which also emphasized the fact that Georgia

spends a slightly larger percentage of its total school funds for

salaries than do other states. In spite of this fact the' average

salary of the Georgia teacher is far below that of the average

teacher in the Nation as a whole. This fact is shown in Figure

19 presented herein.



Figure 19 shows teachers' salaries and average purchasing power for Georgia and the United States since 1937-38. According to this figure the average salary of Georgia teachers was $714 in 1937-38 and will be approximately $1,455 in 1946-47. At the same time, however, the average salary for teachers in the Nation increased from $1,374 to $2,150. On the face of these facts it might be concluded that the average Georgia teacher has doubled his income. This conclusion, however, is not tenable when the purchasing power of the dollar is considered. The average Georgia teacher's salary of $1,455 will , buy $978 of goods and services in terms of 1935-39 prices. From this $978, however, there must be further subtracted $72.75. for the te'acher retirement fund and approximately $155.25 for income tax. After making these deductions, which were not deducted in 1937-38, the teacher has an equivalent of $750 on which to live as compared with $714 in 1938.

"In the school years from 1938-39 through 1944-45 the average salary of public-school teachers, principals, and other instructional personnel (in the United States) rose from $1,408 to $1,850. This increase of 31 percent is so brief a period would have represented substantial progress had prices and other incomes remained static. What actually happened, however, was that even greater increases were made in the pay of other groups. The average salarywage of all employed persons rose from $1,255 to $2,242, an increase of 79 percent.

"Just what the' relationship should be between the average salary level for teachers and the average salary-wage for all persons in private employment has never been de-

286

as now provided by law.
(3) To pay each local unit of administration, as hereinbefore defined, for the purpose of meeting local administrative expenses, the cost of operating and maintaining school plants, meeting fixed charges, the expense of auxiliary agencies, the expenses of transportation, and other administrative expenses, a sum sufficient, when added to the total amount which may be raised by such local unit of administration, by a local tax levy of five mills, to equal one-third of the amount allotted to such local unit of administration for salaries.
(4) To pay the administrative expenses of the State Department of Education, the compensation and expenses of the State Board of Education, and the State Superintendent of Schools, and such other salaries and administrative expense of the Department of Education as may be authorized by the' State Board of Education and approved by the State Superintendent of Schools.
(Operation Beyond Seven Months. Salaries of Teachers)
Section 10. The Board of Education of any local unit of administration, as defined by this Act, or the Board of Trustees of any local school district, may operate the schools of such county, or city, or school district, for a longer period than seven months during any school year, or may, in its discretion, supplement the State sche'dule of salaries, and employ additional teachers not provided for in this Act; Provided, however, that teachers in such schools shall receive not less than the minimum salary prescribed by the State Board of Education on the State schedule for any period which the school term may be extended, unless the State Board of Education, in its discretion, shall otherwise direct. Provided further, that any such local unit as herein defined may operate kindergartens or grades above the eleventh solely from local funds.
(Minimum Salary)
Section 11. The State Board of Education shall, on or before the beginning of each school year, or as soon thereafter as may be practicable', fix the minimum schedule of teachers' salaries for the ensuing school year, and determine the mini-
295

proximately 42 percent above September-December, 1946 salaries.
If salaries for teachers are increased, it is further recommended that the State Board of Education provide' for a greater differential between professional and provisional certificates, and provide for increases in pay on the basis of experience.
Adequacy of expenditures. Figures 16 and 19 presented conclusive evidence that expenditures for e'ducation have not been in the past, and will not be in 1946-47, sufficient to support an adequate program of education in Georgia.
288

be increased or diminished during his term. In administering this Act, the State Board of Education shall employ such supervisors or other employees as may be necessary, and shall fix their compensation. Such supervisors or other employees shall be employed by the State Board of Education upon the recommendation of the State Superintendent of Schools.
EQUALIZATION LAW6
32-948. Extra appropriation to common school fund. Equalization fund provided. In addition to the regular appropriation for the support of the public schools, the General Assembly shall provide an equalization fund, which shall be disbursed by the state board of education for the purpose of more nearly equalizing the educational opportunities of the children of the several counties of the state. The state board of education, in its distribution of said equalization fund to county boards of education for the purpose of equalizing educational opportunities as between the several counties, s}lall take into consideration the possible returns from taxable values for school purposes, the extent to which local tax aid has been utilized, the educational needs, and the local inequalities existing in the several counties. No county or independent system shall share in the equalization fund for any year unless it levies at least five mills for a local tax for its public schools for that year.
In accordance with the laws heretofore quote'd and the regulations of the State Board of Education, the amount of state funds granted to the various county and independent school systems of the State is calculated as follows:
I. Funds granted all school systems in accordance with the provisions of the Seven-Months School Law:
A. Teachers' salaris for seven months based on state salary schedule.
B. Administrative fund is one-third of teachers' salaries for seven months as determined in "A" above minus local tax revenues raised by a five-mill levy on the school tax digest. In all county systems $2,000 homestead exemption is applicable to property, whereas no
6 Acts 1926 Ex. Sess., pp. 39, 40.
297

5. Summary
The analysis which has been made in this section revealed many facts pertinent to school finance in Georgia. From these facts the following conclusions were drawn.
1. Ge'orgia ranked fourth among the six southern states for which data were available in current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in both 1941-42 and 1944-45.
2. Georgia ranks low among the 48 states in relative ability to finance education and exerts less effort to support education than the Nation as a whole.
3. The national average for current expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance in 1941-42 was $98.31, close to twice that of Georgia.
4. State appropriations for education increased from $14,132, 567 in 1937-38 to $21,040,196 in 1944-45. During this same period federal funds allocated to Georgia for education increased from $640,000 to $4,047,212. Likewise, local tax funds collected for education increased from $10,796,503 to $13,043,613.
5. During the school year 1946-47, expenditures (federal, state, and local, etc.,} will probably total more than $50,000,000 due to the 50 percent increase in teachers' salaries and increased tax rates on the' local level now permitted by the Constitution adopted in 1945.
6. When school expenditures in Georgia are studied, it is found that the greatest dollar increase has been for instructional service; but the greatest percentage increase' has been for auxiliary agencies. The growth of expenditures for auxiliary agencies has been due to the growth in the school lunch program, largely supported by federal funds, and to the expansion of transportation facilities. The' expenditures for capital outlay and debt service decreased during the war years because of the practical cessation of school building construction.
7. The instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the State increased from $27.71 in 1937-38 to $46.28 in 1944-45. When these figures were adjusted for the purchasing power of the dollar, however, the actual value increase was from $27.19 to $34.93.
290

1. White principals and supervisors:
a. Holding 5-year professional certificates-$4.00 per month per teacher five to 20 teachers for nine months.
b. Other white principals and supervisors holding provisional certificate-$2.50 per month per teacher for five to 20 teachers for nine months.
2. Negro principals and supervisors:
a. Holding 5-year professional certificate-$3.20 per month per teacher for five to 20 teachers for nine months.
b. Other Negro principals and supervisors holding provisional certificate-$2.00 per month per teacher for five to 20 teachers for nine months.
E. Cost of the schools for the year on the state level of operation. The amounts set up in items "II, A, B, C," and . "D" are added to one and one-third time's the amount set up for teachers' salaries for the regular seven months term as shown in item "1, A" This amount represents the total need.
F. The ability of a school system to meet the total need as calculated in item "II, E" above is calculated as follows:
1. The amount set up by the State for teachers' salaries for seve'n months, "item I, A," plus
2. Any amount set up by the State for administrative expenses, "item I, B", plus
3. The amount that may be raised by a five-mill tax on the latest school tax digest.
G. The amount of equalization funds a school system may receive is the difference betwe'en the need as calculated in "II, E" and the ability as calculated in "II, F".
III. In addition to the state funds paid to school systems under the terms of the Seven Months' School Law and the Equalization Law, the state allots each school system three
299

tional funds, and (4) other state educational funds.
1. Method of Distributing Foundation Funds
State foundation program funds are now (1946) distributed in accordance with the provisions of the Seven-Months School Law enacted by the General Assembly in 1937, and of the Equalization Law of 1926. The Seven-Months School Law specifically sets forth the method of distributing funds, whereas equalization funds are distributed in accordance with rules and regulations of the State Board of Education. The major portion of these two laws are quoted below.
SEVEN-MONTHS SCHOOL LAW5 (Policy)
Section 1. It- is hereby declared to be the public policy of the State of Georgia that educational opportunities for all of the children of school age in this State shall be equalized throughout the State by the State Board of Education, so far as possible.
(Seven Months Operation. Twenty Days a Month. School Year)
Section 2. From and after July 1, 1937, the public schools of this State, including the public high schools, shall be operate'd, upon the basis hereinafter provided, for a period of not less than seven s.chool months during each school year. Twenty school days shall constitute a school month. The school year shall begin on the first day of July and end on the thirtieth day of June of each year.
(Groups)
Section 4. The State Board of Education shall divide the various local units of administration provided for by the foregoing section into five groups, on the basis of the' most recent United States Census, and shall regroup said local units as early as practicable after each United States Census.
(a) Group I shall embrace independent school systems in cities of more than ten thousand (10,000) population, counties having one' or more cities of more than ten thousand (10,000) population, exclusive of independent systems, and
5 Georgia Laws, 1937. Pages 882-892.
292

Total estimated state school funds to be allotted to Appling County for the school year 1946-47___________________ $266,071
2. Local School Financing
Funds for the local support of education in Georgia are derived almost entirely from local tax levies on property. This is true for both current operating expenses and bonding for school house construction purposes.
Current expenses. Local funds for meeting current school expenses are raised in all counties with the exception of four counties holding constitutional charters (Richmond, Bibb, Chatham, and Glynn) in accordance with the following constitutional provision:
Taxation by counties for education. The fiscal authority of the several Counties shall levy a tax for the support and maintenance of education not less than five mills nor greater than fifteen mills (as re'commended by the County Board of Education) upon the dollar of all taxable property in the County located outside independent school systems. The independent school system of Chatham County and the City of Savannah, being co-extensive with said County, the levy of said tax shall be on all property in said County as recommended by the governing body of said system.7
By the provisions of the Constitution county school systems must levy at least a five-mill tax and may levy as much as fifteen mills. In these counties the tax levy is made upon the school tax digest less homestead exemptions.
In the various independent school systems of the State and the four counties holding constitutional charters, the tax which may be levied by each system is dependent upon the provisions of its individual charter. The independent school systems levy taxes upon the total school tax digest of the system.
In considering local school funds for current expenses, it should be borne in mind that the wealth of the various systems varies greatly. Table 27 presented early in this chapter revealed that, in 1944, the total tax digest per pupil in average daily attendance was $235 in Union County and $5,010 in Ful-
7 Constitution of the State of Georgia, 1945. Article 8, Section XII, Paragraph I.
301

one teacher for each twenty-five pupils and major fraction thereof in the elementary grades, and one' teacher for each twenty pupils and major fraction thereof for the high school grades.
(e) For school systems in Group V, there shall be allowed one teacher for each twenty pupils and major fraction thereof in the elementary grades, and one teacher for each fifteen pupils and major fraction thereof in the' high school grades.
For the purposes of this section, grades one to seven inclusive, and not others, shall be considered elementary grades., and grades eight to eleven inclusive, and no other, shall be considered high school grades.
(Salary Schedules)
Section 8. The State Board of Education shall annually fix a schedule of the minimum salarie's which shall be paid to the teachers of the various classes prescribed by them out of the public school funds of the State, which salary schedule shall be uniform. for each of the classes of teachers fixed by the State Board of Education: Provided, however, that the State Board of Education, in its discretion, may a.uthorize or provide for variations from such schedules whenever, in its discretion, such variations may be necessary.
(Uses of Common School Fund)
Section 9. The common school fund and such appropriations as may have been, or may hereafter be made by the General Assembly for common school purposes, shall be used by the State Board of Education to carry out the provisions of this Act and for the following purposes:
(1) To pay all teachers in the public schools of the State except County Superintendents, salaries for not less than seven months in each school year, in accordance with the salary schedules prescribed by the State Board of Education: Provided, that no teacher shall receive less than the minimum salary prescribed by the State Board of Education for the class to which such teacher belongs, unless the State Board of Education in the exercise of its discretion, shall otherwise direct.
(2) To pay the salaries of County School Superintendents
294

pality of this State may accept and use funds granted by the Federal Government, or any agency thereof, to aid in financing the cost of architectural, engineering, economic investigations, studies, surveys, designs, plans, working drawings, specifications, procedures, and other action preliminary to the construction of public works, and where the funds so used for the purposes spe'cified are to be repaid within a period of ten years.8
In the past, school systems have had authority to levy taxes for school house construction only if such levies had been previously authorized by a bond election. The School Act approved February 1, 1946, amending Section 32-909 of the Code of 1933, however, in the opinion of the Attorney General, gives school authorities the power to levy an annual tax for school house construction over and above the 5-to 15-mill maintenance levy authorized by the Constitution. This interpretation of the law has not yet been tested in the courts but if substantiated would enable many school systems to provide school buildings on a pay-as-you-go plan. The opinion of the Attorney General is quoted herein as follows:
STATE OF GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF LAW
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
March 22, 1946
Honorable M. D. Collins State Superintendent of Schools State Office Building Atlanta 3, Georgia.
Dear Mr. Collins:
Your letter of March 13, enclosing a letter from Honorable S. C. Harper, County Superintendent of Schools of Wayne County, is received. Mr. Harper seeks, through you, an official opinion on the question of whether or not a county can levy a tax for the purpose of building school houses, in addition to a main-
8 Constitution of the State of Georgia, 1945. Article 7, Section VII, Paragraph I.
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mum of teachers which may be employed by each local unit of administration under the classification of local units prescribed by this Act. This information shall be furnished to the Board of Education of each local unit as soon as the same is available.
(Federal Funds)
Section 14. Nothing in this Act shall affect the distribution of Federal funds allotted to Georgia under the SmithHughes Vocational Education Act, or other Acts of Congress appropriating Federal funds for vocational education purposes, or the distribution of State Funds appropriated or allotted for such purposes, but all such funds shall be apportioned by the State Board of Education to the various local units as additional aid for use in maintaining vocational classes or departments, subject to such reasonable rules and regulations as may .be prescribed by the State' Board of Education and in accordance with the state plan of vocational education; nor shall any provision of this Act prevent the State Board of Education from accepting and administering other funds which may be made available to it, or for use of the schools of the State for educational purposes, subject to such limitations as may be imposed in the grant or appropriation of same.
(Equalization Fund)
Section 15. Nothing in this Act shall be construed to affect or modify Section 32-948 of the Code of Georgia of 1933, relating to creating an equalization fund for the public schools, and providing for its distribution, but said section shall remain of full force and effect.
(State Board Superintendent, Salary Addition. Supervisors and Employees)
Section 16. The State Board of Education shall administer this Act, and enforce its provisions. The State Superintendent of Schools shall be the executive and administrative Secretary of the State Board of Education for that purpose. He shall receive for his services such compensation as the State Board of Education may, from time to time, prescribe, which shall be in addition to the salary provided by the Constitution for the State Superintendents of Schools, and, shall not
296

. Ayers v. Hartford Accident and Indemnity Co. 106 Federal 2d, 958.
Paragraph 1, Section S, Article 8 of the Constitution of 1945 provides in part as follows:
"Authority is granted to counties to establish and maintain public schools within their limits."
It is to be noted under this constitutional provision that counties are granted the power to establish, and also the power to support and maintain schools. The word "establish" would, in my opinion, include the right to purchase land and to erect buildings for school purposes. In Volume' 15, Words and Phrases, Page 162-163, the word "establish" is defined as follows: "Authority to establish and regulate markets, implies, beyond question, the power to purchase or provide the site and erect necessary buildings and stalls " See
City of Jacksonville v. Ledwith 7 So. 885; 26 Fla. 163; 9LRA 69;
Ketchum v. City of Buffalo
14 N.Y. 356;
Gale' v. Village of Kalamazoo 34 Mich. 344.
Paragraph 1, Section 4, Article 7 of the Constitution of 1945 provides, among other things, that the General Assembly shall not have power to delegate to any county the right to levy a tax for any purposes except "(3) for educational purposes on property located outside of an independent school system as provided in Article 8 of this Constitution; and (4) to build and repair the public buildings and bridges." The Constitution names other things for which taxes may be levied which are not material here.
Section 32-909 of the Code of 1933, as amended, gives County Boards of Education power to build and repair school houses. Title to the buildings are vested in the County Boards of Education. Under Section 32-943 school houses and property are exempt from taxation. School houses built by county boards of education are public buildings which are used by the public.
I am of the opinion that county boards of education, when
305

homestead exemption is applicable' in those cities holding and operating under independent charters.
II. Funds granted under the Equalization Lawof 1926 and in accordance with rules and regulations of the State Board of Education. The amount of equalization funds paid to a school system is the need minus the ability of the system as set forth below.
A. Extension of term. The salaries of teachers paid in accordance with the Seven-Months School Law may be extended for a maximum of two months provided the school in which the teacher is employed operates for nine months. One-seventh of item "I, A" times the number of months extended up to two months is allotted to the system by the State.
B. Administrative fund. Item "II, A" divided by three.
C. Transportation fund. Approximately one million dollars is provided annually to help defray costs of school transportation incurred by county boards of education. The state equalization funds needed by the county are calculated as follows:
1. Ten percent allowance for depreciation on original cost of transportation equipment.
2. One cent per day per child transported.
3. An allowance per mile per day one way of two cents for improved roads and four cents for unimproved roads. If the state funds needed for transportation as calculated by the above formula exceed one million dollars, the amount allotted to each county is reduced proportionately to make the total equal one million dollars.
D. Instructional supervisors and principals' supplements. By regulations of the State Board of Education the State will match instructional supervisors' and principals' supplements in county systems only in accordance with the schedule set forth below. Supervisors may be listed on the state teacher pay list in addition to the regular allotment of teachers.
298

State v. Board of Truste'es of Vanderbilt University 164 S. W. 1151, 129 Tenn. 279.
The word "establish" differs from the clause "support and maintain." Establish means to originate, to found, to institute, to create. See
Village of Hempstead v. Seymour 69 N. Y. S. 462.
Funds raised for maintenance and support, where available, could be used by the school authority to provide for buildings, the acquisition of buildings being for school purposes. It does not, in my opinion, necessarily follow that the county could levy only five to fifteen mills as provided in this Section of the Constitution for support of schools. Where school buildings are needed and the' tax levied for support and maintenance is not sufficient, the county could provide for school buildings, or public buildings on cash basis, or by issue of bonds.
So far as I have been able to find, the courts of the States of Georgia have not passed upon any question involving the identical facts. I have given you my opinion as to the construction which I think the courts would place upon the different provisions of the Constitution and statutes. The courts, when called upon to pass upon same, might not agree' with my view. The question involves county matters over which I have no jurisdiction, my view is not binding on any one.
With best wishes, I am
Sincerely yours,
Eugene Cook, Attorney General
3. Funds for Vocational Education
Source of funds. Vocational education programs are financed in Georgia through the use of federal, state, and local funds.
Federal aid for vocational education below college grade was first provided by the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. This Act provides for continuing appropriations which must be matched dollar for dollar by the State. Under the terms of this law $7,000,000 is appropriated by the United States annually. Of
307

months' salaries for all teachers on the state pay list. The amount a system will receive for this purpose is calculated as three-sevenths of "item I, A."
The figures presented below showing the estimated state school funds to be received by Appling County illustrate the present method of distribution.
Seven-Months School Law
I, A Teachers' salaries for 7 months______ $120,526 I, B Administrative fund-I, A divided
by 3 minus 5-mill tax return____________ 30,049
$150,575
Equalization Law
II, A Extension of terms-one-sevenths of item I, A time two months________$ 34,436
II, B Administrative fund-one-third of item II, A________________________________________ 11,479
ii, C Transportation ------------------------------- 15,596 II, D Principals' supplements for 9
months ____________ ---~---------------------------- 2,331 II, E Cost of schools for year on state
level of operation or need equals II, A+ B+ C+ D+ one and onethird times I, A________________________________ 160;701
$224,543
II, F Item 1 ----------------------------------------------$12 0, 52 6 II, F Item 2 ____ ---------------------------------------- 30,049 II, F Five'-mill tax levy, Item 3________________ 10,126
Ability to meet need________________________$160, 701
Equalization allotment equals
'Total need _________ ---------------------------$224, 543 Minus ability to meet need____________ 160,701
Equalization allotment ------------------$ 63,842
III. Three months' salary extension equals three-sevenths of item I, A ____$ 51,654
300

1942; 60 percent in 1943; 70 percent in 1944; 80 percent in 1945; 90 percent in 1946; and 100 percent in 1947 and each year thereafter.
Under the terms of the George-Deen Act Georgia now receives $422,403.20 annually for vocational education below college grade.
From the Federal Government Georgia received $597,348.76 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1946. Of the federal vocational funds allocated to Georgia 49 percent are for agricultural education, 27 percent are for homemaking education, 19 percent are for trade and industrial education, and 5 percent are for distributive education.
Georgia has gone beyond minimum federal requirements in financing vocational education of less than college grade. This is, however, in no way indicative that vocational education has been financed adequately. It does mean that Georgia has made more than a minimum effort to provide vocational training opportunities for its youth. The expenditures of federal, state, and local funds for vocational education below college grade in Georgia for the years 1937-38 through 1945-46 are shown in Table 29. From this table it is seen that whereas, federal funds remained fairly constant for the nine-year period, funds from the state and local government units increased greatly.
It has been pointed out that federal funds for vocational education of less than college grade are now allotted to Georgia under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the George-Deen Act of 1936. 'The George-Deen Act has now, however, been superseded by the George-Barden Act. If the funds authorized by the George-Barden Act are appropriated by Congress, the amount of federal funds for vocational education annually allotted Georgia will nearly double what they are at present. This Act becomes operative. beginning July 1, 1947.
The federal vocational funds to be distributed in accordance with the George-Barden Act will be distributed to the several state's and territories as follows:
(1) Funds for agricultural education = $10,000,000
"$10,000,000 for vocational education in agriculture, in-
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ton County. Faced with such facts, it goes without saying that without state aid such counties as Union could not by any conceivable means offer any adequate educational opportunity to the' children of the county.
Even with state aid many of the poorer school systems of the State find it necessary to raise additional funds by holding cake-walks, suppers, raffles, and entertainments. Many schools have no other means of buying coal, providing janitorial service, and meeting other maintenance needs.
Capital outlay expenditures. Most school house construction in Georgia has been financed by local school tax bonds. Prior to the adoption of the new Constitution in 1945, bonding for school house construction was done principally on a local district basis. Since the abolishment of the local districts, however, bond levies have been made on a county-wide basis in accordance with the following constitutional provision:
Debts of counties and cities. The debt hereafter incurred by the county, municipal corporation or political division of this State except as in this Constitution provided for, shall never exceed seven per centum of the assessed value of all the taxable property therein, and no such county, municipality or division shall incur any new debt except for a temporary loan or loans, to supply casual deficiencies of revenue, not to exceed one-fifth of one per centum of the assessed value of the taxable property therein, without the assent of a majority of the qualified voters of the county, municipality or other political subdivision voting in an election for that purpose to be held as prescribed by law; and provided further that all laws, charter provisions and ordinances heretofore passed or enacted providing special re'gistration of the voters of counties, municipal corporations and other political divisions of this State to pass upon the issuance of bonds by such counties, municipal corporations and other political divisions are hereby declared to be null and void; and the General Assembly shall hereafter have no power to pass or enact any law providing for such special .registration, but the validity of any and all bond issues by such counties, municipal corporations or other political divisions made prior to January 1, 1945, shall not be affected hereby; provided, that any county or munici-
302

(4) Funds for distributive education = $3,000,000
"$3,000,000 for vocational education in distributive occupations, to be apportioned for expenditure in the several States and Territories in the proportion that their population bears to the total population of the States and Territories, according to the last pre'ceding United States Census."
Use of funds. Table 29 shows that in 1945-46, $2,050,159.35 was expended for vocational education of less than college grade in Georgia. Of this sum, $504,408.39 was state funds of which $100,000 was for the North Georgia Vocational School. A study of the items constituting the expenditures for 1945-46 revealed that $243,169.86 was spent for in-service training of teachers, critic teachers, apprentice training, supervision, general administration, state and area-wide training in rural electrification safety, fire fighting, carburetion, hotel and restaurant work, and teacher training.
The total funds expended by local school systems may therefore be derived by subtracting the sums expended for the North Georgia Vocational School and for supervision, administration, state and area-wide training programs, etc., from the total funds expended for all purposes. This subtraction shows that $1,706,989.49 was expended by local school units for vocational training in agriculture, homemaking, trade and industries, and distributive occupations during the school year 1945-46.
During the school year 1945-46, there .were 365 departments of vocational agriculture in operation in the State. A total of 41,728 persons received agricultural training in these departments. Of those receiving instruction 11,290 were enrolled in ali-day classes; 1,174 in day unit classes; 500 in part-time classes; and 28,134 in evening classes. In the same year, 499 homemaking teachers gave instructions to 30,821 persons in ali-day classes, and 21,235 persons in evening classes. This made a total 52,056 persons receiving homemaking instruction. In trade and industrial classe's, 325 teachers instructed a total of 10,463 persons. Of the persons receiving training in trade and industrial education, 2,448 were enrolled in evening classes; 615 in part-time extension and preparatory classes; 2,976 in part-time general continuation classes; 648 in parttime diversified cooperative training classes; 2,626 in all-day
311

tenance tax as provided by the Constitution.
I went into this question at length in an unofficial opinion for Mr. Harper on February 27th of this year, a copy of which was forwarded to you. The question does not involve any undertaking by the State of Georgia, and does not involve the performance of any duty by you as a State' School Superintendent. The question is purely one of local concern involving the counties of the State. However, since Mr. Harper states that he has conferred with the County Attorney, and the County Attorney has requested that I give you an official opinion, I will give you my view as to the authority of a county to levy such a tax.
Se'ction 32-909 of the Code of 1933 was amended by the School Act approved February 1, 1946. The 1946 Act struck the words "either by labor on the part of the citizens of the sub-districts, or by a tax on their property," as they appear in lines 26 and 27 of this Section, and substituted in lieu therefore the following language, "by a tax on all property located in the county and outside the territorial limits of any independent school district."
The Section as thus amended provides that the Board of Education may provide for school houses by a tax on all property located in a county and outside the territorial limits of any independent school district. It is, therefore, necessary to determine whether or not the Constitution of 1945 authorizes a special tax to provide school houses.
Paragraph 1, Section 5, Article 8 of the Constitution and the School Act of 1919, constitute each county as one school district and confine its control and management to a County Board of Education. The County Board of Education is merely an agency through which a county acts in school matters. See
Burke v. Wheeler County 54 Ga. App. 81;
Board of Education v. Hunt 29 Ga. App. 665;
Smith, et al, v. Board of Education 153 Ga. 758;
Ayers v. Board of Education 56 Ga. App. 146;
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Basal salary :
(a) 91;2 months pay from regular state teachers salary funds based on certificate.
(b) 21;2 months pay from state and federal vocational funds at rate of pay prescribed by certificate held by teacher if teacher works for twelve months.
(c) No difference in vocational reimbursement will be made for teachers not listed on the state pay list or teachers receiving less than 12 salary schedule payments from state common school funds.
Supplement Pay:
(a) In addition to base pay allotted to school system to pay the salary of the teacher employe'd, state and federal funds are allotted on the basis of experience and local matching. For teachers working 12 months the maximum state supplement is as follows:

Experience

Vocational funds

Local funds

0-3 year inclusive --------------$200

$200

4-6 ----------------------------------------- 250

250

7-9 ------------------------------------------ 300

300

10 or more___________________________ 400

400

10 years in same community-5j8 of any amount set

above base pay by local

school system.

For homemaking teachers working 91;2 months the maxi-

mum state supplement is as follows:

Experience

Vocational funds

Local funds

Vocational funds
adult class if taught

0-3 --------------------------------$ 90

$ 90

$50

4-6 ------------------------------- 140

140

50

7-9 -------------------------------- 190

190

50

10 or more___________________ 240

240

50

10 years in same community-5j8 of total supplement

Travel allowance:
(a) State and federal vocational funds will be allotted to the school system for travel incurred by teachers of homemaking or agriculture working for 12 months at

313

school houses are needed, can recommend the levy of a speci!tl tax for the purpose of building school houses. I am of the further opinion that a county can levy the special tax under the provision of the' Constitution which gives counties the right to levy a tax to build and repair public buildings.
The Constitution of the State, in my opinion, provides two ways for the construction of public improvements and paying therefore; the one for cash and the other for credit. See
Hogan v. State of Georgia 133 Ga. 875;
Byrd v. Franklin 151 Ga. 4;
Dyer v. Erwin 160 Ga. 845.
If the county board has on hand sufficient funds or can, by a special tax for the current year, levy sufficient funds for building a school house, the same would be considered a cash consideration. On the other hand, if the building needs are so gre'at that the debt could not be met during the current year, it would be necessary to issue bonds under Paragraph 1, Section 7, of the Constitution of 1945, as prescribed by the Act of 1946.
I have reached the conclusion, as stated above, notwithstanding the provision of Paragraph 1, Section 12, Article 8 of the Constitution of 1945, which provides in part as follows:
"The fiscal authority of the several counties shall levy a tax for the support and maintenance of education not less than five mills nor greater than fifteen mills (as recommende'd by the county board of education) upon the dollar on all taxable property in the county located outside independent school systems."
The word "support and maintenance" are synonomous. The word "maintain" has been defined as meaning "to support" that which has already been brought into existence. See
Kendrick and Roberts v. Warren Bros. Co. 72-A 416; 110 Md. 4.
"Maintain" means to support, to supply means of support, provide for, sustain, and keep up. See
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Federal Government matches dollar for dollar all money spent on case service, and the amount of funds received from the Federal Government depends on the state appropriation. The Federal Governme'nt also gives the State all the money it needs for guidance and administration. During the fiscal year 194546, $500,000 was spent on case service and $515,000 for guidance and administration. It is the opinion of the committee that
the State should make an annual a.ppropriation of $500,000 for the rehabilitation of physically handicapped persons in Georgia.
County superintendents' salaries. The State of Georgia is now contributing approximately $175,000 annually towards the payment of county school superintendents' salaries.
State schools for exceptional children. During the school year 1946-47, the State of Georgia will spend approximately $90,000 for the operation of the School for the Blind at Macon and $170,000 for the operation of the School for the Deaf at Cave Spring.
State Department of Education. During the school year 194647, it is estimated that the State will spend approximately $175,000 for the operation of the State Department of Education. This sum doe's not include the costs involved in operating the divisions of vocational education, vocational .rehabilitation, and school lunch service, or the cost of operating the state schools for the blind and the deaf.
5. Summary
The present plan of state and local school finance which has been presented revealed the following facts:
(1) State school funds for the foundation program of education are, at present, distributed in accordance with the provisions of the Seve'n-Months School Law of 1937 and the Equalization Law of 1926. The Seven Months School Law specifically sets forth the method of distributing funds. Equalization funds, however, are distributed in accordance with rules and regulations of the State Department of Education. Each local school administrative unit must levy a five-mill tax in order to participate in state school funds. The returns from this five-mill levy are subtracted from the needs of the local school system in computing the amount of equalization funds to be allotted to the system.
315

this amount $3,000,000 is distributed for salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects allotted to the states in the proportion that the rural population of the State is to the total rural population of the United States. For salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects another $3,000,000 is distributed to the states in the proportion which the urban population of each is to the total urban population of the 48 states. The remaining $1,000,000 is allotted to the states for the purpose of training teachers of agriculture, trade, home economics, and industrial subjects. This amount is distributed to the states in the proportion which the total population of each is to the total population of the United States. Under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act, Georgia now receives $174,945.56 for vocational education.
The George-Dean Act of 1936 provided for continuing federal appropriations for vocational education beginning with the year 1937. By this law an annual appropriation of $14,200,000 has been made and distributed to the states and territories as follows: $4,000,000 for agricultural education in the proportion that the farm population of each state or territory is to the total farm population of the Nation; $4,000,000 for home economics education in the proportion that the rural population of each is to the' total rural population; $4,000,000 for trade and industrial education in the proportion that the non-farm population of each is to the total non-farm pcpulation; $1,200,000 for instruction and teacher training in distributive education in the proportion that the total population of each is to the total population; and $1,000,000 for training teachers of agriculture, home economics, and trade and industrial subjects distributed in the proportion that the total population of each is to the total population. An additional appropriation of $283,000 is made to insure that no state or territory because of the lack of population will receive less than $20,000 for instruction in agriculture, home economics, and trade and industrial e'ducation, and $10,000 for instruction and teacher training in distributive education or for teacher training in agriculture, home economics, and trade and industrial education.
Under the terms of the George-Deen Act each state and territory was required to match federal funds allotted under the Act in the following ratio: 50 percent each year 1937 through
308

State annually expends funds for free textbooks, audio-visual aids, library books, the administration of school lunch program, vocational rehabilitation, county school superintendents salaries, the state schools for the deaf and blind, and the' operation of the State Department of Education.
III. EVALUATION OF STATE PLAN OF SUPPORT
Before Georgia's present plan of state school support can be evaluated, guiding principles and criteria for evaluation must be set forth. These principles and criteria should be hypothecated upon the basis of sound research, professional opinion, and experience. A thorough study of this need revealed that for the purposes of this study the principles and criteria as set forth in the report of the Committee on State and Local Financing of Public Schools of the Southern States Work-Conference on School Administrative Problems were valid. The principles and criteria as referred to represent the collective judgment of state school authorities from fourteen southern states. The Survey Staff accepts these principles and criteria.

1. Guiding Principles10

:..~

1. "Public education is the responsibility of the state,

local, and federal governments and each has the duty

and res.ponsibility of performing its proper function.

2. "Funds from all sources should be pooled in one general fund by the local school unit and expended subject to such controls as the laws of the state may provide.

3. "The direct responsibility for the administration of the financial and educational programs should be vested in the local school unit, subject to the safeguards set up by the state for the purpose of maintaining desirable standards.

4. "An adequate foundation program of education should be provided for all children.

5. "The program should make provisions for competent personnel, state and local, for adequate supervision, for good budgeting, procedures, and for adequate accounting,

10 State and Local Financing of Schools. Bulletin No. 1 (Tal!ah1s,~e. Florida: Southern

.-

States Work-Conference on School Administrative Problems, E. L. Morphet, Exec. Sect.

1941), pp. 21-26.

317

eluding supervision of the activities related to vocational education in agriculture, of the Future Farmers of America and the New Farmers of America, to be apportioned for expenditure in the several States and Territories in the proportion that their farm population bears to the total farm population of the' States and Territories, according to the last preceding United States Census;
(2) Funds for home economics education = $8,000,000
"$8,000,000 for vocational education in home economics, , to be apportioned for expenditure in the several States and Territories in the proportion that their rural population bears to the total rural population of the States and Territories, according to the last preceding United States Census;
(3) Funds for trade and industrial education = $8,000,000
"$8,000,000 for vocational education in trades and industry to be' apportioned for expenditure in the several States and Territories in the proportion that their nonfarm population bears to the total non-farm population of the States and Territories, according to the last preceding United States Census;

TABLE 29
FUNDS EXPENDED FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OF LESS THAN COLLEGE GRADE IN GEORGIA, 1937-38 THROUGH 1945-46a

Fiscal year ending June 30

State

1938 .............. $144,123.98

1939 1940 .............. 1941 .............. 1942 .............. 1943 .............. 1944 .............. 1945 .............. 1946 ..............

269,868.18 300,379.13 342,091.71 349,893.51 337,568.63 357,459.89 349,315.82 504,408.39b

Federal
$591,233.74 606,138.41 610,143.74 603,581.21 601,963.51 586,453.53 594,651.91 597,348.76 597,348.76

Local
$ 508,814.61 698,620.20 702,326.36 777,653.04 657,322.09
1,024,221.25 915,827.23 873,194.15 948,402.20

Total
$1,244,172.33 1,574,626.79 1,612,849.23 1, 723,325.96 1,609,179.45 1,948,243.41 1,867,939.03 1,819,858.73 2,050,159.35b

a Includes expenditures for general administration, teacher-training in each of the services supervisors, clerical services, office supplies, travel for teachers and staff members, grants to local school units as aid toward salaries and travel of teachers, etc.
\> Includes $100,000.00 for North Georgia Trade School.

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criteria listed below:
1. The program of state support should guarantee an adequate foundation program of education to every child.
2. State revenue sources should be stable enough to permit accurate' budgeting for at least a year in advance.
3. State revenue sources should be sufficient to pay the appropriations necessary to meet the defined program of educational need.
4. Calculation of ability to pay: The measure of ability to pay should be calculated upon an equitable basis such as required uniform levy on the true valuation of property assuming one hundre'd percent tax collection or on the basis of an economic index of ability to pay.
5. Equitable use of funds for providing educational facilities for: White and Negro children.
A study of the ratings assigned by 15 Georgia school authorities in 1946 reveals that the Georgia finance plan ranked good as measured by 10 standards, fair on 15, poor on 4, and entirely lacking or not applicable on 4. The four criteria for which Georgia ranked poor are :
1. The program of state support should require a minimum uniform local tax effort.
2. Calculation of transportation needs:
(a) The state program should provide for transportation for all children who live beyond a reasonable walking distance from approved school centers.
(b) The determination of unit transportation costs should be based primarily upon variations in density of transported pupils which may be corrected for any other factors affecting transportation costs, which factors are beyond the control of local school authorities.
319

trade classes; and 1,150 in public service classes. Instruction in distributive education was given in 1945-46 by 53 teachers to 9,525 persons. Of the persons receiving training in the distributive occupations, 9,099 were enrolled in evening and parttime classes and 426 in cooperative classes. A grand total of 113,772 persons received vocational instruction in the public schools of the State in 1945-46.
D. M. Clements of the U. S. Office of Education made the following statement relative to vocational programs in Georgia:
"In Vocational Agriculture training, Georgia ranks third, being outranked by South Carolina and Texas . . . In Trade and Industry, Georgia ranks twenty-third in enrollment . . . In Home Economics training, Georgia is outranked by only Texas and California . . . In this service (distributive education) Georgia ranks fourth, Texas, California, and New York are ahead. For the year ending June 30, 1944, the cost per capita to states, local communities, and the fe'deral government to train over two million persons in vocational education was $29.82 for the United States; $20.95 for the twelve Southern States; and $16.81 for Georgia."9
Present plan of distributing vocational funds to local school systems. State and federal vocational funds for agricultural, homemaking, trade and industrial, and distributive education have been in the past and are at the present distributed to local school systems on the basis of requests. These requests must set forth a plan for utilizing the funds. The plan for utilizing the funds must satisfy the minimum program requirements set forth in a state plan developed by the State Board of Education and approved by the United States Office of Education. If the plan is approved and funds are available, state and fe'deral funds are allocated to the school.
The actual funds allotted to schools depend upon qualifications and experience of the teacher employed and the travel expenses incurred by the teacher in performing his duties. The method of computing state and fe'deral funds for teachers of agriculture and home economics is as follows:
9 Speech delivered in 1946 by D. M. Clements, Field Representative, South Atlantic Region, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C.
312

TABLE 30 (Continued)

Criteria

2 Fair

variations in training and experience of teachers.

(4) Calculation of teachers' salaries should give limited consideration to variations in living costs.

b. Calculation of transportation needs: (1) The state program should provide

s

for transportation for all children

who live beyond a reasonable walk-

ing distance from approved school

centers.

(2) The determination of unit transpor-

s

tation cost should be based pri-

marily upon variations in density of

transported pupils which may be

corrected for any other factors af-

fecting transportation costs, which

factors are beyond the control of

local school authorities.

c. Calculation of current expense needs,

s p

other than teachers' salaries and trans-

portation, should be based primarily

upon allowable teacher units.

I d. Calculation of capital outlay needs should be based primarily upon allow-

able teacher units.

I

9. Calculation of ability to pay.

a. The measure of ability to pay should be

I calculated upon an equitable basis such
as required uniform levy on the true

valuation of property assuming one hun- I

dred percent tax collections or on the I

basis of an economic index of ability to I

pay.

I

b. If local school units have unusual addi- I

I tional ability to pay in addition to abili-
ty as determined in "a" above, such as

lucrative severance taxes, this additional I

ability to pay should be included in the

final ability measure used.

I

10. Calculation of state funds needed should be

I determined by objective formulae as follows:

a. Equalization funds distributed on the
I small-fund method by first deducting

s

p

ability to pay from the total cost of the

! foundation program and then deducting
from that remainder the sum of regular

! federal funds and state funds other
than equalization funds available to local

school units.

I

321

s p
p p
s p s p
s p

the rate of five cents per mile up to a maximum of $500

per year. Teachers working only 92 months may be

reimbursed up to $300 for travel by automobile or $75

if other means are used.



The method of computing state and federal funds for teachers of trade, industrial, and distributive education is as follows:

Salary fund:

(a) For teachers not carried on the state teacher allotment list, state and federal funds are allotted for the teacher's salary as follows.: 75 percent of the first year, 622 percent the second year, and 50 percent the third year and thereafter.
(b) For teachers on the state teacher allotment list, the local school system is reimbursed from the state and federal funds for any additional compensation to the teacher for the supplemental time and work expended in conducting the trade, industrial, or distributive education program.

Travel:

(a) The state reimburses the local board for the state's part of expenditures made to a teacher for travel expenses up to $25 per month for nine months.

4. Other State Educational Funds
In addition to the state funds for the foundation program of education and state and federal vocational funds, there are several funds now set aside by the State for specific educational purposes. These funds are as follows:

Funds for free textbooks, audio-visual materials, and library
books. The method of utilizing these funds was described in Chapters VIII and IX, respe'ctively.

State school lunch funds. State school lunch funds are now expended for administering the distribution of federal funds granted to the State. A complete description of the method of utilizing school lunch funds has been set forth in Chapter X.

Vocational rehabilitation funds. For the' year ending June 30, 1946, $1,015,000 was spent for vocational rehapilitation work, of which the state of Georgia furnished $250,000. The

314

3. Calculation of ability to pay: The measure of ability to pay should be calculated upon an equitable basis such as required uniform levy on the true valuation of property assuming one hundred percent tax collections or on the basis of an economic index of ability to pay.
3. Evaluation of Present Plan of Distribution
Georgia's present plan of distribution of state funds as evaluated in the previous section emphasized several weakne'sses as well as strong points. The principal weaknesses are set forth below.
1. The program of state support provided for but does not guarantee nine months' educational opportunity to all the children of the State. Seven months of education are guaranteed and two additional months are made possible' through equalization funds. The State should guarantee an adequate founda-
tion program to all the children of the State. All schools should
be required to operate nine months.
2. School systems are required to levy a five-mill tax on the school tax digest. In computing equalization funds, however, the local tax ability of the counties is five mills on the' school tax digest less homestead exemptions, whereas, local tax ability of independent systems is five mills on the total tax digest.
There is a division of opinion among school authorities in the State and the survey staff as to whether or not this practice should be continued.
Those who believe the practice should be continued hold to the theory that a local school system's ability to finance education is measured in terms of the actual tax dollars it is able to collect; therefore, the ability of a county school system in Georgia should be based on the tax digest less homestead exemptions and the ability of an independent school system should be based on the total tax digest.
Those who are opposed to the present method of computing the ability of a school system to finance education hold to the theory that the ability of a school system should be measured in terms of the total wealth of the county or city as measured by the total property digest; therefore, the' ability of both county and independent school systems should be measured in
323

(2) Funds for the local support of education are derived almost entirely from local tax levies on p.roperty. For current expense purposes, all county school systems, except for four counties holding constitutional charters, must levy a five-mill tax and may levy as much as 15 mills. The tax limitations of the four counties holding constitutional charters and all independent school systems are specified in the individual charters. Independent school systems have a distinct advantage over the county school systems in that they levy taxes on the basis of the total tax digest, whereas counties levy school taxes on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions.
.(3) Most school house construction in Georgia has been financed by local school tax bonds. For this purpose bonds may be issued upon approval of the electorate up to seven percent of the assesse'd valuation of property within the boundaries of the system. It is the opinion of the Attorney General that the School Act of February 1, 1946, gives school authorities the power to levy an annual tax for school house construction over and above the 5 to 15 mill maintenance levy authorized by the Constitution. This interpretation of the law has not yet been tested in the courts.
(4) Federal funds for vocational education of less than colle'ge grade are now allotted to Georgia under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the George-Deen Act of 1936. Georgia received $174,945.56 in 1945-46, under the SmithHughes Act and $442,403.20 under the terms of the GeorgeDeen Act. The George-Deerr Act has been superseded by the George-Barden Act of 1946. This act becomes effective July 1, 1947, and if funds authorized in the bill are appropriated by Congress, the amount of federal funds annually allotted to Georgia for vocational education will be almost double'd. In addition to these federal funds, $504,408.39 in state funds and $948,402.20 in local funds were expended for vocational education during 1945-46. State and federal funds for vocational education are distributed to local school systems on the basis of requests which must be approved by the State Board of Education and the U. S. Office of Education. These requests must set forth specific plans for utilizing the funds.
(5) In addition to the state funds for the foundation program of education and state and federal vocational funds., the
316

and transportation, should be based primarily upon allowable
teacher units.
7. The state program of support at present makes no provision for capital outlay needs. Capital outlay needs should be based primarily upon allowable teacher units.
IV. RECOMMENDED STATE FOUNDATION PROGRAM
The analysis made of Georgia's present plan for distributing state school funds revealed several weaknesses as well as strong points. On the basis of this analysis a recommended plan for distributing state school funds has been formulate'd.
It should be pointed out that no objective formula for distributing school funds will achieve equalization of educational opportunity as long as so many of the local school administrative units. are so small. This, fact has been discussed in Chapter XI.
The plan that is presented is felt to be a balanced plan. It is a plan under which the educational need of every school system in the State is calculated on an equitable basis for all necessary items of educational expenditure. In a like manner, the ability of each local school system to support education from local tax revenues has been calculated through the medium of an impartial index of economic ability.
The recommended plan is presented in four parts: (1) Method of determining educational needs, (2) method of dete'rmining local ability to support education, (3) alternate plan for determining ability of local units, and (4) state funds needed. The term, "state funds needed," refers only to the total state funds needed to finance the propose'd program on the basis of the pres.ent state teacher salary scale and does not in any way refer to the amount of state funds that would be needed to finance an adequate program of education for the children of the State.
1. Calculation of Educational Needs
The financial needs of a school system are to be defined in terms of salarie's, transportation, other current expense, and capital outlay.
325

auditing, and reporting, in order to insure' proper use of school funds.
6. "The financial program should be flexible in order that educational programs in local schools might be readily adapted to the varying educational needs of local school units.
7. "The financial program should be administered so that the educational program will assure the greatest good to the greatest number.
8. "Sources of revenue should be stable enough to provide for long-time planning but flexible enough to provide for the normal expansion of educational needs.
9. "Such controls as are exercised by central agencies should not operate to retard progress, but rather to prevent backward steps."
2. Criteria for Evaluation 11
The criteria scale presented in Table 30 was developed by the' Southern States Work-Conference on School Administrative Problems. The criteria, or standards, used in this scale was based upon the guiding principles as set forth above. The status of Georgia's financing plan as rated by the Southern States Work-Conference Committee on State and Local Financing of Schools is marked on the criteria scale with the letter "S". It should be borne in mind that these ratings were made in 1941, and therefore have changed to some de:gree because of increased state revenues and other controlling factors.
The Survey Staff requested fifteen Georgia school authorities to evaluate the present plan of distribution in the light of conditions in November, 1946. The status of Georgia's financing plan as rated by these authorities is indicated for each item on the scale by the letter "P".
An analysis of Table 30 reveals that the Southern States WorkConference (1941) rated the Georgia state' education finance plan as good as measured by 17 standards, fair on 7, poor on 5, and entirely lacking or not applicable on 4. This group rated the Georgia finance plan as poor when measured by the five
11 Ibid., pp. 28-30.
318

average daily attendance density of 5.71 would be allotted one elementary teacher for each 26 (or major fraction thereof) elementary pupils in average daily attendance and one high school teacher for each 21 (or major fraction thereof) high school pupils in average daily attendance. The teacher-salary needs of a school system would then be equal to twelve-months pay as established by the State Board of Education for the teacher certified by the school system as teaching under the allotment allowed in accordance with Tables 31 and 32. The density classification of each school system would be determined for each school year in accordance with the previous year's average daily attendance.
It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that the method proposed is a more equitable basis of determining teacher units needed by a school system than the method now in use. The Survey Staff recognizes, however, that no objective formula, such as the density method, for determining the number of teachers needed by a school system can be wholly equitable. In view of the fact, it is recommende'd that the State Board of Education be authorized to determine the teacher allotment under sound local administration for each school administrative unit on the basis of periodic surveys made by the State Department of Education or its approved agent. Such surveys should be made every five years if possible.
The type of survey recommended would be less detailed than a comprehensive study of the local school system. In case of unusual local changes during the five-year period, the State Board of Education should be required to authorize an interim survey upon request from the local board of education.
Until the survey procedure is adopted and in full operation, the' objective formula should be used for calculating teacherunits for counties in which surveys have not been completed.
In addition to teacher-salary needs, an allowance should be made to each school system for principals' and instructional supervisors' supplements. At present only principals and instructional supervisors teaching in county school systems are eligible for supplements from the State and only the'n if the State supplement is matched by the county. The matching principle is inequitable and should be abolished. Likewise, principals' and instructional supervisors' supplements should be
327

TABLE 30
CRITERIA SCALE FOR EVALUATING STATE PLANS FOR FINANCING THE PUBLIC SCHOOLSa STATE OF GEORGIA

Criteria

2
I I I I G;od Fair

3 Poor Entirely
Lacking

I 1. The program of state support should guarantee an adequate foundation program of

Ip Is I

education to every child.

I I I I

I 2. The program of state support should re- I s

I I

quire a minimum uniform local tax effort.

I

I

I p I

I

I 3. The uniform required local tax effort should

p

I
I

s

I I

I

not be so great as to prevent the local school
I unit from exceeding the state supported

I I

I I

I

minimum program.

I

4. State revenue sources should be stable I

enough to permit accurate budgeting for at

least a year in advance.

I

I

5. State revenue sources should be sufficient p

I to pay the appropriations necessary to meet

I I
p
I
I I
I

I
I s

I

I I

s

I

I
I
I I

the defined program of educational needs. I

I

I

I

I I I
6. State appropriations should be sufficient p

I I

s

I

and so administered as to enable all local

I

I I I

school units to participate in the state-sup-

ported program.

I

I I

I

I I

I 7. The program of state support should be or- s

I
p I

I I

ganized and administered so as to provide I

for the integration or unification of state funds and prevent the establishment of

I I

I

I I

I I

numerous special funds distributed without I

I I

reference to each other.

I

I

8.

Determination of educational need. plan for calculation of educational

Any need

I I

should provide for an objective calculation I

I I

I

I

I I

I

of all phases of educational need in proper I

I I

relationship in order to provide a reason- I

I I

ably well-balanced educational program. I

I

a. Calculation of need for instructional I

salaries: (1) Calculation of teacher units should

I I

s

take into consideration necessary I

I I
p I

I
I

variations in pupil-teacher ratios I

I I

caused by variations in size of school I

I I

or density of population.

I

I I

I (2) Calculation of teacher units should I s p take into consideration necessary

I I

I

I I

variations in pupil-teacher ratios as I

I I

between e l e m e n t a r y and high I

schools.

I

I I

(3) Calculation

of

teachers'

salaries

I I

s

I p I

I

should give limited consideration to I

I I

320

TABLE 32 (Continued)

County

Area

DDaawdeson....................

165 213

Decatur DeKalb

....................

612 269

Dodge 499

DDoooulgyhe..r.t..y...................................

394 326

EDEcaohruolgyllsas......................

250216 425

Effingham .............. 480

EEmlbaenrtuel....................

362 686

Evans Fannin

......................

186 396

FFFloaoyrysedyttteh............................................

199 514
243

FFuraltnoknlin......................

269 523

GGGGlloiaylrmsndcnoeonrc.k...............................................................

439 142 423 358

Grady ........................ 467

GGHHrwaaeblielennrne.s.eh..t..at....m......................................................................

404
437
283 426

Hancock .................... 485

HHaarrarilsson........................................

285 465

HHHeeaanrrtrdy..............................................

257 301 331

Houston .................... JJIarawcskpisneorn..................................................................

379
372
337 373

Jeff Davis 331

JJeefnfkeirnsson....................

532 351

JJLooahnmnessaorn..............................................

313 402 181

White
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
6.48 3.31 3.99 24.30 4.15
2.98 3.13 7.61 3.46 .80
2.34 3.87 4.03 4.69 7.66
4.10 9.87 7.82 8.89 34.51
4.18 4.34 8.48 7.51 5.10
2.78 10.01
9.88 12.53
1.06
7.39 1.79 7.50 3.46 3.86
4.74 4.31 6.66 1.51 4.37
2.77 2.41 3.67 1.48 3.72

Negro
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
.13
4.32 4.99 2.44
4.54 3.46 2.26 3.71 .19
1.72 2.74 2.41 2.13
.02
2.80 .92
1.91 7.91
.01 .65 3.63 .26 2.95
4.46 .81 .42 .60 4.22
.82 2.97 3.33 1.61 4.39
3.28 2.93 1.30 2.46 1.26
4.18 3.28 3.84 2.49 3.19

White
Density Class
Elem. ll. s.
26 21 24 19 24 19 30 25 24 19
24 19 24 19 27 22 24 19 20 15
22 17 24 19 24 19 26 21 27 22
24 19 28 23 27 22 28 23 30 25
24 19 24 19 27 22 27 22 26 21
24 19 28 23 28 23 30 25 22 17
27 22 22 17 27 22 24 19 24 19
26 21 24 19 27 22 22 17 24 19
24 19 22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19

Negro
Density C1ass
Elem. H.S.
20 15
24 19 26 21 22 17
26 21 24 19 22 17 24 19 20 15
22 17 24 19 22 17 22 17 20 15
24 19 20 15
22 17 27 22
20 15 20 15 24 19 20 15 24 19
24 19 20 15 20 15 20 15 24 19
20 15 24 19 24 19 22 17 24 19
24 19 24 19 22 17 22 17 22 17
24 19 24 19 24 19 22 17 24 19

329

TABLE 30 (Continued)

Criteria

2 Fair

b. Foundation program funds distributed s

p

on the large-fund method by using an

objective formula for determining need.

c. Per capita funds should be distributed by using a uniform objective formula based upon a per capita unit.
s d. Special funds should be distributed by p
using some objective formula not subject to personal bias.

I P~or Ent~e]y Lacking s p

11. Certain requirements for participation

should be established:

a. Any requirements for participation s

p

should be equitable, objective, and capa-

ble of impartial administration.

b. Continuing acceptable requirements should be written into law.
c. Desirable requirements w h i c h may p s
change should be established by the State Board of Education.

d. Sufficient requirements should be estab-

lished in order to insure that all chil-

dren receive the benefits intended. They

should include the following: (1) A stated minimum term for all

p s

schools.

(2) A reasonable uniform minimum lo-

s p

cal tax effort.

(3) Proper budgetary procedure.

s p

(4) Satisfactory educational and finan- s

p

cial accounting.

(5) Equitable use of funds for provid-

ing educational facilities for: a. White and Negro children. b. Elementary and high schools. c. Urban and rural children.

p
s p

s

s p

(6) Proper provisions for the protec- S P tion of teachers' salaries.

e. Requirements should not operate to re- S P strict local initiative but rather to safeguard a minim~u=rn~~p~r~o~g~r=a=m=------------~----~------~-----~-----
a State and Local Financing of Schools. Bulletin No. 1. (Tallahassee, Florida: Southern States Work-Conference on School Administrative Problems, 1941, pp. 28-30.
S. Status of Georgia as rated by Southern States Work-Conference in 1941. P. Status of Georgia as rated by 15 Georgia school authorities (superintendents, State
Department of Education employees, college deans, college professors, and education research workers) in November, 1946.

822

TABLE 32 (Continued)

County

Area

TTTaaayltitlanofarelrlr..o........................................

195 493 400

Telfair Terrell

......................

440 329

TTTToohifowotmmnbsa..ss......................................................................................

540 266 369 172

Treutlen 194

Troup Turner

............................................

447 293

UUTwpnsiioognngs........................

365 319 333

WW WWWaaaaalsrlrtkheroeeinnnr.g...t......o........n................................................................................

448 330 912 284 674

WWWWWhheahbyeiittesneftleieee.rrl..d.........................................................

646 195 306 243 281

Wilcox ...................... 383

WWWiiollrkkteihnsso..n....................................

472 458 580

White
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
1.53 5.11 2.24 3.97 2.12
4.12 7.36 6.22 5.98 5.73
3.78 4.19 1.62 4.29 4.05
11.28 7.28 4.23 2.25 2.45
3.42 1.32 3.07 4.52 12.83
3.46 2.03 2.08 3.41

Negro
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
3.92 1.51 2.54 2.35 5.91
3.36 3.80 2.82
2.48
2.75 2.52 3.29
3.34
1.01 3.92 1.70 3.60 3.54
.75 2.71 1.77 .41 .18
1.78 3.43 1.94 3.38

White
Density Class
Elem. H.S.
22 17 26 21 22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19 27 22 26 21 26 21 26 21 24 19 24 19 22 17 24 19 24 19 29 24 27 22 24 19 22 17 22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19 26 21 30 25 24 19 22 17 22 17 24 19

Negro
Density C1ass
Elem. H.S.
24 19 22 17 24 19 22 17 26 21 24 19 24 19 24 19
22 17 24 19 24 19 24 19
24 19 22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19 24 19 20 15 24 19 22 17 20 15 20 15 22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19

calculated for both county and independent systems. It is proposed that the State Board of Education continue to determine the scale of supplements in accordance with the qualifications of the principal or supervisor and the number of teachers under his supervision.
Column two of Table 35 presents the estimated salary needs for the various school systems of the State based upon 1945-46 average daily attendance figures and in accordance with average State' salaries paid by each school system during 1946-47.
Transportation. It is the opinion of the Survey Staff that
881

terms of the total tax digest less homestead exemptions. The proponents of this theory say that independent systems should not be penalize'd because their citizens pay more taxes than they would if their property was within the boundaries of a county school system.
3. The school tax digest is not an equitable measure of the ability of a county or city to raise tax revenues because tax assessment valuations vary so greatly from county to county. The ability of a school system to raise tax revenues should be based on a more nearly uniform method, such as an economic index of ability to pay.
4. Te'aching units are now calculated on the basis of the density of population of the county. This method does not take into account the greater birth rates evident in rural areas or differences in the ratio of whites and Negroes in the population. In counties having a greater Negro population than white population, the white children are at a disadvantage. Likewise, in counties where the population is almost all white, the Negro children are at a disadvantage. Teacher-pupil ratios should be determined on the basis of the density per square mile in average daily attendance for whites and Negroes separately.
5. State transportation funds are now allotted on the basis of an annual allowance for depreciation of 10 percent plus mileage. The practice of allotting funds on a mileage basis doe's not encourage economy in routing. Furthermore, there is no proof that the cost of operating a bus 20 miles a day is half that for operating a bus 40 miles. The bus driver's salary, for example, must be paid in both instances. Transportation cost should be determined primarily on the basis of variations in the density of transported pupils.
6. Administrative funds allotted to a system are now based on the state teachers' salaries received by the system. This practice gives the counties with the poorest prepared teachers the least amount of money for other current expenses. There is no evidence, howeve'r, that the lower-salaried teachers need fewer supplies and less equipment. A poorly prepared teacher will normally do poorer teaching than the better prepared teacher; but if the poorly prepared teacher has less equipment than the better teacher, the disparity is increased. The calculation of current expense needs, other than teachers' salaries
324

Density of pupils in average daily attendance transported

Median cost per pupil transported in average
daily attendance

0 to .99--------- -----------------------------$3 5.0 7 1.0 to 1. 99-------------------------------------- 28. 97 2.0 to 2.99------------------------------------ 21. 41 3.0 to 3. 99---------------------- ---------------- 2 0.03 4.0 to 4. 99------------------------------------- 17. 57 5.0 to 5.99-------------------------------------- 17. 68 6.0 to 6.99------------------------------------- 15.89 7.0 to 7. 99-------------------------------------- 14. 51 8.0 and over___________________________________ 11.89

(4) The data shown above were then plotted on a graph and a best-fitting curve drawn. The results of this plot and curve are shown in Figure 20.
(5) From figure 20 the allowance per child in average daily attendance transported was taken. The resulting scale is given in Table 33.
By referring to the transportation allowance scale which has been presented in Table 33 it is a simple matter to calculate the transportation need of each county. The transportation needs of each county are presented in Table 34. The total transportation need of each county has been determined as shown in the table by multiplying the number of pupils in average daily attendance transported by the yearly transportation allowance per pupil. Any system operating for less than nine months would have its total need re'duced in proportion thereto.
It should be pointed out that the per pupil allowance scale should be recomputed annually and that the area of a county not served by school busses should be deducted from the total area of that county in col)J.puting the density of pupils transported per square mile. The scale presented herein is for white pupils only. It would be necessary to compute a separate scale for Negro pupils.

333

.Salaries. Salary needs are to be determined on a twelvemonths basis for all school systems in accordance with a state minimum salary schedule as established by the State Board of Education. The number of teachers from a school system to be paid state salaries shall be determined on the basis of the number of pupils in average daily attendance per square mile separately for whites and Negroes. Table 31 presents the proposed scale. The density scale presented in this table is a more equitable means of determining teacher-pupil ratios than the present scale as set up in the Seven-Months School Law in that average daily attendance is a better measure of educational need than total population, and teacher-pupil ratios are determined separately for whites and Negroes. Furthermore', the variations in teacher-pupil ratios between the various density classifications are much smaller. Therefore, the number of teachers to which a school system is entitled will not change radically when increases or decreases in its A.D.A. change the density classification under which teacher-pupil ratios are determined.

TABLE 31
DENSITY SCALE FOR DETERMINING TEACHER-PUPIL RATIOS BY DENSITY PER SQUARE MILE IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR WHITES AND NEGROES

Density per square mile

Teacher-pupil ratios

Elementary

High School

Class I

Above 12.51 and all independent systems 30

25

Class II 10.51 - 12.50 ................................................ 29

24

Class III 8.51 - 10.50 ................................................ 28

23

Class IV 6.51 - 8.50 ................................................ 27

22

Class V

4.51 - 6.50 ................................................ 26

21

Class VI 2.51 - 4.50 ................................................ 24

19

Class VII 1.00 - 2.50 ................................................ 22

17

Class VIII Below 1 .......................................................... 20

15

The calculation of teacher-pupil ratios by density per square mile of pupils in average daily attendance for whites and Negroes for the 159 counties of Georgia is shown in Table 32. These calculations are based on 1945-46 average daily attendance figures. In this table the total area of the county has be'en divided into the average daily attendance for the county and the resulting density applied to the scale given in Table 31 to obtain the pupil-teacher ratios shown in columns five, six, seven, and eight. For example, Appling County with a white

326

TABLE 33

SCALE FOR DETERMINING TRANSPORTATION ALLOWANCE PER PUPIL IN A. D. A. BY DENSITY OF COUNTY IN TERM OF NUMBERS OF PUPILS TRANSPORTED DAILY-BASED ON 1945-46 DATA

Density

Allowance per child in A. D. A.
transported

0 - .49 38.00 .5 - .99 ................................................ ........................................................ 34.00 1.0 - 1.49 ................................................................ ........................................ 30.00 1.5 - 1.99 ........................................................................................................ 26.00 2.0 - 2.49 ........................................................................................................ 24.00 2.5 - 2.99 ........................................................................................................ 21.50 3.0 - 3.49 ......................................................................................................... 20.00 3.5 - 3.99 ........................................................................................................ 19.00 4.0 - 4.49 ........................................................................................................ 18.00 4.5 - 4.99 ........................................................................................................ 17.25 5.0 - 5.49 ........................................................................................................ 16.75 5.5 - 5.99 ........................................................................................................ 16.00 6.0 - 6.49 ............................................................................................ ............ 15.25 6.5 - 6.99 ........................................................................................................ 14.75 7.0 - 7.49 ........................................................................................................ 14.00 7.5 - 7.99 ........................................................................................................ 13.50 8.0 and over ..................................................................................................... 13.00

335

TABLE 32
CALCULATION OF TEACHER-PUPIL RATIOS BY DENSITY PER SQUARE MILE IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE
FOR WHITES AND NEGROES

County

Area

Appling .................... 514
Atkinson .................. 318 Bacon ...................... 293 Baker ........................ 355 Baldwin .................... 265

Banks ...................... 231

Barrow Bartow

....................

171 476

Ben Hill .................. 255

Berrien .................... 466

Bibb .......................... 251 Bleckley .................. 219
Brantley .................. 447 Brooks ...................... 492 Bryan ...................... 439

Bulloch .................... 684
Burke ........................ 832 Butts ........................ 185 Calhoun .................. 289
. Camden 656

Candler .................... 251

Carroll Catoosa

........................................

495 167

Charlton .................. 799

Chatham .................. 441

Chattahoochee ........ 253 Chattooga ................ 317
Cherokee .................. 428 Clarke ...................... 125 Clay .......................... 224

Clayton .................... 149
Clinch ...................... 796 Cobb ........................ 348 Coffee ...................... 613 Colquitt .................... 563

Columbia ................ 306 Cook .......................... 226 Coweta ...................... 443 Crawford .................. 313 Crisp ........................ 296

w,hite
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
5.71 3.69 5.31 1.32 5.01
6.20 6.94 6.61 3.85 5.91
34.57 4.00 2.91 3.57 1.65
4.28 1.43 4.14 1.77 1.00
4.04 7.09 12.90
.88 24.65
.41 7.55 7.83 7.32 1.46
11.93 .94
16.63 5.66 7.21
2.44 8.25 4.45 1.73 3.24

Negro
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46

White
Density Class
Elem. H.S.

1.25

26

21

.98

24

19

.79

26

21

2.20

22

17

6.89

26

21

.41

26

21

2.24

27

22

1.03

27

22

1.49

24

19

.76 26 21

27.36

30

25

1.32

24

19

.33 24 19

4.08

24

19

1.42

22

17

2.61

24

19

4.08

22

17

4.03

24

19

4.90

22

17

1.04

22

17

2.04

24

19

2.12

27

22

.23

30

25

.28

20

15

16.34

30

25

.73

20

15

1.16 27 22

.42 27 22

4.19

27

22

4.95 22 17

4.51

29

24

.40

20

15

1.55

30

25

1.64 26 21

1.38 27 22

2.96

22

17

2.96 27 22

4.01

24

19

2.49

22

17

2.53

24

19

Negro

Density C,ass
Elem. H.S.

22

17

20

15

20

15

22

17

27

22

20

15

22

17

22

17

22

17

20

15

30

25

22

17

20

15

24

19

22

17

24

19

24

19

24

19

26

21

22

17

22

17

22

17

20

15

20

15

30

25

20

15

22

17

20

15

24

19

26

21

26

21

20

15

22

17

22

17

22

17

24 19

24

19

24

19

22

17

24

19

328

TABLE 34 (Continued)

, ..~:{-:

County

}?.

(1)

t~',',~

A.D.A. transported
pupils
(2)

Transportation density
(3)

Allowance per pupil
(4)

Dooly ............................ 1,304

3.31

20.00

DEEDcaoohruuolggyllhsaes..r..t..y........................................................................

824 920 1,440 255

2.53 4.58 2.74
.60

21.50 17.25 21.50 34.00

EEflbfienrgt ha..m..........................................

960 1,251

2.00 3.46

24.00 20.00

EFEamvnaannnisunel..................................................

2,387 586
1,335

3.48 3.16 3.37

20.00 20.00 20.00

FFFloaoyrysedyttteh........................

767 3,523 1,343

3.85 6.85 5.53

19.00 14.75 16.00

FFuraltnoknlin

1,731 2,874

6.43 5.50

15.25 16.00

GGilalmsceorck......................

890 586

2.03 4.13

24.00 18.00

' '. -~

GGGolryarnddnoyn..........................

875 2,273 1,476

2.07 6.35 3.16

24.00 15.25 20.00

,,l Greene .......................... 657

1.63

26.00

GHHwaablilenrn.se.h..t.at..m.......................

3,240 1,913 2,170

7.41
6.76 5.09

14.00 14.75 16.75

Hancock 396

.82

34.00

HHaarrarilsson................................................

1,635 699

5.74 1.50

16.00 26.00

HHeaartrd..........................

1,550 942

6.03 3.13

15.25 20.00

Henry 921

2.78

21.50

JJJIHraaeowcsfukpfisnseDtoronan..v....i....s................................................................................................................

528 1,465 1,352
531 1,117

1.39 3.94 4.01 1.42 3.37

30.00 19.00
18.00 30.00 20.00

JJJLJeeooanfnhmfkenesiasrnorsson..n..........................................................................

925 697 1,411
561 430

1.74 1.99 4.51 1.40 2.38

26.00 26.00 17.25 30.00 24.00

LLLLLeiaainbeuncerioreeltrnnys

558 2,421
217 505 409

3.34 2.99
.61 .99 1.16

20.00 21.50 34.00 34.00 30.00

337

Total allowance, col. 4 x col. 2
(5)
26,080 17,716 15,870 30,960
8,670
23,040 25,020 47,740 11,760 26,700
14,573 51,964 21,488 26,398 45,984
21,360 10,548 21,000 34,663 29,520
17,082 45,360 28,217 36,348 13,464
26,160 18,174 23,638 18,840 19,802
15,840 27,835 24,336 15,930 22,340
24,050 18,122 24,340 16,830 10,320
11,160 52,052
7,378 17,170 12,270

TABLE 32 (Continued)

County

Area

LLaanuireerns LLLeiinbeceortlyn

167 811
355 510
253

Long ........................ 403

LLMMouaawmcdonipsndkoeinsn

506 292
263 431

Marion .................... 399

McDuffie Mcintosh

..................

281 365

MMielrliewr ether

499 287

MMMMMioooutnncrrghrrtgoaaeoeynllme....r....y................................

511 299 235
356 342

MNOOceguowlsenctteoohegnoerepe..............

220 273
186 432

Paulding 318

Peach ........................ 151

Pickens .................... 225

Pierce ...................... 342

Pike Polk

..........................
..........................

230 312

Putnam ...................... 350
Quitman .................. 170 Rabun ...................... 369 Randolph .................. 436
Pulaski ...................... 254
Richmond ................ 325
Rockdale .................. 128 Schley ...................... 162 Screven .................... 651
Seminole ...... ~ .......... 274

Spalding .................. 201 Stephens .................. 180 Stewart .................... 463 Sumter ...................... 491 Talbot ...................... 390

White
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
4.53 3.36
.95 1.27 2.05
1.34 3.73 3.29 2.99 4.29
1.41 3.57 1.24 3.34 5.12
4.04 2.59 3.90 2.84 6.01
16.40 8.07 4.56 2.47 6.10
5.61 6.73 6.13 3.43 10.36
1.62 .98 4.27 1.73 3.12
24.40 7.22 1.69 2.30 3.71
9.95 10.15
.99 1.77
.95

Negro
Density per sq.
mile A.D.A. 1945-46
1.89 2.65 3.30 2.09 2.74
.74 3.63 .11 6.42 1.18
2.06 3.42 1.72 4.03 2.98
4.80 3.99 3.58 3.03
.15
10.25 4.07 1.93 2.34 1.07
7.77 .52
1.70 3.71 2.82
2.75 3.05 .03 4.94 3.86
16.20 3.73 3.40 3.08 2.72
3.29 .84
3.69 3.02 2.64

White
Density Class
Elem. H.S.
26 21 24 19 20 15 22 17 22 17
22 17 24 19 24 19 24 19 24 19
22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19 26 21
24 19 24 19 24 19 24 19 26 21
30 25 27 22 26 21 22 17 26 21
26 21 27 22 26 21 24 19 28 23
22 17 20 15 24 19 22 17 24 19
30 25 27 22 22 17 22 17 24 19
28 23 28 23 20 15 22 17 20 15

Negro
Density C1ass
Elem. H.S.
22 17 24 19 24 19 22 17 24 19
20 15 24 19 20 15 26 21 22 17
22 17 24 19 22 17 24 19 24 19
26 21 24 19 24 19 24 19 20 15
28 23 24 19 22 17 22 17 22 17
27 22 20 15 22 17 24 19 24 19
24 19 24 19 20 15 26 21 24 19
30 25 24 19 24 19 24 19 24 19
24 19 20 15 24 19 24 19 24 19

330

TABLE 34 (Continued)

County (1)

A.D.A. transported
pupils (2)

Thomas ........................ 1,591

TTTTooriefowtumntblsesn

1,590 1,617
435 749

TUTTuwrnoriioungnpegrs............................

2,060 1,142
547 690

Upson ............................ 956

WWW WWaaaaaslrlrtkheroeeinnnrgton

2,762 1,661 1,706
531 1,183

Wayne .......................... 1,343

WWWWhhehbeiittesefltieeerrld

248
735 1,011 3,119

WWWWiiiolllckrktoeihnxsson

1,202 599 619
1,317

TOTAL ................178,564

Transportation density (8)
2.95 5.98 4.38 2.53 3.86
4.61 3.90 1.50 2.16 2.87
6.17 503 1.87 1.87 1.76
2.08 1.27 2.40 4.16 11.10
3.14 1.27 1.35 2.27

Allowance per pupil
(4)
21.50 16.00 18.00 21.50 19.00
17.25 19.00 26.00 24.00 21.50
15.25 16.75 26.00 26.00 26.00
24.00 30.00 24.00 18.00 13.00
20.00 30.00 30.00 24.00

Total allowance, col. 4 x col. 2
(5)
34,207 25,440 29,106
9,353 14,231
35,535 21,698 14,222 16,560 20,554
42,121 27,822 44,356 13,806 30,758
32,232 7,440
17,640 18,198 40,547
24,040 17,970 18,570 31,608
$3,509,754

Other current expenses. The opm10n of authorities in the field of school administration and finance is that current expense needs other than teachers' salaries and transportation should be based principally upon allowable te'acher units. The Survey Staff agrees with this principle and recommends that other current expense needs in Georgia be calculated by multiplying the number of teachers in a school system on the state pay list by a sum to be set annually by the State Board of Education. Other current expense needs for each school system as shown in Table' 35 were determined by using the constant sum of $200 per allowable teacher.
The sum of $200 per teacher unit for other current expenses was determined as follows: The percentage of the school dollar expended for general control maintenance, and operation was calculated for Georgia in 1939 and 1945, the Nation in
889

Georgia should, as :soon as possible, adopt a state-owned andoperated school transportation system. The proposal was made in the chapter of this study devoted to school transportation. Serious study should be given to the establishment of such a system.
Until it is feasible to establish a state-owned and operated school transportation system, transportation cost should be computed as part of the financial need of each school system.
After studying the present method of apportioning transportation funds in Georgia and the methods employed in other southern states, a plan for determining transportation needs was formulated. The plan prese'nted herein is a more equitable measure of need than the present plan. Experience tables in other states indicate a direct relations.hip between the density of pupils in average daily attendance transported and the per pupil cost of transportation. The plan formulated has been based upon this principle.
In order to establish a scale for determining transportation needs per pupil transported the following procedure was followed:
(1) The total cost of transportation for the year 1945-46 for each school system was divided by the number of pupils transported in average daily attendance. This division gave the per pupil cost of transportation for each system.
(2) The number of pupils in average daily attendance transported was divided by the area of the county in square miles. This division gave the density of transported pupils in average daily attendance pe'r square mile. The areas of the county not served by transportation should be deducted from the area of the county before this division is made.
(3) The per pupil cost of transportation of each school system was then placed in one of the density groups as shown below and the median cost for transportation per pupil calculated for each group. The results of this grouping and calculation were as follows:
332

transportation needs, other current expense needs, and capital outlay needs. From the total need the local ability or local effort required of each school system is subtracted in order to arrive at the total state funds needed by each school system. An explanation of how the ability of each local school system is determined follows.

TABLE 35

METHOD OF DETERMINING STATE FUNDS TO BE ALLOTTED TO EACH SCHOOL SYSTEM FOR THE FOUNDATION PROGRAM OF EDUCATION-CALCULATIONS BASED ON 1945-46 AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FIGURES AND 1944 TAX DIGEST

County (1)

Salary
Fund (2)

Other Transpor- Capital

Current tation Outlay

Expenses Fund

Fund

(3)

(4)

(5)

Total Cost of Program
(6)

Local State

Effort Funds

Required Needed

(7)

(8)

ABBBAaaaptkclkpdoielnwnirnsiogn..n......................................................$

209,862 $ 29,800 $38,342 $ 29,800 $ 90,291 13,400 18,648 13,400 101,628 14,800 22,950 14,800 70,268 12,000 13,200 12,000 178,124 24,800 14,688 24,800

307,804 $ 19,497 $288,307 135,739 8,151 127,588 154,178 12,633 141,545 107,468 6,996 100,472 242,412 38,270 204,142

Banks ..............
Barrow .........,..
Bartow ............
Ben Hill ..........
Berrien ............

96,467 102,360 199,499 85,838 167,940

12,600 17,532 13,000 16,546 28,800 39,589 12,0'00 17,300 25,800 37,476

12,600 13,000 28,800 12,000 25,800

139,199 144,906
296,688 127,138 257,016

7,258 131,941 11,974 132,932 37,732 258,956 14,662 112,476 22,257 234,759

BBliebcbkley..........
Brantley ..........
Brooks ............
Bryan

Bulloch Burke Butts

........................................

Calhoun Camden

....................

895,485 109,000 25,591 109,000 1,139,076 401,687 737,389 66,944 10,400 16,587 10,400 104,331 8,912 95,419 81,548 13,000 26,037 13,000 133,585 10,313 123,272
231,188 33,000 28,440 33,000 325,628 30,550 295,078 88,389 12,600 18,780 12,600 132,369 11,873 120,496

322,124 255,522
87,248 93,753 89,834

41,600 41,080 40,400 23,766 13,000 10,992 16,200 10,590 12,600 16,048

41,600 40,400 13,000 16,200 12,600

446,404 360,088 124,240 136,743 131,082

43,329 403,075 37,978 322,110 22,258 101,982 15,447 121,296 16,238 114,844

CCCCCaaahhnrtaaordtroohllltsealoarmn..................................................

96,129 285,569 114,300
68,580 1,061,846

13,800 37,400 15,400 10,000 126,400

15,523 44,254 17,955 16,898 40,624

13,800 37,400 15,400 10,000 126,400

139,252 404,623 163,055 105,478 1,355,270

13,836 33,186 11,223 12,638 616,567

125,416 371,437 151,832
92,840 738,703

CCChhheaartttotaokhoeogeoac.h...e....e...... CCllaaryke..............................

22,191 168,023 226,659
94,683 70,110

3,200 1,064 21,800 24,966 29,600 24,123 11,600 10,080 12,000 7,106

3,200 21,800 29,600 11,600 12,000

29,655 236,589 309,982 127,963 101,216

6,980 22,675 19,554 217,035 34,692 275,290 12,832 115,131 11,144 90,072

Clayton ............

Clinch Cobb

..............................

Coffee ..............
Colquitt ..........

148,746 76,752
385,565 260,930 304,340

18,200 16,029 11,200 16,966 45,400 48,919 37,400 46,170 39,200 53,360

18,200 11,200 45,400 37,400 39,200

201,175
116,118 525,284 381,900 436,100

17,924 183,251 13,888 102,230
62,039 463,245 35,731 346,169 27,196 408,904

341

FIGURE 20
Median Coats Per Pupil Transported in Average Daily Attendance Plotted Against the Density of Pupil Tran.. ported in A. D. A. Per Square Mile

~L
~
\~
' I
~

' I

I ~~ ~ Ill
lllliL

~

\I ~~
.o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 lOt

.9 1.9 2.9 3.9 4.9 5.9 6.9 7.9 8.9 9.9

DENSITY
I I

TABLE 35 (Continued)

County (1)

Salary
Fund (2)

Other Transpor- Capital

Current tation Outlay

Expenses Fund

Fund

(3)

(4)

(5)

Total Cost of Program
(6)

Local Effort Required
(7)

State Funds Needed
(8)

Jefferson

Jenkins Johnson

......................

Jones Lamar



Lanier ..............
Laurens .......... LLeibeerty Lincoln ............

Long ................

Lowndes Lumpkin

..................

Macon Madison

..........

212,423 130,388 140,531 108,155
81,594
63,005 300,053 86,006 115,703
64,500
56,787 246,123
65,295 148,761 165,774

32,000 24,050 18,000 18,122 20,400 24,340 15,200 16,830 10,800 10,320
9,200 11,160 42,400 52,052 13,600 7,378 16,400 17,170 11,000 12,270
8,600 14,820 32,600 30,600
8,800 7,378 20,400 13,052 21,200 31,590

32,000 18,000 20,400 15,200 10,800
9,200 42,400 13,600 16,400 11,000
8,600 32,600
8,800 20,400 21,200

MMcaDrioufnfie........
Mcintosh ........ Meriwether ....
Miller

Mitchell
MMoonnrtogeomery..

Morgan Murray

............

Muscogee ........
Newton .......... Oconee ............ Oglethorpe ...... Paulding ........

87,651 123,692
67,739 218,385 137,142
263,007 117,275 107,067 125,364 113,445
341,145 197,910
80,582 128,031 138,102

13,200 15,030 17,200 15,416 10,200 9,962 32,000 24,596 19,200 24,120
36,600 29,712 17,200 13,728 15,400 13,610 18,200 18,044 17,400 25,840
41,200 20,160 26,800 17,060 10,400 13,699 19,600 25,680 18,800 23,161

13,200 17,200 10,200 32,000 19,200
36,600 17,200 15,400 18,200 17,400
41,200 26,800 10,400 19,600 18,800

Peach Pickens

............

Pierce ..............

Pike Polk

................

129,308 103,410 156,327 102,069 252,735

16,000 8,686 13,000 16,272 22,600 26,982 14,200 14,320 31,600 29,433

16,000 13,000 22,600 14,200 31,600

Pulaski Putnam

..........

Quitman ..........
Rabun ..............

Randolph

107,397 85,811 40,332 119,835
166,082

15,600 10,946 13,800 9,724
6,200 3,910 14,400 20,184
24,400 14,430

15,600 13,800
6,200 14,400 24,400

Richmond ........
Rockdale ........
Schley ..............
Screven .......... Seminole ........

749,741 82,805 47,324 207,468 107,157

91,200 25,578 11,400 11,952
7,400 5,880 31,800 27,274 15,400 15,996

91,200 11,400
7,400 31,800 15,400

300,473 184,510 205,671 155,385 113,514

28,597 271,876 17,946 166,564
13,223 192,448 12,135 143,250 12,135 101,379

92,565 436,905 120,584 165,673
98,770

6,204 86,361 31,213 405,692 13,550 107,034 17,002 148,671
8,293 90,477

88,807 341,923
90,273 202,613
239,764

6,656 82,151
29,938 311,985 7,281 82,992
24,220 178,393 14,848 224,916

129,081 173,508
98,101 306,981 199,662

9,609 119,472 19,875 153,633 10,846 87,255 31,588 275,393 12,518 187,144

365,919 165,403 151,477 179,808 174,085

37,798 328,121 24,536 140,867
9,499 141,978 21,148 158,660 14,544 159,541

443,705 268,570 115,081 192,911 198,863

94,540 349,165 38,510 230,060
7,671 107,410 12,267 180,644 13,889 184,974

169,994 145,682 228,509 144,780
345,368

26,659 143,335 13,939 131,743 20,086 208,423 11,096 133,693 39,595 305,773

149,543 123,135
56,642 168,819 229,312

17,310 132,233 15,608 107,527
4,712 51,930 23,715 145,104
25,812 203,500

957,719 358,548 599,171 117,557 12,967 104,590
68,004 7,904 60,100
298,342 26,989 271,353 153,953 14,240 139,713

343

TABLE 34

CALCULATION OF TRANSPORTATION COSTS BASED ON 1945-46 DATA

County (1)

A.D.A. transported
pupils (2)

Appling ........................ 2,018

BAatkcoinnso..n..........................

777 1,275

BBaalkdewr in................................................

440 612

Banks Barrow Bartow

..................................................

974 1,085 2,295

Ben Hill Berrien



865 2,082

BBBBBlrirreboaycbonakktnllseeyy..........................................................................

1,735 873
1,211 1,185
626

BBuulrlkoech............................

2,054 699

CBaulthtsoun........................

458 353

Camden 472

Candler ........................ 722

Carroll Catoosa

..................................................

2,642 1,330

Charlton Chatham

......................

497 2,539

CChhaattttaohoogoach.e..e.............................

28 1,387

CCChllaaeyrrkoek..e..e..........................

1,122 560 209

CCCollaibnybctho.n.......................................................

1,233 499
3,763

CCooflfqeueit.t...................................................

2,430 3,335

Columbia ...................... 653

CCCooroawkweftaord............................................

1,214
897 450

Crisp 921

DDDeaawcdaestounr................................................

779 457 1,080

DeKalb Dodge

..................................................

3,393 1,850

Transportation density (3)
3.93 2.44 4.35 1.24 2.31
4.22 6.35 4.82 3.39 4.47
6.91 3.99 2.71 2.41 1.43
3.00 .84
2.48 1.22
.72
2.88 5.34 7.96
.62 5.76
.11 4.38 2.62 4.48 .93
8.28 .63
10.81 3.96 5.92
2.13 5.37 2.02 1.44 3.11
4.72 2.15 1.76 12.61 3.71

Allowance per pupil
(4)
$19.00 24.00 18.00 30.00 24.00
18.00 15.25 17.25 20.00 18.00
14.75 19.00 21.50 24.00 30.00
20.00 34.00 24.00 30.00 34.00
21.50 16.75 13.50 34.00 16.00
38.00 18.00 21.50 18.00 34.00
13.00 34.00 13.00 19.00 16.00
24.00 16.75 24.00 30.00 20.00
17.25 24.00 26.00 13.00 19.00

Total allowance, col. 4 x col. 2
(5)
$38,342 18,648 22,950 13,200 14,688
17,532 16,546 39,589 17,300 37,476
25,591 16,587 26,037 28,440 18,780
41,080 23,766 10,992 10,590 16,048
15,523 44,254 17,955 16,898 40,624
1,064 24,966 24,123 10,080 7,106
16,029 16,966 48,919 46,170 53,360
15,672 20,335 21,528 13,500 18,420
13,438 10,968 28,080 44,109 35,150

336

County
(1)

TABLE 35 (Continued)

Salary Fund
(2)

Other Transpor- Capital

Current tation Outlay

Expenses Fund Fund

(3)

(4)

(5)

Total Cost of
Program
(6)

Local Effort
Required
(7)

'
State Funds Needed
(8)

CCCCCoooohrlmciudchmmekrlaaebemnrucsa.e.u.......g.......a....................

Dalton ............

Decatur Dublin

......................

Eastman Elberton

..................

17,250 28,107 508,068 47,412 90,240
143,366 188,282
80,129 36,437 57,585

2,000 3,600 56,400 5,400 11,000
16,200 20,600
9,400 4,600 7,000

2,000 3,600 56,400 5,400 11,000
16,200 20,600
9,400 4,600 7,000

21,250 4,370 16,880 35,307 5,806 29,501 620,868 306,565 314,303 58,212 8,187 50,025
112,240 24,386 87,854

175,766 229,482
98,929 45,637
71,585

36,559 139,207

a

b

30,037 68,892

12,667 32,970

13,266 58,319

Fitzgerald Gainesville

............

GHorigfafinnsvi.l.l..e............

LaGrange ........

83,510 98,565 136,706 42,174
235,238

9,800 11,000 15,600
5,200
27,000

9,800 11,000 15,600
5,200 27,000

103,110 120,565 167,906
52,574
289,238

17,827 85,283

40,816 79,749

41,715 126,191

a

b

a

b

LaWTenceville Marietta
MNRoeomwulentarine...................................

26,528 184,158 106,410
68,138 259,679

3,200 20,400 12,400
8,000 30,400

3,200 20,400 12,400
8,000 30,400

32,928 224,958 131,210
84,138 320,479

a

b

45,128 179,830

37,773 93,437

28,385 55,753

89,996 230,483

Tallapoosa Thomaston

............

TTThiofoctcmoonaasv..i....l..l..e....................

VWVTriaeeilosndtnnoasPt.ao...i...n......t......................... Winder

25,421 150,680 117,488
44,538 59,738
54,941 155,792
20,240 33,962 43,326

3,200 18,400 14,000
5,200 7,200
6,200 19,400
2,600 4,200 4,800

3,200 18,400 14,000
5,200 7,200
6,200 19,400
2,600 4,200 4,800

31,821 187,480 145,488
54,938 74,138

4,396 27,425
46,275 141,205 37,766 107,722 21,571 33,367 15,406 58,732

67,341 194,592
25,440 42,362 52,926

17,763 49,578

63,795 130,797

4,597 20,843

a

b

11,413 41,513

Salaries ........................................................................................................$34,156,902

Other Current Capital Outlay

.E...x..p..e..n..s..e..s............................................................................

4,484,400 4,484,400

TTroatnalspcoorsttaotifonProgram................................................................................

3,509,754 46,635,456

Local Effort Required .............................................................................. 9,000,014c

Total State Funds Needed ...................................................................... 37,635,442d

a Included in footnote (c) below. b Included in footnote (d) below. c Includes $3,040,432 undistributed between cities and counties due to fact that total
tax digest figures less homestead exemptions were not available. d Includes $3,859,045 undistributed to cities and counties for which tax digest figures
less homestead exemptions were not available.
345

TABLE 34 (Continued)

County (1)

A.D.A. transported
pupils
(2)

Long ............................ 494

LLMouawmconpndkeisn................................................

1,530 217 502

Madison ........................ 1,755

Marion ........................ 501

McDuffie 717

Mcintosh MMielrliewr e.t.h..e..r......................

293 946 1,440

Mitchell ........................ 1,238

Monroe
MMoonrgtgaonme..r..y....................

528 633 694

Murray ........................ 1,360

Muscogee .................... 1,260

Newton ........................ 853

OOcgolenteheorpe..................

721 1,070

Paulding ...................... 1,219

PPeicakcehns....................................................

404 904

Pierce ............................ 1,499

Pike .............................. 716

Polk .............................. 1,930

Pulaski ........................ 421
Putnam ........................ 286 Quitman ...................... 115 Rabun .......................... 841 Randolph ...................... 555

Richmond Rockdale

......................

1,421 747

Schley .......................... 196

Screven ........................ 1,049

Seminole 744

Spalding ...................... 1,227

Stephens Stewart

......................
........................

1,300 259

Sumter ........................ 767

Talbot .......................... 266

Taliaferro .................... 244 Tattnall ........................ 1,902
Taylor .......................... 742
Telfair .......................... 1,349 Terrell .......................... 365

Transportation density (8)
1.23 3.02
.74 1.91 4.07
1.26 2.55
.80 1.90 5.02
2.42 1.77 2.69 1.95 3.98
5.73 3.12 3.88 2.48 3.83
2.68 4.02 4.38 3.11 6.19
1.66 .82 .68
2.28 1.27
4.37 5.84 1.21 1.61 2.72
6.10 7.22
.56
1.~6
.68
1.25 3.86 1.86 3.07 1.11

Allowance per pupil
(4)
30.00 20.00 34.00 26.00 18.00
30.00 21.50 34.00 26.00 16.75
24.00 26.00 21.50 26.00 19.00
16.00 20.00 19.00 24.00 19.00
21.50 18.00 18.00 20.00 15.25
26.00 34.00 34.00 24.00 26.00
18.00 16.00 30.00 26.00 21.50
15.25 14.00 34.00 26.00 34.00
30.00 19.00 26.00 20.00 30.00

338

Total allowance, col. 4 x col. 2
(5)
14,820 30,600
7,378 13,052 31,590
15,030 15,416
9,962 24,596 24,120
29,712 13,728 13,610 18,044 25,840
20,160 17,060 13,699 25,680 23,161
8,686 16,272 26,982 14,320 29,433
10,946 9,724 3,910
20,184 14,430
25,578 11,952
5,880 27,274 15,996
18,712 18,200
8,806 19,942
9,044
7,320 36,138 19,292 26,980 10,950

The Alabama law15 is unique in using an average of assessed valuation and independent index of the Cornell type:
Section 1. The State Board of Education shall calculate an economic index of the financial ability of each county, including the cities therein, to support the Minimum School Program, said index to be determined as follows: (a) Calculate for each county its percent of the state total for each of the following items: sales tax paid, passenger automobile license paid, state personal income tax paid, asse'ssed valuation of public utilities, farm income, and value added by manufacture. (b) Find the sum total of the following: percent sales tax paid multiplied by six, percent passenger automobile license paid multiplied by five, percent assessed valuation of public utilities multiplied by three, percent state personal income tax paid multiplied by one, percent farm income multiplied by one, and percent value added by manufacture multiplied by one, and divide the aforesaid sum total by seventeen and the quotient shall be the economic index for each county.
Section 2. The State Board of Education shall calculate for each county, including the cities therein, its percent of the total assessed valuation of the State and said percent shall be the assessed valuation index of the county.
Section 3. The State Board of Education shall calculate an average index of the financial ability of each county, including the cities therein, to support the minimum school program, said average index to be expre'ssed in percent of the state total and to be calculated as follows: (a) Add the economic index for each county as provided in Section 1 of this act to its assessed valuation index as provided in Section 2 of this act and divide the sum by the number two and the quotient shall be the average index of the financial ability of the county, including the' cities therein, to support the minimum school program, provided, however, that the State Board of Education shall recalculate said index on the basis of the most recent available data once every two years.
Section 4. The State Board of Education shall determine the total local funds available to provide the Minimum
15 Pa;;sed in summer of 1939. Quoted from Public School Finance, Mort and Reusser, 1941, pp. 441-442.
347

1936 and 1942, the' southeastern states in 1942, the rural ~chools of the United States in 1936, and West Virginia in 1945. The average of these percentages (14.18) was then multiplied by the estimated average Georgia teachers' salary ($1,455) for 1946-47. This multiplication gave $206.32. The sum of $200 may therefore be assumed to be close to the minimum sum needed for other current expenses such as general control, maintenance, and operation.
It is interesting to note that the percent of school funds expended for general control, maintenance, and operation in the rural schools of the United States was 14.1,12 or almost exactly the average figure used in calculating the funds needed per teacher for other current expenses in this report.
The Survey Staff recommends that teachers' salaries be increased to give a four year professionally qualified beginning teacher a salary of $200 per month. When this is done, the
allowance per teacher unit for other current expenses should
be increased to approximately $300.
Capital outlay fund. Capital outlay needs are not considered in the present state school finance program. In the past practically all school house construction has been financed through local bonding. The chapter of this report dealing with school buildings pointed out the need for capital outlay aid to the various school systems of the State. The Survey Staff feels that capital outlay needs constitute' a definite part of the total annual educational need of each school system.
It is recommended that capital outlay needs be based upon allowable teacher units. The amount to be allowed annually per teacher unit should be determined by the State' Board of Education. The sum of $200 per allowable teacher was used in computing the capital outlay needs as shown in Table 35. The sum of $200 was obtained by dividing $5,000, which represents the cost of an adequate classroom, by 25 ye'ars. Twentyfive years is considered to be the average life of a school building.
Total needs. The total needs of each school system as shown by column six of Table 35 was obtained by adding salary needs,
12 Lester B. Herlihy, "Urban and Rural School Expenditures," School Life, v. 21, p. 272, June, 1936.
340

objectivity, equitableness, simplicity, stability, and commonsense appeal. Many factors were judged in the light of these criteria with the following economic factors being finally selected:
(1) Property digest less homestead exemptions. (2) Public utilities digest. (3) Effective buying power-five-year average. (4) Retail sales-five-year average. (5) Motor tag tax. (6) State income tax. (7) Gasoline taxes.
In order to weight the above factors and combine them into a workable index, it was necessary to select a single statistical criterion for validation purposes. On this point Johns says :16
... As has been pointed out previously, Mort used "yield of a modern tax system" as his criterion for validation purposes and Cornell "the valuation of property." Data for Alabama counties are not available for the use of either of these criteria. Cornell makes the following suggestions:
"The vast majority of states do not have estimates of the full valuation of real property which could be used with confidence as a criterion of taxpaying ability. What, then, do many states generally use as a criterion for developing such formulas for relative ability of counties as have been presented in this study?
Two poss:ibilities are suggested. In the first place, one might use assessed valuation, as inaccurate as it is, assuming that the relationships determined between this as a criterion and several economic measures would give relative regression values which approximate true value better than such a criterion itself. In the second place, taxes raised on property are universally available and they are reliable. Statistically, taxes raise'd are highly related to the basic criterion. They should be useful as a criterion measure for states in general.
Since constitutional provisions vary in Alabama with respect to the number of mills of property taxes which can
16 John, op. cit.
349

TABLE 35 (Continued)

County (1)

Salary Fund
(2)

Other Transpor- Capital

Current tation Outlay

Expenses Fund

Fund

(3)

(4)

(5)

Total
Cost of Program
(6)

Local State

Effort Funds

Required Needed

(7)

(8)

Columbia
CCCCoorraoiwskwpeftaor..d................................

88,920 137,070 242,301
74,426 110,336

15,000 15,672 20,000 20,335 32,600 21,528 12,200 13,500 14,600 18,420

15,000 20,000 32,600 12,200 14,600

134,592 197,405 329,029 112,326 157,956

13,422 121,170 19,926 177,479 39,327 289,702
9,570 102,756 16,578 141,378

DDDaeadwceastou.n.r..................................
DeKalb ............
Dodge
DDoooulgyhe.r.t..y................
DEEcaohrulogyllsas............

59,510 41,943 331,629 488,642 209,640
176,652 150,458 127,179 226,692 25,188

8,800 13,438 6,200 10,968 43,600 28,080 56,400 44,109 29,600 35,150
24,600 26,080 18,200 17,716 16,400 15,870 33,200 30,960 4,400 8,670

8,800 6,200 43,600 56,400 29,600
24,600 18,200 16,400 33,200 4,400

90,548 65,311 446,909 645,551 303,990

9,681 80,867 2,627 62,684

49,841 397,068

a

b

16,881 287,109

251,932 204,574 175,849 324,052
42,658

17,827 234,105 46,877 157,697 16,200 159,649 27,126 296,926
4,730 37,928

Effingham ......
EEFEalvmbnaaennnrsitune...l.............................................

133,902 148,811 295,268
86,528 166,712

18,600 23,040 21,200 25,020 40,000 47,740 11,000 11,760 23,600 26,700

18,600 21,200 40,000 11,000 23,600

194,142 216,231 423,008
120,288 240,612

.......... Fayette .............. Floyd

83,520 12,000 14,573 12,000 122,093 340,362 42,800 51,964 42,800 477,926

........ Forsyth
Franklin

105,450 14,800 21,488 14,800 156,538 174,222 22,800 26,398 22,800 246,220

Fulton ........... 1,427,387 158,200 45,984 158,200 1,789,771

17,809 176,333 23,148 193,083 35,765 387,243 11,306 108,982 13,554 227,058

8,335 113,758

79,201 398,725

9,135 147,403

22,923 223,297

a

b

GGGGilollyarmsndcnoeornck................................................
Grady ..............
GHGHwraaeblielennrnes.e.h.t.at....m................................
Hancock
HHHaaarrrartliss.o..n.................................
Heard .............. Henry ..............
HIrowuisnton........................
Jackson ............ Jasper .............. Jeff Davis ......

110,138 42,800 348,116 159,137 226,166
182,291 310,856 191,699 307,994 139,950
127,608 120,795 172,397
84,981 176,748
178,259 162,806 163,581
97,652 105,138

16,000 21,360 6,400 10,548 41,400 21,000 21,800 34,663 31,400 29,520
25,400 17,082 36,600 45,360 22,400 28,217 39,600 36,348 22,800 13,464
18,800 26,160 20,000 18,174 22,600 23,638 13,600 18,840 23,800 19,802
25,400 15,840 23,800 27,835 21,400 24,336 14,200 15,930 16,800 22,340

16,000 6,400 41,400 21,800 31,400
25,400 36,600 22,400 39,600 22,800
18,800 20,000 22,600 13,600 23,800
25,400 23,800 21,400 14,200 16,800

163,498 12,037 151,461 66,148 4,854 61,294 451,916 106,601 345,315 237,400 25,081 212,319 318,486 27,712 290,774

250,173 429,416 264,716 423,542 199,014

24,483 225,690

a

b

38,565 226,151

48,713 374,829

17,716 181,298

191,368 178,969 241,235 131,021 244,150

21,357 170,011 30,832 148,137 17,769 223,466
6,995 124,026 24,319 219,831

244,899 238,241 230,717 141,982 161,078

27,396 217,503
15,095 223,146 21,715 209,002 16,558 125,424 11,948 149,130

842

but for the State as a whole is a reliable validating measure in that average over-assessments counter-balance under-assessments.
The relationship between these two variables, "Total Tax Digest" and "Economic Index," has be'en determined by use of the "Pearson Coefficient of Correlation." If the correlation between the two variables is perfect and the correlation positive, the correlation coefficient is 1.0. When the correlation is not perfect, it is less than 1.0. A correlation of .9 is high and a correlation of .3 is low. The Pearson Coefficient of Correlation betwe'en the total tax digest and the index of economic ability was calculated from a scattergram which included all of the 159 counties of Georgia and was found to be .9916. Because of grouping difficulties, this correlation is spurious. There were 20 rows and 20 columns in the scattergram; yet 34 counties fell in one cell. Moreover, the fact that 48 percent of the taxpaying ability of the State resides in the five counties of Bibb, Fulton, Richmond, Chatham, and Muscogee makes it difficult to use the correlation technique. Therefore, to determine the coefficient of correlation between the total tax digest and the economic index uninfluenced by grouping difficulties the coefficient of correlation was calculated for the 34 counties falling in the single cell of the original scattergram. The coefficient of correlation for these 34 counties was found to be .6626. The correlation betwee'n the two variables-total tax digest and economic index-therefore, lies between .6626 and .9916. Thus, the relationship between the two variables is very high for the State as a whole and marked for the 34 counties falling in the single cell of the original scattergram.
Revenue to be charged back to systems based on economic index. In this report two methods of determining the revenue to be charged back to local school systems are presented. Both plans are based on the index of economic ability. The first plan presented herein applies the index of economic ability to the total tax digest less homestead exemptions for both county and independent school systems. A plan whereby the index of economic ability is applied to the total tax digest less homestead exemptions for county systems and to the total tax digest for independent school systems is presented in a later section of the chapter as an alternate plan of state support.
351

TABLE 35 (Continued)

County (1)

Salary
Fund (2)

Other Transpor- Capital

Current tation Outlay

Expenses Fund Fund

(3)

(4)

(5)

Total
Cost of Program
(6)

Local State

Effort Funds

Required Needed

(7)

(8)

Spalding Stephens

..................

Stewart ...........

Sumter Talbot

..............

TTaaltitanfaelrlro................

Taylor

Telfair Terrell

............

Thomas ............
TToifotm.b..s......................... TTroewuntlsen..........

157,269 121,557 121,613 138,185
70,242
60,029 192,551 119,519 181,397 145,809
269,586 190,170 207,071 62,874
91,764

20,600 18,712 15,400 18,200 19,800 8,806 21,200 19,942 12,800 9,044
9,400 7,320 27,600 36,138 17,200 19,292 25,400 26,980 22,200 10,950
35,400 34,207 24,000 25,440 27,800 29,106 8,400 9,353 13,400 14,231

20,600 15,400 19,800 21,200 12,800
9,400 27,600 17,200 25,400 22,200
35,400 24,000 27,800 8,400 13,400

217,181 170,557 170,019 200,527 104,886
86,149 283,889 173,211 259,177 201,159
374,593 263,610 291,777 89,027 132,795

37,606 179,575 16,281 154,276 17,028 152,991 30,184 170,343 11,168 93,718
7,182 78,967 20,783 263,106 13,765 159,446 24,632 234,545 28,105 173,054
46,798 327,795 23,995 239,615 29,818 261,959 2,973 86,054
8,953 123,842

Troup Turner

............

Twiggs ............

Union Upson

..............

171,992 116,991
103,253 85,491
141,089

25,600 35,535 17,400 21,698 16,000 14,222 11,800 16,560 21,200 20,554

25,600 17,400 16,000 11,800 21,200

258,727 173,489 149,475 125,651 204,043

a

b

17,704 155,785

12,038 137,437

5,103 120,548

13,612 190,431

Walker ............ Walton Ware ................ Warren Washington ....

310,704 220,028 374,022 101,408 229,932

40,600 42,121 29,800 27,822 49,400 44,356 15,000 13,806 36,600 30,758

40,600 29,800 49,400 15,000 36,600

434,025 307,450 517,178 145,214
333,890

55,573 378,452 33,204 274,246 88,779 428,399 14,135 131,079
33,886 300,004

Wayne
Webster Wheeler

................................

WWhhiittfeield........

187,997 41,835 95,864 75,315 185,405

24,600 32,232 6,800 7,440 13,200 17,640
10,000 18,198
25,600 40,547

24,600 6,800 13,200 10,000 25,600

269,429 62,875 139,904 113,513
277,152

26,653 242,776 5,542 57,333 8,581 131,323 4,550 108,963
31,521 245,631

Wilcox ............ WWWoiillrkktiehnsso..n..................

121,311 152,537 126,185 223,340

18,200 24,040 23,400 17,970 17,400 18,570
34,200 31,608

18,200 23,400 17,400 34,200

181,751 217,307 179,555
323,348

14,763 166,988 24,596 192,711 17,087 162,468
25,186 298,162

CITY

Albany

184,950 21,600

AAmtheerniscus............

98,634 213,476

11,600 24,200

.... Atlanta 2,529,225 275,400

Barnesville

43,689 5,200

21,600 228,150 84,467 143,683

11,600 121,834 27,441 94,393

24,200 261,876 103,081 158,795

275,400 3,080,025 a

b

5,200 54,089 6,933 47,156

Buford ............

Calhoun Carrollton

......

Cartersville

Cedartown ......

39,803 35,883 63,980 55,490 103,298

4,800 4,200 7,600 6,600 12,000

4,800 4,200 7,600 6,600 12,000

49,403 44,283 79,180 68,690 127,298

a
7,538 22,467 18,991 30,176

b
36,745 56,713 49,699 97,122

344

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

County

Property Digest
1944 %X 6

Camden ................................

Candler Carroll

..................................

Catoosa ................................

Charlton ................................

1.339686 .764406 3.127680 .654906 .763410

Public Utilities
1944 % X2
.525688 .102412 1.404182 .261172 .859266

Effective Buying Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944 % X6
.849054 1.263570 4.089594
.672594 .621960

Retail Sales 5 Year Average 1940-1944 % X2
.257894 .389412 1.182718 .192020 .164222

Motor Tag Tax
1944 % X2

State Income
Tax-1944 % X1

.363046 .393052 1.772186 .582972 .229812

.092561 .008006 .172603 .005537 .029263

Total of Columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
3.427929 2.920858 11.748963 2.369201 2.667933

Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19
.180417 .153729 .618366 .124695 .140418

Chatham 35.919186
Chattahoochee ...................... .156498

Chattooga ............................ 2.305218

C
Ol C

CChlaerrkoekee

2.148858 8.853948

Clay ...................................... Clayton .................................. Clinch .................................... Cobb ......................................
Coffee

.535500 .892602 .790416 7.501434 2.117478

Colquitt ................................ Columbia .............................. Cook ...................................... Coweta .................................. Crawford ..............................

4.258020 .769050 1.078698
4.614162 .618984

14.550430 .413564 .663462 .930004
1.884408
.341362 1.007724
.831750 4.243640
.470374
.477940 1.080108
.455004 1.878630
.387836

38.116770 .184776
2.827914 2.498040 7.921866
.943140 .691866 .744762 5.555694 2.865702
5.343714 .4Hl406 1.514088 4.221090 .558858

13.605120 .044150 .805922 .700568
3.018350
.221920 .208372 .208838 1.905244 .970844
1.545266 .126612 .462996
1.195100 .106522

12.986788 .669490 .980310 .875770
2.074870

14.985943 .005129 .295267 .170674 .717047

.209866 .950392 .313882 2.994468 .919248

.100792 .032904 .042348 .423700 .199646

1.622944 .435654 .669054 1.320436 .318692

.467878 .005711
.026711 1.065387
.029471

130.164237 1.473607 7.878093 7.323914
24.470489
2.352580 3.783860 2.931996 22.624189 7.543292
13.715762 2.833541 4.206551 14.294805 2.020363

6.850749 .077558 .414636 .385469
1.287920
.123820 .199151 .154316 1.190747 .397015
.721882 .149134 .221397 .752358 .106335

Crisp ...................................... Dade ......................................
Dawson ................................
Decatur ................................
DeKalb

2.338134 .360522 .207138
2.863380 17.191746

.655164 .964644 .009992 1.954658 4.609576

3.474816 .329496 .123936
3.232224 27.839694

1.252566 .100214 .022426 .974580
3.799042

.776830 .286324 .189396 1.230592 6.913170

.150473 .002644 .001738 .266453
3.726739

8.647983 2.043844
.554626 10.521887
64.079967

.455157 .107571 .029191
.553784 3.372630

2. Ability of Local Units
The measure of local taxpaying ability now being used in Georgia is the yield of five mills of property taxes levied upon the assessed valuation of the property recorded in each local school tax digest. By state law, property on the county school tax digest is subject to a homestead exemption of $2,000. Property within the boundaries of independent school districts is not subject to homestead exemption for school taxing purposes. This method of determining local ability to support education is highly inequitable, since the proportion that the assessed valuation of property is of the real valuation of property varies greatly among the various school taxing units.
Calculation of Index of Economic Ability. The problem of variations in assessment procedures has been a problem for years in many states. If property were assessed on a uniform basis throughout the State, the assessed valuation of property would be a fairly reliable measure of taxpaying ability. Since this is not true and since few states have had success in seeking to establish central tax equalization bodies, it is logical to seek another means of determining the relative taxpaying ability of local school units.
Francis G. Cornell13 recognized this problem and undertook the problem of developing an index employing a series of economic factors by which the true relative ta.xpaying ability of local school units could be predicted. Cornell studied the problem in the State of New York and after considerable experimentation used total population, retail sales, number of motor vehicle' registrations, production (farming, mining, manufacturing), the number of individual income tax returns, and postal receipts as the economic factors best suited to determine the relative taxpaying ability of local school units.
The problem of taxpaying ability was also studied by Dr. R. L. J ohns14 for the State of Alabama. As a result of the study of Dr. Johns a law was passed in Alabama in 1939 setting up an economic index for determining the ability of local school units to raise tax revenues.
13 Francis G. Cornell, A Measure of the Taxpaying Ability of Local School Administrative Units. (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936), 114 pages.
14 R. L. Johns, "An Index of the Financial Ability of Local School Systems to Support Public Education". Mimeographed report (Montgomery, Alabama: Alabama State Department of Education, 1938).
346

(1)

County

Property Digest
1944
%X 6

Haralson ..............................
Harris
Hart ...................................... Heard .................................... Henry ....................................

1.071282 .830046 .924750 .426450
1.464420

Houston ................................ 1.880856

cC:>n:l c:n

JJIarawcskpisneorn
Jeff Davis ............................

.990402 1.652184 .784068 .744930

Jefferson ..............................

Jenkins ................................

Johnson ................................

Jones Lamar



1.284834 .877284
.814182 .613248 .947400

Lanier .................................. Laurens ................................ Lee ........................................ Liberty .................................. Lincoln ..................................

.330636 4.404588 1.334544 .776100 .577176

Long ...................................... Lowndes ................................
Lumpkin ..............................
Macon .................................... Madison ...................;............

.475548 5.004168
.480564 1.545546 .745212

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Public Utilities
1944
% X 2
1.259714 4.078198
.340726 .177826 .967554

Effective Buying
Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944
%X 6
1.691310 .977904
1.621026 .442854 1.613466

Retail Sales 5 Year Average 1940-1944
% X 2
.531674 .216080 .279620 .113996 .403194

Motor Tag Tax
1944
%X 2
.620852 .388414 .536958 .314756 .626012

.656252 .219936 .580742 .882278 .324224

1.471014 1.125270 2.476128 1.126026 .948432

.439870 .322602 .691690 .285694 .250186

1.071552 .495578 .776742
.376342 .250458

.609260 .663840 .080598 .856788 .768106

2.532804 1.369746 1.156254
.573216 1.386372

.695194 .388010 .349934 .123574 .403428

.832730 .439328 .384654 .359284 .450526

.105668 .654302 .702458 .839274 .071156

.485172 4.419468
.425094 .697530 .552810

.152308 1.275458
.134320 .227994 .153476

.232262 2.032266
.241972 .962202 .395064

.424568 2.060284
.054882 .708936 .486650

.264504 7.540980
.586062 1.772928
.989244

.070548 2.319184
.108858 .482384 .244814

.167000 2.334688
.301546 .575624 .626012

(6)
State Income Tax-1944
% X 1
.262022 .018256 .048251 .000798 .059316
.264075 .032855 .135151 .041093 .004223
.082394 .050429 .005919 .035706 .069700
.003724 .144495 .022205 .086293 .000964
.003068 .528765 .005246 .027792 .042598

(7)
Total of Columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
5.436854 6.508898 3.751331 1.476680 5.133962
5.783619 3.186643 6.312637 3.495501 2.522453
6.037216 3.788637 2.791541 2.561816 4.025532
1.309770 12.930577 2.860593 3.589393 1.750646
1.405236 19.788069
1.537158 5.113210 3.134530

(8)
Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19
.286150 .342574 .197438 .077720 .270209
.304401 .167718 .332244 .183974 .132761
.317748 .199402 .146923 .134832 .211870
.068935 .680557 .150558 .188915 .092139
.073960 1.041477
.080903 .269116 .164975

School Program for the entire State as follows: Multiply one-half of one percent by the total assessed valuation of the State on which taxes were due and collectible for the fiscal year beginning October 1, 1938, and the product shall be counted as the total local funds available for the support of the State Minimum School Program.
Section 5. The State Board of Education shall determine the total local funds available to each county, including the cities therein, to provide the Minimum School Program by multiplying its Average Index of financial ability as provided in Section 3 of this Act by the total local funds available to provide the' State Minimum School Program as provided in Section 4 of this Act and the product shall be counted as the local funds available to said county, including the cities therein, to provide the Minimum School Program.
The State of Florida has in recent years adopted an economic index as the best means of determining the ability of local school units to raise tax revenues. The Florida index employs one measure not found in eithe'r the Alabama or New York index. This measure is effective buying power.
In attempting to an-ive at a measure of local tax-paying ability for Georgia school systems, the consultative services of both Dr. Cornell and Dr. Johns were employed. An effort was made to use the indices developed by Dr. Cornell and Dr. Johns but because of economic differences between New York, Alabama, and Georgia as well as the non-availability of certain data this was not feasible. It was therefore decided to develop a new index using, where possible, the best features of the Alabama, New York, and Florida indices.
In developing the Georgia index the following steps were taken:
(1) The selection and validation of economic factors.
(2) The proper weighting of these factors and their combination into a workable index.
(3) The validation of the final index.
Selecting and validating the economic factors to be used in the index were accomplished by using the same criteria employed first by Cornell and later by Johns. These criteria are
348

. ._,'.
~..

(1)

Ccunty

Property Digest.
1944 %X 6

Richmond ............................ 27.545430

SRcohclkedyal.e...................................

.898650 .521004

Screven ................................ 1.410912

Seminole .............................. .908862

Spalding .............................. 5.153448 Stephens .............................. 1.521450

Stewart ................................ 1.112490

co Sumter .................................. 3.285414

01 Talbot ....................................
-.::]

.796488

Taliaferro ............................
Tattnall ................................
Taylor ..................................
Telfair ..................................
Terrell ..................................

.438108 1.210122
.615114 1.299342 1.937670

Thomas ................................
Tift ........................................ Toombs .................................. Towns .................................... Treutlen ................................

5.964768 2.210598 1.450584
.177840 .629166

Troup .................................... Turner .................................. Twiggs .................................. Union .................................... Upson ....................................

6.Ui0978 1.097448
.714930 .217896
4.712814

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Public Utilities
1944 %X 2
4.917584 .093736 .292784 .780394 .246148

Effective Buying
Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944
%X 6
23.037834 .999822 .531648
2.152296 1.061412

Retail Sales 5 Year Average 1940-1944 %X 2
9.521552 .296672 .127546 .573956 .322602

Motor Tag Tax
1944 %X 2
6.227146 .416758 .193070 .707282 .431106

1.423302 1.422828 .600412 1.529736 .431648

5.875746 2.261880 1.106754 4.359762 .612894

2.153094
.642634 .331946 1.256070 .161886

1.579904 .734926 .360070
1.445882 .325954

.291686 .207790 .309824 .618960 .360018

.464394 1.685640 1.204620 2.020050 2.239584

.108624 .502942 .323770 .545690 .588672

.184934 .761082 .429180 .591370 .731252

1.562566 1.067456
.466634 .003966 .107242

5.752182 3.595728 2.673750
.261858 .731916

1.719532 1.264946
.817368 .043216 .225424

2.324890 1.265148
.823632 .139970 .188172

1.921656 .303650 .471818 .002232
.771664

9.307860 1.327806
.584172 .414516
4.717980

3.268070 .402960
.128948 .068678
1.211218

2.220876 .567400 .615340 .370918
1.038134

(6)
State Income Tax-1944 %X 1
4.443953 .031757 .002669 .072909 .036022
.559941 .105771 .083217 .288591 .028864
.028515 .019844 .023344 .124668 .076043
.528433 .215558 .062916 .000757 .008155
.710679 .038292 .026071 .003051 .190959

(7)

(8)

Total of Columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
75.693499 2.737395 1.668721 5.697749 3.006152
16.745435 6.689489 3.594889
12.165455 2.357734
1.516261 4.387420 2.905852 5.200080 5.933239
17.852371 9.619434 6.294884 .627607 1.890075
23.610119 3.737556 2.541279 1.077291
12.642769

Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19
3.983868 .144073 .087827 .299882 .158219
.881339 .352078 .189205 .640287 .124091
.079803 .230917 .152940 .273688 .312276
.939598 .506286 .331310 .033032 .099478
1.242638 .196713 .133752 .056700 .665409

be levied in the different administrative areas of the State, "the total yield of property taxes" is not suitable criterion for Alabama. Therefore, it was decided that the present assessed valuation of property is the best available criterion for statistical validation. Since the purpose of the index is to develop a better measure of ability to pay than can be ascertained by present assessed values, it must be remembered that a valid index of financial ability should not correlate perfectly with an index of financial ability calculated from present assessed values. It is assumed that an index of financial ability calculated from an economic series correlates higher with an index of financial ability determined from the true value of property than an index of financial ability determined from present assessed values. Cornell demonstrated in his study that such an assumption was justifiable. . . .
In accordance with the theory presented above it was decided that assessed valuations represented the best validating measure available for Georgia. Assessed valuations were used as the validating measure and the selected economic factors were assembled in various combinations and with various assigned weightings. This experimentation revealed that the highest correlation of the index with present assessed valuation could be obtained by eliminating the economic factors of gasoline taxes and assigning the following weights to the factors included in the index:
(1) Percent property taxes paid________________________weight of 6 (2) Percent public utility taxes paid________________weight of 2 (3) Percent effective buying power__________________weight of 6 (4) Percent retail sales_____________________________________weight of 2 (5) Percent motor tag taxes paid____________________weight of 2 (6) Percent state income tax paid____________________weight of 1
The method of calculating the e'conomic index using the above weighted factors is shown in Table 36. The economic index of each county is given in Column 8 of the table and is expressed in terms of its percent of the total ability of the State. One hundred percent represents the total ability of the State.
In validating the economic index the relationship has been measured between the total tax digest and the' economic index. The tax digest in individual instances is not a valid measure
350

The arguments for and against these two methods of calculating the local ability of a school system has been previously presented in the section of the chapter in which is evaluated the present plan of state support.
In using the economic index to determine the funds which should be raised by local taxes to support education under the first plan, the Survey Staff recommends that the State Board of Education annually determine the total local funds available to meet the educational needs of the State by multiplying ninetenths of one percent (nine mills) by the total assessed valuation of the state school tax dige'st. Based on the 1943-44 tax digest less homestead exemptions, this would mean approximately $9,000,000 of local funds to be applied to the educational needs of the State. It should hP- borne in mind that this would leave local systems at least six million dollars for local enrichment.
Table 37 shows the amount that would be charged back to each county in accordance with the economic index and present assessed valuation. Column 2 of this table shows the taxes that could be raised by multiplying nine-tenths of one percent times the total assessed valuation of property less homestead exemptions in each county. Column 3 represents the results of multiplying the economic index of each county times nine-million dollars, or nine-tenths of the total state school tax digest less homestead exemptions. If column 3 of the table is greater than column 2, the county is under-assessing property. If column 3 is greater than column 2, the difference is shown in column 4 as a' gain in local tax revenue, whereas if column 2 is greater than column 3 the difference is shown in column 5 as a loss in local revenue. The percent gain or loss is given in columns 6 and 7.
It should be borne in mind that the information given in Table 37 is based on the county tax digest less homestead exemptions. Many of these counties contain independent school Bystems that levy and collect school taxes separate from the counties. In order to ascertain the amount of local revenue to be charged back to the county and independent system or systems therein, it is recommended that the charge back as com. puted in column 4 of Table 37 be apportioned among the county and independent school systems by multiplying the total county charge back by the percent that the school tax digest of each
359

TABLE 36
INDEX OF ECONOMIC ABILITY OF GEORGIA COUNTIES TO RAISE TAX REVENUES AS DETERMINED BY SIX WEIGHTED WEALTH MEASURES

County

(1)
Property Digest 1944 % X6

(2)
Public Utilities
1944 %X 2

(8)
Effective Buying Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944 % X6

Fulton .................................... 201.818010 42.565854 151.227690

Appling ................................ 1,206912

.362756 1.634628

Atkinson .394284

eo
01

Bacon .................................... Baker ....................................

.706698 .780120

~

Baldwin ................................ 2.096754

.488794 .185446 .094836
1.247858

.504822 1.147944
.317028
3.010044

Banks .................................... .485070

.335078

.286416

Barrow .................................. 1.048362

.778572 1.806936

Bartow .................................. 3.409482 1.773664 3.649386

Ben Hill ................................ 1.393128

.416398 3.215976

Berrien ..................................
BBBlirebacbnktlleeyy..............................................................
Brooks ..................................

1.177086 24.491466
.902166 .439398 2.242044

.475818 8.776254
.341524 .991050 .540894

2.008332 27.685152
1.124892 .391464
2.082018

Bryan .................................... Bulloch .................................. Burke ....................................
CBaulthtos un................................

.746790 2.242512 2.597076
.798276 1.134420

.797724 .403636 .916294 1.536332
.36888~

.469680 3.679992 2.694906 1.266594 1.103736

(4)
Retail Sales 5 Year Average 1940-1944 % X2
61.511886 .417444 .130116 .352036 .078956
.778824 .056298 .501774 1.041858 .944914
.526302 9.534166 .321668 .103952 .603156
.150672 1.348108
.753594 .381236 .306718

(5)
Motor Tag Tax
1944 % X2

(6)
State Income Tax-1944 % X1

43.692372 .475634 .197706 .269090 .203392

43.684232 .018713 .005146 .005828 .002660

.738688 .367244 .587784 1.763176 .709820

.207004 .002220 .213871 .337291 .178630

.493916 9.430080 .393664 .248882 .844452

.017250 4.883466 .023336 .002486 .136963

.337414 1.353154
.957390 .675614 .288950

.004140 .119871 .098348 .040819 .058335

(7)

(8)

Total of Columns 1, 2, 8. 4, 5, 6,
544.500044 4 116087 1.720868 2.667042 1.476992
8.079172 1.532326 4.937299 11.974857 6.858866
4.698704 84.800584 3.107250 2.177232 6.449527
2.506420 9.147273 8.017608 4.698871 3.261047

Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19
28.657897 .216636 .090572 .140371 .077736
.425220 .080649 .259858 .630256 .360993
.247300 4.463189 .163539 .114591 .339449
.131917 .481435 .421979 .247309 .171634

TABLE 37
COUNTY REVENUE TO BE CHARGED BACK AGAINST STATE CALCULATED EDUCATIONAL BUDGET AS DETERMINED BY ECONOMIC INDEX AND TAX DIGEST LESS HOMESTEAD EXEMPTIONS (INDEPENDENT SYSTEMS INCLUDED IN COUNTIES)

(1)
County

(2)
Charge back based on Property and Public Utility Digest

(3)
Charge back based on Economic Index

(4)
Gain if Index
Used

(5)

(6)

(7)

Percent Percent

Loss

Gain

Loss

if Index 4 Divided 5 Divided

Used

by 2

by 2

Appling ........$ Atkinson ........ Bacon ............ Baker ............ . Baldwin ........

17,775.00 $ 8,882.10
10,184.49
10,329.48 36,009.99

19,497.24 $ 8,151.48
12,633.39 6,996.24
38,269.80

1,722.24 $ 2,448.90 2,259.81

730.62 3,333.24

9.69 24.05
6.28

8.23 32.27

Banks ............ Barrow ..........
Bartow .......... Ben Hill ........
Berrien ..........

8,715.60 19,289.52 56,433.60 20,498.76 18,349.65

7,258.41 23,387.22 56,723.04 32,489.37
22,257.00

4,097.70 289.44
11,990.61
3,907.35

1,457.19

21.24 .05
58.49
21.29

16.72

Bibb ................ Blackley ........ Brantley ........ Brooks .......... Bryan ............

372,458.16 13,871.43 13,604.67 31,915.80
15,759.18

401,687.01 14,718.51 10,313.19 30,550.41 11,872.53

29,228.85 847.08

3,291.48 1,365.39
3,886.65

7.85 6.11
24.19 4.28
24.66

Bulloch .......... Burke ............ Butts ..............
Calhoun ........ Camden ..........

30,781.71 39,376.53 22,523.49 16,939.80 20,752.11

43,329.15 37,978.11 22,257.81 15,447.06 16,237.53

12,547.44

1,398.42 265.68
1,492.74 4,514.58

40.76

3.55 1.18 8.81 21.75

Candler ........ Carroll ..........
Catoosa .......... Charlton ........ Chatham ........

10,200.60 49,918.14 10,179.99 16,473.51 560,192.76

13,835.61 55,652.94 11,222.55 12,637.62 616,567.41

3,635.01 5,734.80 1,042.56
56,374.65

3,835.89

35.64 11.48 10.24
10.06

23.29

Chattahoochee Chattooga .... Cherokee ......
CCllaayrke...............-.

5,349.15 33,706.89 34,007.67
123,948.63 9,385.20

6,980.22 37,317.24 34,692.21 115,912.80 11,143.80

1,631.07 3,610.35
684.54
1,758.60

30.48

10.71

2.01

8,035.83

6.48

18.74

Clayton .......... Clinch ............ Cobb .............. Coffee ............ Colquitt ........

19,286.82 16,575.57 126,998.28 29,806.92 56,052.27

17,923.59 13,888.44 107,167.23 35,731.35 64,969.38

5,924.43 8,917.11

1,363.23 2,687.13 19,831.05

19.88 15.91

7.07 16.21 15.62

Columbia ...... Cook .............. Coweta .......... Crawford ...... Crisp ............

18,377.37 16,972.92 72,040.68 10,792.26 34,040.79

13,422.06 19,925.73 67,712.22
9,570.15 40,964.13

2,952.81 6,923.34

4,955.31
4,328.46 1,222.11

17.40 20.34

26.96
6.01 11.32

361

:.:.

.. :'
...,.\.

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

County

Property Digest 1944 % X6

Public Utilities
1944 %X 2

Effective Buying
Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944
% X6

. Retail
Sales 5 Year Average
1940-1944 %X 2

Dodge .................................... Dooly .................................... Dougherty ............................ Douglas ................................ Early ....................................

1.985604 1.844844 8.477694
.609444 1.705500

.655186 .375658 2.585000 .787668 .548246

2.241096 1.514466 9.239844 1.198578 2.038560

.617406 .400392 3.425516 .316294 .698232

Echols .................................. .283428

Effingham ............................ .911634

Elbert .................................... 2.366346

eo
01

Emanuel ..............................
Evans ....................................

2.061072 .384036

M:>- Fannin .................................. .762330

Fayette ................................ .532146

Floyd .................................... 11.474640

Forsyth ................................ .444726

Franklin .............................. 1.023084

Gilmer ..................................
Glascock ................................ Glynn .................................... Gordon .................................. Grady ....................................

.552816 .208320 7.543038 1.616106 1.318746

Greene .................................. Gwinnett ..............................
Habersham .......................... Hall ........................................ Hancock ................................

1.538844 2.296944 1.330890 5.778552 .1.103838

.428728 1.481686
.727290 .375614 .216908
.450576 .179756 3.199142 .025728 .403324
.555920 .058956 2.598860 .993410 .354220
.186492 1.961556 3.675078 1.969068
.510576

.151902 .824874 2.661654 3.273792 1.088238
.803712 .569814 12.323196 .786330 2.190084
.583794 .461370 5.702682 2.561898 2.412270
1.447962 2.833962 1.886664 6.234336 1.308534

.028032 .222622 .776954 .903800 .330778
.235002 .149038 4.298246 .167258 .572788
.198326 .088300 2.086986 .763172 .713650
441272 .852642 .626984 2.219904 .3&8020

Motor Tag Tax
1944 % X2

State Income Tax-1944 %X 1

.641934 .569938 2.822130 .476770 .597144
.106376 .281076 .974012 .877082 .333390
.597232 .310206 2.842952 .502402 .623738
.553316 .207592 3.997872 .740524 1.001918
1.329708 1.458830
.542818 2.140918
.447026

.096768 .028714 1.178025 .031292 .138925
.000075 .037826 .181141 .059117 .033495
.012570 .018547 1.581225 .001979 .026187
.097001 .000241 .575254 .211235 .049531
.224354 .273935 .079085 .557862 .031982

(7)
Total of Columns 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
6.237994 4.734012 27.728209 3.420{)46 5.726607
.998541 3.759718 7.687397 7.550477 2.386845
2.861422 1.759507 35.719401 1.928423 4.839205
2.541173 1.024779 22.504692 6.886345 5.850335
5.168632 9.677869 8.141519 18.900640 3.739976

(8)
Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided b:v 19
.328315 .249159 1.459379 .180002 .301400
.052555 .197880 .404600 .397394 .125623
.150601 .092606 1.879968 .101496 .254695
.133746 .053936 1.184457 .362439 .307912
.272033 .509362 .428501 .994771 .196841

TABLE 37 (Continued)

(1) County

(2)
Charge back based on Property and Public Utility Digest

Lanier Laurens ........ Lee .................. Liberty .......... Lincoln ..........
Long .............. Lowndes ........ Lumpkin ...... Macon ............ Madison ........
Marion McDuffie ...... Mcintosh Meriwether .... Miller ............
Mitchell .......... Monroe .......... Montgomery Morgan .......... Murray ..........
Muscogee ...... Newton .......... Oconee .......... Oglethorpe .... Paulding ........
Peach ............ Pickens .......... Pierce ............ Pike ................ Polk ................
Pulaski .......... Putnam .......... Quitman ........ Rabun ............ Randolph ......
Richmond ...... Rockdale ........ Schley ............ Screven ........ Seminole ........

4,922.19 59,309.55 22,157.37 16,462.71
7,650.45
9,343.08 78,319.80 6,333.75 24,792.57 13,157.10
11,187.00 17,382.06 11,121.66 34,148.25 14,835.42
31,390.38 . 27,022.32
9,913.32 23,619.96 16,273.89
406,752.30 36,560.04 10,217.61 14,853.33 12,960.18
24,012.99 15,377.85 18,610.11 11,571.03 70,873.47
16,661.43 16,071.57
6,303.33 30,164.13 22,384.80
377,767.89 11,770.65 8,804.25 23,739.03 13,160.70

Spalding ...... Stephens ...... Stewart .......... Sumter ..........
Talbot ............

74,855.79 30,426.39 18,594.00 52,890.84
13,327.20

(3)
Charge back based on Economic Index
6,204.15 61,250.13 13,550.22 17,002.35
8,292.51
6,656.40 93,732.93
7,281.27 24,220.44 14,847.75
9,608.58 19,875.06 10,846.17 31,587.57 12,517.92
37,797.93 24,535.89 9,498.87 21,147.93 14,544.18
401,105.16 38,510.10 7,671.42 12,267.45 13,888.98
26,658.63 13,938.66 20,085.57 11,096.10 69,770.97
17,310.06 15,608.16
4,712.40 23,715.27 25,811.55
358,548.12 12,966.57 7,904.43 26,989.38 14,239.71
79,320.51 31,687.02 17,028.45 57,625.83 11,168.19

(4)
Gain if Index
Used
1,281.96 1,940.58
539.64 642.06 15,413.13 947.52 1,690.65 2,493.00
6,407.55
928.80 2,645.64 1,475.46
648.63
3,426.75 1,195.92 3,250.35 1,079.01 4,464.72 1,260.63 4,734.99

(5)

(6)

(7)

Percent Percent

Loss

Gain

Loss

if Index 4 Divided 5 Divided

Used

by 2

by 2

8.607.15

26.04 3.27
3.28 8.39

38.85

2,686.68 572.13

19.68 14.96
12.85

28.76 2.31

1,57~.42
275.49 2,1560.68 2,317.50

14.34

14.11
2.48 7.50 15.62

2,486.43 414.45
2,472.03 1,729.71

20.41

9.20 4.18 10.47 10.63

5,647.14 1,049.94 2,546.19 2,585.88

1.39 2.65 24.92 17.41
7.17

11.02

1,439.19

9.36

7.93

474.93

4.10

1,102.50

1.56

463.41 1,590.93 6,448.86

3.89 15.31

2.88 25.24 21.38

19,219.77 899.82

10.16
13.69 8.20

5.09 10.22

1,565.55 2,159.01

5.96 4.14
8.42 8.95
16.20

363

.,:!:-

... :~;

(1)

County

Property Digest
1944 % X 6

Marion .................................. DcDuffie .............................. Mcintosh .............................. Meriwether .......................... Miller ....................................

.671724 1.315356
.673146 2.050302 1.118520

Mitchell ................................ 2.059770

Monroe .................................. 1.166022

Montgomery ........................ .592866

~ Morgan .................................. 1.583778

<:71
0)

l.Vlurray ..................................

.693504

Muscogee ..............................
Newton ................................
Oconee ..................................
Oglethorpe ............................
Paulding ..............................

29.835036 2.917560 .536388 1.181034 .585702

Peach .................................... Pickens .................................. Pierce ....................................
Pike ...................................... Polk ......................................

1.679112 1.012188 1.093296 .702096 4.571502

Pulaski ..................................
Putnam ................................
Quitman ................................ Rabun ....................................
Randolph ..............................

1.286118 .956808 .289662 .684078
1.458108

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Public Utilities
1944 %X 2
.357668 .155688 .347774 1.092104 .138962

Effective Buying Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944 % X 6
.512760 1.528830
.700176 2.200662
.791244

Retail Sales 5 Year Average 1940-1944 %X 2
.189450 .448280 .195290 .574656 .237572

Motor Tag Tax
1944
%X 2
.241448 .602392 .338114 .620588 .334876

.746086 1.536428
.320506 .511450
.938172

3.031206 1.366722
.656724 1.411314
.850188

.801716 .423050 .188516 .375864 .230798

1.100946 .519548 .235848 .530572 .335664

5.035418 .466408 .440282 .048986 .697920

25.567236 2.867970 .287550 .744012 .947676

8.905548
.853576 .069146 .213044 .243412

7.377780 .902452 .275914 .392088 .446764

.418328 .360848 .630632 .359220 1.800900

2.203308 .902712
1.497462 .681660
5.322936

.580264
.278686 .452718 .190150 1.427298

.637910 .346336 .551828 .365582 1.372136

.111940 .525936 .332404 2.624588 .547826

1.435872 1.135854
.212358 .985086 2.181018

.442440 .344560 .041580 .301110 .572088

.353510 .322542 .113550 .366632 .586296

(6)
State Income Tax-1944 % X 1
.055434 .145302 .035249 .130180 .021490
.239842 .168030 .010857 .051593 .022105
7.956730 .121941 .010234 .010633 .010641
.109014 .041841 .014349 .043803 .234646
.024475 .009361 .005287 .045059 .103768

(7)

(8)

Total of Columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
2.028484 4.195848 2.289749 6.668492 2.642664
7.979566 5.179800 2.005317 4.464571 3.070431
84.677748 8.129907 1.619514 2.589797 2.932115
5.627936 2.942611 4.240285 2.342511 14.729418
3.654355 3.295061
.994841 5.006553 5.449104

Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19
.106762 .220834 .120513 .350973 .139088
.419977 .272621 .105543 .234977 .161602
4.456724 .427890 .085238 .136305 .154232
.296207 .154874 .223173 .123290 .775233
.192334 .173424 .052360 .263503 .286795

TABLE 38
REVENUE TO BE CHARGED BACK TO INDEPENDENT AND COUNTY SYSTEMS AGAINST STATE EDUCATIONAL BUDGET IS DETERMINED BY ECONOMIC INDEX AND TAX DIGEST LESS HOMESTEAD EXEMPTIONS-BASED ON 1944 TAX DIGEST AND A NINE MILL TAX LEVY

System

Property Digest

Barrow ................$ 600,000 Winder ............ 832,604
Bartow ................ 2,646,956 Cartersville .... 2,012,141
Ben Hill .............. 744,384 Fitzgerald ...... 1,159,347
Bleckley .............. 724,500 Cochran .......... 508,317
Carroll ................ 2,207,050 Carrollton ..... 2,066,957
Chattooga .......... 1,360,990 Trion .............. 1,789,120
Clarke ................ 998,056 Athens ............ 11,100,969
Cobb .................... 4,483,725 Marietta .......... 5,767,075
Colquitt .............. 2,291,519 Moultrie .......... 3,527,117
Coweta ................ 3,269,053 Newnan .......... 3,036,252
Crisp .................... 1,089,712 Cordele ............ 2,105,376
Dodge .................. 1,400,000 Eastman .......... 1,313,349
Dooly .................. 1,981,044 Vienna ............ 539,946
Dougherty .......... 3,501,855 Albany ............ 8,083,015
Elbert .................. 1,952,365 Elberton ........ 1,281,278
Floyd .................. 6,915,263 Rome ................ 8,764,977

Utilities
$ 503,357 219,110
1,546,944 98,684
289,091 97,246
213,856 103,009
1,118,592 184,225
612,474 3,499
535,391 1,212,986
3,612,082 367,495
326,786 109,267
1,405,572 337,451
449,231 158,643
497,353 110,538
303,648 49,019
1,488,587 909,807
532,181 142,608
1,813,891 1,154,632

Total Digest

Percent Charge back

of Total Based on

County

Economic

Charge back Index

$ 1,103,257 51.20 $ 11,974.26

1,051,714 48.80

11,412.96

4,193,900 66.52 2,110,825 33.48

37,732.17 18,990.87

1,033,475 45.13 1,256,593 54.87

14,662.45 17,826.92

938,356 60.55 611,326 39.45

8,912.06 5,806.45

3,325,642 59.63 2,251,182 40.37

33,185.85 22,467.09

1,973,464 52.40 1,792,619 47.60

19,554.23 17,763.01

1,533,447 11.07 12,313,955 88.93

12,831.55 103,081.25

8,095,807 57.89 6,134,495 42.11

62,039.11 45,128.12

2,618,305 41.86 3,636,384 58.14

27,196.18 37,773.20

4,674.625 58.08 3,373,703 41.92

39,327.26 28,384.96

1,538,943 40.47 2,264,019 59.53

16,578.18 24,385.95

1,897,353 57.13 1,423,887 42.87

16,880.97 12,667.38

2,284,692 79.50 588,965 20.50

17,827.33 4,596.98

4,990,442 35.69 8,992,822 64.31

46,876.71 84,467.40

2,484,546 63.57 1,423,886 36.43

23,148.38 13,265.62

8,729,154 46.81 9,919,609 53.19

79,201.17 89,995.95

365

TABLE 36 (Continued)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(3)

County

Property Digest 1944 % X 6

Public Utilities
1944 % X 2

Effective Buying
Power-5 Yr. Avg. 1940-1944
% X 6

Retail Sales 5 Year Average
1940-1944 % X 2

Motor Tag Tax
1944 % X 2

State Income Tax-1944 % X 1

Total of Columns 1, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6,

Economic IndexColumn 7 Divided by 19

Walker .................................. 4.026852

Walton .................................. 2.252706

Ware 3.930780

C.:l
01 00

Warren
Washington ..........................

.886920 1.936170

Wayne .................................. 1.199760

Webster ................................ .354522

Wheeler ................................ .698628 White .................................... .283878 Whitfield .............................. 4.576542

1.451788 .324354
3.204758 .380432 .810658
1.440622 .263554 .219796 .031514 .952864

3.985680 2.710020 6.515460 1.099200 2.717580
1.813734 .226716 .513516 .295866 5.084502

1.079000 .811060
2.359130 .263734 .723460
.538682 .074752 .119370 .080592 1.803394

1.804816 .737726
2.425580 .317468 .829406
.561626 .153878 .249058 .257282 1.213446

.306365 .173775 .306565 .036263 .136431
.072285 .096527 .011107 .011431 .741672

12.654501 7.009641
18.742273 2.984017 7.153705
5.626709 1.169949 1.811475
.960563 14.372420

.666026 .368928 .986435 .157054 .376511
.296143 .061576 .095341 .050556 .756443

Wilcox Wilkes

....................................................................

Wilkinson ............................

1.047636 1.581852 1.030710.

Worth .................................... 2.051088

.357324 .188228 .828690 .553828

1.124892 1.690932
.955236 1.471770

.277984 .520228 .276116 .443374

.286588 1.139262
.450176 .750760

.022297 .072011 .066366 .046239

3.116721 5.192513 3.607294 5.317059

.164038 .273290 .189858 .279845

TOTAL ........................ 599.999400 200.000144 600.004230 200.000004 200.000176 99.999124 1900.003078 100.000160

tions for county school systems and the total tax digest for independent school systems. A ~omparison of this table with Table 37 will show the difference in funds to .be charged back to local syste'ms under the proposed and alternate plans of determining ability.
Table 40 shows the total cost of the foundation program, the local revenue to be charged back against the state calculated educational budget, and the state funds needed by county and independent school systems. This table may be compared with Tables 35 and 37 to determine the difference in state funds needed by local school systems. For example, Appling County would receive $291,515 in state funds under the alternate plan as shown in Table 40 and $288,307 under the first proposed method of determining state funds needed as shown in Table 35. Under the plan of state distribution now in force, Appling County received approximately $266,071 in state school funds for the school year 1946-47.
867

is of the total county tax digest less homestead exemptions. This method of determining the amount of local revenue to be charged back to a school system against its educational need is illustrated in Table 38. All independent school systems are not included in Table 38 because of the fact that the property digest less homestead exemptions for some systems was not available.
3. Alternate Plan for Determining Ability of Local Units
It has been pointed out that county school systems now levy taxes on the basis of the total tax digest less homestead exemptions, whereas independent school systems levy taxes on the total tax digest. This differential in methods of levying taxes gives the independent school system a distinct advantage over county school systems. Be'cause of this fact, it is the opinion of many people that the ability of independent systems to finance education should be based upon the total tax digest.
If this method of determining the abiliity of local school systems to finance e'ducation is used, the recommended plan of state support would be unchanged except for the fact that the economic index of local ability would be applied to the tax digest less homestead exemptions for county school systems and to the total tax digest for independent systems. The total cost of the foundation program would remain the same. The state funds needed to finance the program would also remain the same, since it has been recommended that a total of $9,000,000 be charged back to local school systems, in either case.
Under the alternate plan of determining local ability to finance education, it would be necessary to levy approximately 7.5 mills locally to raise approximately $9,000,000, whereas approximately 9 mills would be required under the first plan submitted. In effect, the alternate plan of determining the funds to be charged back to local school systems increases the state funds to be received by county school systems. The increase to be .received by a county would amount to approximately 1.5 mills of the local digest adjusted for economic ability.
Table 39 shows the revenue to be charged back against the state calculated educational budget as determined by the index of economic ability and the tax digest less homestead exemp-
360

TABLE 39 (Continued)

Gharge Back Charge Back

Based on Prop- Based on

County

erty and Pub- Economic

lie Utility

Index

Digest x 7.478

(1)

(2)

(3)

DDEEDcaooohoruulolggyyllhsaes..r...t....y...............................................

17,084.93 37,318.53 11,692.68 21,231.98 5,870.90

14,917 39,163 13,535 22,661 3,952

EEflbfienrgt h.a..m.................

19,596.02 18,579.43

14,879 19,339

FEEamvnaannnisune.l...................................

23,667.65 5,429.30
10,916.25

29,881 9,445
11,323

Fayette ............ 6,685.04
Floyd .............. 65,276.61

6,962 66,165

Forsyth ............ 4,722.97

7,631

Frankl Fulton

i

n........................

13,253.05 438,945.64

19,149 401,153

Gain If Index
Used
(4)
1,844 1,842 1,429
760 6,213 4,016
407 277 888 2,908 5,896

Loss If Index
Used

Percent Percent

Gain

Loss

4 Divided 5 Divided

by 2

by 2

(5)

(6)

(7)

2,168 1,919

4.94 15.75
6.73

12.69 32.69

4,717

4.09 26.25
73.98 3.73

24.o7

4.15

1.36

61.58

44.49

37,793

8.61

GGGGGloliraylarmsnddconeyonrck..................................................

9,506.21 2,537.76 95,112.04 17,998.82 15,933.58

Greene ............ 17,019.00

.-.,,

HHGHaawanlbilcenorn..sc.eh.k.t.at..m........................

25,112.25 39,098.51 39,562.62 14,822.34

HHHHHeeaaanarrrarrtrldiysso.....n...........................................................
Houston ..........

16,955.58 36,777.37 11,813.80
5,591.60 21,677.66
23,773.24

Irwin ................ 11,647.00

JJJaaecsfkpf seoDrna.v...i....s........................

15,186.00 14,133.64
9,861.76

JJJJoeoenfnhfkenesisrnoss.no..n...........................................

17,356.57 13,570.66
8,879.12 12,211.18

Lamar .............. 9,552.05

LLLLLiiaeanbeuncerioreetl.nr.ny.s.............................................................

4,111.87 25,249.36 18,511.22 13,753.83
6,391.69

Long ................ 7,805.23

Lowndes

20,896.22

MLMuaamcdoipsnkoinn..................................

5,291.54 20,712.30 10,991.56

10,056 4,055
89,063 20,954 23,152
20,453 25,936 32,218 40,698 14,800
18,531 25,759 14,845
5,844 20,317
22,886 12,610 18,141 13,833 9,982
23,892 14,993 11,046 10,138 10,138
5,183 26,075 11,319 14,205
6,928
5,560 25,008
6,084 20,234 12,404

550 1,517
2,955 7,218 3,434
824
1,135
1,575
3,031 252
963 2,955
120 6,535 1,422 2,167
586 1,071
826
452 536
4,112 792
1,412

6,049
6,881 22
11,018 1,361 887 301
2,073
7,192 2,245
478

5.79 59.79
16.42 45.30 20.18
3.28
2.87
9.29
25.66 4.51
8.27 19.46
1.22 37.65 10.48 24.41
6.13 26.04
3.27
3.28 8.39
19.68 14.96
12.85

6.36
17.60 .15
29.96 6.28 3.73 2.13
16.98
38.85 28.76
2.31

369

TABLE 37 (Continued)

(1) County

(2)
Charge back based on Property and Public Utility Digest

(3)
Charge back based on Economic Index

(4)
Gain if Index
Used

(5)

(6)

(7)

Percent Percent

Loss

Gain

Loss

if Index 4 Divided 5 Divided

Used

by 2

by 2

Dade .............. Dawson ........ Decatur ........ DeKalb .......... Dodge ............

12,421.35 2,616.39 51,257.25 248,566.77 29,728.17

9,681.39 2,G27.19
49,840.56 303,536.70
29,548.35

Dooly ............ Dougherty .... Douglas Early .............. Echols ............

25,685.01 125,165.07
13,995.81 25,414.65
7,027.47

22,424.31 131,344.11
16,200.18 27,126.00
4,729.95

Effingham .... Elbert ............ Emanuel ........ Evans ............ Fannin ..........

23,456.16 34,984.26 28,330.02
6,498.45 13,066.74

17,809.20 36,414.00 35,765.46 11,306.07 13,554.09

Fayette

8,002.26

Floyd ............ 166,923.45

Forsyth ........ 5,653.44

Franklin ...... 15,863.94

Fulton ............ 2,822,083.92

8,334.54 169,197.12
9,134.64 22,922.55
2,579,210.73

Gilmer ............ Glascock ........ Glynn ..............
Gordon .......... Grady ............

11,378.52 3,037.95
113,847.39 28,017.63 19,071.99

12,037.14 4,854.24
106,601.13 32,619.51 27,712.08

Greene .......... Gwinnett ......
Habersham .... Hall .............. Hancock ........

20,371.68 44,386.38 46,800.54 87,034.50 17,741.88

24,482.97 45,842.58 38,565.09 89,529.39 17,715.69

Haralson ...... Harris ............ Hart .............. Heard ............ Henry ............

23,565.42 44,022.15 14,140.89
6,692.67 25,948.17

25,753.50 30,831.66 17,769.42
6,994.80 24,318.81

Houston ........ Irwin .............. Jackson .......... Jasper ..........
Jeff Davis ....

28,456.29 13,941.27 25,031.61 16,917.48
11,804.67

27,396.09 15,094.62 29,901.96 16,557.66
11,948.49

Jeffen;on ......
Jenkins .......... Johnson ........ Jones .............. Lamar ............

20,775.33
16,243.47 10,628.46 14,616.18 17,967.42

28,597.32 17,946.18 13,223.07 12,134.88 19,068.30

10.80 54,969.93

2,739.96 1,416.69
179.82

.41 22.11

22.06 2.76 .60

6,179.04 2,204.37 1,711.35

3,260.70 2,297.52

4.94 15.75
6.73

12.69 32.69

1,429.74 7,435.44 4,807.62
487.35

5,646.96

4.09 26.25 73.98
3.73

24.07

332.28

4.15

2,273.67

1.36

3,481.20

61.58

7,058.61

44.49

242,873.19

8.61

658.62 1,816.29
4,601.88 8,640.09

5.79

59.79

7,246.26

6.36

16.42

45.30

4,111.29 1,456.20
2,494.89

8,235.45 26.19

20.18 3.28
2.87

17.60 .15

2,188.08
3,628.53 302.13

13,190.49 1,629.36

9.29
25.66 4.51

29.96 6.28

1,153.35 4,870.35
143.82

1,060.20

3.73

8.27

19.46

350.82

2.13

1.22

7,821.99 1,702.71 2,594.61
1,100.88

2,481.30

37.65 1Q.48 24.41
6.13

16.98

362

I,

TABLE 39 (Continued)

C'harge Back Charge Back

Based on Prop- Based on erty and Pub- Economic

County

lie Utility

Index

Digest x 7.478

(1)

(2)

(3)

Ware ................ 63,830.15

75,862

WWaasrhreinngt.o...n............

11,702.77 25,409.78

11,808 28,309

WWWWWWihehhalbyieicttesnofetlixeeeerrl..d....................................................

22,255.42 5,451.38 8,664.08 3,119.52
24,716.03 13,184.75

22,266 4,630 7,169 3,801
26,335 12,335

Wilkes .............. 17,470.51

20.549

WWiolrktihnso..n..........,..........

16,282.24 24,802.22

14,274 21,042

Gain If Index
Used
(4)
12,032 105
2,899 11
681 1,619
3,078

Loss If Index
Used

Percent Percent

Gain

Loss

4 Divided 5 Divided

by 2

by 2

(5)
821 1,495
850 2,008 3,760

(6)
18.85 .90
11.41 .05
21.84 6.55
17.62

(7)
15.07 17.26
6.45 12.33 15.16

CITY

Albany ............ 85,146.94
Americus ........ 36,855.96

AABatthlranennetssavil..l.e.............

110,554.09 2,834,990.58
12,721.73

CBCaualrfhrooorludlnton................

10,781.79 8,631.51
28,678.40

Cartersville Cedartown

......

31,338.68 25,225.11

CCCCohooclimuchmkmraabemnrucsaeu....g.....a.................

5,758.75 8,203.84 350,839.39 9,603.25

Cordele Dalton

..............

24,063.73 46,403.20

Decatur

113,588.79

Dublin .............. 32,465.47

Eastman ..........
GEFilatbiznegreetsorvanilllde......................

7,597.24 26,011.46 22,676.12 60,530.34

Griffin Hogansville

....

49,657.29 15,206.29

LaGrange ........ 97,097.90

Lawrenceville

7,773.16

Marietta Moultrie

..........

70,216.83 36,069.49

TRNTTThhaoieflomowtlmmoaennpaaao.ssn.ovt....osi....lna..l..e................................

41,111.25 113,930.73
4,366.96 46,882.21 51,529.70 23,783.41

TToricocnoa................

23,825.47 13,405.20

Valdosta .......... 66,500.04

Vienna West Point

....

5,681.86 15,359.95

Winder 16,667.64

TOTAL $8,969,472.00

89,353 40,155 103,390 2,590,898 13,502 11,136 10,049 31,970 31,355 24,831
5,631 8,705 345,962 11,472 28,959 49,442 138,704 33,527 7,551 27,075 35,939 62,267 52,617 18,573 118,595 8,028 59,249 41,808 38,640 115,480 4,773 43,830 50,706 30,183 24,811 14,841 79,587 4,961 18,761 20,208
$8,927,928

4,206 3,299
780 354 1,417 3,292
16
501
1,869 4,895 3,039 25,115 1,062
1,064 13,263
1,737 2,960 3,367 21,497
255
5,739
1,549 406
6,400 986
1,436 13,087
3,401 3,540 $423,505

7,164 244,093
394 128 4,877
46
10,968 2,471 3,052
824
721 $465,044

4.94 8.95
6.13 3.28 16.42 11.48
.05
6.11
19.46 20.34
6.55 22.11
3.27
4.09 58.49
2.87 5.96 22.14 22.14 3.28
15.91
1.36 9.29
26.91 4.14
10.71 19.68
22.14 21.24

6.48 8.61
1.56 2.23 1.39
.60
15.62 6.01 6.51 1.60
12.69

371

TABLE 37 (Continued)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

'

Charge back

based on

Charge back

Percent Percent

Property

based on

Gain

Loss

Gain

Loss

and Public

Economic

if Index

if Index 4 Divided 5 Divided

County

Utility Digest

Index

Used

Used

by 2

by 2

TTTTaaeaytlltfilnaaofiarrellr.r...o..........................
Terrell
TTTTToroihefwootummntslb.ae..ss.n................................................

7,781.13 16,527.24 10,096.74 21,033.18 26,691.12
85,936.23 35,904.42 21,618.54
2,208.24 8,586.72

7,182.27 20,782.53 13,764.60 24,631.92 28,104.84
84,563.82 45,565.74 29,817.90
2,972.88 8,953.02

................
4,255.29 3,667.86 3,598.74 1,413.72
................ 9,661.32 8,199.36
764.64 366.30

............5......9......8..........8......6...

25.75 36.33 17.11

7.70

5.30

1..,.3..7..2....4..1..
..............

26.91 37.93

1.60

..............

34.63 4.27

TTTwruoriungpegrs.....................

Union Upson

........................

91,562.85 15,945.39 12,663.00
2,683.53 64,054.53

111,837.42 17,704.17 12,037.68 5,103.00
59,886.81

20,274.57 1,758.78
................
2,419.47


..............

22.14 11.03

625.32

4.94

90.16

4,167.72

6.51

..

WWWW Waaaaasllrrtkheroeeinnrng...t...o..........n............................

61,311.96 30,248.28 74,695.50 14,008.41
30,414.78

59,942.34 33,203.52 88,779.15 14,134.86
33,885.99

................
2,955.24 14,083.65
126.45
3,471.21

..1....,..3....6....9.......6....2..

9.77 18.85

2.23

............................

.90 11.41

Wayne ............
WWWWhhehbieitteseftlieeerrl..d................................

26,639.19 6,525.27 10,370.70 3,734.37
63,892.53

26,652.87 5,541.84 8,580.69 4,550.04
68,079.87

........1..3....6..8.
................
815.67
4,187.34

983.43 1,790.01
..............

Wilcox Wilkes

........................

WWiolrktihnso..n..........

15,781.59 20,912.31 19,489.95 29,687.94

14,763.42 24,596.10 17,087.22 25,186.05

................
3,683.79
................ ................

.1..,.0..1..8....1..7.
2,402.73 4,501.89

TOTAL $8,999,997.39 $9,000,014.40 $452,379.87 $452,362.86

.05
21.84 6.55
17.62

15.07 17.26
6.45 12.33 15.16

364

TABLE 40 (Continued)

County

Total Cost o.f Program

Dooly ......................................

DDoouugglhaesrty..................................

Early Echols

....................................

251,932 204,574 175,849 324,052
42,658

FEEEEafmlvbfnaiaennnnrisgtunheal......m......................................................................................................................................

194,142 216,231 423,008 120,288 240,612

FFFFloaroayrynsedyktttlehi.n.........................................................................................................................................

122,093 477,926 156,538 246,220

GGGFGuloliayllrmstndocnoeonnrc.k.............................................................................................................................................

1,789,771
163,498 66,148
451,916 237,400

Grady .GHHGHrwaaaelbnileecnnorne.sc.eh.k.t.a.t...m............................~ ...............................................................................................................................

318,486
250,173 429,416 264,716 423,542 199,014

HHHHHeaeaaarnrrarrtrildyss..o....n................................................................................................................................................ JJHIaraowcsukpisnsetoronn..............................................................................................................................................
Jeff Davis ..............................

191,368 178,969 241,235 131,021 244,150
244,899 238,241 230,717 141,982 161,078

Jefferson ................................ Jenkins ..................................
JJLooanhmenssaorn............................................................................................................
Lanier .................................... Laurens ..................................
LLLeiinbeceortlyn......................................................................

300,473 184,510 205,671 155,385 113,514
92,565 436,905 120,584 165,673
98,770

LLLoouwnmgnpdkeisn..................................................................

Macon Madison

.................................... ..................................

Marion ....................................
McDuffie ................................

88,807 341,923
90,273 202,613 239,764
129,081 173,508

Local Effort Required
14,917 39,163 13,535 22,661
3,952
14,879 19,339 29,881
9,445 11,323
6,962 66,165
7,631 19,149 401,153
10,056 4,055 89,063 20,954 23,152
20,453 25,936 32,218 40,698 14,800
18,531 25,759 14,845
5,844 20,317
22,886 12,610 18,141 13,833
9,982
23,892 14,999 11,046 10,138 10,138
5,183 26,075 11,319 14,205
6,928
5,560 25,008
6,084 20,234 12,404
8,027 16,604

373

State Funds Needed
237,015 165,411 162,314 301,391
38,706
179,263 196,892 393,127 110,843 229,289
115,131 411,761 148,907 227,071 1,388,618
153,442 62,093
362,853 216,446 295,334
229,720 403,480 232,498 382,844 184,214
172,837 153,210 226,390 125,177 223,833
222,013 225,631 212,576 }28,149
51,096
276,581 169,517 194,625 145,247 103,376
87,382 410,830 109,265 151,468
91,842
83,247 316,915
84,189 182,379 227,360
121,054 156,904

TABLE 38 (Continued)

System

Property Digest

GoCrdaolhnou.n.........................

1,529,868 678,565

HGaailnl e.s.v...i.l.l.e........................ HaTraalllsaopnoos..a................ JacCkosmonmer.c..e.................

3,827,019 4,069,441
1,098,985 364,933
1,571,500 686,230

LaBmaarnr esville....

696,065 598,560

Laurens .............. 3,050,000

Dublin 2,968,915

LowVnalddeosst.a.....................

1,870,000 4,968,261

Muscogee ............. 9,353,605 Columbus ........ 31,416,330

PoClkeda..r.t..o..w...n................

3,190,200 3,056,815

Spalding Griffin

..........................

3,086,390 3,965,860

Stephens ..............
Toccoa ............
SuAmmteerric..u..s....................

636,215 1,442,863
2,146,015 2,343,549

.... Thomas ................ 4,321,794

Thomasville

3,829,138

TiTftifton

1,485,384 1,535,424

UpTshoonmaston......

1,026,706 5,413,411

WaClhkiecrkamauga

5,051,537 451,203

Whitfield

2,539,437

Dalton .............. 3,714,466

Utilities
877,035 44,664
1,463,516 363,411
1,168,410 101,914
459,257 79,559
581,289 131,373
326,486 280,581
924,360 987,196
1,354,815 3,317,125
1,302,917 367,983
878,217 442,341
1,110,388 209,730
949,143 470,164
990,928 458,839
626,806 363,599
599,692 116,882
1,298,562 48,612
765,729 118,346

Total Digest

Percent Charge back

of Total Based on

County

Economic

Charge back Index

2,406,903 76.89 723,229 23.11

25,081.14 7,538.37

5,290,535 54.41 4,432,852 45.59

48,712.94 40,816.45

2,267,395 82.93 466,847 17,07

21,357.38 4,396.12

2,030,757 72.62 765,789 27.38

21,714.80 8,187.16

1,277,354 63.64 729,933 36.36

12,135.07 6,933.23

3,376,486 50.96 3,249,496 49.04

31,213.07 30,037.06

2,794,360 31.94 5,955,457 68.06

29,938.30 63,794.63

10,708,420 23.57 34,733,455 76.43

94,540.49 306,564.67

4,493,117 56.75 3,424,798 43.25

39,595.03 30,175.94

3,964,607 47.41 4,398,201 52.59

37,605.85 41,714.66

1,746,603 51.38 1,652,593 48.62

16,280.78 15,400.22

3,095,158 52.38 2,813,713 47.62

30,184.41 27,441.42

5,312,722 55.34 4,287,977 44.66

46,797.62 37,766.20

2,112,190 52.66 1,899,023 47.34

23,994.92 21,570.82

1,626,398 22.73 5,530,293 77.27

13,612.27 46,274.54

6,350,099 92.71 499,815 7.29

55,572.54 4,369.80

3,305,166 46.30 3,832,812 53.70

31,520.98 36,558.89

366

TABLE 40 (Continued)

County

Total Cost of Program

WWWWaehhybeitensetleee.rr.........................................................................................................

Whitfield

Wilcox Wilkes

....................................

WWiolrktihnso.n.................................................................

269,429 62,875 139,904 113,513 277,152
181,751 217,307 179,555 323,348

CITY

AAlmbearniycu.s...................................................................

228,150 121,834

Athens Atlanta

..................................

261,876 3,080,025

BBuarfnoersdvi.l..l.e................................

54,089 49,403

CCaalrhroolulnton..............................

44,283 79,180

Cartersville ............................ 68,690

Cedartown 127,298

CCohcichkraamn a.u...g..a............................

21,250 35,307.

CCCooomrludmmeleberucse................................................................

620,868 58,212
112,240

Dalton .................................... 175,766
Decatur .................................. 229,482

DEElaubsbetlmritnoann................................................................

98,929 45,637 71,585

Fitzgerald Gainesville

..........................................................

103,110 120,565

GLHaorGigfafrniansnvgielle..............................

167,906 52,574
289,238

Lawrenceville ........................ 32,928 Marietta ................................ 224,958

Moultrie Newnan

................................

131,210 84,138

Rome 320,479

Tallapoosa Thomaston

............................

31,821 187,480

TTThoifoctcmoonaasv.i..l.l.e...............................

145,488 54,938 74,138

TVrailodnost.a.....................................................................

67,341 194,592

Vienna West P Winder

oi.n..t...........................................................

25,440 42,362 52,926

Local Effort Required
22,266 4,630 7,169 3,801
26,335
12,335 20,549 14,274 21,042
89,353 40,155 103,390 2,590,898 13,502
11,136 10,049 31,970 31,355 24,831
5,631 8,705 345,692 11,472 28,959
49,442 138,704
33,527 7,551
27,075
35,939 62,267 52,617 18,573 118,595
8,028 59,249 41,808 38,640 115,480
4,773 43,830 50,706 30,183 24,811
14,841 79,587
4,961 18,761 20,208

TOTAL ..........................$46,635,456

$ 8,927,928

375

State Funds Needed
247,163 58,245 132,735 109,712
250,817
169,416 196,758 165,281 302,306
138,797 81,679
158,486 489,127
40,587
38,267 34,234 47,210 37,335 102,467
15,619 26,602 274,906 46,740 83,281
126,324 90,778 65,402 38,086 44,510
67,171 58,298 115,289 34,001 170,643
24,900 165,709 89,402 45,498 204,999
27,048 143,650
94,782 24,755 49,327
52,500 115,005
20,479 23,601 32,718
$37,707,528

TABLE 39
REVENUE TO BE CHARGED BACK AGAINST STATE CALCULATED EDUCATIONAL BUDGET AS DETERMINED BY ECONOMIC INDEX AND TAX DIGEST LESS HOMESTEAD EXEMPTIONS FOR COUNTIES AND TOTAL TAX DIGEST FOR INDEPENDENT SYSTEMS

County
(I)

C'harge Back Based on Property and Pub-
lie Utility Digest x 7.478
(2)

Charge Back Based on Economic Index
(3)

BAAaptkcpoilnnisnog.n...............................$ BBaalkdewr in........................

14,850.04 7,420.43 8,508.24 8,629.86 30,084.11

$

16,289 6,809
10,554 5,845
31,973

Banks ..............

Barrow Bartow

........................

BBeernriHenill......................

Bibb ................
Bleckley ..........

BBBrrraoynoaktnlsey....................................

7,281.64 8,250.16 31,361.98 7,728.33 15,329.72
311,164.23 7,017,03
11,366.17 26,663.73 13,166.06

6,064 10,002 31,378 12,248 18,594
335,590 7,446 8,617
25,523 9,919

Bulloch Burke

..........................

Butts ................

Calhoun
Camden ..........

Candler ..........
Carroll ............

CCCahhtaaortolhtsaoamn ..............................

25,716.26 32,896.41 18,816.69 14,151.84 17,337.23
8,521.85 24,869.15
8,504.39 13,762.87 468,004.09

36,198 31,728 18,595 12,905 13,566
11,559 27,724
9,375 10,558 515,085

Gain If Index
Used (4)
$ 1,439 2,046 1,889
1,752 16
4,520 3,264 24,426
429
10,482
3,037 2,855
871 47,081

Loss If Index
Used

Percent Percent

Gain

Loss

4 Divided 5 Divided

by 2

by 2

(5)
$ ............ 611
2,785

(6)
9.69 24.05
6.28

(7)
8.23 32.27

1,218

21.24
.05 58.49 21.29

16.72

2,749 1,141 3,247

7.85 6.11
24.19 4.28
24.66

1,168 222
1,247 3,771

40.76

3.55 1.18 8.81 21.75

3,205

35.64 11.48 10.24
10.06

23.29

Chattahoochee Chattooga ........
CClhaerrkoeke.e.............
Clay ..................
CCCColloiabfnybfcethoen......................................................
Colquitt ............
CCCoooowlukemtab..i.a.................................
Crawford ........
Crisp ................
Dade ................
DDDDoaeedwKcgasaetolubnr................................................

4,468.64 14,757.56 28,411.00 11,467.12
7,840.57
16,113.11 13,889.67 60,540.44 24,902.00 19,579.68
15,352.79 14,179.92 34,956.85
9,016.09 11,508.22
10,376.94 2,186.05
42,822.02 92,136.98 14,188.41

5,832 16,339 28,982 10,724
9,310
14,974 11,638 51,084 29,852 22,695
11,214 16,647 32,856
7,996 13,849
8,088 2,195 41,640 112,508 14,103

1,363 1,581
571 1,469
4,950 3,115 2,467
2,341 9
20,371

743
1,139 2,252 9,456
4,139 2,101 1,020
2,289 1,182
85

30.49 10.71 2.01 18.74
19.88 15.91
17.40
20.34 .41
22.11

6.48
7.07 16.21 15.62
26.96 6.01
11.32
22.06 2.76
.60

368


in accordance with a virtually impartial index of economic ability.
(2) Funds for other current expense needs are calculated on the basis of a fixed sum ($200) to be multiplied by the number of teaching units authorized by the State. This method allows two systems with an equal number of teachers the same amount of money regardless of the qualifications of the teachers. At present state funds for other current expense needs (excepting transportation costs) are computed as a percentage of the state teachers' salaries paid to the system. This method gives those counties with the poorest prepared teachers the least funds for instructional supplies and other current expenses.
(3) The experience of other states indicates that the proposed plan of determining transportation costs is a more reliable measure than the plan of transportation now used in Georgia.
(4) The proposed plan of state support includes an annual allowance of $200 per teacher unit to be used for capital outlay purposes. The plan of state support now in operation makes no allowance for capital outlay needs.
(5) The proposed plan of state support treats all foundation funds as equalization funds and includes salary, other current expense, transportation, and capital outlay nee'ds. The plan now in operation does not include capital outlay needs and transportation costs are handled more objectively.
In order to show the degree of equalization possible under the proposed plan of state support. Figure 21 is presented. This figur~ shows the distribution of teacher units according to total prospective revenue for current expense per teacher if all school systems were to levy a 15-mill tax. When referring to the chart, three facts should be remembered. (1) The chart has been computed on the assumption that a 15-mill tax will be levied by all independent school systems on their total tax digest and by all county school systems on the tax digest less homestead exemptions. Actually, few independent school systems le'vy a 15-mill tax. (2) The amount of salary funds allowed a school system depends largely upon the teachers' certificates based on their qualifications. In order to present a picture of the degree of equalization possible under the propos.ed system, it was assumed that the average teacher in every school system
377

TABLE 39 (Continued)

County (1)

Charge Back Based on Property and Pub-
lie Utility Digest x 7.478
(2)

Charge Back Based on Economic Index
(3)

Marion
McDuffie ........
MMceirniwtoesthher............
Miller ..............
Mitchell ..........
.. Monroe ............
Montgomery Morgan ............
Murray ............

9,345.77 14,521.53 9,291.61 28,528.80 12.394.00
26,225.00 22,575.36
8,282.08 19,732.79 13,596.02

8,027 16,604
9,062 26,389 10,458
31,578 20,498
7,936 17,668 12,151

NMeuwsctoognee............

OOcgolenteheor..p..e................

Paulding ..........

Peach ..............

Pickens Pierce

........................

Pike ................

Polk ..................

80,077.56 33,051.29
8,535.99 12,408.66 10,827.45
20,060.95 12,847.00 15,547.58
9,666.90 33,599.53

78,965 32,175
6,409 10,249 12,686
22,272 11,645 16,781
9,271 33,076

Pulaski

Putnam Quitman

......................

Rabun ..............

Randolph ........

Richmond ........

Rockdale ..........
Schley ..............

Screven Seminole

......................

Spalding ..........
Stephens ........

Stewart ............

Sumter Talbot

..........................

TTTaaaltyitlanofarelrlr.o...........................

Telfair Terrell

............

13,919.19 13,426.48
5,266.29 25,200.31 18,700.95
315,599.84 9,833.44 7,355.42
19,832.25 10,995.25
29,647.33 13,061.00 15,534.06 23,145.59 11,133.99
6,500.63 13,807.68 8,435.28 17,572.16 22,298.45

14,460 13,039 3,937 19,812 21,564
299,536 10,832 6,603 22,547 11,897
31,414 13,602 14,226 25,218
9,330
6,000 17,364 11,499 20,579 23,480

TTTTToohriefowotummntbsl.a.es.s.n..............................................................

Troup Turner Twiggs Union Upson

..................................................................

39,728.54 15,794.96 18,060.74
1,844.82 7,173.31
15,039.48 13,321.38 10,579.29
2,242.20 12,162.20

39,093 20,045 24,912
2,484 7,479
18,369 14,790 10,056
4,263 11,370

Walker Walton

............

47,486.04 25,263.91

46,427 27,732

Gain If Index
Use <.I (4)
2,082
5,353
1,859 2,211 1,233
541
2,863 999
2,715 905
1,767 541
2,072
3,556 3,064 3,007 1,182 4,250 6,851
639 306 3,330 1,469 2,021
2,468

Loss If Index
Used

Percent Percent

Gain

Loss

4 Divided 5 Divided

by 2

by 2

(5)
1,319 230
2,140 1,936 2,077
346 2,065 1,445 1,113
876 2,127 2,160
1,202 396 523 387
1,329 5,388 16,064
752
1,308 1,804
501
636
523 792 1,059

(6)
14.34
20.41
7.17 11.02
7.93
3.89
15.31 10.16 13.69
8.20 5.96 4.14 8.95
25.75 36.33 17.11
5.30 26.91 37.93 34.63
4.27 22.14 11.03 90.16
9.77

(7)
14.11 2.48 7.50
15.62 9.20 4.18 10.47 1Q.63 1.39 2.65 24.92 17.41
9.36 4.10 1.56 2.88 25.24 21.38 5.09 10.22
8.42 16.20
7.70
1.60
4.94 6.51 2.23

370

100% 90

$1.000

$2.000

$3.000

S4.ocio 100% 90

so

80

70

1/)

70

z1-

:I

V...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'/////////////...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'/AJ,ii;'<->:'{f's:'.~:;io~.r;,y...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r...r./...r'...r'...r'/////_//i 60 60

0:

Ill

uJ:

J-F/////////////////...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'//////~"'.~Z~Zf';z;~,,/...r'...r'/...r'///////////////////////////A 50

<(

50

Ill

1..-.
0

1'///////////////////////////////,/;l;,f,i<::iJ'!t,"'fiY///////////////////,f////////////A 40 40

1z -

Iull
0:

30

t"...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'///////////////...r'...r'...r'...r'...r'--FJi!ii:iL'Ii'':'&Y////////./..

Ill

IL

V///A 30

20 20

10 10

0 0

$1.000

$2.000

$3.000

$4.000

Prospective Current Revenue Per Teacher Unit

FIGURE 21
Degree of Equalization Possible Under Proposed Plan of State Support - Current Funds Available for Education Per Teacher Unit Including All State Foundation Funds except Transportation Prospective Revenue If All School Systems
in the State Levied a 15 Mill Tax

TABLE 40
TOTAL COST OF FOUNDATION PROGRAM, LOCAL REVENUE TO BE CHARGED BACK AGAINST STATE CALCULATED EDUCATIONAL BUDGET AS DETERMINED BY ECONOMIC INDEX AND TAX DIGEST LESS HOMESTEAD EXEMPTIONS FOR COUNTIES AND TOTAL TAX DIGEST FOR INDEPENDENT SYSTEMS, AND STATE FUNDS NEEDED TO FINANCE PROGRAM

County

Total Cost of Program

Appling ..................................$
Atkinson ................................ BBBaaaclkdoewnr in..................................

307,804 135,739 154,178 107,468 242,412

Banks ...................................... 139,199

Barrow .................................... 144,906

Bartow Ben Hill

..................................................................

296,688 127,138

Berrien 257,016

BBliebcbkl.e.y........................................................................

1,139,076 104,331

BBrroaonktlsey....................................................................

133,585 325,628

Bryan .................................... 132,369

CBBCBauauulmlrthltkosdoeceuhnn..................................................................................................................................................................................

446,404 360,088 124,240 136,743 131,082

Candler .................................. 139,252

Carroll .................................... 404,623

Catoosa .................................. 163,055

Charlton ................................ 105,478 Chatham ................................ 1,355,270

Chattahoochee ...................... Chattooga ..............................
Cherokee ................................

CCllaaryke............................................................................

Clayton ..................................

CCCoolibfnfbcehe................................................................................................................

CCCCooooowlluqkemuti.abt..ti.a........................................................................................................

CCrriaswpfo.r..d...................................

Dade ......................................

Dawson Decatur

....................................................................

DDoedKgaelb......................................

29,655 236,589 309,982 127,963 101,216
201,175 116,118 525,284 381,900 436,100
134,592 197,405 329,029 112,326 157,956
90,548 65,311 446,909 645,551 303,990

Loeal Effort Required
$ 16,289 6,809
10,554 5,845
31,973
6,064 10,002 31,378 12,248 18,594
335,590 7,446 8,617
25,523 9,919
36,198 31,728 18,595 12,905 13,566
11,559 27,724
9,375 10,558 515,085
5,832 16,339 28,982 10,724
9,310
14,974 11,638 51,084 29,852 22,695
11,214 16,647 32,856
7,996 13,849
8,088 2,195 41,640 112,508 14,103

State Funds Needed
$ 291,515 128,930 143,624 101,623 210,439
133,135 134,904 265,310 114,890 238,422
803,486 96,885
124,968 300,105 122,450
410,206 328,360 105,645 123,838 117,516
127,693 376,899 153,680
94,920 840,185
23,823 220,250 281,000 117,239
91,906
186,201 104,480 474,200 352,048 413,405
123,378 180,758 296,173 104,330 144,107
82,460 63,116 405,2G9 533,043 289,887

372

6. Summary
The plan of state support for the foundation program of education which has been presented herein is e'ssentially a plan for requiring each local system to exert an equitable local effort a.nd for supplementing from state funds the yield of that local level sufficiently to meet the needs of a foundation program. By this plan the inequalities of opportunity betwe'en counties to the extent of the foundation program can be eliminated and the local burden of tax support can be adjusted to local tax-paying ability. The State foundation funds represent the difference .between the financial needs of the school systems of Georgia and the ability of these systems to support education.
The financial needs of a school system are defined in terms of salaries, transportation costs, other current expenses, and capital outlay.
Salary needs for professional personnel should be determined on a twelve-month basis for all school systems in accordance with a state minimum salary schedule. The number of teachers allotted to .a school system would be determined on the basis of average daily attendance per square mile separately for white and Negro schools in line with the density table proposed in this section.
The State should own and operate the school transportation system, as is recommended in Chapter VII. Until this is put into operation, however, costs of transportation should be computed as a part of the financial needs of e'ach county school system. The transportation needs should be recomputed annually according to a per pupil allowance scale, based on the density per square mile of daily attendance transported, omitting any area of the county not served.
Other current expenses include costs of administration, maintenance, fue'l, supplies, utilities, etc., and should be computed as a constant amount per allowable teacher unit; that is, per teacher allowed on the state teacher allotment schedule. The amount per teacher unit should be set annually "by the State Board of Education. The Survey Staff recommends $200 per year per teacher unit at present.
Capital outlay constitutes a definite part of the financial needs of a school system. The sum of $200 per allowable teach-
381

TABLE 40 (Continued)

County

Total Cost of Program

Local Effort Required

Mcintosh ................................ Meriwether ............................ Miller ...................................... Mitchell .................................. Monroe ..................................

98,101 306,981 199,662 365,919 165,403

9,062 26,389 10,458
31,578 20,498

Montgomery .......................... Morgan .................................. Murray .................................... Muscogee .............................. Newton ..................................

151,477 179,808 174,085 443,705 268,570

7,936 17,668 12,151 78,965 32,175

Oconee .................................... Oglethorpe ............................ Paulding ................................ Peach ...................................... Pickens ..................................

115,081 192,911 198,863 169,994 145,682

6,409 10,249 12,686 22,272 11,645

Pierce .................................... Pike ........................................ Polk ........................................ Pulaski .................................. Putnam ..................................

228,509 144,789 345,368 149,543 123,135

16,781 9,271
33,076 14,460 13,039

Quitman ................................ Rabun .................................... Randolph ................................ Richmond .............................. Rockdale ................................

56,642 168,819 229,312 957,719 117,557

3,937 19,812 21,564 299,536 10,832

Schley .................................... Screven .................................. Seminole ................................ Spalding ................................ Stephens ................................

68,004 298,342 153,953 217,181 170,557

6,603 22,547 11,897 31,414 13,602

Stewart .................................. Sumter .................................... Talbot .................................... Taliaferro .............................. TattnaJl ..................................

170,019 200,527 104,886
86,149 283,889

14,226 25,218
9,330 6,000 17,364

Taylor .................................... Telfair .................................... Terrell .................................... Thomas .................................. Tift ........................................

173,211 259,177 201,159 374,593 263,610

11,499 20,579 23,480 39,093 20,045

Toombs .................................. Towns ....................................
Treutlen ................................ Troup .................................... Turner ....................................

291,777 89,027
132,795 258,727 173,489

24,912 2,484 7,479
18,369 14,790

Twiggs .................................. Union ...................................... Upson .................................... Walker .................................. Walton ....................................
Ware ...................................... Warren .................................. Washington ..........................

149,475 125,651 204,043 434,025 307,450
&17,178 145,214 333,890

10,156 4,263
11,370 46,427 27,732
75,862 11,808 28,309

374

State Funds Needed
89,039 280,592 189,204 334,341 144,905
143,541 162,140 161,934 364,740 236,395
108,672 182,662 186,177 147,722 134,037
211,728 135,518 312,292 135,083 110,096
52,705 149,007 207,748 658,183 106,725
61,401 275,795 142,056 185,767 156,955
155,793 175,309
95,556 80,149 266,525
161,712 238,598 177,679 335,500 243,565
266,865 86,543 125,316
240,358 158,699
139,419 121,388 192,673 387,598 279,718
441,316 133,406 305,581

charges back the system's share of local effort computed by applying the economic index of tax-paying ability to the total local effort expected, and determines the difference which constitutes the state's payment to the system.
Based on teachers' salaries now in effect, 1945-46 average daily attendance figures, and the recommendations for current expenses, capital outlay, and transportation needs, the foundation funds calculation would be as follows:
Salaries -------------------------------------------------------$34,156,902 Other current expenses ----------------------------- 4,484,400 Capital outiay ------------------------------------------ 4,484,400 Transportation ---------------------------------------------- 3,509,7 54
Total needs of foundation program____________$46,635,456 Local effort required ----------------------------------- 9,000,014
Net state foundation funds --------------------------$37,635,442
V. PROPOSED PLAN FOR DISTRIBUTING STATE AND FEDERAL VOCATIONAL FUNDS
State and federal funds for vocational education for 1947-48 will probably be greatly increased. It is assumed that the state legislature will appropriate approximately $1,000,000 for vocational education and. that federal funds will increase. If the State allocates $1,000,000 and the Federal Government allocates the same amount spent in 1945-46, there will be $1,220,563.25 to distribute' to counties and local school systems, after deducting approximately $375,000 for the operation of the North and South Georgia Trade Schools and necessary state-wide training programs, general administration, in-service training, teacher training, etc.
1. Proposed Formula
Now that substantial sums of money have become available for vocational education and vocational education programs have been established in almost every county and independent system in the State, it is believed that a definite formula should be developed for distributing vocational funds. It is the belief of the committee that the plan of distribution used by the Federal Government in distributing the money to the' several states
383

4. State Funds Needed
The total state school funds needed by each school system is obtained under the recommended plan by subtracting the local revenue to be charged back to each school from the total educational need. The state funds needed under the recommended plan have been shown previously in column 8 of Table 35.
A summary of the foundation funds needed under the .recommended program is shown below. These calculations were based on the present state salary scale and 1945-46 average daily attendance figures. The amounts shown do not indicate .the amounts needed to finance an adequate program of education. The recommendations of the Survey Staff as to the funds needed immediately to finance public education in Georgia will be presented in Section VII of this chapter. It should 'be pointed out that local revenue to be charge'd back against the total foundation program needs was calculated on the 1944 tax digest. Actually approximately $300,000 more could be raised from a 7.5 mill levy on the 1945 tax digest.
SaIaries ______ --------------------------------------------------$34,156,902 Other current expenses ------------------------------ 4,484,400 CapitaI outlay -------------------------------------------- 4,484,400 Transportation --------------------------------------------- 3,509,754 Total cost of program -------------------------------- 46,635,456 Local effort required ----------------------------------- 9,000,014
$37,635,442
5. Degree of Equalization Possible Under The Proposed
Plan of Support
The proposed plan of state support for the foundation program of public elementary and secondary education in Georgia will provide greater equalization of educational opportunity among the various school administrative units of the State than the plan now in use. The basic reasons why this plan will more nearly equalize educational opportunities for the children of the State are as follows:
(1) The local effort required of a school administrative unit under the proposed plan is based upon the tax digest adjusted
376

funds, therefore, might be through contract with an adjoining county or a state trade school to train the youth of Appling County desiring such training. In such a case the method of selecting trainees and the amount of money to be provided for each trainee must constitute a part of the plan submitted to the State Board of Education for approval. If no approvable plan could be devised with the share of funds distributable, no funds would be paid.
The formula proposed for distributing state and federal vocational funds is presented below.
(1) Determination of funds to be distributed for agricultural, homemaking, trade and industrial, and distributive education.
The total distributable state funds shall be apportioned among the various vocational fields, in accordance with the financial needs as determined by the State Board of Education. If state funds were' apportioned on the same basis as federal funds allotted to the State, the percentage of state funds to be distributed among the several fields of vocational education would be as follows: 49 percent to agriculture, 27 percent to homemaking, 19 percent to trades and industries, and 5 percent to distributive education. To the sum obtained by multiplying the above percentage figures by the total state distributable funds would be added the designated federal funds. It is estimated that $700,000 of the anticipated $1,000,000 state appropriation will be distributed to the public schools, since approximately $300,000 in state funds will be needed for the state trade schools and state-wide training programs, in-service training, general administration, supervision, office expe'nse, teacher training, and certain other activities required by federal legislation.
Example:
Agricultural Education
State funds (49% of $700,000) __$343,000.00 Federal funds (designated) ________ 264,275.00
Total ________ -----------------------"----$ 607,27 5. 00
385


held a four year college professional certificate. (3) Funds for transportation are not included in the chart.
A study of the chart reveals that under the proposed plan of support no administrative unit in the State has less than $2,137 to finance its average teaching unit. Approximately 53 percent of the total teaching units in the State would be financed at from $2,137 to $2,237.
Figure 21 shows that under the proposed plan of support state education funds would be distributed on the basis of ne'ed and ability. Those school systems able to raise large amounts of revenue locally would receive correspondingly lower amounts of revenue from the state. For example, Atlanta with 1377 teacher units would raise $3,764 per te'acher unit from local taxes. Half this amount or the equivalent of a 7.5 mill tax levy would be charged back against the total funds needed for the foundation program of education. The State would therefore contribute the difference between $2,137 and $1,882 to each teacher unit in Atlanta or $255 per teacher. Dawson County, .however, with 31 teachers could raise only $142 per teacher unit from local taxes. Dawson County would therefore receive the difference between $2,137 and $71 or $2,066 per teacher unit from the state.
Figure 22 shows the distribution of classroom units according to levels of expenditure in Georgia for school year 1939-40. This chart does not represent a true picture of the present plan of state support now in operation but does serve to illustrate the wide differentials in educational opportunity under the present plan of state support as it applied in 1939-40. A comparison of Figure 21 with Figure 22 indicates that educational opportunities in Georgia would be more nearly equalized under the proposed plan of state support.
378

(d) Distributive Education. The percent that the total population of the county is of the total population of the State multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for distributive education.
Table 41 shows the funds to be distributed to each county in the State in accordance with the above formula and the percent of distributable funds that each county would be eligible to receive if an approved program is operated.
2. Summary
It is the belief of the Survey Staff that the plan of distribution used by the Federal Government in distributing funds for vocational education to the several states is a sound plan for distributing state and federal funds within a state.
The distributable state funds for vocational education should be apportione'd among the various fields in accordance with needs as determined annually by the State Board of Education.
Determination of the share of these funds distributed to local systems should be on a percentage basis, as follows:
(1) Agricultural Education: The percent that the farm population of the county is of the total farm population of the State.
.(2) Homemaking Education: The percent that the rural population of the county is of the total rural population of the State.
(3) Trade and Industrial Education: The percent that the non-farm population of the county is of the total non-farm population of the State.
(4) Distributive Education: The percent that the total population of the county is of the total population of the State.
The total state appropriation of $1,000,000 plus the funds received from the Federal Government should be distributed, after deducting approximately $375,000 to be used for the North and South Georgia Trade Schools and for administration, statewide training programs, in-service training, etc., in accordance with the percentages obtained from the above formulas.
387

CURRENT EXPENDITURE PER CLASSROOM UNIT

$500

$1000

$1500

$2000

S2500 S3000

Cll
!z::
::I :i
8
IX Cll Cll
j u
II.
0
llJ ~
~ z ullJ
IX llJ II.
FIGURE 22 DISTRIBUTION OF CLASSROOM UNITS ACCORDING TO LEVELS OF EXPENDITURE IN
GEORGIA, 1939-40 The vertical axis repreaenta the percentage of the alate's c1aaaroom units and can be read by means of the vertical scale at the left of the chart. The level of aupport per classroom unit may be read by extending any vertical profile line until it croaaea the dollar horizontal scale either at the top or bottom of the chart. For complete statiatical interpretation consult the supporting table for this chart.
uPublic School Expenditures in tfte United State, Volume 1. (American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, N. W., Washington, D. C., 1944).

TABLE 41 (Continued)

County

Agricultural Education
Per- a cent Amount b

Homemaking Education
Per-c cent Amount d

Trade and Industrial Education
Per- e cent Amount

Distributive Education
Per- g cent Amount h

Dooly .............. .94

EEDDcaoohruuolggyllhsaes..r..t...y...................................

.37 .48 1.05 .09

Effingham .... .40

Elbert Emanu

el........

.87 1.20

Evans .............. .32 Fannin ............ .72

FFFFFuloaroaylrytnseodyktnttlehi.n.....................................................

.49 1.07
.74
.87 1.26

Gilmer ............ .47

GGGlolayrsndcnoonck......................

.25 .11
.81

Grady .............. .95

5,708 .82 2,610 .23

544 .54 315

2,247 .46 1,464 1.34 3,172 .91 530

2,915 .37 1,178 .20

473 .32 187

6,376 .76 2,419 .25

592 .60 350

547 .14

446 .10

237 .09

52

2,429 .47 1,496 .24

568 .31 181

5,283 .66 2,101 .44 1,042 .63 367

7,287 .97 3,087 .41

971 .75 437

1,943 .36 1,146 .18

426 .24 140

4,372 .72 2,292 .28

663 .47 274

2,976 .40 1,273 .08

189 .26 152

6,498 1.46 4,647 2.37 5,610 1.80 1,049

4,494 .55 1,751 .07

166 .36 210

5,283 .76 2,419 .21

497 .50 291

7,652 4.01 12,763 21.39 50,633 12.58 7,332

2,854 .44 1,400 .15

355 .29 169

1,518 .22

700 .06

142 .15

87

668 .34 1,082 1.16 2,746 .70 408

4,919 .76 2,419 .42

994 .59 344

5,769 .73 2,324 .38

900 .63 367

GGHHwraaeblielennrne.s.eh..t.at..m.....................

.60 1.35
.56 1.01

3,644 .67 8,198 1.21
3,401 .72 6,133 1.20

2,133 .32 3,851 .61 2,292 .41 3,819 1.20

757 .44 1,444 .93
971 .47 2,841 1.11

256 542 274 647

Hancock

.75 4,555 .62 1,973 .14

331 .41 239

HHaarrarilsson............

.68 .64

4,129 3,887

.70 .56

2,228 1,782

.29 .15

HHHeeanarrtrdy........................................

.95 .56 .87

5,769 3,401 5,283

.76 .42 .74

2,419 1,337 2,355

.14 .05 .18

686 .46 268 355 .37 216 331 .50 291 118 .28 163 426 .48 280

JJHIaraowcsukpisnsetoronn..............................................

.63 .73 .93 .45

3,826 4,433 5,648 2,733

.55 .63
.82 .43

1,751 2,005 2,610 1,369

.15 .17 .42 .15

Jeff Davis ...... .47 2,854 .43 1,369 .14

355 .36 210 402 .41 239 994 .64 373 355 .28 163 331 .28 163

JJJJLeeooanfhnmfkneeissarnosrson..n....................................................

1.05 .63 .73 .45
.37

6,376 3,826 4,433 2,733 2,247

.98 .44 .63 .41 .32

3,119 1,400 2,005 1,305 1,019

.32 .18 .17 .13 .28

757 .64 373 426 .38 221 402 .41 239 308 .27 157 663 .32 187

Lanier

.25 1,518 .27

859 .12

284 .18 105

Laurens .......... 1.71 10,384 1.26 4,010 .58 1,373 1.08 629

LLeibeerty

.46 .34

2,793 2,065

.38 .42

1,209 1,337

.08 .22

189 .25 146 521 .28 163

Lincoln

.45 2,733 .34 1,082 .05

118 .23 134

389

er unit is recommended. Dividing the average life of a classroom, 25 years, into the average normal cost, $5,000, yields this figure. The State Board of Education should determine annually what amount per teacher unit should be allowed.
The sum of these four items constitute the financial needs of a school system for a foundation program. From these total needs the ability of the local school system to raise local tax revenues should be deducted to determine the amount of state funds needed.
A me~sure of ability to pay should be as nearly uniform for all counties as possible, and should be beyond manipulation from within the county. An economic index of tax-paying ability in which the state's total ability is 100 percent and each county's index represents a percentage of this total ability has been calculated. Economic factors included in computing the index are:
1. Percent of property taxes paid. 2. Percent. of public utility taxes paid. 3. Percent of effective buying power. 4. Percent of retail sales. 5. Percent of motor tag taxes paid. 6. Percent of state income tax paid.
By the use of this index each county's equitable share of the total local effort required for the local systems of the State can be determined. Two methods of applying the index of economic ability to the school tax digest are. presented. In the first method, the economic index is applied to the return of a 9-mill levy on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions for county school systems and independent school systems. In the' second method, the economic index is applied to the returns of a 7.5-milllevy on the school tax digest less homestead exemptions for county school systems and on the total school tax digest for independent school systems or the actual digests from which they collect school tax revenue.
Both of these plans would call for approximately $9,000,000 of local tax effort to meet the total needs of the foundation program of education.
The recommende'd plan of state support for the foundation program of education totals the four items of financial need,
382

TABLE 41 (Continued)

County

Agricultural Education
Per- a cent Amount b

HomemiJfing Education
Per- c Amount d cent

Trade and Industrial Education
Per- e Amount f cent

Distributive Education
Per- g cent Amount h

Thomas .......... 1.03 6,255 .91 2,896 .98 2,320 1.00 583

Tift ................ .63 3,826 .65 2,069 .57 1,349 .60 350

Toombs ......... .72 4,372 .63 2,005 .41

971 .54 315

Towns ............ .30 1,822 .24

764 .05

118 .16

93

Treutlen .......... .38 2,308 .37 1,178 .14

331 .24 140

Troup ............ .75 4,555 .70 2,228 1.92 4,545 1.40 816

Turner ............ .57 3,461 .53 1,687 .18

426 .35 204

Twiggs ........... .57 3,461 .44 1,400 .07

166 .29 169

Union ............ .50 3,036 .37 1,178 .05

118 .25 146

Upson ............ .53 3,219 .54 1,719 1.02 2,414 .80 466

Walker ............ .93 5,648 1.17 3,724 1.04 2,462 .99 577

Walton ............ .96 5,830 .81 2,578 .43 1,018 .67 391

Ware .............. .47 2,854 .54 1,719 1.22 2,888 .89 519

Warren .......... .58 3,522 .50 1,591 .13

308 .33 192

Washington .... 1.22 7,409 1.01 3,215 .43 1,018 .78 455

Wayne ............ .49 2,976 .50 1,591 .37

876 .42 245

Webster .......... .29 1,761 .23

732 .04

95 .15

87

Wheeler .......... .46 2,793 .42 1,337 .13

308 .27 157

White .............. . .35 2,125 .31

987 .09

213 .21 122

Whitfield ...... .74 4,494 .76 2,419 .91 2,154 .84 490

Wilcox ............ 70 4,251 .62 1,973 .18 Wilkes ............ .79 4,797 .56 1,782 .24 Wilkinson........ .46 2,793 .54 1,719 .27 Worth ............ 1.25 7,591 1.04 3,310 .24

426 .41 239 568 .48 280 639 .35 204 568 .68 396

TOTAL....100.00 $607,328 100.00 $318,123 100.00$236,845 100.00 $58,245

a. Percent that farm population of county is of total farm population of state.
b. The percent that the farm population of the county is of the total farm population of the state multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for agricultural education ($607,275.00).
c. Percent that rural population of county is of total rural population of state.
d. The percent that the rural population of the county is of the total rural population of the state multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for homemaking education ($318,288.78).
e. Percent that non-farm population of county is of total non-farm population of state.
f. The percent that the non-farm population of the county is of the total non-farm population of the state multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for trade and industrial education ($236,713.86).
g. Percent that total population of county is of total population of state.
h. The percent that the total population of the county is of the total population of the state multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for distributive education ($58,285).

391

is a sound plan to use for distributing state and federal funds within a state.
In accordance with the George-Barden Act, agricultural funds are distributed on the basis of the perce~t that the total farm population of the State is to the total farm population of the 48 states. Funds for home economics are distributed on the basis of the percent that the total rural population of the State is to the total rural population of the United States. Trade and industrial funds are distributed on the basis of the percent that the total non-farm population of the State is of the total nonfarm population of the 48 states. Funds for distributive education are distributed on the basis of the percent that the total population of the State is of the total population of the United States.
It is recommended that state and federal vocational funds be distribute'd to local school systems on the basis of (1) an objective formula and (2) approved programs. By this method a definite sum of money would be set up for each school system in the State. The money set aside for the school system, however, would be turned over to the system only if a program for utilizing the funds is submitted and approved by the State Board.
If a school system fails to develop an approved plan for utilizing these funds in a program of vocational education in the several fields by July 1, preceding the beginning of the school year the State Board of Education may redistribute these funds to school systems with approved programs on the basis of the formula used in making the original distribution.
In utilizing funds, a school system should be permitte'd to develop a program of vocational education of its own, in cooperation with another school system, or in cooperation with a state trade school. For example, under the plan proposed for distributing funds, Appling County would be entitled to $4,372 for agriculture, $1,782 for homemaking, $615 for trade and industrial, and $268 for distributive education. These funds might be sufficient for Appling County to operate approved programs of agriculture and homemaking education in its own school system. The funds for trade, industrial, and distributive education, however, might not be sufficient to operate a program in the county. The school system's plan for utilizing these
384

$175,000 annually towards the payment of county school superintendents' salaries. The State is required by the laws of the State to contribute to the compensation of county school superintendents. County Superintendents now receive from $70 to $100 per month depending upon their certification. It is recommended that the $100 maximum be removed and county superintendents paid on the same basis as teachers. This change would call for approximately $75,000 in additional funds or a total of $250,000 annually, if the state teacher salary scale remains at the September-December, 1946 leve'l. If recommendation, made in this report, calling for a minimum salary of $200 per month for a 4-year-college professionally prepared beginning teacher is effected, approximately $355,000 will be needed for the payment of county superintendents' salaries.
6. State Schools for Exceptional Children
During the school year 1946-47, the State of Georgia will spend approximately $90,000 for the operation of the School for the Blind at Macon and $170,000 for the operation of the School for the Deaf at Cave Springs.
A survey made by the Education Panel of the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board in 1945 estimated that at least $232,000 is needed to operate the School for the Deaf. No survey has been made of the School for the Blind, but it is the opinion of the committee that at least $160,000 should be ap propriated for the operation of the institution.
In Chapter XIII, it is recommended that the State Training Schools for Delinquents be administered by the State Department of Education. If this recommended change is made, the funds now allocated to the State We.lfare Department for the operation of these institutions should be allocated to the State Department of Education.
7. State Department of Education
Chapter XIII of this report makes several recommendations concerning the State Department of Education. The recommendations made will, if put into force, call for increased expenditures.
The funds for the' operation of the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation come entirely from the Federal Government. The
393

Homemaking Education
State funds (27% of $700,000) ____ $189,000.00 Federal funds (de'signated) ________ 129,288.78
Total ------------------------------------$318,28 8.78
Trade and Industrial Education
State funds (19% of $700,000) ____$133,000.00 Federal funds (designated) _______ 103,713.86
Total ------------------------------------$23 6,713.86
Distributive Education State funds (5% of $700,000) ______$ 35,000.00 Federal funds (designated)________ 23,285.62
Total ------------------------------------$ 58,285.62
(2) Determination of funds to be distributed to each county for agricultural, homemaking, trade and industrial, and distributive education.
.. ~
The funds to be distributed to each county for vocational education should be determined on the same basis as funds are distributed to the states by the George-Barden Act. The method would be as follows:
(a) Agricultural Education. The percent that the farm population of the county is of the total farm population of the State, multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributa.ble for agricultural education.
(b) Homemaking Education. The percent that the rural population of the county is of the total rural population of the State multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for homemaking education.
(c) Trade and Industrial Education. The percent that the non-farm population of the county is of the total non-farm population of the State multiplied by the total state and federal funds distributable for trade and industrial education.
386

Schoo1 1unch program_________________________________________
Vocational rehabilitation ----------------------------------County school superintendents' salaries______________ School for the Deaf____________________________________________ School for the Blind______________________________________________ State Department of Education____________________________

200,000 500,000 355,000 232,000 160,000 400,000

Total of other state funds needed___________________$ 5,097,000 Grand total of state funds needed________________$59,722,637

The state funds recommended for the foundation program of education in Georgia represent a considerable increase over anticipated expenditures for the school year 1946-47. The major portion of the increase is due to the recommendation that teachers' salaries be increased so a four-year professionally trained beginning teacher will be assured of a minimum salary of $2,400 per year. This recommended increase of approximately 42 percent in teachers' salaries W'ould require an increase of approximately $14,000,000 in state funds. The recommended addition of the twelfth grade to the state program of public education would call for an additional expenditure of approximately $750,000. The increase in the allowance per teacher unit for other current expense's from $200 to $300 per year would call for an increase in state funds of $2,242,200.
In Chapter IV of this report it was recommended that the state program of public education be extended to include the twelfth grade. It is not possible, at present, to tell exactly how much the addition of a twelfth grade to the public school system would cost the State during the first year of its operation. During 1945-46, there were 3,045 students enrolled in the twelfth grade. Based upon 1945-46 eleventh grade average daily attendance figures and allowing for a 25 percent drop out of students between the eleventh and twelfth grades, it is estimated that an additional $1,500,000 will be needed in state funds W'hen all schools in the' State have the program in full operation. Assuming that no more than 50 percent of the total probable enrollment would be reached in the twelfth grade during the first year of operation, it is estimated that $750,000 in state funds would be needed for operating the twelfth grade during the school year 1947-48.
395

TABLE 41
PERCENTAGE AND AMOUNT OF STATE AND FEDERAL VOCATIONAL FUNDS DISTRIBUTABLE TO GEORGIA COUNTIES UNDER THE PROPOSED FORMULA

County

Appling Atkinson

........

Bacon ..............

Baker ..............

Baldwin ..........

Banks ............

Barrow Bartow

............

Ben Hill Berrien

..................

Agricultural Education
Per- a cent Amount b

.72 $ .32 .39 .47 .47

4,372 1,943 2,368 2,854 2,854

.54 3,279 .57 3,461 .92 5,587 .45 2,733 .79 4,797

Homemaking Education
Per-c cent Amount d

.56 $ .35 .39 .36 .85

1,782 1,114
1,241 1,146
2,705

.43 1,369 .44 1,400 .93 2,960 .35 1,114 .75 2,387

BBBBBlirrreboaycbonakktnllseeyy..........................................

.45 .53 .30 1.05 .15

2,733 1.26 3,219 .47 1,822 .34 6,376 .78
911 .31

4,010 1,496 1,082 2,483
987

BBuulrlkoech....:.........

1.30 1.39

CBaulthtsoun

.42 .54

Camden

.13

7,895 1.02 8,441 1.11 2,551 .45 3,279 .51
789 .29

3,247 3,533 1,432 1,623
923

Candler

.50 3,036 .44

Carroll

1.67 10,141 1.36

Catoosa Charlton Chatham

................

.49 .13 .23

2,976 .60 789 .26
1,397 1.07

1,400 4,329 1,910
828 3,406

CCCChhhlaeaarrttktotaoekhoeoge.o.a..c...h.......e......e......

.16 .56 .91 .34

Clay .37

Clayton Clinch

......................

.46 .10

Cobb ................ 1.11
Coffee ............ .95

Colquitt .......... 1.30

Columbia ...... .53

Cook ................ .54

CCCorriawswpetfao.r...d............................

.92 .41 .65

Dade .............. .27

Dawson Decatur DeKalb Dodge

................................

.29 .83 .83 1.10

972 .74 3,401 .72 5,526 .85 2,065 .38 2,247 .34
2,793 .55 607 .31
6,741 1.44 5,769 .80 7,895 1.12
3,219 .46 3,279 .58 5,587 .97 2,490 .35 3,947 .47
1,640 .29 1,761 .22 5,040 .77 5,040 2.02 6,680 .86

2,355 2,292 2,705 1,209 1,082
1,751 987
4,583 2,546 3,565
1,464 1,846 3,087 1,114 1,496
923 700 2,451 6,429 2,737

Trade and Industrial Education
Per- e cent Amount!

.26 $ .16
.16 .05 1.01

615 379 379 118 2,391

Distributive Education
Per- g cent Amount h
.46 $ 268 .23 134 .26 152 .24 140 .77 449

.08

189 .28 163

.30

710 .42 245

.73 1,728 .81 472

.48 1,136 .46 268

.26

615 .49 286

4.42 10,463 2.68 1,562

.14

331 .31 181

.16

379 .22 128

.35

828 .66 385

.24

568 .20 117

.47 1,113 .83 484

.43 1,018 .85 495

.19

450 .29 169

.17

402 .33 192

.23

544 .19 111

.13

308 .29 169

.65 1,539 1.09 635

.32

757 .39 227

.20

473 .17

99

6.54 15,481 3.78 2,203

.74 1,752 .48 280

.62 1,468 .59 344

.44 1,042 .64 373

1.35 3,196 .91 530

.12

284 .23 134

.30

710 .37 216

.29

686 .21 122

1.32 3,125 1.23 717

.48 1,136 .69 402

.87 2,059 1.06 618

.13

308 .30 175

.26

615 .38 221

.82 1,941 .86 501

.09

213 .23 134

.49 1,160 .56 326

.13

308 .19 111

.03

71 .14

82

.62 1,468 .71 414

4.31 10,202 2.78 1,620

.34

805 .67 391

388

CHAPTER XIII
ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Responsibility for the state administration of public education below the college level is vested in the State Board of Education and the State School Superintendent. The State School Superintendent is the executive officer of the State Board of Education and administrative head of the State Department of Education. Legally, the State Department of Education is the administrative agency of the State School Superintendent. This department administers, under the direction of the State School Superintendent, the rules and regulations of the State Board of Education.
With the development of public education the department grew up around the administrative duties of the State School Superintendent. In recent years, the department has expanded its service's greatly in keeping with the growth of state participation in the administration and financing of education.
At present, the State Department of Education is composed of twelve divisions. These divisions are as follows:
1. School Administration and Adult Education
2. Supervision
3. Teacher Education, Certification, and Curriculum
4. Textbooks and Library Division
5. Vocation Education Service
6. Vocational Rehabilitation
7. School Building Service
8. School Lunch Program
9. Negro Education
10. Bookkeeping
11. Commodity Distribution
12. War Surplus Properties
In addition to the activities of the above-mentioned divisions,
397

TABLE 41 (Continued)

County

Agricultural Education
Per- a cent Amount b

Homemaking Educati<m
Per-c Amount d cent

Trade and Industrial Education
Per- e Amou"ut f cent

Distributive Education
Per- g cent Amount h

Long ................ .16

LMLouawmconpndkeisn............................

.85 .32 .50

Madison .......... .06

Marion ............ .81

McDuffie Mcintosh

................

.81 .38

Meriw Miller

e

t.h..e.,.r...........

1.03 .59

Mitchell .......... 1.23

MMMMooounnrrgrrtgoaaoeynme....r....y..............

.48 .46 .68 .62

Muscogee ........ .38

OPNOacgeuowlenldtteohiennogr.p...e..............................

.64 .47 .76 .72

PPPPPioeiickealkrkeccehen..s..................................................................

.35 .42 .62 .62 .69

Pulaski Putnam Quitman

............................

.47 .42 .20

Rabun

.38

Randolph ........ .83

Richmond Rockdale

..............

.52 .35

Schley Screven

..........

.29 1.09

Seminole

.44

TSSSStptaueelampbwlhdotaeeitrnrntgs................................................

.55 .43
.53 .98
.38

Taliaferro ...... .35

Tattnall .......... .76

Taylor

.57

Telfair Terrell

............

.65 .87

972 .20 5,162 .79 1,943 .30 3,036 .38
364 .26
4,919 .78 4,919 .66 2,308 .34 6,255 .91 3,583 .49
7,469 .88 2,915 .52 2,793 .47 4,129 .62 3,765 .54
2,308 1.08 3,887 .56 2,854 .37 4,615 .61 4,372 .63
2,125 .26 2,551 .45 3,765 .58 3,765 .51 4,190 .76
2,854 .33 2,551 .42 1,215 .17 2,308 .38 5,040 .64
3,158 .78 2,125 .38 1,761 .25 6,619 .87 2,672 .41
3,340 .74 2,611 .36 3,219 .52 5,951 .74 2,308 .39
2,125 .31 4,615 .79 3,461 .53 3,947 .74 5,283 .63

637 2,514
955 1,209
828
2,483 2,101 1,082 2,896 1,560
2,801 1,655 1,496 1,973 1,719
3,438 1,782 1,178 1,942 2,005
828 1,432 1,846 1,623 2,419
1,050 1,337
541 1,209 2,037
2,483 1,209
796 2,769 1,305
2,355 1,146 1,655 2,355 1,241
987 2,514 1,687 2,355 2,005

.11 1.15
.10 .23 .26
.27 .14 .10 .45 .11
.37 .24 .19 .19 .15
4.00 .56 .07 .12 .17
.32 .19 .19 .10 1.09
.19 .16 .04 .15 .30
4.26 .17 .06 .31 .14
1.19 .40 .19 .63 .17
.09 .34 .17 .36 .27

260 2,722
237 544 615
639 331 237 1,065 260
876 568 450 450 355
9,469 1,326
166 284 402
757 450 450 237 2,580
450 379
95 355 710
10,084 402 142 734 331
2,817 947 450
1,491 402
213 805 402 852 639

.13 1.02
.20 .35 .17
.51 .43 .22 .71 .32
.74 .34 .31 .41 .36
2.42 .59 .24 .40 .41
.33 .29 .38 .33 .91
.31 .27 .11 .25 .53
2.62 .25 .16 .65 .27
.91 .42 .34 .78 .26
.20 .52 .34 .48 .53

76 595 117 204
99
297 251 128 414 187
431 198 181 239 210
1,411 344 140 233 239
192 169 221 192 530
181 157
64 146 309
1,527 146 93 379 157
530 245 198 455 152
117 303 198 280 309

390

TABLE 42
AVERAGE NUMBER OF SALARIED EMPLOYEESa STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION BY DIVISIONS1938 to 1945b

Division

1937-38

General Administratio Vocational Education

n................

LNTueaxntitcobhonoaPlkroD.g..er..fa.e.m.n...ss.e........P....r....o....g......r..a....m......

PVuicbtloicryLCiborraprsy..............................................

51
.1.....8.. .1.....6..

Vocational Rehabilitation 9

Foundations Programs ........ 3

Total 97

1939-40
48 16
15
10 3 92

1941-42
31 12 32
15
19 3
112

1943-44
38 15 24 15 15 2 7 66
182

1944-45
39 19 19 21 12
2 16 90
1
219

a. Temporary, part-time laborers and employees of schools for deaf, blind, and special vocational trade schools are not included in the above figures.
b. Reports of the State Auditor of Georgia for the years ending June 30, 1938-1940-19421944-1945.

I. DIVISIONS OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

"

1. The Division of School Administration and Adult

:.:

Education

The activities of this division are distributed over five fields.

a. Assistance to school officials in solving administrative problems. The Division of School Administration and Adult Education advises with superintendents and boards of education on a wide' variety of administrative problems. Assistance is provided in planning school consolidations, the merger of independent school systems with county systems, school bus routes, the school budget, and in the solving of many other administrative problems.

b. Administration of the Seven Months School Law. The work of the division in the administration of the Seven Months School Law is set forth in the Annual Report of the State School Superintendent as follows:

"The administration of this law re'quires the careful checking of attendance in every school system of the state and the allotment to each system of the number of teachers for which the state will pay the salaries in accordance with the salary schedule adopted by the State Board of Education.

899

VI. OTHER STATE EDUCATIONAL FUNDS
1. Library Funds
In Chapter VIII of this report, it was estimated that at least $3,123,723, or $1.00 per capita, should be' expended annually for school and public libraries in Georgia. This amount will not reach minimum standards but will assure a much expanded and more effective library program for the State. Of this amount the State should furnish approximately one-fourth, or $750,000. The State now furnishes approximately $300,000.
2. Funds for Textbooks and Audio-Visual Materials
An annual budget of $1,500,000 for free textbooks and audiovisual materials was recommended in Chapter IX. An appropriation of $1,500,000 would make it possible to return to the budget basis of distributing free textbooks and audio-visual materials.
3. School Lunch Funds
If the school lunch program is to expand to meet the needs described in Chapter X, at least $200,000 should be appropriated by the State annually. This fund should be used in matching federal grants. Pending federal legislation, if passed by Congress, will require the State to put up $3.00 for each $1.00 of federal money received for school lunch purposes.
4. Vocational Rehabilitation Funds
For the year ending June 30, 1946, $1,015,000 was spent for vocational rehabilitation work, of which the State of Georgia furnished $250,000. The Federal Government matches dollar for dollar all money spent on case service, and the amount of funds received from the Federal Government depends on the State appropriation. The Federal Government also gives the State all the money it needs for guidance and administration. During the fiscal year 1945-46, $500,000 was spent on case service and $515,000 for guidance and administration. It is the opinion of the committee that the State should make an annual appropriation of $500,000 for the rehabilitation of physically handicapped persons in Georgia.
5. County Superintendents' Salaries
The State of Georgia is now contributing approximately
392

based on the number of school busses, their cost, the length of routes and type of road, and the number of children transported.
"Approximately $300,000 is used to aid County Boards of Education to provide supplements to the salaries of the principals of consolidated schools. This fund is provided on a matching basis within limitations fixed by the State Board of Education.
"The remainder of the fund, if any, is allotted to the various systems upon the basis of their needs to be used in other phases of the school program."2
d. Statistical information. In accordance with the law, it is necessary for the Division of School Administration and Adult Education to pre'pare numerous forms for collecting and disseminating information. In administering the provisions of the law, it is also necessary to gather much information relative to school expenditures, school attendance, transportation, taxable wealth, salaries, etc. The collection and interpretation of these data are n.ecessary in order to distribute school funds. The division also complies with public requests for statistical information of various kinds. The biennial report to the General Assembly is prepared by this division.
e. Adult education. Leadership in the establishment and promulgation of adult. education programs is furnished by this division.
2. The Division of Supervision
The members of the supervisory staff of this division serve as field representatives of the Department of Education. There are ten supervisory districts in the State with a supervisor residing in each distri.ct.
Among the duties that are assigned to members of the supervisory staff are the following:
"1. Recommending, annually, allotments of teachers to be paid by the state for the different school systems.
"2. Assisting superintendents in requisitioning textbooks

2 Ibid., p. 18.

401

funds for administering the Division of Vocational Education are included in the federal funds allocated to the State and the annual appropriation made by the State for Vocational Education. An explanation of how these funds are spent has been given in the section of this chapter dealing with funds for vocational education.
For the operation of State Department of Education except for the Divisions of Vocational Rehabilitation and Vocational Education, it is estimated that $400,000 is needed. An allocation of this amount would enable the State Board of Education to expand the services of the department in line with the recommendations made in Chapter XIII and to increase the salaries of employed personnel in line with the recommended salary schedule.
VII. TOTAL STATE FUNDS NEEDED FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION
In accordance with the recommendations made heretofore in this chapter, it is estimated that the following state funds are nee'ded to finance education of less than college grade in Georgia:
Foundation program
Salaries (including recommended 42 percent increase) ---------------------- _----------------------------------$48,154,897
Other current expenses (at $300 per teacher unit) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 6,726,600
CapitaI outiay ---------------------------------------------------- 4,484,400 Transportation --------------------------------------------------- 3,509,754 Adjustment for addition of 12th grade, 1947-48 750,000
Total cost of foundation program________________ $63,625,651 Local effort required___________________________________________ 9, 00 0,014
Total state funds needed for foundation , program --------------------------------------------------------$54, 625, 637
Other state funds
Vocational education ------------------------------------------$ 1,000,000 Library program ______ ------------------------------------------ 750,000 Free textbooks and audio-visual aids_________________ 1,500,000
894

activities be coordinated. The coordination of the teacher training programs of these agencies is one of the responsibilities of the Division of Teacher Training Education, Certification, and Curriculum.
Through this division an effort is made to provide assistance for teachers who are trying to improve instruction. Staff members of the colleges, the State .Department of Education, and other agencies serve as consultants for the teachers' meetings, planning conferences, and specialized workshops.5
Standards for the certification of teachers are set up by this division with the advice and council of other educational agencies. Teaching certificates are issued by this division.
4. Textbook and Library Division
The Textbook and Library Division is charged with the responsibility of procuring and distributing textbooks, library books, maps, and globes to the various school systems, and of handling requisitions and kee'ping a record of the number of books and the cost.6
The free textbook program went into full scale operation in 1938. Through this division free textbooks are furnished to every child attending school from grades one through eleven.
This division aids school libraries in book selection, cataloguing, organization, arrangement, and administration. Staff members of this division participate in teacher planning conferences and workshops. A close working relationship is also maintained with agencies training librarians.
In addition to the school library program, the supervision and administration of the public library program is a function of this division.
5. Division of Vocational Education
In recent years, the activities of the Division of Vocational Education have increased greatly. During the war ye'ars many new programs were added. The Vocational Training Program for War Production Workers and the Rural War Production Training Program were the most important of these activities.

5 Ibid., p. 27. 6 Ibid., p. 31.

403

It is estimated that at least $59,722,637 is needed in state funds to help finance public education in Georgia. Governorelect Eugene Talmadge promised to make available $39,092,025 to the State Board of Education. The total state funds for public education recommended herein amount to $20,630,612 more than the sum promised by the incoming state administration.
896

service training. The homemaking supervisors serve more than 500 homemaking departments of the' State in coordinating educational programs concerned with home and family living.
d. Distributive Education. Three types of training are provided by the vocational distributive education program in Georgia: (1) High school cooperative, (2) extension part-time, and (3) evening. Distributive education is still in its infancy in Georgia. At the present time, only the larger cities of the States have distributive programs. This program is in need of considerable expansion.

6. Division of Vocational Rehabilitation
Vocational rehabilitation in Georgia is a state service supplied by the State Department of Education in cooperation with the Federal Security Agency.8 All administrative costs of the program including guidance and placement service' to the client are paid by the Federal Government. Training, physical restoration, appliances, transportation, maintenance, and other case services are paid on a 50-50 basis by the State and by the Federal Government.9
It is the function of this division to contact physically handicapped persons and rehabilitate the'm through physical restoration and training. The divisioni works in close cooperation with the state employment service in placing clients on jobs in which they can succeed. The division cooperates with, and receives assistance from, many agencies. Some of these' agencies are U. S. Civil Service Commission, Welfare Department, Selective Service, Industrial Board, Public Health Department, American Red Cross, U. S. Employment Service, Georgia Tuberculosis Association, and others.

7. Division of School Building Service
Since the adoption of a school building code, the work of the Division of School Building Service has greatly incre'ased. Plans covering all new public school building construction in the State are reviewed by this division. A review of plans is made to determine whether the building to be constructed meets the school building code as adopted by the' State Board of

8 Ibid., p. 55. 9 Ibid., p. 55.

405

the department also has exclusive control of the operation of three types of special schools. These schools are the Georgia School for the Deaf, the Georgia Academy for the Blind, and the two state trade schools.
Table 42 shows the average number of salaried employees in the State Department of Education, by divisions, from 1938 to 1945. The re'port begins with the first year the Seven Months School Law became effective.
The number of employees increased during the period from 97 to 219. This increase is accounted for largely by the establishment of new divisions and by the enlargement of the division of vocational rehabilitation. Four of these (National Defense, Lunchroom, Victory Corps, and Public Library) were added to the department after 1941. By 1945, these four divisions employed 58 persons. Personnel in the division of vocational rehabilitation increased from nine in 1938 to 90 in 1945. The expansion of vocational rehabilitation and national defense was made possible by increased federal funds. The national defense, lunchroom, Victory Corps, war surplus properties, and commodity distribution programs came into being as a part of the war effort. The national defense and Victory Corps programs have been abolished.
The number of personnel in the older divisions, such as administration, supervision, certification, etc., either has decreased or has remained fairly constant. It is important to note that practically all the expansion in personnel in the State Department has been in new enterprises stimulated by the Federal Government. In most cases the federal agency also pays all, or a portion of, the salaries and expenses of personnel in these divisions or programs.
This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the activities of the various divisions of the department; the second part, with the special schools controlled by the department, and the third part, with proposals regarding the reorganization of the department.
398

the graduate level these workshops have been conducted at Atlanta University. Some of the principal activities of the di.; ' vision are as follows:
(1) Sponsoring the Annual Conference of Principals.
(2) Working in close cooperation with the Advisory Council on Teacher Education in problems relating to preparation and certification of teachers, the improvement of instruction, and the promotion of a program for in-service and pre-serviqe education of school leaders.
(3) Supervising the expenditure of educational foundation grants for Negro education to the .State.
(4) Working in cooperation with the Georgia Accrediting Commission and the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in promoting their work in Negro schools.
(5) Advising with the Board of Regents in its program for the development of higher education.
10. Division of Bookkeeping
It is the function of the Division of Bookkeeping to maintain accurate over-all records of the financial transactions of the State Department of Education.
11. Division of Commodity Distribution
It is the function of the Division of Commodity Distribution to supervise the distribution of donated funds. The division works in close cooperation with all federal agencies concerned with the distribution of surplus food.
12. Division of War Surplus Properties
It is the function of the Division of War Surplus Properties to aid the public schools of Georgia in securing war surplus properties that are available. The securing of these properties by the public schools has saved the State thousands of dollars and contributed much to the improvement of educational facilities in Georgia.
407

"The names of all teachers employed in each system must be checked in this office to determine their qualifications and the salary which each is entitled to receive from the state. Daily revision of these records is necessary due to improved qualifications of teachers, resignations, and replacements. . . .
"The various school systems (county and independent) file monthly requisitions with the Department of Education, covering the amount due each month. These requisitions show all changes in personnel and any other factors affecting the payment due from the state. They re'quire careful auditing and correction of errors."1
c. Administration of the Equalization Law. Considerable work is involved in administering school equalization funds. Insight into the function of the division of administration and adult education as regards this law may be obtained from the following quotation:
"The Equalization Fund is used in an effort to make it possible for all school systems in the state wishing to operate their schools for a period longer than seven months to do so up to a term of nine months on the same basis of costs as the state supplies for seven months. The amount of the allotment to any system is based:
"(1) On the amount necessary to pay the salaries of teachers and administrative costs for the extended terms.
"(2) From the amount shown in (1) is deducted any balance on hand after operating the seven month terms as required by law and including the five mill tax require'd by law.
"(3) The remainder is the amount allocated from the equalization fund for the term extension.
"In addition to the above, approximately one million dollars of the equalization fund is distributed to the various counties to aid in defraying the cost of school transportation. The amount allotted to any school system is
1 Seventy-Second and Seventy-Third Annual Reports of the Department of Education. (Atlanta, Georgia: State Department of Education). 1944, p, 16.
400

capped persons have received training at this school which has enabled them to earn a living and not become a burden to society. A second school, the South Georgia Trade School, is now in the process of beginning operations at Americus, Georgia.
III. PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
In the two preceding sections of this chapter the survey committee has attempted to give a brief description of the organization and function of the State Department of Education. No attempt was made to evaluate the work of specific units. It was pointed out, however, that the Department had grown over the years as demands were made for specific kinds of services. Its development was not accomplished as a result of a carefully thought-out-plan of organization.
The purpose of the survey committee in this part of the chapter is to propose a rather complete reorganization of the Department. The proposed reorganization is based upon: (1) Accepted ~riteria for evaluating the organization of a state department; (2) opinions and re'commendations of the most competent authorities in the United States Office of Education and in several states, and (3) opinions of the survey staff.
A state department of education should be organized to function as a service agency to the educational system of the state. As the supporting agency of the state' school superintendent, the department should be organized in such a manner as to facilitate its carrying out the policies and regulations of the state board of education. Since this is true, it is logical that the internal organization of the state department of education should be determined by the state board of education on the recommendation of the' state superintendent of schools.
1. Criteria
The following criteria for planning and evaluating the internal organizaton of the department have been suggested by Southern States Work-Conference:
"The state department of education should be divided into a sufficient number of work divisions to cover the major areas of service, but the number of divisions should not be so great as to hinder coordination of services or as
409

so as to provide an adequate supply of books and at the same time to reduce to a minimum the accumulation of surplus books in any system.
"3. Reporting to the State Department of Education facts concerning conditions that exist in the schools.
"4. Supplying information to the different accrediting agencies concerning the schools that make application for rating, and recommending to these agencies policies which might be followed in the accrediting or standardization of schools.
"5. Assisting new superintendents to become oriented to the responsibilities of their office and to acquaint them with records, reports, budgets, etc., and to assist them in preparing these if such assistance is requested and seems to be necessary.
"6. Participation in the teacher training program by serving as summer school staff members of teacher training institutions and by working with superintendents, principals, and teachers in principals' meetings, teachers' conferences and study groups or workshops.
"7. Cooperating with the staff of the Education Panel in the study of the school systems of the state and in working with local school people in the development of plans for the constant improvement of the schools."3
3. The Division of Teacher Education Certification
and Curriculum
The legal responsibility for prescribing standards for teachers, approving teacher training programs, and administering the certification of teachers rests with the State Board of Education4. The responsibility for providing the training needed is shared by the colleges of the State; the superintendents, supervisors, and principals of the public schools; and the State Department of Education.
In view of the fact that so many different agencies are concerned with the e'ducation of teachers, it is desirable that their

3 Ibid., pp. 22-23. 4 Ibid., p. 2 6.

402

staff relationships must be established in the organization in order to promote efficient functioning, but the basic philosophy of those charged with the administration of the organization must be democratic in nature . . . Each staff member should be given opportunity to render service in accordance with his capacity and training, he should be given authority commensurate with his responsibilities, and he should be given due credit for his accomplishments."11
Judged in terms of these criteria, the chief weakness of the present plan of organization of the Georgia State Department of Education lies in the large number of divisions in the Department.
Observation indicates that the Department has functioned unusually we'll despite the fact that there are now thirteen different division heads directly responsible to the State School Superintendent. The proposed changes in organization which are recommended herein should, however, make for better coordinated service and continuity of policy. In a state where the chief state educational officer is elected by the people this continuity of policy is highly desirable.
2. Recommended Organization
It is recommended that the number of divisions in the State Department of Education be' reduced from thirteen to four. The service provided by the various departments now existing would be distributed among the four divisions proposed. The proposed divisions are as follows: (1) The Division of Administration and Finance, (2) the Division of Instruction, (3) the Division of Vocational Education, and (4) the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation. Each of these divisions would be under the immediate supervision of an assistant state superintendent who would be dire'ctly responsible to the State School Superintendent. Figure 23 shows the proposed organization of the State Department of Education. The various services to be rendered by each division are indicated on the chart.
Figure 23 shows that the State Superintendent would be supported, first by four Assistant Superintendents. Each of these assistant superintendents should be directly responsible
11 Southern States Work-Conference, Bulletin, 1942, No. 1. State Responsibility for tbe Organization and Administration of Education, pp. 2225.
411

These programs trained thousands of men and women for more efficient war production and conservation work. The' funds for these programs were derived from the Federal Government.
The regular services rendered by this division have likewise increased. Among the programs regularly sponsored by this division are Trade and Industrial Education, Vocational Agriculture, Homemaking Education, and Distributive Education.
a. Trade and Industrial Education. Five types of training are carried on under the vocational trade and industrial e'ducation program; namely, ali-day trade, part-time trade extension, part-time trade preparatory, part-time general continuation, and evening trade extension.7 Trade and industrial education has moved forward steadily but there is great ne'ed at present for an expansion of the program. In general, only the wealthier schools have been able to set up worthwhile programs. Next to finance, the chief limiting factor in establishing trade and industrial education programs has been a scarcity of trained teachers.
b. Vocational Agriculture. In Georgia, there were 365 departments of vocational agriculture during the school year 1945-46. In this phase of education Georgia is outranked by only Texas and South Carolina.
Considerable aid is given to teachers of agriculture in planning programs, working out plans for setting up canning plants, and in furnishing teaching materials in cooperation with other agencies engaged in the field of agriculture and education. This program should be expanded to give every rural boy in Georgia a chance to participate. One of the chief limiting factors in expanding this program has been the reluctance of many counties to consolidate small schools. In many of these small schools there are too few students to make it financially feasible to set up a program.
c. Homemaking Education. Through this division homemaking education supervisors aid the public schools in setting up departments, in planning programs of homemaking education, in securing and selecting teaching materials, and in promoting teacher growth and development through pre-service and in-

7 Ibid., p. 43.

404

FIGURE 23
I I PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION STATE BOARD .oF EDUCATION
I STATE SUPERINTEN~ENT OF EDUCATION

Assistant Superintendent for Administration and Finance

A~>sistant Superintendent for Instruction

Assistant Superintendent for Voeational Education

Assistant Superintendent for Vocational Rehabilitation

1. Director Administrative Supervisors

1. Director Curriculum De- 1. Director Administrative velopment and Supervision Supervisors

1. Director Field Operations a. Industrial, tuberculosis,

8 assistants

2. Director Finance

1 assistant

.~ ..... co

3. Director of Building Service

2 assistants

of Instruction

8 area assistants

a. Creative Expression

2. Director Agricultural Edu-

1 specialist

cation

b. Tools of Learning

2 assistants

1 specialist

3. Director Homemaking Edu-

c. Health, Physical Educa- cation

workshops, and home industries specialists.
b. Services for blind c. Business enterprises d. District offices (4) e. Local offices (12)

4. Director of Transportation

tion, and Recreation

2 assistants

2. Director Technical Services

2 assistants

1 specialist

4. Director Trade and Indus- a. Physical Restoration

5. Director Distribution and

d. Guidance

trial Education

b. Guidance, training and

Procurement

1 specialist

1 assistant

placement

6. Director Statistics and

e. Resource, Use Education 5. Director Distributive

3. The organization of this di-

Reports

1 specialist

Education

vision is annually approved

7. Director School Lunch and f. Special Relations

1 assistant

by the State Board of Edu-

Commodity Distribution

1 specialist

6. Teacher Training in co- cation and the Federal Se-

4 assistants

2. Director Teacher Personnel operation with Teacher curity Agency.

8. Director War Surplus

2 assistants

Education Institutions.

Properties

3. Director Library Service

9. Director State Schools

1 assistant 4. Director Negro Education

1 assistant

5. Director Exceptional Edu-

cation

6. Director Multi-Sensory

Aids and Textbook Selection

Education.
When requested, aid is furnished to school officials in the initial planning of school plants. Some of the other types of services rendered by the division are listed below.
(1) Plans and specifications are prepared and furnished for many small classroom buildings, cafeterias, additions, bus sheds, storage houses, and outdoor toilets.
(2) Plans for the development of school grounds are furnishe'd to many school officials annually.
(3) Working drawings for the construction of drinking founts, incinerators, tables, book shelves, and library equipment are prepared and furnished to many schools.
During the war years, school plant construction was seriously curtailed. As materials become available and construction returns to normal, the work of this division will increase.
8. School Lunch Division
The school lunch program has been sponsored by the State Board of Education, since March, 1943. The funds for this program, except for state supervisory personnel, are furnished by the Federal Government and distributed by the State Department of Education. The program has increased greatly since 1943 and has contributed much to the health of Georgia children. The only cost to the State is in the relatively small administrative cost involved in operating the division. This division gives aid in planning and setting up lunch rooms, approves programs for receipt of aid, distributes funds, and audits and checks expenditures of lunch-room funds.
9. Division of Negro Education
The Division of Negro Education furnishes over-all leadership in the development of public Negro elementary and secondary education in the State. The division works through Jeanes Supervising Teachers in providing professional leade:rship for teachers. Part of the salary of these Jeanes teachers is provided by the Southern Education Foundation.
The division has sponsored many summer workshops for principals and teachers in cooperation with other agencies. On
406

such reports as may be required by law or authorized by the State Board of Education. Aid would be given by this service to the school systems of the State in taking the continuing school census and in compiling such statistics as might be needed by the schools in planning their educational program. The director of this service should have such statistical, clerical, and stenographic aid as might be required to discharge his dutie's.
g. War Surplus Properties (temporary department). The Director of War Surplus Properties is a temporary position. Money expended by the State for this purpose is money well spent. The State Department of Education should continue to aid the schools of the State in securing war surplus properties and if necessary expand its efforts in this direction. The director of this service should be provided with ample clerical and stenographic assistance.
h. School Lunch Service and Commodity Distribution. The Director of the School Lunch and Commodity Distribution Service should be supported by at least four supervisory specialists. Except for administrative costs, this program is financed entirely by federal funds. The commodity distribution workers paid by federal funds would be in addition to the director and four area supervisors paid by the State.
i. Special State Schools. At the present time, there is no one person in the State Department of Education other than the State Superintendent responsible for the operation of the special schools operated by the Department. It is recommended that the position of Director of State Schools be created. This director would be responsible for the proper functioning of the schools for the deaf, blind, and delinquent. The state training schools (schools for delinquents) are presently administered by the State Welfare De'partment. It is recommended that the administration of these schools be vested in the State Department of Education.
2. Division of Instruction. The Assistant Superintendent for Instruction should be supported by Directors of (1) Curriculum Development and Supervision of Instruction, (2) Teacher Personnel, (3) Library Service, (4) Negro Education, (5) Exceptional Education, and (6) Textbooks Selection and Multi-Sensory Aids.
415

II. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OPERATED BY THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
At the present time, there are three types of special schools operated by the State Department of Education. These are the schools for the deaf, the schools for the blind, and state trade schools.
1. Schools for the Deaf
The state of Georgia operates two schools for the education of deaf children. Both of these schools-one for whites and one for Negroes-are located at Cave Spring, Georgia. Specific recommendations for enlarging and improving these schools were made in a recent report of the Educational Panel to the State Board of Education.
2. Schools for the Blind
At Macon, Georgia, the State maintains and operates two academies for the blind children of Georgia. One academy is for white children and one for Negro children. The annual report of the State School Superintendent indicates that facilities at the Negro school a:re woefully inadequate. It is contemplated that the Education Panel will in the ne'ar future make a complete survey of these institutions.
3. State Trade Schools
During the year 1943-44, the State Board of Education approved a plan for three state vocational schools to be located in northern, central, and southern parts of the State and operated under the Board.10
The function of this type school is to make available equal educational opportunities in trade, industrial, and distributive occupations for individuals who wish to pursue training for a specific occupation.
At present, one trade school has been opened. This school, the North Georgia Vocational School, was opened at Clarkesville, Georgia, on February 1, 1944. The school operates under the direction of the Division of Vocational Education. The school has done much to help fill a definite need. In cooperation with the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, many handi-
10 Ibid., p. 45.
408

tbachers, and supervise the expenditure of educational foundation grants for Negro education.
e. Exceptional Education. There is at present no organized service in the State Department of Education offering aid to the public schools of the State in planning programs 'of educa:.. tion for exceptional children. The director of this service would ai.d the public schools of the State in planning educational programs to meet the needs of those children who are mentally superior, mentally retarded, physically handicapped, or socially maladjusted. It is recommended that such a service be insti- tuted by the State Department of Education.
f. Multi-Sensory Aids and Textbook Selection. The Director of Multi-Sensory Aids and Textbook Selection should give professional advice to the public schools of the State in the selection and use of multi-sensory teaching aids. The director of this service should also work in close. cooperation with the committees of public school teachers charged with the responsibility of selecting textbooks to be included on the multiple free textbook list.
3. Vocational Education. It is recommended that the Division of Vocational Education continue to supervise all of the present services assigned thereto and in addition assum~ responsibility for all Veterans Education Service. Under this organization the Assistant Superintendent for Voc~tional Education would be assisted by Directors of : (1) Agricultural Education, (2) Homemaking Education, (3) Distributive Education, and (4) Trade and Industrial Education and Vocational Supervisors.
It should be the function of the Division of Vocational Education to aid the public schools of the State in planning and developing programs of vocational education, to supervise the distribution of state and federal vocational education funds, and to work in close cooperation with the institutions of higher education in the State in training vocational education teachers.
a. Vocational Supervision. Vocational Supervisors should be assisted by eight area supervisors. It would be the duty of these supervisors to work directly with the public schools of the area of the State to which they are assigned in planning and developing programs of vocational education. The director of
417

capped persons have received training at this school which has enabled them to earn a living and not become a burden to society. A second school, the South Georgia Trade School, is now in the process of beginning operations at Americus, Georgia.
III. PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
In the two preceding sections of this chapter the survey committee has attempted to give a brief description of the organization and function of the State Department of Education. No attempt was made to evaluate the work of specific units. It was pointed out, however, that the Department had grown over the years as demands were made for specific kinds of services. Its development was not accomplished as a result of a carefully thought-out-plan of organization.
The purpose of the survey committee in this part of the chapter is to propose a rather complete reorganization of the Department. The proposed reorganization is based upon: (1) Accepted criteria for evaluating the organization of a state department; (2) opinions and re'commendations of the most competent authorities in the United States Office of Education and in several states, and (3) opinions of the survey staff.
A state department of education should be organized to function as a service agency to the educational system of the state. As the supporting agency of the state' school superintendent, the department should be organized in such a manner as to facilitate its carrying out the policies and regulations of the state board of education. Since this is true, it is logical that the internal organization of the state department of education should be determined by the state board of education on the recommendation of the' state superintendent of schools.
1. Criteria
The following criteria for planning and evaluating the internal organizaton of the department have been suggested by Southern States Work-Conference:
"The state department of education should be divided into a sufficient number of work divisions to cover the major areas of service, but the number of divisions should not be so great as to hinder coordination of services or as
409

The increased services that would be rendered by the department, however, would more than justify the required increase in personnel costs.
The State Department of Education should be financed to the extent that it is able to render adequate professional aid and service to the public schools of the State. Educational opportunity on the local level cannot be measured in dollar expenditures alone but must be measured in terms of what the dollar expenditure passes on to the child.
Personnel Policies. The efficiency of a state department of education can be' no better than the quality of its personnel. The organization which has been proposed will facilitate good work but the caliber of work produced is still dependent upon the caliber of personnel.
Professional employees of the department should be qualified as to both educational background and experience. All professional employees should hold at least a Master's Degree and have had at least five years of professional educational experience. By way of comparison, the State Superintendent of Education should have the same professional qualifications as the Chancellor of the University System of Georgia; the Assistant Superintendents, the same professional qualifications as the President and De1ans of institutions in the system ; the Directors of the various services, the same qualifications as a University Professor of Education; and the specialists serving under the Directors the same professional qualifications as Associat~ Professors of Education.
The State Superintendent and State Board of Education should, in naming the four assistant superintendents, endeavor to secure men who possess a national reputation as leaders in their respective fields of education. The individuals named to these positions should have the type of educational experience which will qualify them for the job to be performed. They should, where possible, have the Doctor's De'gree. If a person cannot .be found within the State who is exceptionally qualified for the job, the other 47 states should be searched for the best person available.
No attempt has been made in this study to evaluate the personnel of the State Department of Education. It is the opinion
419

staff relationships must be established in the organization in order to promote efficient functioning, but the basic philosophy of those charged with the administration of the organization must be democratic in nature . . . Each staff member should be given opportunity to render service in accordance with his capacity and training, he' should be given authority commensurate with his responsibilities, and he should be given due credit for his accomplishments."11
Judged in terms of these criteria, the chief weakness of the present plan of organization of the Georgia State Department of Education lies in the large number of divisions in the Department.
Observation indicates that the Department has functioned unusually we'll despite the fact that there are now thirteen different division heads directly responsible to the State School Superintendent. The proposed changes in organization which are recommended herein should, however, make for better coordinated service and continuity of policy. In a state where the chief state educational officer is elected by the people this continuity of policy is highly desirable.
2. Recommended Organization
It is recommended that the number of divisions in the State Department of Education be' reduced from thirteen to four. The service provided by the various departments now existing would be distributed among the four divisions proposed. The proposed divisions are as follows: (1) The Division of Administration and Finance, (2) the Division of Instruction, (3) the Division of Vocational Education, and (4) the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation. Each of these divisions would be under the immediate supervision of an assistant state superintendent who would be dire'ctly responsible to the State School Superintendent. Figure 23 shows the proposed organization of the State Department of Education. The various services to be rendered by each division are indicated on the chart.
Figure 23 shows that the State Superintendent would be supported, first by four Assistant Superintendents. Each of these assistant superintendents should be directly responsible
11 Southern States Work-Conference, Bulletin, 1942, No. 1. State Responsibility for the Organization and Administration of Education, pp. 22-25.
411

and disbursed by the State' Department of Education. To carry out these duties the Director of Finance should be supported by competent accountants, clerks, statisticians, and stenographers. The director should be assisted by at least one accountant of professional caliber.
c. Building Service. There are many important services that can be rendered to the schools of the State by an adequately staffed school building service. The director of this service should be supported by one specialist on school house planning and one architect. This service should aid school systems in locating and planning buildings, examine all plans for school buildings to determine whether or not the state school building code will be met, advise school boards and administrators as to the most economical means of issuing bonds, and give advisory service to schools on schoolhouse maintenance.
d. Transportation. As presently constituted, transportation service offered by the State Department of Education can be given through the use of one professional director. This study, however, recommends state ownership and operation of school transportation. In the event that state ownership and operation of transportation becomes a re'ality, there would be a need for an increased staff of transportation specialists. Specialists would be needed on routing and maintenance problems. Likewise, an increased clerical staff would be needed.
e. Distribution and Procurement. The Director of Distribution and Procurement Service should have the responsibility of procuring and distributing all textbooks, library books, multisensory aids, State Department of Education supplies and equipment, and supplies and equipment needed by special schools operated by the State Board of Education. Considerable savings could be realized by local boards of education, if permissive legislation were enacted enabling school systems to purchase supplies through this service. In procuring supplies, the director of this service should work in cooperation with the State Purchasing Agent. The director of this service' should be supported by ample clerical and stenographic aid.
f. Statistics and Reports. The Director of Statistics and Reports should have the responsibility for compiling and interpreting such statistics as may be needed by the State Board of Education in discharging its duties as well as the compilation of
414

such reports as may be required by law or authorized by the State Board of Education. Aid would be given by this service to the school systems of the State in taking the continuing school census and in compiling such statistics as might be needed by the schools in planning their educational program. The director of this service should have such statistical, clerical, and stenographic aid as might be required to discharge his dutie's.
g. War Surplus Properties (temporary department). The Director of War Surplus Properties is a temporary position. Money expended by the State for this purpose is money well spent. The State Department of Education should continue to aid the schools of the State in securing war surplus properties and if necessary expand its efforts in this direction. The director of this service should be provided with ample clerical and stenographic assistance.
h. School Lunch Service and Commodity Distribution. The Director of the School Lunch and Commodity Distribution Service should be supported by at least four supervisory specialists. Except for administrative costs, this program is financed entirely by federal funds. The commodity distribution workers paid by federal funds would be in addition to the director and four area supervisors paid by the State.
i. Special State Schools. At the present time, there is no one person in the State Department of Education other than the State Superintendent responsible for the operation of the special schools operated by the Department. It is recommended that the position of Director of State Schools be created. This dire'ctor would be responsible for the proper functioning of the schools for the deaf, blind, and delinquent. The state training schools (schools for delinquents) are presently administered by the State Welfare De'partment. It is recommended that the administration of these schools be vested in the State Department of Education.
2. Division of Instruction. The Assistant Superintendent for Instruction should be supported by Directors of (1) Curriculum Development and Supervision of Instruction, (2) Teacher Personnel, (3) Library Service, (4) Negro Education, (5) Exceptional Education, and (6) Textbooks Selection and Multi-Sensory Aids.
415

ttachers, and supervise the expenditure of educational foundation grants for Negro education.
e. Exceptional Education. There is at present no organized service in the State Department of Education offering aid to the public schools of the State in planning programs 'of educa:.. tion for exceptional children. The director of this service would ai.d the public schools of the State in planning educational programs to meet the needs of those children who are mentally superior, mentally retarded, physically handicapped, or socially maladjusted. It is recommended that such a service be insti- ' tuted by the State Department of Education.
f. Multi-Sensory Aids and Textbook Selection. The Director of Multi-Sensory Aids and Textbook Selection should give professional advice to the public schools of the State in the selection and use of multi-sensory teaching aids. The director of this service should also work in close cooperation with the committees of public school teachers cha.rged with the responsibility of selecting textbooks to be included on the multiple free textbook list..
3. Vocational Education. It is recommended that the Division of Vocational Education continue to supervise all of the present services assigned thereto and in addition assum~ responsibility for all Veterans Education Service. Under this organization the Assistant Superintendent for Vocational Education would be assisted by Directors of : (1) Agrict1ltural Education, (2) Homemaking Education, (3) Distributive Education, and (4) Trade and Industrial Education and Vocational Supervisors.
It should be the function of the Division of Vocational Education to aid the public schools of the State in planning and developing programs of vocational education, to supervise the distribution of state and federal vocational education funds, and to work in close cooperation with the institutions of higher education in the State in training vocational education teachers.
a. Vocational Supervision. Vocational Supervisors should be assisted by eight area supervisors. It would be the duty of these supervisors to work directly with the public schools of the area of the State to which they are assigned in planning and developing programs of vocational education. The director of
417

The increased services that would be rendered by the department, however, would more than justify the required increase in personnel costs.
The State Department of Education should be financed to the extent that it is able to render adequate professional aid and service to the public schools of the State. Educational opportunity on the local level cannot be measured in dollar expenditures alone but must be measured in terms of what the dollar expenditure passes on to the child.
Personnel Policies. The efficiency of a state department of education can be' no better than the quality of its personnel. The organization which has been proposed will facilitate good work but the caliber of work produced is still dependent upon the caliber of personnel.
Professional employees of the department should be qualified as to both educational background and experience. All professional employees should hold at least a Master's Degree and have had at least five years of professional educational experience. By way of comparison, the State Superintendent of Education should have the same professional qualifications as the Chancellor of the University System of Georgia; the Assistant Superintendents, the same professional qualifications as the President and De1ans of institutions in the system; the Directors of the various services, the same qualifications as a University Professor of Education; and the specialists serving under the Directors the same professional qualifications as AssociatP. Professors of Education.
The State Superintendent and State Board of Education should, in naming the four assistant superintendents, endeavor to secure' men who possess a national reputation as leaders in their respective fields of education. The individuals named to these positions should have the type of educational experience which will qualify them for the job to be performed. They should, where possible, have the Doctor's De'gree. If a person cannot .be found within the State who is exceptionally qualified for the job, the other 47 states should be searched for the best person available.
No attempt has been made in this study to evaluate the personnel of the State Department of Education. It is the opinion
419