Teachers and teacher education in Georgia

TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
1959

TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
Prepared Under The Direction
of
THE TASK FORCE ON TEACHER EDUCATION
of
THE GEORGIA NUCLEAR ADVISORY COMMISSION
By
James Eo Greene, Sr. (Editor), Joseph C~ Bledsoe
George Bo Miller, Jr., George L. Newsome, Jr.
Bernice Cooper, Albert J. Kingston, Warren G. Findley R. Travis Osborne, and Mary Ellen Perkins
1959

ROSTER OF MEMBERS: THE TASK FORCE ON TEACHER EDUCATION
EX OFFICIO ~illMBERS
111'. Frank H. Neeley, Chairman, Georgia Nuclear Advisory Commrission, and Chairman of the Board, Rich's, AtJ.a,nt!l., Georgj_a.
Dr. William M. Suttles, Chairman, Comrrattee on Manpower and Education of the Georgia Nuclear Advisory Co~~ssion and Dean of Students, Georgia State College of Business Administration, Atlanta, Georgia.
Mr. A. L. Feldman, Chairman, Governor's Conference on Education, and P-.cesident of the Puritan Chemical Company, Atlanta, Georgia.
Dr. Doak S. Campbell, Coordinator of Task Force StUdies, and President Emeritus, Florida State University, Tall~1assee, Florida.
MENBERS
~~. R. F. Adamson, Executive Vice-President, The Citizens & Southern
National Bar~, Atlanta, Georgia.
Miss lfarjorie Crouch, Critic Teacher, Georgia Teachers College Demonstration School, Statesboro, Georgia.
Dr. 'Harren G. Findley, Assistant Superintendent for Pupil Personnel Services, Atlanta Board of Education, Atlanta, Georgi.a.
Mr. Edgar J. Faria, Vice-President, The Coca Cola Company, Atlanta, Georgia.
Dr. James E. Greene, Sr., Chairman, Task Force on Teacher Education, and Chairman, Division of Graduate Studies in Education, College of Education, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
Mr. E. C. Hammond, Secreta~J, Georgia Power Company, Atlanta, Georgia.
Dr. Robert E. Lee, President, Georgia Association of Colleges, and President, Georgia State College for liomen, Milledgeville, Georgia.
Miss Nary Ellen Perkins, Coordinator for Teacher-Education, Georgia Department of Education, Atlanta, Georgia.
Dr. Lloyd B. Raisty, Vice-President, Federal Reserve Bank, Atlanta, Georgia.
Mr. W. L. Robinson, President, Fulton County Board of Education and
President, Georgia School Boards Association, College Park, Georgia.
Mr. W. A. Thompson, Vice President for Personnel, Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Company, Atlanta, Georgia.
Dr. Judson C. v.Jard, Jr., Vice-President and Dean of Faculties, Emory University, Atl~lta, Georgia.

EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
The present volume is one of tHo mimeographed reports prepared by the Task Force on Teacher Education of the Conunittee on Manpower and Education of the Georgia Nuclear Conunission. The companion volumel consists of a series of 97 tables presenting the basic statistical data upon vJhich the descriptive and evaluative co~~ents contained in the present volume are mainly based. Both volumes have been orGanized In.th reference to a common outline of major topics and related sub-topics. Although either volume may be used independently of the other, both volumes were planned, organized and reproduced on the assumption that the typical reader would wish to make joint and related use of each of them. Consequently, the authors of the present volume have made numerous cross references to the tabular materials in the Source Book.
The scope and content of these two companion volumes should be viewed
by the reader in relationship to (1) the special task or mission assigned
to the Task Force on Teacher Education and (2) the special conditions and ciroumstances 1Ihich contributed to or interfered vnth effective attainment of this mission.
The special mission of the present Task Force was that of analyzing the present status of teachers and teacher education in Georgia and making recommendations concerning such types of future social action as might seem appropriate. Operationally considered, this mission may be thought
of as involving the following types of Task Force activities: (1) a
determination of the kinds and amounts of data needed to serve as the basis of a factually accurate and pertinent description of present status and probable future needs; (2) attempting to locate potentially available sources of data of the type and amount considered desirable for the present purposes; (3) the statistical processing of available
data considered to be pertinent; (4) a critical consideration of the implications of the data; (5) the preparation of the two volumes described
above.
The first meeting of the membership of the Task Force was held in Atlanta,
Georgia on December 9, 1959. A tentative agenda of Task Force activities
vJas discussed and approved. It lias recognized that, due to bUdgetary and other considerations, the activities of the Task Force must inevitably be of limited scope and must be completed during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1959. The Chairman of the Task Force (i.e., the present Editor)
was authorized to attempt to secure such cooperation and assistance as could be made available in the implementation of the agenda and uas directed to submit a progress report as early as possible. This progress report was made at a second meeting of the Task Force membership in Atlanta,
Georgia on April 9, 1959. At this second meeting, the Task Force Chair-
man (with the assistance of a corps of part-time professional staff associates vmose services to the Task Force had been donated by the Dean of the College of Education of the University of Georgia) was directed to prepare for prospective publication, subject to appropriate approval, the two volumes briefly described above.
1 ! Source Book .! Data Concerl".ing Teachers ~ Teacher E!.-ducation ! Georgia.

In presenting these companion volumes for prospective use by agencies and persons concerned with the improvement of teaching and teacher education in Georgia, it is expressly recognized that the basic data with which th~ deal have important limitations as respects completeness of coverage of sub-topics and sub-populations, obvious and immediate pertinence to the problems at hand, and in some instances factual accuracy and objectivity. Under the conditions obtaining for the present study (i.e., limited bUdget~ and staff resources; limited availability of complete, pertinent, and current basic source data; limited time schedule 'tuthin Hhich the present Task Force activities had to be completed), it is believed that most of the limitations of the data presented in the present stuqy were mainly unavoidable. Hopefully, many of these limitations could be avoided in future studies of this type by making appropriate administrative and bUdget~ provisions for a program of continuous research concerning taxsupported educational enterprises.
The allocation of at least a small portion of the total budget for public education to support a o,istematic and continuous program of research activities directed toward the improvement of tax-supported educational enterprises would appear to have many practical and theoretical justifi... cations. A very high proportion of the tax dollar in GeorGia is expended for educational purposes. Judicious and efficient expenditures of these funds logically presuppose that policy decisions will have been based on the availability and use of comprehensive and current data pertinent to such policy decisions. Generally considered, such data in desirable quanth,y and of desirable quality have not in the past usually been available for use in the determination of sound policy decisions concerning many facets of enterprises in public education. Many business concerns have found it to be expedient to allocate funds for research activities related directly or indirectly to improvements in the efficiency of the business enterprise. As the largest and most expensive enterprise of the state of Georgia, public education might Hell be the focus of long-term and comprehensive research emphasis supported by public funds.
The outline of major topics and related sub-to?ics which has served as a basis for the organization and presentation of materials contained in the two present companion volumes was developed on the basis of both logical and practical considerations. Logically, the assigned mission of the Task Force on Teacher Education appeared to require that consideration be given to each of the four major topics concerning vJhich tabular data have been presented and analyzed:
I. The General Status of Public Education in Georgia II. Characteristics of the Work Force III. Professional Preparation Programs
IV. Characteristics of Trainees
Practically, the inclusion or exclusion of data pertinently related to a particular major topic was determined by such considerations as the fo11mung: (1) availability or non-availability of basic source data; (2) the availability of bUdget~ and staff resources for data processing and

interpretation; (3) limitations imposed by the necessity of completing
the project before the close of the fiscal year 1953-1959.
The purposes and scope of the present project, and conditions under llThich plans for its implementation had to be developed, were such as to require the collaboration of many agencies and persons. Basic source data pertinently related to the purposes and scope of the project had to be procured from many sources. Data found to be available had to be processed and interpreted. Funds and staff resources had to be made available. In each instance, the collaboration of persons other than members of the Task Force was mandatory. Accordingly, it is most appropriate that grateful acknmvledgement be made for these contributions to the present study.
To Dr. Doak S. Campbell, Coordinator of Task Forces, much appreciation is expressed for his many valuable services in helping make administrative and bUdgetary provisions requisite to the attainment of the objectives of the Task Force; in providing counsel concerning general and specific phases of Task Force activities; and in providing encouragement and stimulation to the Editor and members of the professional staff.
For furnishing or facilitating access to basic source data, grateful acknmlTledgement is made to the follovling:
1. Dr. Claude Purcell, State Superintendent of Schools, and the
following members of his staff: Nr. Hal hT. Clements, Mr. J. H. Cammon, l1rs. Bernice McCullar, ~. John J. Medlin, Jr. E. P. Horgan, Miss I1ary Ellen Perkins, Mr. R. D. Pulliam, Dr. H. S. Shearouse, and Dr. Allen C. Smith.
2. Mr. G. E. Pittman, Executive Secretary, Teacher Retirement
S,ystem of Georgia and members of his staff; particularly, l1r.
c. H. Skipper.
3. The President (or delegated representative) of the several white
and Negro senior colleges of Georgia furnishing questionnaire data concerning teacher training programs and teacher trainees.
4. Officials of the University of Georgia -- particularly the
following: President O. C. Aderhold; l1r. Walter N. Danner, Registrar; Dr. George H. Boyd, Dean of the Graduate School; Dr. R. Trav~s Osborne, Director, University Guidance Center.
5. Dr. Ira Jarrell, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia.
6. Dr. Paul I'Jest, Superintendent of Schools, Fulton County, Georgia.
7. Dr. Harren G. Findley, Assistant Superintendent of Schools for
Pupil Personnel Services, Atlanta, Georgia. 8. Dr. Van Cleve Horris, Rutgers University, Neu Brunsvdck, New Jersey.
For invaluable assistance in the I.B.M. processing of punch card data of several types, much credit is due to:
1. 1-1r. E. P. Horgan and assistants, Georgia Department of Education. These services were furnished gratis.
2. Nr. C. H. Skipper and assistant'S, Teacher Retirement System of Georgia. These services were furnished grati~.

3. Dr. J. L. Carmon, statistician, and Mr. James C. Fortson,
assistant statistician, Department of Experimental Statistics, Georgia Experiment Station, The University of Georgia. These services were financed by special funds made available by President O. C. Aderhold to process the data concerning bachelors and masters graduates of the University of Georgia,
1958. See Tables IV-A-I through IV-A-14 and IV-B-I through
IV-B-8_
To members of the statistical and stenographic staff, grateful acknowledgement is Inade for assistance in data processing, the preparation of tabular and textual materials and other related services. The members of the statistical staff were: l1rs. Sheila Bailey, ~~. Joseph A. Booker, Miss Francina Couey, f1rS. Grace J. Eubanks, l1rs. Frances Gotesky, IJfrs. Hazel D. Simpson and Miss Martha June Watts. The members of the stenographic staff were: ll1rs. Jan N .t'\rmstrong, Mrs. Linda F. Farmer, Miss Hary Patterson, Mrs. Leitha Smith, and Mrs. Helen ~{ilson.
To his personal secretary, Mrs. Jan N. Armstrong, the Editor is especially indebted for the highly efficient performance of a wide variety of secretarial and managerial duties related to the program of research activities and the preparation of the present manuscripts.
1I7ith due respect to the value of all other contributions to the present study by .non-members of the Task Force, the services of the professional staff deserve special and outstanding recognition. Due to the cooperation of President O. C. Aderhold and Dean John A. Dotson, the folloldng members of the faculty of the College of Education of the University of Georgia were released from regular duties during one or two quarters for Ilparttime" participation as members of the professional staff of the present
study: Dr. Joseph C. Bledsoe, Dr. Bernice Cooper, Dr. Albert J. Kingston,
Dr. George B. Miller, and Dr. George L. Newsome, Jr. Under the general direction of the Chairman of the Task Force, these persons have contributed to: (1) the planning of the general and specific research objectives of the study, (2) the collection, analysis and interpretation of the data; and (3) the preparation of the two manuscripts Hhich report the results of the study. Specific citations of responsibility and credit for particular individual contributions are made in footnote references in each volume. Except for the contributions by the professional staff, the study could not have been completed.
Since each member of the professional staff l-Jorked in the role of a "team member" as 'lcJell as in the role of an "individual contributorll with specific assigned responsibilities, it is not feasible to give a fully accurate descriptive account of the varied contributions of each staff member to the study as a whole. The order in which the authors are listed by name on the title page is meant to reflect the proportinate amount of time (in decreasing order) l;hich each author contributed to the entire project. The specific footnote citations of credit and responsibility for the authorship of a particular section of the manuscript enable the reader to identify the individual staff member primarily responsible for the analyses and interpretations of data made in that particular section. That is, although each contributor had access to comments and criticisms from other members of the professional staff and from the Editor,

the final responsibility in matters of data interpretation, format and style rested with the ir:dividual contributor.
It should also be mentioned that two members of the Task Force have made significant research contributions to the present study. Niss Nary Ellen Perkins collected and analyzed the data concerning curriculum patterns for teacher education programs in white and Negro colleges of Georgia. See Tables IV-B-l and III-B-2. Dr. ~Tarren G. Findley collected and analyzed the data on teaching aptitude and student achievement in the public schoilis of Atlanta, Georgia. See Tables II-B-l, II-B-2, II-B-4, and II-B-5.
The Editor 1Jould be G:DDssly remiss in his duties if the present acknovlledgements did not pay special tribute to the interest and concern shown in the present study by the entire membership of the Task Force. By deliberate intent, this membership was comprised of individuals held in the highest esteem by their peers in industrJ, commerce, and education. It "tITas felt that only such a group, broadly representative of the diverse interests and concerns of the citizens of Georgia in matters related to teachinb and teacher education, could best determine uhat types of studies should be undertaken and appraise the major implications of the findings. Although the majority of these members could not, by ~~rtue of their respective responsibilities, assume an active research role in the present study, each has given generously of his time in serving in advisory and evaluative capacities.
The reader will properly anticipate that a manuscript produced under the present circumstances (i.e., basic data derived from varying sources, involving varying time periods and var;jring base populations, analyzed and interpreted by different professional staff members who had to Hork somewhat independently of each other) may Hell lack desirable (1) completeness in factual coverage, (2) exact consistency in data presentation and inter-
pretation and (3) agreement in format and style. For such imperfections
of these types as the present stUdy may contain, no apology is considered necessary.
In consideration of the purposes of the study and the conditions under which it was executed, tne calculation and reporting of measures of the statistical reliability of f:i_ndings was held to be neither necessary nor feasible. In most instances, the reader interested in computing such measures Trull have available in the tables the data requisite to such calculations.
Although the present stUdy makes no claims of definitiveness or finality, it is believed that the factual and interpretative data contained in the present volumes will have verJ great interest and value to all agencies and persons concerned vJith the improvement of teaching and teacher education in Georgia. vJhatever limitations the present study may have, it may be said to have the virtue of presenting more nearly complete, accurate and recent data concerning teaching and teacher education in Georgia than have ever been available previously. For these reasons, and in view of the strategic role of public education in a democratic society, the present findings and recommendations are respectfully commended to the attention of the Governor, the General Assembly, Boards of Education, school officials, members of the teaching profession, and the general public.
James E. Greene, Sr., Chairman Task Force on Teacher Education

CHAPTER I
THE GENERAL STATUS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
I-A. The Role and Function of Public Schools1
Through biological reproduction the continuity of life from generation to generation is insured. w11ile the physical characteristics of a people can be transmitted from generation to generation in this manner, the social and cultural characteristics of a people cannot be so transmitted. All of those characteristics of life and society which cannot be transmitted by way of the genes must be transmitted by education. All which is not inherited biologically must be learned. Habits, skills, languages, customs, and informal knowledge, among many other things, can be and are learned in some degree from direct participation in the social life of a people. This kind of informal education, though valuable, is not sufficient to reproduce the social and cultural life of a people. Unless the social and cultural life of a people is transmitted to the young by some more direct and systematic means, the life of the people degenerates to a more primitive level.
The inadequacies of informal education make it necessaFf to resort to formalized means of education for sheer self-preservation. Schools, as direct and formalized means of education, become necessaFJ to the perpetuation, well-being, and safety of society. Schools become societies' means for storing, preserving, refining, transmitting, and adding to human knowledge in all of its dimensions. Without schools, mants greatest achievements al'J.d the foundations of modern life, his science, his mathematics, his technolog~, his language, his literature, his nlusic, and even his vocational skills would be lost. It is by formalized schooling and through formalized schooling that man has preserved and transmitted culture from generation to generation, and gradually over the centuries laid the foundations of modern life as we know it today. Since the advancements of knowledge must be built upon previous knowledge, schools have been the chief means of human progress. Any society which wishes to insure itself against the contingencies of the future Hill first insure that it has a progressive and forv'Jard-100king system of schools.
It is not enough, hm~ever, merely to recognize that schools are social insurance and the chief means by 1r~hich man has elevated himself above savagery, one must also ask what kind of schools should he have. He must ask: what should the schools do? What is to be perpetuated? Towal~d what ends or aims shall schools work? Who shall be educated? Questions of this sort are questions concerning the role and function of schools in relation to a given society. The particular role and function of schools
1 This section was v~itten by George L. Newsome, Jr.

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in ancient Greece, in medieval feudalism, in Nazi Germany, in Communist Russia, or in a modern American democratic state differ greatly. They differ because of the state of knowledge at a given time, because of different political, social, economic, and cultural circumstances, and because of the different ends or aims toward which they work.
Both democratic goverrunent and free public schools are new experiments in human histoFJ. 'l'hroughout human histoFJ the vast majority of mankind has been kept in a state of illiteracy and peasantrJ. Even in the more advanced cultures of today, the battle against illiteracy has not yet been fully won. Throughout most of human histoFJ schools have been controlled by a small minority for the benefit of the few. The rise of democracy l'Jith its extension of the franchise to the many, even to the point of making the many sovereign, required a similar extension of education. If the many are to be sovereign, their sovereignty might well be that of ignorance and "mobocracy" unless they have been educated.
The founding fathers of the nation recogni.zed full well that democracy in government was possible only in a nation where the people were educated. Thomas Jefferson, for example, not only devised a plan for a public school 5,Ystem from local schools through a state university, but strongly maintained: "There are tlrJO subjects indeed irJhich I shall claim a right to further as long as I breathe, the public education and the subdivision of counties into wards. I consider the continuance of republican government as absolutely hanging on these two hooks."1 The American Philosophical Society, founded by Benjarnin Franklin, numbered ~'Uong its members most of the founders of the nation. In 1797, the Society awarded a prize of $100.00 jointly to Samuel Knox and Samuel Smith for the best essays on a 5,Ystem for American education. Knox, President of Frederick Academy, Frederick, Maryland, in his essay identified public education with political liberty. He said: 2
In every cGUITtTy professed of genuine freedom and impressed with a just sense of its value, nothing can be more worthy of publick attention than an improvement in the means of publiclc instruction "t'fuerever scientific kno"t-rledge is generally cultivated, there must th';3 dignity and rights of man be best kn01-Tn and, consequently, not only most highly valued, but also best secured from corruption, and most ably maintained and vindicated from encroachment and usurpation.
In a democratic state, more than under any other form of government, public education becomes a necessity. Non-democratic states, or even totalitarian states, may resort to universal and public education as a mean to the ends

1 Thomas Jefferson in a letter to Joseph C. Oabell, dated Monticello, January 31, 1814.

2 Samuel Knox, An Essa.y On the Best System of Liberal Education, (printed

by Warner andHanna: Baltimore,-'I79j) )'~' - - - -

-

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of the state. Totalitarian states especially are likely to make public education a tool of the state by using public schools as means for indoctrinating the dogmas of the ruling group into the minds of the young. Nazi education is a good example of schools being used to regiment and indoctrinate into youths a particular ideology. In a pluralistic and democratic state the young cannot be so regimented and indoctrinated because the child cannot be viewed as a mere creature or instrument of the state.l Though public education in a democratic state is a social necessity justified in terms of safety and public welfare, it is also a means for instructing the young in their rights and duties as citizens, and a means for promoting critical and informed ~hinking. John Stuart Hill summed up the situation well when he wrote:
The worth of a State, i.n the long run, is the worth of the individuals composing it; a State which dwarfs its men, in order that they may be more docile instruments in its hands even for beneficial purposes - will find that vuth small men no great thing can really be accomplished and perfection of machinery to which it has sacrificed everything will in the end avail it nothing, for want of the vital power, which in order that the machine might work smoothly, it has preferred to banish.
A democratic state, in taking upon itself the role and function of universal public education, is in fact only seeking to maintain and foster democracy and good government, and promote the general welfare. The price of democracy, freedom, good government, social vJell-being, and enlighte.nment are, however, not cheap. A system of universal public education in a modern state is a complex and extensive enterprise. Books, buildings, buses; teachers, administrators, and non-instructional personnel; and thousands of other items go into the making of a modern state school system, not to mention the thousands of youth to be educated. To put the issue pointedly, universal public education is a big investment, one of the biggest investments in the state and in the nation. It is also a vital business, a business that promotes and sustains all other businesses, and a business in which the profits and losses exceed all economic measures. In the modern world universal public education is a business that must not fail. Upon its success depends our liberties, and probably "our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."

1 John S. Brubacher, Modern Philosophies of Education (The McGraw Hill
Publishing Company,llic7: New York, 195sry: Also see Pierce v. Society

of Sisters, 268 U. S. 510.

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2 John Stuart Mill, "On Liberty" in The English Philosophers From Bacon
p:to Mill, edited by Edwin A. Burtt fThe-M'O"dern Librar,y: NevI Y'O:r"k, 1939), 104"1.

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II-B.

Extent of the Enterprise: Expensesl

Personnel, Capital Outlay, and Operating

The major source of information concerDL~g the scope and extent of the
educational enterprise in Georgia is the ll.nnual Report of the Depart-
ment of Education to the General Assembly. These reports are compiled
biennially in even fiscal years ending June 30. Another helpful recent
source of information is the bulletin "Education in Georgia", published
in late 1958.

The latest official enrollment figures for 1957-58 showed 960,411 pupils in regular e~ementary and high school classes and 18,123 pupils in evening schools. The estimated figures for September 1958 were 993,550 pupils enrolled; Vlis figure included 662,400 white children and youth and 331,150 Negro children and youth.3 These pupils were housed in 2,177 schools (1,362 for white pupils and 815 schools for Negroes). There were 575 four-year high schools (362 for whites, 212 for N~groes). These schools made up the 159 county and 39 independent systems.4 State laws
prohibit the formation of any new independent system.

The number of professional teaching personnel in 1957-58 was 31,795, which included 887 non-teaching principals, 30,439 teachers in elementary and high schools, 240 teachers in the various special programs, and 229 kindergarten teachers. Of these teachers, 22,279 were white and 9,516 were Negro. The. 19?8 aver~ge annual salary of the teachers on the regu... lar program was :. 3,472.80.

Other professional personnel employed in 1957-58 included 76 administrative assistants, 257~ supervisors, 171~ visiting teachers, and 112 librarians. Non-professional workers included 45 attendance officers, 996 clerks, and 6,779 lunchroom workers. f'Iaintenance workers included 740 plant I-Jorkers..
5 273 bus maintenance employees, 4,721 bus drivers, and 1,5L6 other wo kers
for a grand total of 18,231 employed in a non-professional capacity.

In addition to these groups, several thousands of persons are involved as teachers, teacher-trainees, and workers in public higher education in the units of the University System. Thus, well over a million persons - more than one-fourth of the state's current population - are actively engaged in public education as stUdents, teachers, and allied workers. Education ~ ~ biggest and ~ popular single enterprise by ~ in the entire state. It is in fact EVERYONE'S business.

1 This section was written by Joseph C. Bledsoe.
2 Eighty-3ixth ~ Eighty-Seventh Annual Reports of the Department of
Education ~ ~ General Assembly .f the State of Georgia, PP. 393.
3 Education in Georgia, 1955 through 1958, pp. 4.
4 Loc. cit. 5 Eighty-3ixth and Eighty-Seventh Annual Reports, ,E. 2 . , PP. 397.
6 ~., pp. 399.

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By almost any monetary standard, public education in Georgia is also BIG BUSINESS. It is a business that operates at an expense of over a
million dollars per school day. Although the exact figures for 1957-58 are not available, the official figures for 1956-57 of ;!~191.64 per-pupil
per-year indicate that the per-pupil per.day efPense is slightly more
than one dollar (the school year is 180 days). This figure is based on an average daily attendance which is usually about 80 to 85 per cent of
gross enrollmento
The report for the fiscal year 1958 reveals that the total expenses for
the public schools for that year were ~>206,818,082.19.2 Included in this
amount was ::,21,729,736.98 for capital outlay (for additional equipment
and new and improved plant facilities). The grand total of paJrments and
balances was slightly in excess of :)250 million.3 This figure included
debt services and operating balances.
Receipts in 1957-58 totaled more than C182 million and came from the
following sources: (1) ftmds appropriated by the General Assembly and allocated by the Governor fnom the general funds of the state; (2) supplements from local city and county tax sources; (3) grants from the
Federal Government; (h) other sources such as laboratory fees, fees for
athletic events, etc. According to the bulletin, "Education in Georgia,
1955 through 1958,11 counting public funds only, 72 cents of each tax
dollar presently spent for education in Georgia comes from state appro-
priations, 24 cents comes from local funds, and 4 cents from the Federal Government. 5
Teachers' salaries account for 74 per cent of school expenditures.
Other items of expenditure and corresponding percentages include text-
books, 305 per cent; maintenance and operation, 9.9 per cent; pgpil transportation, 8.9 per cent; and administration, 3.7 per cent.
To illustrate some of the changes within the past several years in Georgia'S educational enterprise, comparisons of several items of in-
formation between the 1950 and 1958 school years are herein presented. School enrollment increased by 1906 450 or 24.7 per cent; average daily attendance increased 151,113 or 24.4 per cent. Per-pupil cost increased from ~n12 to an estimated ~~208 in 1958. The value of buildings and grounds

1 Eighty-Sixth and Eighty-Seventh Annual Renorts of the Department of

- - Education

to the

Geneiai Assembly -of-~h-e

State of Georgia, -~-~-

ppo

394:

2 Ibid., pp. 390.

3 Ibid., pp.321

4 ~., pp. 378.

5 Education l:E Georgia, 1955 through 19rJ8, pp. 21.

6 b2. cito

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went up from . >135 million to :,,)500 million. l Fifty-four per cent of Georgia I s investment in new school buildings has been for Negro childr~n and youth, who comprise one-third of the pupils enrolled in the state.
It may be recalled that 1950 was prior to the financing of the Minimum
Foundation Program of Education for Georgia and prior to the active functioning aithe State School Building Authority. The great increase in value of school buildings reflects the large amounts of money spent by this Authority for improved facilities. The costs of the extensive school building program are to be repaid over the next two or three decades from funds allotted from current funds on a per-teacher basis according to formulas written into the Foundation Program. The reader is also reminded that the increase in estimated value of buildings and grounds
in 1958 is probably someHhat inflated due to the deClining value of the
doUar dx:u-i:ag' the ptUlt deeMe.

1 These comparative figures have been drawn from the appropriate sections

of the Seventy-Eightli and Seventy-Ninth Annual Reports (1949...1950) and

the Eighty-Sixth and Eighty-Seventh Annual Reports of the Department of

Education .:!? ~ General Assembly .2f Georgia (1957-19581':'

-

2 Education..!!! Georgia, 1955 through 1958, pp. 25.

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I-C. Comparisons of Georgia with Selected States and the Nationl
Appraising a state's system of public education is a most difficult and complex task. Comparing a state's educational enterprise with those of other states and the nation is even more challenging. The results are likely to be only partially satisfactory. Caution is a word which is appropriate since any single measure out of context may be misleading. Thus, to declare that a state devotes three per cent of its total income to public education or spends $250 per pupil enrolled is like saying that Johnny can read at the n.fth grade level without saying anything about how old or how intelligent Johnny iS ll This proportion and/or amount of expenditures mayor may not be relatively high. Accordingly, only as several measures of a state's activities in the field of public education are employed in combination does meaning developft
Four basic questions concerning the states and education are suggested. These questions are:
Ie What is a state's ability to su.pport public education? How much wealth is available and how may it be tapped?
2. What is the burden? 1rJhat proportion of the population must be served?
3. 1rJhat efforts are being made? To what extent are people Willing to pay for public schools?
4. What results or achievements are apparent? Are the results consistent with the abilities, burdens, and efforts?
Ability to support education. ThJO measures of a state's ability to finance education are personal income payments and retail sales. Personal income payments per pupil enrolled is the total income received by persons within a state divided by the number of pupils enrolled in its public schools. ThIo factors entEir into these figures: the general level of economy of a state and the percentage of the school age population not attending a public school. The range in personal income payments per pupil enrolled in public schools for 1956-57 was very great with each pupil in Delaware backed by :017,432 as compared with Hississippifs ~:'3,754 or approximately one-fifth that of Delaware~ Georgia is 43rd among the 48 states (Alaska and Hawaii not counted) llith North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, and Mississippi falling below Georgia. 2 The national average was Co10,OLr9; Georgia's ,5,534 was 55.1 per cent of the national average.
Retail sales per-capita are a measure of consumers' spending for food, clothing, furniture, cars, gadgets, etc. As a general rule, high-income states are the freer-spending states. In this category, Georgia ranks 38th out of 48 1'I1ith Nevada' s ;i~1,581 the leading figure and Mississippi t s *;690 the lowest figure. The national average was :~;1,140 and Georgia 's
1 This section was written by Joseph C. Bledsoe. Most of the comments
- - --- - herein are based on Tables I-C-l through I-C-4, pages 1-4, Source Book
of Data Concerning Teachers and Teacl1er Education in Georgia. ,;;;;,,;;,.;.;.~,;;.
2 "The States and Education", N.E.A. Research Bulletin, Vol. 36, No.1, February, 1958, pp. 24.29.

- 8-
~fi28 was 81.4 per cent of the national average. Most Southern states except Florida are among the lO't-Jest fourth of states in terms of ability to support public education. California and New York are above average in ability to pay; Wisconsin - a state with about the same population as Georgia's - is close to the national average.
The education burden. The load which a state must carry in education may be indicated by the percentage of its total population which is of school age (5 through 17) and the proportion of this group which is enrolled in the public schools. The two indices of burden then are the percentages of the total population enrolled in public schools and the number of school age children per 1,000 adults aged 21 to 64. (These ages are taken to represent the labor force, those who receive income and pay taxes). Children are a higher proportion of the population in the agricultural states, particularly in the South. Low income, high fertility rates, and comparatively few private and parochial schools are factors making for ~elatively high ratios of children enrolled in public schools. The out-migration of the labor force is also a factor. Thus Georgia, which ranks 43rd in personal income pa~~ents per pupil enrolled in public schools and 38th in per-capita retail sales, is 9th in per cent of total population enrolled. in public schools (1953-54) and 10th in number of school-age children (517) per 1,000 adults aged 21-64 (1955). As compared with the national average of 18.2 per cent of total population enrolled in public schools in 1953-54, Georgia had 22.7 per cent, an excess of one-fourth over the national average.
The range of number of school-age children per 1,000 adults was from Mississippi's high of 624 to NevI York's low of 339. As compared with the national average of 429 children aged 5 through 17 per 1,000 adults aged 21-64 in 1955, Georgia had 540, an excess of 25.9 per cent over the national average. The range in per Gent of total population enrolled in public schools was from a high of 24.4 per cent for Utah to a low of 13.3 per cent for Rhode Island, and the states with "heavyl' burdens included most of those in the Southeast (Florida excepted). Ne'N York's "burden" Has only about 80 per cent of the national average while Calj~orniats and Wisconsin's were below the national average, but heavier than that of NeH York.
Apparently, Georgia has about three-fourths of the natianal average in ability and five-fourths the national average in terms of burden.
Educational effort. Two tJ~es of effort can be identified. The first type can appropriately be termed II absolute" effort since the index is the expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance in school as of the latest year available, 1956-57. In this type of effort the wealthier states tend to rank highest, with the poorer states falling behindo Thus NeH York Has first with $462 and Arkansas Has 48th Hith $150 per pupil in average daily attendance. The national average was $300 and Georgia's $205, which was 68.3 per cent of the national average, gave her a rank of 41st. Wisconsin, a state comparable in papulation to Georgia, spent $330 which was 15th in order from the top.
The second t;ype of effort may be appropriately termed a "relative" index, since it is based largely on ability to pay. This index is the current expenditures for public educationfrom state and local sources as a per-

- 9-
centage of personal income payments. Thus states with proportionately more children and proportionately less wealth which support education moderately may be considered to be making relatively greater effort. In 1956-57 (latest year for which figures were available), South Dakota headed the states in this respect and Southern and Western states made up most of the upper half. Georgia, with 3.01 per cent, ranked 17th from the top and was 17,,1 per cent above the U. S. average of 2.57 per cent. Delaware was 48th in this index with the low figID~e of 1.71.
Achievement of the ~tates. The measures of achievement are perhaps the least adequate indices for answering the question, "irThat do the states achieve? Are the results consistent with ability to pay, effort made, and burden?" One reason for the inadequacy is that recent indices are not available. Thus 1950 data on median school years completed by adults 25 years of age and over does not reflect recent efforts of the states. A second reason lies in the indirect character of some indices employed, for example, the percentages of selective service registrants disqualified by the mental test. Still another clue lies in the fact that education is an investment which t}~ica1ly takes time to payoff - efforts may not be immediately apparent and may take years to sho1'1 up. In spite of these defects, achievement indices are useful to suggest the extent to which ability, burden, and effort are related to results. Thus Georgia ranked 46th with 7.8 median number of school years completed by persons 25 years of age and older in 1950, surpassing only Louisiana and South Carolina in this regard e The leading state was Utah (12.0 years) followed by California (11.6 years). The figure for the entire United States was 9.3 years. Georgia's position was 83.9 per cent of the U. S. average.
In the second index employed, the lower the percentage of selective service registrants rejected by the mental test, the more favorable is the status of a particular state. Montana led in this index with a low of 2.5 per cent. The national average was 17.5 per cent with Mississippi at the bottom with 44.9 per cent& Georgia's 35.1 per cent was 200 per cent above the United States average and gave her a rank of 43rd.
Summarizing, in terms of ability, Georgia ranks approximately 40th in the 48 states. In burden, Georgia is about ninth or tenth. In effort, Georgia is 41st in absolute (amount) effort and 17th in relative (proportion of income) effort. In educational achievement, only four or five states fall belf.lllG()sgga'O
Among her bordering Southern states, Georgia appears to be relatively less able and more heavily burdened than Florida, and slightly better off in these respects than Alabama, Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Although South Carolina contributes a slightly higher proportion of her income to education, Georgia in 1957 made greater educational effort than the other contiguous states both in terms of expenditures per pupil and in terms of expenditures as a ratio of per-oapita income. In achievement, as compared with bordering states, Georgia fared better consistently only in comparison to South Carolina, although Alabama and North Carolina had higher percentages of selective service registrants rejected by the mental test in 1956.
Economic status of teachers. The estimGted average salary for Georgia teachers increa sed in 1956-57 to : 3,400 from the ;'3,250 of the previous year. In spite of this increase, however, Georgia lost ground in com-

- 10 -
parison with the national increase of $195 from $4,135 to ~~4,330. Georgia's 1957 average salary was 78.5 per cent of the national average as compared with New York's 31.6 per cent above and California's 21.2 per
cent above the national average. In income per consumer spending unit,
Georgia was 76.7 per cent of the national average of 4,785 with the
other Southern states bordering Georgia in about the same relative position. Both California and New York reported higher than average national income.
The 1957 average annual salary of ;..>3,400 for Georgia teachers when computed as a weekly income came to \65..38. This figure compares \-Jith the 1955 average weekly earnings of factory workers in the nation of ,(:~76.52. Georgia teachers in 1957 thus made 85 per cent as much as did the factory
workers in the nation two years previously.
Requirements for teacher certification. Thirty-seven of the 48 states
~not including Alaska and Hawaii) in 1957 required the bachelor's degree
for a regular elementary teaching certificate. All states required the bachelor's degree, and four states (including California and New York) required the master's degree for the regular high school teaching certificate. Georgia required the bachelor's degree for both certificates. Only ten states required fewer semester hours in professional education for the elementary certificate than Georgia; only eleven states required less professional education for the high school certificate than Georgia. Most states report in terms of semester hours. Since most teacher education institutions in Georgia are on the quarter system, the reader is reminded that each semester hour is equal to l~ quarter hours and each quarter hour equals two-thirds of a semester hour~ The range in semester
hours in professional education for the elementary certificate was from 5
to 40. (The range in quarter hours was 7t to 60). The mean for all states was 24 semester (or 36 quarter hours). Georgia required 18 semester hours (27 quarter hours). The range in semester hours in professional education for high school certification was from 12 to 27 (18 to 40~ quarter hours).
The mean was 19 semester hours; Georgia requll'ed 18 semester hours, equivalent to 27 quarter hours. The number of semester hours in directed stu-
dent teaching required for both elementary and high school certificates in Georgia appeared to be in line with national standards with no excess in either direction (too much or too little).

CHAPTER II
SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORK FORCE
1
II-A. Certification Status
Trends in certification status, 1938-1959. Table II-A-l reports the percentage-of-~hite public school teachers of Georgia in each of six certification categories which correspond to the number of years of college training for the years 1938, 1942, 1946, and 1950 through January 195ge Mean numbers of years of training for each of these years is also listed. These data reveal that since 1938, there has been a steady increase in the percentage of qualified white teachers (four or five years of training) in every year reported except in 1946, the low point of World War lIe The increase has been from a mean of 2.83 and 42 0 0 per cent in 1938 to a mean of 3~98 and 82 0 3 per cent with four or more years of training in 19590 From 30 2 per cent of "emergency" teachers (no college training) in 1938, the proportion dropped to 0.9 in 1942, rose to 80 2 per cent in 1946, then dropped to 2~1 per cent in 1950. Still tl~re has been at least one per cent of such emergency teachers every year since 1950. Although "no data" are reported for 2.4 per cent in 1959, it is likely that this group included a goodly proportion of teachers with less than two years of training. The mean number of years of trainir!g has steadily increased as has the percentage of five-year-trained teachers, but in January 1959, there remained 15.3 per cent of teachers with two or three years of training and the 2 ..h per cent II no data" previously mentioned.. Some of these two-andthree-year-trained teachers are probably normal-school trained teachers who are likely to be retiring 1;'Jithin the next ten to fifteen years. It is anticipated that replacement with four-year-trained personnel may tend to raise the mean level of training slightlyo
Table II-A-2 reveals that the mean number of years of college training of Negro teachers in the Georgia public schools has risen sharply from 1.19 in 1938 to 4.08 in 1959. From a low of 15.4 per cent reporting four or more years of training in 1938, there has been a steady increase to 93 per cent in 1959. More than half the Negro teachers (50.6 per cent, or 506 per 1,000) in 1938 reported "no (college) training". Less than one
per cent C3 in 1,000) were in this category 1.'1 1958. (IINo data" were
available in 1959 on 1.6 per cent in 1959~ a portion of this group may have had "no college training").
The percentage of Negro teachers holding five-year certificates has steadily increased from 0.4 (4 per 1,000) in 1938 to 1),,,6 (146 per 1,000) or 37 times as many in January 1959. The increase has been especially noteworthy since 1950. Four-year-trained teachers have increased in proportion from 15,10 per cent in 1938 to 7S~4 per cent :).n 1959. If the percentage of three-year trained teachers were plotted graphically, the curve would resemble a crescent or rainbol-J, for there was a gradual rise
1 This section was written by Joseph C. Bledsoe. The present discussion is based on the data given in Tables II-A-l through II-A-9, pages 5 through 20 in the Source Boak of Data C0ncerning Teachers and Teacher
Education ~ Q~f?)i;-- .--- - - - --,._- - - - - - -

- 12 -
from 3.5 per cent in 1938 to a peak of 17.5 per cent in 1950 followed by a steady and gradual uecrease to 4.4 per cent in 1959. From previous studies not presented here, it has been discovered that these teachers (three-year-trained) are somewhat typically persons who are in process of earning their professional four-year level cert.ificates by in-service training, summer,and extension work. ~No-year-trained teachers rose from 16.1 per cent in 1938 to 31,2 per cent in 1942, and since that time the decrease has been consistent and rapid until 1959 this group constituted only one per cent of the total. The trends in percentage of one-yeartrained teachers follows a pattern similar to that of the two-year-trained teachers, except that by 1958, less than 1 in 1,000 Negro teachers (actually 3 in 9,516) fell in this category. Most noteworthy of all is the decline of proportions of teachers having county license or "no trainingll from 50.6 per cent in 1938 to 0.3 per cent in 1958~
To portray more graphically the marked changes in teacher certification status over the past 21 years, Figure 1 has been prepared. This figure shows the percentage of four-and-five-year-trained teachers and the percentage with two years or less of training in the two major teaching populations for each year from 1938 to January 1959.
Table II-A-3 is another way of looking at the data on the trends in certification status of white teachers from 1938 to 1959. This table presents index numbers for Georgia white teachers in each of the years (1938, 1942) 1946 j 1950-59) within each of the SjA certification categories previously mentioned. The IIbase year" is 1950 and the index num.. bers given are percentages of the teachers holding the given t;;,rpes of certificates for the 19)+9-50 school year (treated herein as 1950) f) By means of this "in,~lex number", the patterns of change from year to year may m(l)l;,n readily be perceiyedo The data in the table reveal a steady and remarkable increase in n~nbers of five-year-trained teachers from 31 in 1938 to 301 in 1959 per each 100 in 1950. In raw nlunbers, this increase is more than nine times, The trend in the number of four-year ...trained teachers is somswhat more erratic, with a dip in 1946 apparently reflecting losses to armed forces, industry, and government during the war years, but the increase from a low of 73 in 1938 to 189 jn 1959 (per 100 in 195~) has been note1i'JOI'thy 0
The data for the three~year-trained teachers are particularly notewort~. These teachers are norm::.ll1y "in transition", that is in process of converting or raising their level of certification 'oy in-service training summer school work or correspondence. FolloWing a gradual increase from 1938 to 1952, when a high index of 116 0 9 was reached, there has been a gradual relative decline to 81+,,5 per 100 in 195'9.. '.l.\Jo-year-trained teachers have steadily declined from 132.4 in 1938 to 350 1 in 1959 per 100 in 1950. This trend may readily be accounted for since the policy of the State Board of Education to base teachers' salaries on numbers of years of training has probably stimulated many younger persons to continue their training to improve their certification and salary status. At the same time, older two~year (no:lllal-school) trained teachers have probably been leaving the work force by retirement and/or death. The rapid decline of one-year~trained teachers from 233r.6 in 1935 to 11,,8 in 1959 (per 100 in 1950) is apparently further evidence of these changes" The trends in numbers of llemergency" or "no co~i_leze trainingll teachers Show marked changes
with a sharp drop from 140e5 in 1)38 to 35 0 2 in 1942 (reflecting a period

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Figure 1
Per Cent of White and Negro Public School Teachers of Georgia v'!it:1 Four and Five Year
and Less Than THO Year Certificates, 1938-1959

- 14 -

of steady improvement), a sharp rise from 1942 to 1946 when 367.4 untrained teachers (per 100 in 1950) were brought into the teaching force to fill the classrooms apparently vacated by qualified teachers. From 1950 on, the trends have been variable with a drop from 1950 to 1953, followed by a rise in 1954 and 1955, another drop in 1956, and another rise in 1957 and 1958.

The numbers of white teacher personnel in the total teaching force of

Georgia's public schools show a drop from 1938 to 1942 and a steady in-

crease from 1946 on. In January 1959, there were 41.5 per cent more white

teachers in the teaching force than in 1950.

----

Table II-A-4 reports the data on certification trends for Negro teachers of Georgia public schools from 1938 to 1959 in terms of index numbers, with the base year 1950. The total number of Negro teachers has increased gradually from 75~8 (per 100 L~ 1950) in 1938 to 13709 in 1959 (per 100 in 1950)0 Perhaps most noteworthy have been the changes in the two extreme categories: five-year-trained and "no training". Five-year-trained teachers have increased from 9u O per cent in 1938 of the 1950 base group to 600.4 per cent in 1959, or six tL~es as many, whereas the percentage of the 1950 group of teaehers with no professional training has dropped
drastically from 1512~0 in 1938 to 13.0 in 1958. Four-year-trained
teachers have steadily increased from 210 2 for each 100 1950 teachers in 1938 to 202.1 in 1959 for each 100 1950 teachers. Three-year-trained teachers increased to a hie;h in relative proportions in 1952 of 106.2 per cent of the 1950 base and have since declined steadily to 35 0 2 per cent in 1959. Two~year-trained teachers increased from 1938 to a high in 1942 of 16401 per cent of the 1950 base; since 1942, the decline has been consistent and rapid to a low of 7.8 per cent in 1959~ One-year-trained teachers rose in a similar pattern to a high of 266 v 8 per cent in 1942 to a figure of less than one per cent (three persons) in 1959.
Table II-A-5 reveals that in January 1959, 85~3 per cent of the total teaching force in Georgia held a four-or-five-year level certificate. Of the remaining 14.7 per cent, l2 u 3 per cent held two and three-year level certificates and no data were available on the training of 2.4 per cent of the teachers. The percentages of teachers by race and sex who had either four or five years of college training are as follows: 95~5 per cent of Negro men teachers; 92.3 per cent Negro women; 91.2 per cent white men; 80.0 per cent white women. The percentages of teachers by race and sex who had either tTtJO or three years of training are as follows: 18.2 per cent white women; 6.6 per cent Negro vJomen; 3,,9 per cent white men; 1.4 per cent Negro men. Thus, Negro teachers have received more years of training than have white teachers, and men teachers reported greater proportions with four or more years of training than women teachers. When comparisons are made by system of employment, 't-lhite men and Negro men eDlIJ:to~d' in city systems reported a greater proportion of four-or-fiveyear trained teacher personnel than the other gro1'.ps. In fact slightly over half of the white men in city systems hold the five year or master's degree level certificateD Over 96 per cent of both white and Negro men employed to teach in city s~Tstems have had four or more years of trainingf Only one-half of one per cent of white men (five persons) in city systems held a t't-lo-or-trtree-year certificate; for Negro male teachers in city systems, only two-tenths of one per cent (in fact, onlJI" one man) held the two-or-three-year certificate. In both citJT and C01Ulty systems, Negro

- 15 -
women teachers held the four-and five-year level certificates in greater proportions than did-white women. The difference l'11aS primarily at the four-year level, since a great.er percentage of white women were in the five-year level bracket. In fact, in all white groups, there were greater proportions in the five-year-trained group than in the corresponding Negro categories. Likewise, there were greater proportions of Negro teachers in all the four-year categories (by sex and by type of system of employment). Thus, the variability in training was greater for white teachers than for Negro teachers; All white groups included greater percentages with more than four years and less than four years, and smaller percentages with four years a Teachers in the city systems had slightly more training in all categories, men and women, white and negro, than did the county teachers. The major groups reporting less than four years of training were the 20c 9 per cent of white women in county systems and the 8.3 per cent of white women in city systems.
Certification status of Georgia teachers in 1959Q According to official data of the St~Department of Education-;-the number of teachers teaching in the 159 county systems in January 1959 was 26,2630 1 No data relating to level of certification were available on 617, or 2.3 per cent of these teachers e Of the remaining 25,646 teachers, 18,127 were white teachers, and 7,519 were Negro teachers s The number of teachers reported for individual counties ranged from a low of 13 teachers for the Chattahoochee system to a high of 1,243 for the Chatham County System. Four other systems (DeKalb - 1,228; Bibb - 1,212; Muscogee - 1,103; and Fulton - 1,043) reported more than 1,000 teachers o Nine systems (Bleckley, Dawson, Echols, Glascock, Lanier, Quitman, Schley, rra1iaferro, and 1rJebster) reported 50 or fewer teachers in the total teaching force for the county. The mean number of teachers per system was 1618 In terms of mean level of certification for the total force, the range was from a low of 30 2 years for Chattahoochee County (incidentally, the smallest number of teachers reported) to a high of 4.3 years for Clarke County. The ne}d seven counties with the highest mean level of training were Baldwin, DeKalb , Heard, Muscogee, Peach, Rabun, and Troup, each with 4.2. In addition to Chattahoochee County, twelve counties reported a mean level of less than 3.7 years of training. These counties were Murray (3.3); Dade (3.4); Forsyth
and Gordon 0 ..5); Chattooga, Echols, Fannin, Pickens, Polk, VTalker, "Jare,
and White (3.6)8 It is worthy of note that ten of these twelve counties are located in the northwestern part of Georgia in the mountain section. In fact, none of the counties in this section of Georgia (Seventh Congressional District) came up to the state me2n level of training, the highest means being reported for Cobb and Floyd Counties (309)0 Also, most of these counties have relatively small percentages of Negro population. The other two counties which reported mean levels of college training below 3.7 are in extreme Southeast Georgia on the Florida border.
The number of white teachers by counties ranged from 6 for Chattahoochee County to 1,112 for DeKalb County. Fifty counties including Chattahoochee reported fevJer than 50 vJhite teachers. Six cmmties besides DeKalb reported more than 500 1'I1hite teachers: Bibb (732), Chatham (786); Cobb (655); Fulton (892); Muscogee (818); Richmond (596). The mean number of

-_ 1 See Table II-A-6, pages 10-16, Source Book of Data Concerning Teachers

-an-d

Teacher

Education

in Georgia.-- -- -
. ~-,--

--

- 16 -
white teachers per system was 114.
When data for the mean level of white teachers, (considering total men and ~JOmen combined) are analyzed, a similar pattern to that for the whole group emerges. Highest mean level was reported for Clarke County (4.4 years), followed by Ba1d1v-in and Heard Counties, each 'with 4.3 mean years of training. Clarke County is home county of the state University and Baldwin is the location of the Georgia State College for Women. Again Imv-est means were reported for Chattahoochee County (2~7), counties in the northwestern part of the state: Murray (3.3); Dade (3.4); Chattooga, Forsyth, Gordon (3~5) each; counties in the southeastern part near the Florida border: Clinch, Berrien, and Brooks (3.5) each; and a rural county in middle Georgia) ~viggs (305)0 Other counties in the extreme northern and western borders and the southeastern fringes reported low mean levels of training.
When mean levels of training of white teachers as reported for the 159 counties are analyzed by sex, it is revealed that the number of men white teachers varied from none in Chattahoochee County to 220 in DeKa1b County.
Only three counties reported mean levels below 4e o; these were Berrien
and Catoosa Oc8 each) and l'1urray 0.9).. Quitman County lrJith one male teacher reported a mean of 5~0. Other counties with relatively high mean levels for white male teachers are Montgomery (7 teachers, 409 mean years of training); Morgan (9 teachers, LI.8 mean); and Putnam (6 teachers, 4.8 mean)"
White women teachers ranged in number from 6 in Chattahoochee to 892 in DeKa1b. Lowest mean levels were Clwttahoochee (2 0 7); Dade (3 0 2); Chattooga and Forsyth, in northwest Georgia (303 each); Harris (3.3) in west Georgia on the Alabama border; and Brooks, Clinch and Echols, in extreme South Georgia (3 .. 3 each)~ High mean levels 'tv-ere reported for white women teachers of Clarke and Heard (4.3 each); Baldwin, Bullock, and Hancock (4 02 each).
The range in the total number of Negro teachers (men and women combined) was from no teachers in seven counties (Dawson, Forsyth, Gilmer, Gordon, Town~, Union, and Whitfield) to 480 in Bibb County. The mean number of Negro teachers per system was 47~ Other counties with 200 or more Negro
teachers reported were Chatham (457); Muscogee (285); and Richmond (315).
Besides the seven counties reporting no Negro teachers, 51 counties reported 25 or fe1J'Jer teachers, 14 of these with fe;v-er than 10 teachers. Lowest mean level of training was reported for Stephens County (304); Chattahoochee, Columbia, and Echols 006 each). Highest mean level was
reported for eighteen counties which had means of 4.. 2 years; these coun-
ties with total number of Negro teachers were Atkinson (19), Bacon (13), Bryan (28), Chatham (457), Treut1en (17), Ware (lO), in Southeast Georgia; Dougherty (192) in Southwest Georgia; Muscogee (285); Peach (66); Taylor (39); Troup (55) in middle and west Georgia: Cherokee (12), Fulton (145), Henry (67), Rockdale (22), Spalding (84) in or near the Atlanta area; and Clarke (98) and Hall (16) in Northeast Georgia.
The range in mean levels of training reported for Negro men teachers was
from 30 0 for Catoosa, Echols, and Stephens, each of which reported only
one man teacher to Peach County (home of Fort Valley State College) which reported a mean of 4.8 for its eight Negro men teachers. The lowest mean

- 17 -
levels of training reported for Negro women teachers were 3.0 for Catoosa (2 teachers); 3.5 for Banks (2 teachers) and Stephens (4 teachers) in rural North Georgia (sparsely settled by Negroes); 3.4 for small Chattahoochee County (5 teachers) and 3.5 for Tw"iggs (37 teachers) in middle Georgia. Thirteen counties reported the highest mean level (4.2 years) for Negro women teachers. These counties (with number of Negro women teachers in parentheses) include the urban counties of Chatham (385), Clarke (78), Dougherty (160), Fulton (110), and f1uscogee (226), as well as the rural counties of Bacon (10), Brantley (6), Cherokee (12), Hall (15), Taylor (30), Treutlen (12) and Ware (1).

Table II-A-7 shows the range in the total number of teachers in January
1959 (men and vJomen, white and Negro) in the 39 city systems from 10 for Tallulah Falls to 3,411 for Atlanta. Of the 39 systems, only 15 (including Atlanta) had 100 or more teachers. Eleven systems had fewer than
So teachers, and 13 systems range in size from 50 to 99 teachers. The
number of white teachers reported ranged from 10 for Tallulah Falls to 2,078 for Atlanta. The number of Negro teachers ranged from none for Bremen, Chickamauga, Jefferson, Monroe, Tallapoosa, Tallulah Falls, and Thomaston to 1,333 for Atlanta. The mean number of white teachers was 120, for Negro teachers 58, for a combined mean of 178. These mean values are inflated somewhat disproportionately by the Atlanta system, for in fact, only 8 of the 39 systems report more than 120 white teachers, and
only 5 systems report 58 or more Negro teachers. Thus t-he me(liM {.m<hralue) is revealing; the "middle" system had 58 white teachers and 21 Negro teachers or 79 total. This median corresponds precisely to the actual numbers in the Toccoa City system.

Highest mean level of training (4.3) was reported for the Atlanta, Haw-
kinsville, Newnan, and Tallulah Falls systems; lowest mean (3.9 years) is reported for Chickamauga, Cochran, and Dalton. These three systems were the only systems which reported a mean of beloi1 4.0. There were very few differences in mean levels of training reported between white and Negro teachers. The reported differences were very small, and in only one instance did the difference exceed three-tenths of a year. This instance was Barnesville, in which the two Negro teachers report eighttenths of a year more training than the 39 white teachers. For the total city systems, mean training of vIhite and Negro teachers was the
same -4.2 years.

The mean number of years of training of men teachers was equal to or greater than that of women teachers in every instance except that of Thomasville Negro teachers, and in this case the difference was onetenth of one year (4.2 as compared with 4.3). Differences favoring men teachers varied from one-tenth of one year to 1.1 years (Buford white teachers).

Certification status that as of May-19'57"";

a9n1d=:tSe"afciehricnegntodurtiethse.

From total

Table II-A-8, it is teaching population

noted in

Georgia schools reported that they vIere teaching in the major field for

which they were certified. Only 8.2 per cent vIere teaching more than

one-half of their teaching load in a lield or fields in 1,rhich they were

not certified. Both iv-hite male teaC:-lers and Negro male teachers uere

teaching outside the fj.eld of major certification in higher proportions

than were their female counterparts, both in county systems, in city

- 18 -
systems, and for the total combined systems. Eleven per cent of white men teachers in the state as a whole were teaching more than half the time in "outside" fields as compared with 8.6 per cent of white women teachers; 9.2 per cent Negro men teachers taught outside their fields more than half-time as compared with 5.3 per cent Negro women teachers. With respect to race, white teachers taught outside their major fields in greater proportions than did the Negro teachers in corresponding population groups for both sexes. With respect to residence, teachers in county systems taught outside their major fields in greater proportions than did teachers in city systems, for both white and Negro teachers and for men and women teachers. The trend was clear for without exception, man teachers, white teachers, and county teachers taught outside their certified fields in greater proportion than their opposites: women, Negro, and city teachers. Thus the range in percentage outside the major field was from a low of 5.0 per cent for Negro women teachers in city systems to a high of 11.5 per cent for white men teachers in county systems. In terms of round numbers in all the public schools, 2,500 of the 30,600 teachers were not certified in the field in which they are teaching more than onehalf of their teach~ng load.
Certification of county school superintendents. Table II-A-9 reveals that 175 of the 199-Count;Y-and iruIependent school superintendents of Georgia had in April 1958 at least a four-year teaching certificate or higher qualifications. Proportionately, one out of eight held the five-year level superintendent's professional certificate. Approximately two out of five held the five-year teacher's certificate and counting four persons who held an emergency four-year certificate 179 or 90 per cent of the superintendent's had at least the four-year certificate and were presumably college graduates. Of the remaining 20 persons, twelve held either a two-year or three-year teacher's certificate and eight had only a permit.
Summary. Data provided in Tables II-A-l through II-A-9 appear to warrant the fol101-Jing generalizations related to certification status of the teaching force in Georgia:
More than 85 per cent of the teachers held professional fouryear certificates or better in 1959. 2. During the past twenty years, the mean level of training of white teachers of Georgia has increased from 2.83 years to 3.98 years of training. During the same period, the mean level of the Negro teachers of Georgia has risen from 1.19 to 4.08 years.
3. trJhite teachers had greater percentages of teachers at the fj.ve-
year level and at levels below four-years as compared with Negro teachers. Over 80 per cent of Negro teachers held a four-year certificate.
4. Slightly over one per cent of teachers for the past few years
have had no college training, hired on an emergency basis. These percentages have been greater for the white teacher population than for the Negro toacher population.
5. Men teachers constituting slightly over 20 per cent of the work
force are better trained on the average (4.h, i'ifhite men; 4.2 Negro men) than are 1!TOmen teachers (3.9 Homen; 4.1 negro Homen).
6. The major groups of teachers who report less than four-years of
training are the 20.9 per cent of white women teachers teaching

- 19 -
in county systems and the 8.3 per cent of white women teaching in city systems.
7. Highest mean levels of training are generally found in counties
close to colleges and universities. Lowest mean levels are found in counties of northwestern Georgia (Seventh Congressional District) and in a band of counties on or near the Florida border.
8. City systems vary greatly in number of teachers (from 10 to 3,411),
but vary very little in mean level of training. Atlanta with 3,~1
teachers shares the distinction of having highest mean level (4.3
years) with Havi{insville (31 teachers), Newnan (117 teachers), and Tallulah Falls (10 teachers). 9. Only 8.2 per cent of teachers reported in May 1957 that they were not certified in the major field in which they were teaching. The percentage ranged from 5.0 per cent of Negro women teachers
in city systems to 11.5 per cent of white men teachers in county
systems. 10. In ApriJ 1958, 90 per cent of the 199 county and independent
school superintendents in Georgia were presumably college graduates with 88 per cent holding four-year level or higher teaching certificates. Proportionately, one out of eight (25 in 199) held the professional five-year superintendents certificate; two out of five held the five-year teachers certificate. Only eight held merely the teaching permit indicating no professional training.

- 20 -
II-B. Teaching Aptitude and Student Ach~. evement1
The data presented in Section II-A, Certification, dealt with the quality of the work force in Georgia public schools as based on the criterion of quantity of college training. The present section also deals with the quality of the work force to the extent that inferences concerning the quality of teachers may be made from standardized measures of teaching aptitude and of stucent achievement~ The data concerning teaching aptitude are shown in Tables II-B-l, II-B-2, and II-B-3 and the data relating to student achievement are shown in Tables I1-B-4, II-B-5, and II-B-6.
Tables II-B-l and II-B-2 su~~arize the results attained by white and Negro teachers in Atlanta on the several parts of the National Teacher Examinations. The average scores for white teachers fell above, at, or within striking distance of the national averages. Also, the averages for Negro teachers fell lm-Jer by more than the quartile deviation of the scores of eithe~ group in each part of the test. Despite the inter-racial differences in median scores reported in Tables II-B-l and II-B-2, there was a very considerable amount of overlapping of the total scores. To the extent that these tests reflect cultural background, subjectmatter competence and teaching technique, they showed results similar to those found among the Atlanta pupils for achievement o See Tables II-B-4 and II-B...5,.
It is also note1'JOrthy in Table II-B-l that average achievement on all parts of the test increased with grade level within both groups. This finding has been true in all national samples and apparently reflects a general increase in subjact-matter background required in teaching at the successive levels.
In Table II-B-2 are to be found data showing how well white and Negro teachers, at various grade levels and in special subjects, compared with national samples. The white and Negro groups, respectively, related themselves to national averages for teachers of their subjects at about the same level as on the common examinations summarized in Table II-B-l. It i~ noted that a number of Negro te2chers earned scores above the national averages while some few white teachers scored below the average for Negro teachers.
The data in Table II-B-3 report the standardized scores earned on the National Teacher Examination by white and :degro teachers in another large public school system in Georgia which prefers to remain anon~~ous. A comparison of the standard scores of white teachers in this second school system (Table II~B-3) with the corresponding scores earned by white teachers in the Atlanta system (Table 11-j3-l) indicates that the average score
1 The tabular data in the Source Book related to this sub-topic are shown in Tables II-B-l through ~I-B~6~il~lusive, pages 21-26. The data shown in these tables, and the textual comments accompan:ring them, should be credited to the fol101ving persons: (a) Dr. Harren G~ Findley, Tables II-B-l, II-B-2, II-B-4, and II-B-5; (b) Dr. James E. Greene, Sr., Table II-B-3; (c) Dr o R. Travis Osborne, Table II-B-6.

- 21 -
for the IItotalll white teachers of Atlanta was slightly higher in each of the six test categories of the National Teacher Examination than the average score of the IItotalll white teachers in the second system. A similar inter-system comparison of NTE scores of Negro teachers yields a similar result: namely, the Atlanta Negroes showed a very slight comparative superioritYe As was the case for white teachers L~ the Atlanta system, white teachers in the second system earned standard scores in most of the test categories fairly closely approximating those reported for the corresponding national samp~es. Also, as was the case for Atlanta Negro teachers, Negro teachers in the second system had average standard scores in the several NTE categories falling markedly below the corresponding scores on the national sample. Although the mean score of white teachers exceeded the corresponding mean score for Negro teachers in each of the several test categories, the extent of overlapping in these distributions should be notedo
On the assumption that public school students in Georgia have approximately the same scholastic ability and academic motivation as students in general, a comparison of the achievement test scores of Georgia students with national norms should furnish suggestive, even though indirect, data concerning the relative instructional proficiency of Georgia teachers versus that of teachers in general (i.e., teachers of the students upon whom
the achievement test norms are based). Although the above-stated assump-
tion is considered to be perhaps less than fully valid, it is considered appropriate to include data dealing with selected achievement test score performances of students in these two large public school systems in Geo-
gia. The data in Tables II-B-4 and II-B-5 are based on students enrolled
in the public schools of Atlanta, Georgia, while the data in Table II-B-6 are based on students in the second large school system which prefers to remain anonymous.
During 1955-56 a program of achievement testing was administered to all
vIhite and Negro pupils in grades 4, 6, 8, and 12 of the Atlanta Public Schools 0 This survey was conducted by the Educational Testing Service of Princeton, New Jersey at the request and at the expense of the Atlanta Board of Education. The results of testing in reading and arithmetic in
grades 4, 6, and 8 are s~marized in Table II-B-4. The educationally
most significant fact to note was the wide range of achievement 1,)ithin both groups in both reading and arithmetic at all levels as showll"bYthe quartile deviations o The range of achievement of the middle half of the pupils in a subject within a grade varied from a range of 104 grades in
arithmetic and reading among Negro pupils in grade 8, to 3.6 grades among white pupils in reading in grade 6. These Hide ranges in quartile devia-
tions mean in each case that the top quarter and bottom quarter of the pupils were distributed over an even wider range outside these bounds. It is this wide range that has constituted a basic teaching problem at all times and in all places.
So far as average achievement is concerned, the white pupils were above, at, or within striking distance of the average achievement across the nation in all grades. The averages for Negro pupils fell progressively farther behind the national averages as they ~)rooeeded through the grades. The relatively low ach1evement in both groups in grade 8 is apparently a function of the severity of the norms on the Iowa Every-Pupil DatterYe
It is also to be noted that in every instance there were a number of Ne-

_. 22 -
gro pupils with scores above the national averages. Similarly, there were substantial numbers of white pupils with scores below the national averages.
Table II-B-5 presents the results of Atlanta testing in grade 12. The averages for white pupils were above the national averages in all but social studies. The averages for Negro pupils were below ninth grade level in the national norms, with particular Healmess in English.
The data shoHn in Table II-B-6 report one aspect of a comprehensive longitudinal studyl of mental growth and school achievement among pupils in a large public school system in Georgia which prefers to remain anonymous. The students Here first examined during t he sixth grade, April, 1954. The California Test Battery was used o Appropriate levels of the same test Here given in April, 1956 and February, 1958.. At the time of initial testing, the negra students were on the average two months older than the white students.
The results obtained from the repeated testings over the four year period are shown in Table II-B-6. Reading test results are shown first. From the table it may be seen that the Negro-"t-Jhite achievement difference of slightly less than two full years at grade 6 increased steadily at successive grade levels until at grade 10 the difference in reading level 'VIaS over three school grades" The amount of overlap Has less at the tenth grade than it Has at the sixth. This widening gap in achievement betHeen the tHO groups is apparent on both the vocabulary and comprehension subtests as Hell as for the total reading scale.
The picture in arithmetic was much the same as for reading. At the sixth grade the white-Negro difference in means was a)proximately one and onethird grades for the areas covered by the California l~rithmetic Test. In the eighth grade the inter-racial difference had increased to one and three-fourths grades. Four years after the initial testing, Hhen both groups were examined during the second semester of their tenth school year, there was a difference in aritht'1letic achievement of almost four grades between the groups. The arithmetic grade placement level of the Negro tenth grade pupils was only slightly above the sixth grade national norms, while the white group tested at a low tenth grade level on the same norms. Thus the arit~letic skills of white children in the sixth grade were not only significantly above the sixth grade Negro group, but closely approximated the skills of eighth and tenth grade Negro pupils.
The reader may well ask: To what extent are the present data concerning the teaching aptitude of white and Negro teachers and the tested achievement status of white and Negro students likely to be representative of the entire state of Georgia? Since these two school systems are the only ones on "\-]hich measures of teaching aptitude and student achievement are available for our present analyses, it must be admitted that no fully satisfactory answer to this question can be given at this time~ On the other
1 Editor's note: This study is being cO~1d.ucted under the professional direction of Dr. H. Travis Osborne, Director, University of Georgia GuidanceCentert; Dr. OSborne has gr-aciously w"de available foil' the present stUdy the hitherto unpublished data shown in Table II-B~, and an accompanying exposition of the findings.

- 23 -
hand, certain data are available which may be assumed to have at least indirect pertinence to this question. For example, the white and Negro teachers in these tvJO systems had either the same or only a slightly greater amount of formal training (i.e., years of college training completed) than that for white and Negro teachers in Georgia~
It seems logical to presume that there is a positive relationship between the amount of college training of teachers and (1) scores on the present standardized measures of teaching aptitude and (2) the extent to which teachers are able to foster favorable student achievement o Based on these assumptions, it may be inferred that the present data concerning teaching aptitude and student achievement are probab1;y fairly representative at least in the negative sense that teachers and students for Georgia as a whole are not likely to have much, if any, superiority in the traits measured as compared with the present sample populations. Indeed, it seems more likely that the present sample populations may be slightly superior to the respective general populations of which they are assumed to be reasonably representative o

II-C. Years of Experiencel

- 24 -

From the vie-t-Jpoint of experience, teachers employed in the public schools of Georgia tend to represent a fairly 1tJell-balanced group. As shown by Table II-C-l, hl.8 per cent of all teachers in the state had thirteen or more years of experience, 26.7 per cent had bet1-Jeen six and t1'Jelve years of experience, and 31.5 per cent had six or fevrer years of experience as of January, 1959, when the data were obtained. EA~ressed differently, over 68 per cent of1eorcia public school teachers had six or more years of teaching experience, 1tn1ile only 7.6 per cent of the teaching force 'VJere beginning or first year teachers. In general, the present force of public school teachers seems to represent a 1t!ell-balanced group with a sufficiently large Gnuber of experienced teachers available to assist those who are less experienced.

It is interesting to note that 3,160 or 54.8 per cent of the teachers who held five-year certificates had had thirteen or more years of teaching experience. In cOTIlparison only 811 or ll~.O per cent of teachers with less than six years of teaching experience held five-year certificates. Similarly, 37.7 per cent of teachers 1tuth thirteen or more years of experience possessed four-year certificates. In contrast, 35.3 per cent
of teachers 1"ho held four-year certificates had less than six years of teaching experience. It may be inferred from these data that many teachers
enroll in post-graduate programs after they begin t:-L1eir teaching careers.

On the other hand, it may be noted that many of the most experienced teachers in the state held only two-and-three-year certificates at the time the data were collected. Among teachers vJho held two-year certificates, 43.6 per cent had had thirteen or more :rears of teaching experience. fu~ong those who held three-year certificates, 55.8 per cent had had thirteen or more years of experience. It is unfortunate that the data obtained in the study do not allow further analysis. Several questions remain unans1:-ered. Are those teachers 11ho hold two-and-three-year certificates enrolled in various in-service training programs designed to help them to secure higher levels of certification? Does this group
represent an older group Viho are likely to retire from the profession in the next decade? HaI1Y sj.milar questions are 1\JOrthy of consideration, and it is hoped that subsequent study 1tJill supply the anS1-mrs.

It also should be pointed out that beginning first year teachers represented 9.4 per cent of the total group vJho possessed t1-Jo-year certificates, 1rJhile teachers liuth one year of experience represented 7.7 per cent of the sabre group. Thus during 1957 and 195B a number of schools within the state deemed it wise or necessary to employ comparatively inexperienced teachers who possessed minimum qualifications.

As shown by Tables II-C-2 and II-C-3 there 1-ms little difference in experience and certification status bet"t'reen lJhite and Negro teachers

__=4.
IThis section uas "t'Jritten by Albert J. Kingston. The major source for these comments are Tables II-C-l through II-C-7, pages 27-33, in the Source Book.

- 25 -
l~thin the state. Among white teachers, 43.5 per cent had thirteen or more years of experience, 25.7 per cent had betHeen six and t1,relve years of experience, and 30.8 per cent had fevrer than six years of experience as of January, 1959. Among Negro teachers, 37.7 per cent had thirteen or more years of experience, 29.1 per cent had betvl8en six and tHelve years of experience, and 33.2 per cent had less than six years of experience. Proportionately fewer white teachers than Negro teachers held four-andfive-year certificates. On the other hand, proportionately more vrhites than Negroes held tvro-and-tr.ree-year certificates. Approximately 5 per cent of Hhite teachers held tl'TO-year certifications, and about 10 per cent held three-year certificates. Less than 1 per cent of N8gro teachers held t1vo-year certificates and less than 5 per cent held three-year certificates~ It may be inferred from the data that anlOng both races, the preponderance of those teachers holding less than four-year certificates are more e:qperienced fuld likely to be among the older members of the teaching force. Among 1<vhite teachers, 54..0 per cent of those who held three-year certificates and 41.0 per cent of those i>Jho held tHo-year certificates had had thirteen or more years of experience as of January, 1959. Among Negro teachers, 65.3 per cent of those iv-ho held three-year certificates and 76.2 per cent of the groups Hho held two-ye~r certificates had had thirteen or more years of experience.
Tables II-C-4 through II-C-6 illustrate the years of self-reported teaching experience among Georgia public school personnel. It should be noted that some discrepancies can be seen in these tables and Table II-C-7. These discrepancies may be explained by the fact that not all of the years of experience a teacher has had are recognized or credited by the Teacher Retirement System of Georgia and by the fact that certain independent school systems are not included in the state retirement system. Taken as a i.Jhole, however, all of the tables seem to indice.te that the teaching force in Georgia tends to be ivell-balanced from the viei'JPoints of age and experience. As shovm by Table II-C-4 the median for selfreported teaching experience was 12.0 years. As a group, female teachers tended to have had greater experience than did male teachers ~ 'hlhite female teachers reported a median experience level of 13.9 years, while white male teac~ers reported a median of 9.1 ye2rs of ~\perience. Female Negro teachers reported a median experience of 11. 3 years, Hhile Negro male teachers had a median of 8.0 years of experience. In general, Hhite teachers tended to have greater experience than did the Negro teaching force. It also should be noted that among both races, a greater percentage of males had less than ten years of experience than did females.
Despite the slight discrepancies in available data on which the tables described in this subsection Here based, the close resemblances seem to warrant the generalizations which have been made.

- 26 -
II-D. Age1
In studying the characteristics of any work force, one of the most important factors TV":b..ich should be examined is the age of various members of the group. In the present study data Here available as of three distinct periods: February, 1954, June 30, 1957, and JanUalJT, 1959. Comparison of the data was somewhat difficult as the data TV"ere categorized in different vmys and uere somet'7hat incomplete. The 1954 and 1959 data Torere categorized by age, sex, and race, while the 1957 data included only age and sex. Similarly, the 1957 and 1959 data, presented in Tables II-D-l through II-D-6, included clerical and non-professional personnel. Although it is estimated that non-professional personnel represented less than one-half of one per cent of the total data, caution had to be observed in analyzing and comparing these data. UnfortunatelY more precise data were not readily available.
In general, the age distribution of public school teachers in the state of Georgia was indicative of a fairly well-balanced work force. These findings tend to reinforce the balance in experience among the teaching force Hhich vms discussed in the previous section. As shm,m by Table II-D-l, the median age for all teachers in Georgia as of January, 1959 llTaS thirty-nine years old. The middle 50 per cent of the teaching force were betHeen 29.2 and 48.5 years old. In 1954, the median age of all teachers lms 37.9 years, and the middle 50 per cent Here betueen 28.4 and 46.6 years of age.
As of January, 1959, white female teachers tended to represent the oldest employed group. They had a median age of 42.5 years, liJith the middle 50 per cent ranging from 31.1 to 51.5 years. Negro females represented the neA~ oldest group uith a median age of 35.7 years. The middle 50 per cent Here between 27.9 and L4.8 years of age. The median age for white male teache!'s Has 34.8 years, Tdth the middle 50 per cent ranging behJeen 28.0 and 44.6 years of age. Negro male teachers had a median age of 34.0 years, with the middle 50 per cent of the Group between 28.1 and 41.7 yea:r-s old. Thus among both races, women teachers tended to be somewhat older on the average than were their male co-workers. These findings were in line T-.'ith the longer amounts of experience found a..'11ong vJOmen members of the teaching force.
In general, little difference vms found betvreen the ages of teachers employed in the county school ~stems and those employed in the independent systems of the state. The median age for all teachers employed in county school ~stems as of January, 1959 lIas 39.3 years, Trith the middle 50 per cent ranging in age from 29.3 to 48.6. The median age for teachers employed in independent school S'"Jstems at that time vJaS 37.9 years, vuth the middle 50 per cent being betTieen 28.6 and LiS.3 years of age. As TV"as true Trith the state as a whole women teachers of both races, in both
~his section was ToTitten by Albert J. Kingston, Jr. The generalizations discussed in this section are based upon Tables II-D-l through II-D-7 found on pages 33-47 in the So~r~ ~.

- 27 -
county and independent systems, tended to be someVJhat older than were
male teachers. In both types of school systems white women represented
the oldest group. It is interesting to note, however, that the smallest age differential among any of the groups vJaS found among Negroes employed in independent systems. As shown by Table II-D-3, the median age for Negro female teachers employed in independent school systems was 34.1 years, while the median age for Negro male teachers was 33.8 years.
Although 1-Then viewed as a whole, the teachi.l1g force in Georgia tended to be well-balanced during the period studied, noticeable differences in
teacher age existed among the various county school systems. In certain
counties the teaching groups VJere considerably older than those found in other parts of the state. In Chattahoochee, for example, the mediaD age for white teachers was reported as 53.0 years, ~Qth the middle 50 per cent ranging from 40 ..5 to 61. 8 years of age. In Pike County the median age for 1'Thite teaohers (Vas 51.2.'1ears, vJith the middle 50 per cent ranging from 42.6 to 56.7 years. On the other hand, certain counties tended to have a fairly young teachLl1g force. Liberty County reported a median age for white teachers of 32.4 years, with the middle 50 per cent ranging from 25.1 to 42.1 years. In Glynn County the median age for white teachers was 32.8 years, with the nuddle 50 per cent ranging in age bet"tveen 24.3 and 41.1..4 years. Similar comparisons may be made for Negro teachers employed in the various county school systems.
In general, the median age for Negro teachers employed in the county school systems of the state tended to be somewhat lower than that of vihite teachers. It is likely that this condition was due, in part, to the proportionately greater number of older white teachers employed in the teaching force. Few county SJ~stems reported a median age of forty years or above for Negro teachers, while the majority of counties reported median ages somewhere between thirty and forty years of age.
As shown by Table II-D-5, the age distribution of personnel employed in the 39 city school systems of the state tended to follow the same general pattern found among the county school systems. In most city systems, as in the county systems, the median age for white teachers exceeded that of Negro teachers.
Tables II-D-6 and II-D-7 indicate similar data for public school employees during the years 1957 and 1954, respectively. Although comparison "tilth the 1959 data is som81'Jhat difficult, the tables tend to yield approximately the same conclusions and portray s'iimj law bmnldB..

II-E. Marital Statusl

- 28 -

In May 1957, 66.9 per cent of the teachers of Georgia reported that they were married, 23.1 per cent were single, 6.2 per cent i-J"ere widowed and 3.8 per cent were divorced. In all four race and residence categories
(loThite teachers in city and county systems, Negro teachel~s in city and county systems), men were married in greater proportions than 1rJere women.
Women reported a higher percentage than men of single,1rddowed, and divorced in all categories (race and residence). The sex difference 1rJaS
rather marked in the "wido'Vred" categoI"'J. As compared with white teachers, higher proportions of Negro teachers reported that they were divorced,
slightly lower percentages were in the i-J"idowed catego~J, slightly higher percentages were reported in the single category, and somewhat smaller
contin.g811't were married. The largest proportion reporting a "single" status Here the 1,253 or 34.2 per cent of women teachers in city systems.

1 This section l>J"ritten by Joseph C. Bledsoe. Based on Table II-E-l,

Sgoiau.rce

.B.o--o,k..

-o-f

Data Concerning
-=--.- - - - -

Teachers
..._ .... _.-..s

and
-..-,

Teacher
~._ -

Education in
--~

Geor-

- 29 -
II-F. Relative Stability of the Work Forcel
All teachers in the teaching force in May, 1957 were asked by the State Department of Education to indicate their teaching status during the preceding year (1955-56). These data were then enumerated within four categories: (1) taught in same system in Georgia; (2) taught in Georgia system other than present position; (3) taught out of Georgia; (4) did not teach. The breakdown into these four categories for the total teaching population showed 23,959 or 79.5 per cent of the teachers taught in the same system the previous year; 2,064 or 6.8 per cent taught in a different ~ffstem in Georgia; 853 or 2.8 per cent taught in another state; and 10.9 per cent did not teach the previous year.
Teachers remaining; in same system. The percentage of the total teaching force in May, 1957 Who~ght in the same school system during the preceding year (1955-56) varied from a low of 72.5 per cent for white men teaching in county systems to 85.0 per cent for Negro women teaching in county systems, for a mean per cent in the state for all ~Jstems, both races, and both sexes of 79.5 or roughly four out of five. This category (number and/ or per cent teaching in the same system) may be considered a rough index of stability of the teaching force and indicates a higher percentage of "stability" (teaching in the same system) for "t-Jomen teachers in the four groups (ll1hite county, white city, Negro county, Negro city) as compared with men and greater stability for Negro teachers in the four groups (men county, men city, women county, 1110men city), as compared with white teachers. The data on population groups with respect to residence indicates that Negro wanen in county systems have greatest stability~ (85.0 per cent), followed by Negro women in city systems (83.8 per cent). lh the'otheXl racial groups, a smaller percentage taught in the same system the previ01;ls year for the groups in county systems as compared with city systems (white men; {'mite women; and Negro men). Stated differently, "stability" was associated with city systems, vuth the very slight difference in the case of Negro women.
Inter-system mobility. The percentage of teachers in the several teaching population groups who moved from one system to another from 1955-56 to 1956-57 varied from a low of 5.7 per cent of Negro women teachers in city systems to 11.1 per cent of men teachers in county systems, vuth an average of 6.8 per cent. Thus men teachers in county systems were about twice as likely to have moved during the interim to a new position as Negro Homen teachers in city systems. All four groups in the county systems (White men, white women, Negro men, Negro Homen) taught in other Georgia systems the preceding year in greater proportions than did the corresponding four - - groups in the city systems. All four male groups (white county, white city, Negro county, Negro city) moved from one system to another with greater frequency than did the corresponding female groups. With respect to race, all four white groups (county men, county women, city men, city women) moved within the state in greater propositions than did the corresponding Negro groups.

1 This section was written by Joseph C. Bledsoe. The major source of data

for these descriptive comments may be found in Tables II-F-l through

II-F-6, pages 49-54, Source Book of Data Concerning Teachers and Teacher

Education ~ Georgia. - - - -

-

-

- 30 -
Inter-state mobility. The percentage of teachers in the several teaching population groups who moved from another state into one of the Georgia
systems ranged from a 101'1" of 2.. 1 for Negro vromen in city systems to 4.8
for white men in city systems, and a total percentage (both city and
county, both white and negro, both men and vmmen) of 2.8 or 28 per 1,000
teachers. With respect to the type of eystem, the two white groups (men and women) in the city systems included more teachers than did the corresponding groups in county systems. For the Negro groups, the proportions were almost eXA,ctly identjcal (2~8 for Negro men in both city
and county; 2.2 for Negro women in county systems, 2.1 for Negro women in
city systems). Men in all four population groups (city 't"iThite, city Negro oounty white, county Negro) carne from other states into Georgia in greater proportions than did women in the corresponding groups.. Thus inter-state mobi.lity is more characteristic of men teachers, 't-Thite teachers, and teachers in city systems t~~ of their respective opposites.
Additions to 't"iTork force during 1957. A total of 3,283 persons teaching in
May 1957reporte'd that they 11ad~not taught the preceding year. This
group, which constituted 10.9 per cent of the total teaching force, included
both newcomers (beginning teachers) and those who were returning to the teaching force after one year or more out of the profession. The percentage of the teachers vJithin the several population groups 'tlTho did not teach
the preceding year varied from a low of 60 9 per cent of the Negro women in county systems tc ahigh of 13.3 per cent of white men in county systems.
Men did not teach the preceding year in greater proportion than did women in each of the four population groups; county vJhite, county Negro, city white, city Negro.. Except for county Negro women, the percentages of county teachers who had not taught the preceding year was greater than that of the corresponding city teachers. The total for all county groups,
however, was only 11.0 per cent as compared with 10.6 per cent for city
systems. In both city and county and for both men and women, white teachers did not teach the previous year in greater proportions than did the Negro teachers. Thus greater proportions of persons who are additions to the teaching force appear to be more characteristic of men and of white teachers, 'tlTith very little differentiation by type of system.
Teachers entering or re-entering in 1958. During the year 1958, a total of 4;432 "teachers registered vJith theTeaCher Retirement System of Georgia
as "ne1'1" teachers. Thms number may have included a relatively small group of "returning" teachers Hho had previously taught but for the most part, these persons were ne't"Jcomers. This group did not include teachers in the
Atlanta independent system (3,411 teachers in January 1959) and the Fulton County System (1,037 teachers in January 1959), nor did it include the majority of the teachers of the Rome independent system (216 teachers in January, 1959). Membership in the Teacher Retirement System of Georgia
is also available to a very small percentage (estimated to be less than one-half of one per cent) of clerical employees of school systems.. It is
estimated that the Retirement System includes about 83 per cent or fivesixths of the teachers of Georgia (27,500 of about 33,000 teachers).
Of the 4,432 "new" teachers in 1958 in Georgia 3,494 or 78.9 per cent were white as compared with 70.0 per cent of the total teaching force in

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January, 1959. The majority of new registrants 'trIere relatively young. The median age of the total group was 27 and three-fourths of the total group were below 26 years of age. Forty per cent were in the age bracket
20 through 24. Men who entered the teaching force were somewhat older
on the average (1.1 year for whites, 3.1 years for Negroes) than women. The med:ian age of "new" 1'7hite teachers was 2.3 years greater than the median age of "new" Negro teachers.
The variability or spread of ages of the nevJ teachers was considerably greater for the white groups (men and women) as compared 'tnth the Negro groups. This fact was particularly true for ,vhite 'tvomen teachers. Thus, more than three-fourths of new Negro women teachers were in the twenties, three-fourths of entering Negro men were below age 32 and more than threefourths of lvhite men belov7 age .35. Three-fourths of white women were younger than 38.4 years of age. The percentages of the four groups 35 years and older were as follows: white men 24.2 per cent; white women 30.8 per cent; Negro men, 6.1 per cent; Negro women, 7.6 per cent.
As compared 'tnth the total teaching force as of January 1959 with respect to median age, the 1958 entering teachers were 12 years younger on the average.l With the median age of entering teachers listed first, followed by median age of total teaching force registered vdth the Retirement System, the comparative figures for the sub-populations are: white men, 28.2, 34.8; white women, 27.1, 42.5; Negro men, 27.5, 34.0; Negro women, 24.4, 35.7.
Teachers withdravJing or leaving teaching in 1958. During the year 1958,
a total or 2,263 persons withdrew from theGeorgia Teacher Retirement
$Ystem. 2 Of these persons, 1,815 or 80.5 per cent were white teachers, an excess of 10.5 per cent over the January 1959 proportion (70.0) of white teachers in the total force. The mean number of years of service of the total group was 4 years, vdth the 51.8 per cent of persons who were younger than 30 years of age having served less than four years. The median age of Negro teachers who lvithdrew was 1.6 years older than for white teachers, and in the case of both vJhite and Negro teachers, men v7ho withdrew their retirement co.ntributions were older than the women 1'Jho withdrew. As compared with the group who entered the teaching profession, this group was but a fevJ years older (2.7 years on the average). As compared with the January 1959 teaching force, the vdthdrawing group includes more white persons, particularly more white men teachers. Thus, 14.7 per cent of the total teaching force were white men, as compared lVith 20.3 per cent of the withdrawing teachers. By Hay of contrast, 6.4 per cent of the total teaching force were Negro men as compared with 5.5 per cent of the withdrawing teachers

1 See Table II-D-l, page 34, Source Book.

2 The discussion which follows is based on Table II-F-3, page 51, Source

Book.

~

3 See Table II-A-5, page 9, Source Book.

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v.Jhite women teachers who withdrew were 60.2 per cent of 1958 vti.thdrawing teachers as compared 'tnth 55.4 per cent of the total teaching force in Januar,y 1959, whereas Negro women teachers who withdrew were 14.0 per cent of withdrawing teachers as compared with 23.6 per cent of the January 1959 teacher 't'lOrk force.
Greater variability appeared to be characteristic of the vti.thdrawing white teachers as compared with the Negro teachers, since relatively small .numbers of older teachers (50 or more years of age) among the Negroes
(10 persons) withdrew as compared with 144 white teachers 50 years of
age or older. Thus, the teachers leaving were typically young, more likely to include higher proportions of men, and greater-than-expected proportions of whites as compared with Negroes.
A more detailed analysis of the years of service of the 1958 withdrawing teachers is provided in Table II-F-4. Here the numbers and percentages of teachers vti.thin each of four sex and rac e categories indicates that a majority of teachers who withdrew in 1958 did so after less than three years of teaching. Thus 67.4 per cent of white men withdrew during or at the end of the first three years of teaching; the corresponding percentage for the other three populations was: wp~te women, 67.0; Negro men, 46.4; Negro vlOmen, 36.2. Median years of service for white men was 2.2 years, for white women, 2.1, for Negro men, 3.3 years, for Negro women, 4.1. Thus the teachers who in 1958 withdrew their funds were a comparatively young group who have had typically two or three years experience and apparently decided for some reason not to continue in the teaching profession, or at least not in the state of Georgia. Further analyses would be needed to determine vnlere these teachers went, what levels were represented, and other pertinent questions.
Internal mobility patterns of principals. Additional information concerning the relative stability of selected portions of the teaching profession in the state of Georgia is available in the form of two studies which have been reported in the professional journals within recent years concerning the internal migration of white public school principals in Georgia and the tenure of employment of the white public school-principals in Georgia. Principals were selected for study as a type o:fleader in the education profession, presumably representative of persons likely to remain fairly permanently. Selected information from one of these studies has been presented in Tables III-F-5 and II-F-6 of the Source Book of Data Concerning Teachers and Teacher Education in Georgia. Tnis partiCular studylreported the internal migration of those principals of white public schools having ten or more teachers during the school year 1955-56 over the nine-year span from 1947 through 1956. A total of 614 principals were included in the study; of these 553 or
82.0 per cent were men and 121 or 18.0 per cent were women. In terms of
1ellth of service as principal, these persons ranged from 5h beginning principals serving only in 1955-56 to 297 persons who served throughout the nine-year period.
1 J~ ll. iiledsme" ,IrA &'budy.$ Mob:ii]J.ty' llong- CleoI!gia Sohool ho":t.nQt.p9l.]s. from 1947 through 1956," Educational Administration and Supervision,
Vel. 421 No.8, December, 1956, pp. 449-456.

Table II-F-5 (page 53, Source Book) presents the number and percentage of the principals and the meanage within each of six mobility-stability categories and the two sex categories, male and female. The first mobilitystability category comprised those principals who held only one position and remained in that position for five or more years. This group may be termed the most stable group. The second category included those persons who held only one position for from two to four years. The tUrd group included 54 first-year or beginning principals. Three categories are listed in the mobile group, those who had t'tVo positions, those who held three positions, and those who held four or more positions during the nineyear span. baiLysis of the tabular material indicates that women were older within all mobility categories.
Table II-F-6 presents the numbers and percentages of tuo groups of principals 1~thin five rural-urban residence categories. One group comprised those persons occupying the same position for at least five years; the second group consisted of principals who have held two or more positions during the period. The residence category reported for mobile principals is the type of residence from which the principal moved. Greater stability was associated with high percentage of urban residence.
A grand total of 403 changes in position were reported by the 238 principals who moved. In addition to the 10.5 men and 16 women who held two positions during the nine-year span, 86 men held three positions (moved twice), 19 men served in four different places, ten men held five different spots, one man had six schools, and one man held seven positione in nine years!
Further analysis of the data in this study indicated that men principals were quite significantly younger on the average than women, that they w"ere to be found in rupal areas in much greater proportions, that they were much more likely to move about within the state, that their moves "Here in a varied fashion, whereas women principals rarely moved and usually did so only within the system of employment, that principals v.rho moved frequently were to be found in smaller schools, that men principals included young men who were relatively new to the profession, whereas women principals typically were older and tended to be much more alike in terms of age among themselves as compared with men.
Tenure of Georgia ,rinCiSals. A similar studYl over a ten-year period
(1946 througn 1~6 of t e principals of all white public schools in Georgia
in 19.56 in terms of tenure or the duration of employment identified 996 or 70 per cent of the 1,424 principals as men, with 428 or 30 per cent

1 Joseph C. Bledsoe, "Factors Related to the Tenure of Public-School

Principals in Georgia During the Decade from 1946 through 19.56,"

Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 43, No.4, April 19.57,

pp. 193-203.

-

- 34 -
being women. It is apparent that a considerable number of women "rere teachers of smaller schools (fewer than ten teachers), since in the same year, 82 ~er cent of the teachers of schools having ten or more teachers were men.
The combined mean number of years tenure or years of employment in a
single position during the decade for men and women was 4.5 years; the
mean tenure for men principals was 4.0 years, for women 5.7 years. For the combined groups, 16.2 per cent had held only one position for the entire decade; 15.7 per cent had held their present position from six to nine years; 46.2 per cent had held their present position from two to five years; and 22.0 per cent were in their present position for the first
year.
In Georgia white schools the mean number of persons holding the principal-
ship duriPg the dega<ifu "tvas 3,.2 irJith a standard deviation of 1.7. The
percentage of schools having only one principal during the entire decade
was 20.9; the percentage having t"tvo principals was 21.1; schools having three principals, 19.2 per cent; those which had four principals was 15.3 per cent; those which had five or more principals was 23.5 per cent.
Two schools had nine principals, and one school had ten principals in ten years I
Longer mean tenure of principals was found to be associated with women principals; with larger schools; with schools increasing in size; with schools in districts where population is gradually increasing; with schools in urban districts; with schools which have regional accreditation; where principals are older; where small percentages of the population have low incomes; and 1uth high schools and combination high-elementary(grades one to twelve) schools.
Conversely, greater turnover of school principals was associated with these schools having a man as the incumbent principal; luth smaller schoms; with schools decreasing in enrollment; with districts 1..rhere the population is declining or rapidly increasing; with rural school districts; with non-accredited schools; with schools irlhich have younger principals; with those school districts which have large percentages of families 1dth low income; and with elementary schools.
As compared with men principals, 1ivomen principals vrere on the average significantly oider, served as principals of smaller schools, were more likely to serve as principals of schools 1-1hich weIle decreasing in size, were more likely to be serving in districts where the population was gradually increasing as opposed to declining and rapidly increasing, were less likely to be principal of an accredited school, "Jere more likely to be principal in a school district where a small percentage of the population had low income, and were almost entirely elementarJ school principals.
1. Bledsoe, E. cit., p. 451.

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Summary. From the tabular material and from additional material cited, the following generalizations concerning the relative stability of the teaching force (including principals) seem to be warranted:
1. Most teachers apparently teach from year to year with approximately six out of seven teachers in a typical year (in this case 1957) apparently remaining in teaching in the state. Of these "stayers", about one in twelve moves from one s:Tstem to another within the state. Of the remaining one-seventh of the teaching force, approximately one out of five comesfrom other states, and four out of
five (that is 4/5 of the 1/7) are apparently beginners or
persons returning after one or more years out of the profession. Stated differently, 28 out of ~acl); 1;:.000 total teachers taught in another state and 109 per each 1,000 of all the teachers were beginners or returning after one or more years out of teaching.
2. The Negro teaching force is apparently more stable than is the white teaching force, since greater proportions report teaching the previous year, fewer proportions than would normally be expected entered the Retirement S,rstem in 1958 and fewer persons than would be eA'Pected by chance withdrew
their retirement funds voluntarily in 1958.
3. Persons withdrawing from the Retirement System are predominantly young persons, with two-thirds or more reporting less than three years experience.
4. Greater proportions of men, particularly white men, with-
draw after two or three years of experience than would be expected by chance, as compared with women.
5. The principalship in Georgia schools is not a relatively stable position since over the decade from 1946-56, the
mean number of persons holding the principalship of a typical school was 3.2. The longer mean duration or tenure of principals was found to be associated with women principals; with larger schools; with schools increasing in size; with schools in urban counties; vn.th schools in counties i'Jhere the population is gradually increasing (as compared with declining or rapidly increasing); with schools having regional accreditation (as compared ~~th state accreditation only); where principals are older, where small percentages of the population have low incomes; and with high schools and combination high-elementary schools.

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II-G. Teaching Duties and Level of Instruction1
Level of Instruction. The major source of data concerning the teaching duties-and level of instruction of Georgia teachers is the analysis and summary of the I.B.M. collation of an extensive questionnaire completed by all Georgia teachers in May 1957. At that time 67.6 per cent of teachers stated that they were teaching in elementary schools, 5.6 at the junior high school level, and 26.7 per cent at the senior high school level. With respect to race, Negro teachers reported teaching at the elementary school level at a proportion 5.1 per cent greater than white teachers and greater proportions of Negro teachers were found for both men and women and in both county and city systems. Conversely, at the junior high and senior high levels for both men and women and in both county and city systems, there were higher percentages of white teachers. Sex differences were quite apparent in both races and in both residence or administration categories, since much greater percentages of men were teaching at the junior high and senior high levels than at the elementary level. That teaching even at these levels is largely "lloman ls work" (not necessarily, a desirable characteristic, depending upon onels point-ofView) is evident by the fact that at both levels for both races, and for both residence categories, greater numbers of women VJere found than men. The ratio of men to the total teaching staff for the two levels and the four race-residence groups were as follows: junior high level: County white, 31.1 per cent men; county Negro, 28.6 per cent men; city white, 27.8 per cent men; city Negro 26.8 per cent men; Senior high level: County white 39.9 per cent men; county Negro, 41.3 per cent men; city white 38.0 per cent men; city Negro 42.3 per cent men.
Elementary teaching duties. Men in elementary schools were mostly reported at grade six or higher. In fact, only 9.6 per cent of white men and 14.6 per cent of Negro men reported teaching below the sixth grade level. Proportionately, one elementary class in eleven in the state (9.1 per cent) was a combination class of two grades, liV'hile 1.7 per cent were combinations of three grades -- t;ypically grades one, two, and three.--and
2. a per cent or 426 were combinations of four or more grades. As might
have been expected, there 'Has generally a declin-ing percentage of the total from first grade through the eighth. One exception was the white fourth grade class liV'hich was second on~ to the first grade. Most of these children (fourth-grade 1957) were born in the banner birth year 1947. A larger proportion of white pupils were taught in combinations of two classes (8.9 per cent white, 8.2 per cent Negro), but larger proportions of Negro pupils were reported in combinations of three grades (2.7 Negro, 1.0 white) and in four or more grades (3.7 Negro, 1.0 white).
High School teaching duties. High school teachers reported their subject
areas in May 1957 in two figures -- number of pupils taught and number
of periods. By analyzing these two sets of data, one can readily infer to what extent classes may be somewhat smaller or larger than the average

1 This section was }~itten by Joseph C. Bledsoe. The descriptive state-

ments and generalizations contained herein are based on Tables II-G-l

through II-G-7, pages 55 through 61, Source Book of Data Concerning

Teachers and Teacher Education frograms ~ Georgia: -

-

- 37 -
size of class. The most frequently recurring subject area for both whites and Negroes ancf for both numbers of pupils and numbers of periods 't-Jas English and related language arts. For white teachers, the rat-io was more than one in five, both for pupils and periods. Since more pupils than periods were reported, the appropriate inference is that these classes were slightly larger than the overall average size class. For Negroes,
one-fifth of pupils were enrolled in English classes as compared 't-J'ith 17.9
per cent of periods devoted to this subject area.
In terms of declining frequency of mention (after English), the .number of pupils taught by the white teachers were as follows (with per cent
frequency of mention in parentheses): social sciences (13.5); mathematics
(11.9); health and physical education (10.8); study hall (10.8); sciences
(8.7); business and commercial (6.4); homemaking (3.9); music (3.6); vocational agriculture (2.5); foreign languages (1.8); miscellaneous
(counseling, supervision, etc.) (1.8); industrial arts and vocational education (1.6); art (0.7); trades and industrial education (0.7).
In terms of numbers of periods, the order was somewhat similar with minor variations as indicated by the comparative percentages of pupils to total pupils and periods to total periods. Thus, besides English, those areas in which classes were relatively larger than the overall average were social sciences, music, natural sciences, and "study hallll The two figures for mathematics classes were identical indicating that these classes weDe about average in aize. Areas whose typical classes were likely to be smaller than usual or typical, were art, business subjects, health and physical education, homemaking, industrial arts, trades and industrial education, and vocational agriculture. Miscellaneous duties of teachers (counseling, supervision) would rather obviously be likely to require a greater proportion of time as compared with numbers of pupils involved.
The corresponding pattern for high school Negro teachers and pupils in-
dicated, that in 1957, the numbers of pupils involved in declining order
of frequency were; English (20.1); social sciences (15.4); mathematics (11.6); health and physical education (11.3), natural sciences (10.2);
stUdy hall (7.3); music (5.6); homemaking (5.5); business and commercial (2.8); vocational agriculture (2.5); industrial arts and miscellaneous
(both 1.9); art (1.6); trades and industrial education (1.2); foreign languages (1.1).
As compared with the number of periods reported, since classes in some subjects are typically larger than classes in other subjects, the following subjects for Negro high school pupils involved relatively larger proportions of pupils than periods which suggests larger-than-average class sizes: English, social sciences, natural sciences, study hall, music, and art. No difference in proportions was reported for foreign languages. Relatively greater proportions of periods than pupils (suggesting smaller class sizes) were reported for mathematics, health and physical education, business and commercial subjects, homemaking, industrial arts, trades and industrial education, vocational agriculture, and miscellaneous.
With respect to white-Negro differences in emphasis reflected by differences in proportions of pupils involved in the various subjects, the patterns were generally similar with the "big five" (English, mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, and health and physical education) accounting

- 38 -
for 66.2 per cent of white pupil-periods and 68.6 of Negro pupil-periods. Although most differences were small and may not have been of much significance, greater proportions of white pupils take English, business, and commercial subjects (in this latter field the difference was considerable), foreign languages, and study hall. Less than one-half of one per cent or no differences between white and Negro proportions were indicated in vocational agriculture, mathematics, industrial arts, and miscellaneous. Differences in which Negro pupil-periods were one-half of one per cent or more higher than white pupil-periods included art, health and physical education, homemaking, music, natural sciences, social sciences, and trades and industrial education.
Comparison of teachin~ duties of Georgia teachers ~ those E! the U. S.
During the year 1955- 6, an extensive study of teachers throughout the
United States was conducted by the Research Division of the National Education Association. A one per cent sample appropriately weighted was polled to determine the professional, economic, and social status of teachers in the United States. Certain data from this studyafe of interest particularly at this point with respect to the teaching assignment at the high-school level in terms of Georgiafs patterns of 'emphasis as compared with the national sample. The high school teachers reported that they were teaching more than half-time in the following fields in the percentages indicated: English (15.5); mathematics (12.9); science (12.6); history and other social studies (11.7); business education (11.7);
industrial arts and vocational education (6.3); foreign languages (5.2);
household economics (4.8); health and physical education (4.4); agriculture (2.8); music (2.7); art (1.2); driver education (0.5); general educati~n ("core") (003); combinations (no one field more than half-time) (7.4). Although these figures may not be iInmediately comparable since the classifications in the national study were in terms of "teaching more than half-time" in a subject, they may be considered as a rough index of proportionate emphasis, especially since "study halIH in the Georgia study may be placed in juxtaposition beside "combination" in the national study. Thus within the limitations imposed by the nature in which the data from the two studies WQ'.e obtained, it appears that Georgia high schools have placed somewhat greater emphasis than is true nationally on English, music, health and physical education, and vocational agriculture. About the same proportionate emphasis has been given tosocial sciences, art, and homemaking. Areas in which Georgia high schools have had lower-thannational proportions relatively were mathematics, foreign languages, natural sciences, business education, industrial arts, and trades and industrial education (apparently included in "vocational education" in the national study). The differences were most marked in the case of health and physical education in which much greater proportions of Georgia teachers were reported and in all o the areas in which the Georgia teachers reported lower proportions.
Sex differences in teachLDg areas. With respect to sex and race differences of high school teachers by subject areas, both white and Negro teachers showed strikingly similar patterns without exception. Two out of five white teacher-periods and slightly more (l.J.3.9 per cent) of Negro teacher-period."
1 "The Status of the American Public School Teacher", NEA Research Bulletin Vol. XXXV, Number 1, February, 1957, p. 26.

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were taught by men. Certain subject arem may be said to be "man's domain", that is, men were found in greater relative proportions than women; these areas, listed L~ the order in which men dominated were: industrial arts, vocational agriculture, trades and industrial education, mathematics, science, health and physical education, miscellaneous (counseling, supervision, etc.), music, and social studies. Subjects which might be referred to as "vJOman's territory", that is, in which women were found in greater numbers, were in the order of frequency in which women predominate were home economics, foreign languages, English, business and commercial subjects, art, and study hall.
The May 1957 teachers were also asked to give information concerning the
extra-class activities or co-curricular activities which take one or more periods of their time.. The nature of these activities v~s so diverse that a relatively large proportion were listed in the "otherll or miscel_ laneous category. The information concerning the activities which were classified into identifiable groups, however, suggests the following order of frequency in terms of numbers of pupils involved (first, for the white high school pupils): athletics, literary-dramatic, vocational, characterbuilding, music, scholastic, and student government. For the Negro high school pupils, the pattern was character building, first, followed by vocational, literary-dramatic (these three types were very close together and much more frequent than any other types), music, athletics, scholastic, and student government. In terms of breakdown by white men and women teachers and Negro men and women teachers, by far the greatest activities of white men teachers were in the category of athletics, l-Jhich took a greater per cent of classes than all other identifiable activities com-
bined (35..6 for athletics as compared with 26.1 for all other identifiable
activities combined). For white women teachers, the leading activity category was literary-dramatic. Negro men teachers spent greatest number of periods in athletics and character-building activities, while Negro women teachers were engaged most frequently in literary-dramatic activities.
The generalizations which follow concerning the teaching duties and levels
of instruction as of May 1957 appear to be warranted. Insofar as the May 1957 situation reflects the typical situation (assuming the pattern has
not changed markedly in the interim), these generalizations would seem to be representative of the present pattern of teaching duties.
The elementary schools of Georgia were mostly a "women's world", since only 8e 3 per cent or one in twelve of all elementary teachers
(including principals) were men in Hay 1957. This fact was true
for both white and Negro schools. Five per cent more Negro teachers were teaching at the elementary level than were white teachers.
3. Even at the junior and senior high schools, greater numbers of
women were to be found than men (for both races). The proportions were more nearly equal, however, being 30 per cent of men in junior high levels, and 40 per cent men in senior high.
4. Five subject areas and "study hall" accounted for 77 per cent of
white pupils and 75.9 per cent of Negro pupils. These subjects
in order of frequency were English, social sciences, mathemat~s, health and physical education, study hall, and science ..
5. When numbers of pupils were compared with numbers of periods taught,
it is apparent that the following subject areas involved typically larger-than-average size classes: English, social sciences, natu-

-~-
ral sciences, study hall, music, and art. Foreign language classes were about average in size. Smaller-than-average classes were reported for mathematics, health and physical education, business and commercial subjects, homemaking, L~dustrial arts, trades and industrial education and vocational agriculture.
6. Greater proportions of white pupils than Negro pupils took English,
business and commercial subjects (a marked difference), foreign languages, and study hall. Differences involving less than one-half of one per cent were reported for vocational agriculture, mathematics, and industrial arts. Negro students were found in greater proportions in art, health and physical education$ homemaking, music, natural sciences, and social sciences.
7. As compared with teachers over the nation, Georgia teachers spent
relatively greater errlphasis (in terms of frequency) on English, health and physical education, and vocational agriculture. Social science~, art, and homemaking were found in approximately equal proportions. Areas which received less frequency in Georgia schools were mathematics, foreign languages, natural sciences, business education, industrial arts, and trades and industrial education.
8. Relatively greater proportions of men high school teachers were
found in classes (in declining order of male dominance) involving industrial arts, vocational agriculture, trades and industrial education, mathematics, science, health and physical education, music, and social sciences. Woman's territory in the order of female dominance included home economics, foreign language, English, business. and comraercial subjects, art, and study hall. Athletics dominated the activities reported by white teachers, particularly white men teachers. Negro teachers spent more time in character-building, vocational, and literary-dramatic activities.

II-H. Compensationl

- 41 -

If one v;rere to take a single figure as being representative of the salaries earned by public school teachers in the state of Georgia during January, 1959, the median earned salary might be assumed to be most typical. As shown by Table II-H-l the median salary for Georgia teachers at that time was ~~289 per month or ,$3,688 per year. The middle 50 per cent of teachers earned between $239, and $360 per month. Thus in terms of yearly income, the middle 50 per cent of Georgj,a teachers earned annual salaries ranging bebJeen $2,868 and (;4,320. It will be recalled that Table I-C-3 presented data comparing the salaries of Georgia teachers l~th certain selected other states in the count~. Although the salaries of Georgia teachers tended to approximate those of teachers emplQYed in neighboring states, Hith the exception of Florida, these figures tend to be somewhat misleading. In general, the salaries paid public school teachers in Southeastern states l'Jere considerably belO1V' the national average.

Despite the greater experience of Homen teachers among both the white and
Negro races, men earned a higher median salary. At the time the data were collected, white men earned a median salary of ~)37l per month or
$4,452 annually. The middle 50 per cent of li:hite males earned salaries ranging from $297 per month, or $3,564 per year, to ~s466 per month, or $5,592 per annum. During the same period, the median salary- earned by
Negro males was $294 per month, or $3,528 per year. The middle 50 per cent of Negro male school employees earned salaries ranging from $21.J+ per
month, or $2,928 yearly, to $384 per month, or $I.j.,60B annually. The salaries of white males exceeded those of Negro males, ~d the salaries of Negro males tended to be higher than those of either white or Negro
loJ'omen. The differential bet1fJee.n salaries of white and Negro, and male and female, was probably due, in part, to the greater number of "VJhite males who were employed in administrative, supervisoIJr, or other posi-
tions involvirlg special subsidies. These same factors as lJell as certification difference also may account for the salary differential found between Negro males and uhite females.

The median salary earned by white nomen teachers during the same period
was 8283 per month, or $3,396 per year. The middle 50 per cent of white 1fomen teachers in the state earned salaries ranging from $234 per month, or $2,808 annually, to $347 per month, or ;;~4,164 per year. The median salary earned by Negro females was ~p269 per month, or $3,228 per annum. The middle 50 per cent of Negro lwmen teachers earned salaries ranging
from $232 per month, or $2,784 per year, to $318 per month or m3,816 annually. Local supplements to state funds probably accounted for much
\
" of the differences found between the salaries paid loyhite and Negro 1-wmen
teachers.

IThis section was written by Albert J. Kingston, Jr. The generalizations

discussed in this section are based upon Tables II-H-l through II-H-7

found

on

pages

62-75

in

the

.Source

Book.
~

- 42 -
As shoiin by Tables II-H-2 and II-H-3, the salaries of personnel employed in the independent school systems of the state vJere some"rhat higher than those of personnel employed in the county school systems. It should be emphasized, however, that those independent school systems having separate retirement systems iiere not included in Table II-H-3. It is probable that the figures quoted for independent schools Hould likely be someHhat higher if data 1'J"ere available on these systems. The median salary earned by personnel employed in the county school systems as of January, 1959 Has $285 per month. The middle 50 per cent of school anployees earned bet"Heen ~p 237 and :';i358 monthly. In the independent school systems, the median sal~J Has $316 per month, ,nth the middle 50 per cent of personnel earning betHeen :')}257 and $357 monthly. In the county systems, males earned higher median salaries than females, "rhile in the independent systems white employees earned higher median salaries than did Negroes.
As shmvn by Table II-H-4, the average salary paid school employees during January, 1959 varied considerably among the counties of the state. It should be remembered, hOvlever, that no data iiere available for Fulton County 1'rlLich has an independent retirement system. In Atkinson Co~~ty, the mean monthly salary paid white male teachers was :>259. In \\lmtfield County, the mean monthly salary was $292. In contrast, the mean monthly salary paid uhite male employees in Hancock County iVas ~;531, i-rhile in Narion County the mean monthly salary vJaS :~505. Although some differences in salary may be accounted for by the differences in position held by the men whose earnings were reported, the total number of male emplqyees does not appear to be the sale factor in e)~p1aining salary~ differences. For example, Richmond County, with a mean month1:T salary of ~;L44, reported 120 male employees, l-Jhile Quitman County, "nth three Hhite males employed, reported a mean salary of $371 per month. Although some differences in certification and experience may account for these differences, it is likely that disparities in local supplements also were an important factor. Similar comparisons iITere found in studying the mean monthly earnings of white female, Negro male, and Negro female groups.
The mean or average monthly salaries for public school employees reported in Tables II-H-4 and II-H-5 must be interpreted Hith caution. IvIeans tend to be influenced by the extremes of a distribution to a greater extent than are medians. In many of the sal~J ranges reported in Tables II-H-4 and II-H-5 the differences in salary earned by teachers and administrators iVere sufficiently large so that the reported mean Sala.rJT figure could not be regarded as being typical of a teacherts monthly income.
Tables II-H-6 and II-H-7 illustrate the mean monthly salaries of Georgia public school employees by age and experience. Generally, teachers are paid on the basis of level of training and professional e:h.'Perience. These tables are i-mrthy of careful study because they illustrate a very important aspect of teacher compensation, namely, the limited ceiling on potential earnings. Generally spemcing, public school teachers in the state of Georgia receive 101:'" salaries 1'Jhen they first enter the profession, but after twenty years of e:cperience still receive comparatively low salaries. As illustrated by Table II-H-6, male public school employees in the 35-39 age bracket received a mean monthly salary of only 0399 as of June 30, 1957. Female school employees earned a mean monthly sal~J of $266 for the same period. As shoi'm by Table II-H-7, the differences

- 43 -
in the average monthly salary earned in June 30, 1957 by comparatively new women teachers (those vnth less than five years of service) and highly experienced women teachers (those with bet11een 30 and 34 years of service) was only $51 per month. The mean salary for beginning teachers was $235 per month while that of teachers vnth 30-34 years of experience 'Has merely ;;3296 per month. The comparatively low ceiling on the potential earnings for men can be seen if one compares the reported monthly salaries paid men vnth ten years of experience ,.Jith those of males vnth thirty years of service. The ten year period was selected because many men leave the classroom to assume administrative positions during their first decade of service.
These data emphasize the limited financial incentives faced by public school teachers in the state of Georgia. Not only do public school employees receive comparatively low initial salaries, but annual increments al~e so small that even highly experienced teachers are placed in unfortunate positions in comparison to other professional and trades employees. Teachers lJith t,Jenty years of experience actually earn less than certain recent college graduates even during their first year of entry into the Horking force. It is an unfortunate commentary on the times that the public school teacher begins her career earning less than workers in many other occupations. Even more unfortunate is the situation that from the viev~oint of potential life earnings, rather than alleviating the disparity by increased service and experience, the teacher tends to revert to an even more disadvantageous position as compared with many other professions.

CHAPTER III
PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION PROGRA1'1S
III-A. Number of Trainees in Undergraduate Training program1
Information presented in Table III-A-l indicates that the eighteen Wflite colleges of Georgia having teacher education programs produced in the decade
1549-1958 a total of 5,004 element~ and 5,816 secondary teachers. Just
how many of these individuals actually accepted teaching positions in Georgia or elsewhere is not known. It is reasonable to assume from past experience that not all actually entered the teaching profession, and of those Hho entered, some went out of the state for employment. In any
case, the data indicate an average yearly production of 500 white element~ teachers and 582 white second~ teachers.
This same table also indicates that Georgia State College for Women, Georgia Teachers College, and the Univereity of Georgia are the major teacher producing colleges. Together these three institutions produced
3,144 element~J teachers, or 62.8 per cent of the white element~r teachers produced in the period 19L:.9-1958. These same three institutions together produced 4,249 secondary teachers, or 73.6 per cent of the white
secondary teachers produced by Georgia colleges in the same decade. The seven public colleges of the state with teacher education programs pro-
duced 3,665 or 73.2 per cent of the elementarJ teachers while the private colleges produced 1,339 or 26.8 per cent. The seven public colleges also produced together 4,368 or 75.1 per cent of the secondary teachers Hith the private colleges producing 1,448 or 24.9 per cent.
The same general pattern in teacher production as indicated in Table III-A-2 prevailed among the Negro colleges of the state. The eight Negro colleges
producted 3,701 element~ and 3,405 secondarff teachers during the decade 1949-1958. The average yearly output Has 370.1 elementary and 340.5
secondary teachers. Albany State College, Fort Valley State College, and Savannah State College were the leading producers of Negro elementary
school teachers. These three colleges together produced 2,993 or 80.9 per cent of the Negro element~J teachers produced in the decade 1949-1958. The five private Negro colleges produced a total of 708 elementary school teachers or 19.1 per cent.
In the same decade the Negro colleges produced 3,405 secondary school
teachers. Fort Valley State College and Savannah State College produced over
800 each for a combined total of 1,653 or 48.5 per cent. Albany State
College, which enrolls largely elementary teacher education students,
produced only 100 secondary teachers or 2.9 per cent of the total. The five private Negro colleges produced together 1,652 secondary teachers or 48.6
per cent of the total.

IThis section was ~Titten by George L. Newsome, Jr. The factual informa-

tion upon which this discussion is based v~ll be found in A Source Book of

Data Concerning Teachers and Teacher Education in Georgia,-Tables III-A-r-

t'IirOugh III-A-6, pp. 76::8L

-

-

- 4.5 -
Table III-A-3 indicates how the prospective teachers of both races were distributed according to teaching fields. Of the total number of teachers produced, both white and Negro, 8,032 (47.8 per cent) prepared to teach in the elementarJ school, 7,480 (44.4 per cent) prepared to teach in the secondary school, and 1,317 (7.8 per cent) were prepared to teach special subjects at both levels. Among those prepared to teach in the elementary school, a very small proportion (493) were men. At the secondary level, 3,054 men were prepared for teaching, the majority of whom were prepared to teach agriculture, industrial arts, and social studies. In the special fields, the vast majority of men (.577 out of 716) prepared to teach physical education. Prevailing practices, however, suggest that very few men teach physical education in elementary schools. Thus, most of the men prepared to teach ptrJsical education likely entered the field of high school teaching. The vast majority of prospective women secondary teachers (3,.593 out of 4,426) were prepared to teach home economics (1,293), English (802), social studies (8.59), and commercial studies (639).
Table III-A-4 shows how the white prospective teachers produced by Georgia colleges in the decade, 1949-1958, were distributed by levBls and subjects. Out of the total prospective teachers produced, 4,413 or 44.0 per cent were prepared for the elementary level. Very fe't-J of those who l11!ere prepared for the elementary level were men (192). At the secondar,y level, 1,822 men and 2,726 women were prepared for teaching. Most of the men (1,169 out of 1,822) prepared to teach social studies (523), agriculture 0.5.5), and industrial arts (291). Host of the lTomen prepared to teach home economics (934), English (.556), social studies (404), and commercial studies (3.50).
In many respects the prospective Negro teachers produced by Georgia colleges in the decade, 1949-1958, distributed themselves by levels and subjects much like the prospective white teachers. Table III-A-.5 shows that 3,619 teachers or .53.2 per cent of the total prepared to teach at the elementary level and 2,932 or 43.1 per cent prepared to teach in the secondary school. Though more Negro men prepared for elementaty teaching than did white men, both the number (301) and the relative proportion (18,,0 per cent) were small. Host of the men prepared to teach such secondary school subjects as social studies (412), agriculture (1.59), comil1erce (117), mathematics (110), and general science (113). The higher proportion and greater actual numbers of Negro men prepared to teach commerce, mathematics, and science is a significant deviation from the pattern of preparation aTTlong 'VJhite men. Social studies (4.5.5), home economics 0.59), commercial studie s (289), and English (246) drew most of the prospective secondary women teachers. Prospective Negro teachers, both men and i'mmen, were more nearly equally distributed by level and by subject fields than were white prospective teachers.
Table III-A-6 provides projected estimates of the number of prospective teachers to be produced in June and August, 1960 and in 196.5. While some institutions anticipated an increase over 1959 in the number of teachers produced, others anticipated a decrease. The expected increase in total numbers of white teachers to be produced in 196.5 over that of 19.59 is 391 teachers or 40.7 per cent increase. The per cent increase for 1960 and 196.5 becomes less significant when viewed against the increase in actual numbers of teachers. The projected estimate for Negro teachers for 1960

- 46 -

is 1,767 or an increase of 151 over 1959 with an estimated increase of 438 for 1965 over 1959.

Whether the number of teachers produced by Georgia colleges in the decade, 1949-1958, was adequate to the demand in total numbers of teachers needed, or adequate in terms of the numbers needed by levels and subjects, is not precisely known. The demand for teachers depends upon many things: average daily attendance, expansion of the population, nature of the curriculum offered, the rate of retirement, withdrawal, and general turnover of teachers, and other factors. In the absence of specific figures on demand, other sources of information must be used to ascertain the relation of supply to demand.

From Table II-F-l, it is found that 13.7 per cent of the teachers in the

state either did not teach or did not teach in Georgia the previous year.

Thus, in 1957 some 4,136 "ne-t-J" teachers were employed. This nUInber of new

teachers in one given year is more than tw~ce the average number of

teachers produced by all Georgia colleges (white and Negro) in anyone

year. For example, produced only 1,754

dteuarcinhgertsh. le

school These

year, data,

1956-1957, Georgia colleges linuted though they may be,

suggest that teacher supply has not kept abreast of demand.

Another indication of the relation of teacher supply and demand can be had by comparing the number of teachers produced by Georgia colleges from 1949-1958 with the actual distribution of the 1iTork force. Table II-G-l shows that as of tfuy, 1957, 19,538 teachers were assigned to the elementa,y school, 1,605 to the junior high school, and 7,753 to the high school. Table II-G-2 shows that 1,213 men were assigned to the elementaty school. When the number of element~J school teachet"s prepared by Georgia colleges in the decade 1949-58 and especially the number of men teachers, was compared to the actual distribution of the teaching force, the supply of elementary teachers did not match the actual distribution. This comparison indicates that, when the several factors in demand are considered (teacher turnover, expanding population, etc.), there was a shortage of qualified elementary teachers.

An earlier study of supply and demand predicted a teaching force of 13,971 elementaq teachers for the year 1955 with some 2,794 new teachers needed annually. With a teaching force of 19,536 as of May, 1957, and assuming a demand of only 2,000 neH teachers per year, the average of about 870 teachers per year for the last ten years falls short of the demand for the elementary school.

The supply and demand problem at the high school level is much more complicated. The fact that most high school teachers are teachers of

lEightY-Sixth and Eighty-Seventh Annual Reports of the Department of
Education ~ the General Ass~blY .! t-S-tate of GeOrgi~, p. 6$.-
2Joseph C. Bledsoe, A Study of the Teacher Personnel of Georgia Public Schools (Bureau of Educational Studies and~ld SerVices; College of Education, The University of Georgia, 1950), p. 57.

- 47 -

particular subjects requiring specialized training makes it necessary to consider the problem by subject fields. Table II-G-l indicates that the teaching force of the junior and senior r~gh schools combined made up 32.4 per cent of the teaching force as of lIiay., 1957. The actual percentage was probably higher., h01r"TeVer., since some junior high school teachers were classified as elementary teachers. However this may be, Table II-G-5 shows the teaching duties by subjects reported by Georgia teachers in May, 1957. Table II-G-4 shovJS the number of pupils and periods taught in each of the major subject fields. Although in some special subject fields such as art and music the ratio of teachers to pupils might be higher than in regular academic subject fields, the distribution of prospective high school teachers produced in the decade 1949-58 did not approximate the actual distribution in the work force or meet the demand in certain subject fields. For eY~ple, Table II-G-5 indicates that 1,181 white men and 1,072 white women were teaching mathematics, but Table III-A-4 shows that in ten years Georgia colleges produced onl;JT 87 Nhite male and 131 'VJhite female mathematics teachers. The same tables show similar comparisons for sciences and foreign languages. ~\lllere 858 vJhite men and 779 lJhite vJamen "Jere teaching science as of Nay, 1957., only 191 men and 159 women had been prepared as science teachers by all Georgia colleges over a ten year period of time.
Table II-F-l shows that 642 (3.1 per cent) white teachers taught in another state the previous year and that 2,564 (12.2 per cent) did not teach at all the previous year. Thus, 3,206 teachers (15.3 per cent) were additions and replacements. The increasing 1101ding power of schools, especially secondary schools, causes more pupils_than formerly to continue their schooling in the high school grades .L This source of increased enrollment alone makes it necessary to employ more high school teachers than formerly. E'Ten if the tllrnOVer in various subject fields remained constant, additions necessitated by increased enrollment would give an expanding demand. In a previous study it was found that the demand for high school teachers in the various subjects varied little from year to year. 2 In this same study it was found that for teachers as a whole the annual turnover liJaS about one-sixth of the teaching force. 3 Both the 15.3 per cent additions and replacements and the one-sixth turnover (these are almost equivalent figures, 15.3 per cent and 16.6 per cent respectively) apply to the vThole teaching force and might not be applicable to high school teachers as a special group. \~len the 15.3 per cent or the one-sixth turnover figure is applied to high school teachers, the average production of 582 high school teachers per year suggests that demand exceeds supply.
Past experience indicates that in some high school subject fields the turnover is much less than in other subjects. For example, in vocational

""l.

lEightY-Sixth and Eighty-Seventh Annual Reports of the Department of

- -- Education -to

the

General

Assembly of ~

the

-S-ta,t-e

of
~

~ Ge~ or..g...i.-a,

p.

17.-

2Bledsoe, 2. ~t., p. 46.

3Ibid ., p. 66.

- 48 -
agriculture, a field staffed almost entirely by career men teachers, the annual turnover is relatively small. In the absence of specific facts regarding teacher demand in the various high school subject fields, the tabular data at hand suggest that demand exceeds supply in sciences, mathematics, and foreign languages, and probably exceeds supply in most of the academic subjects such as English and social studies because of the great numbers of students and classes taught in these fields. From the facts at hand concerning supply and demand this generalization is basically the same as the conclusion reached in a previous study. Bledsoe found: (1) Not enough teachers were being prepared to meet the demand in English, foreign languages, natural sciences, mathematics, and social sciences; (2) A balance of supply and demand existed in commercial studies; (3) An oversupply seemed likely in agriculture, home economics, physical education, and industrial arts. l
The supply and demand situation with regard to Negro teachers is considerably different. According to a recent report, the supply of Negro teachers exceeds the demand in all fields except music, guidance, health and physi cal education, and in special education. 2
One of the encouraging facts concerning professional preparation of white teachers, but at the same time an apparent paradox, is the increasing level of teacher education in the face of a teacher shortage. Table II-A-I shows that the average (mean) years of college education of Georgia vJhite teachers has increased from 2.83 years in 1938 to 3.98 years in 1959 and that 82.3 per cent of the white teachers in 1959 held a bachelor 1s .
ana.fN! mastel'ls degree. Although standards of preparation are increasing
while shortages exist in certain fields of teaching, the situation suggests several possible e:~lanations. First, it suggests that Georgia is probably obtaining qualified teachers from other states, possibly even substantial n~~bers of teachers. Second, it suggests that tea~hers prepared and certified for a given grade level or sub,iect field might be teaching on a different level or in a different subject field. For example, a teacher trained and certified to teach home econo,nics in high school might be employed to teach an elementary grade. Third, it suggests that sub-standard teachers 1'1ho are employed are probab~y rapidly earning college degrees and regular certification through Slill1t11er sessions and other part-time college programs. Apparently these people are remaining in teaching after beccrning fully certified. Finally, the situ&tion suggests that, despite many handicaps, teaching is becoming a more attractive profession.
Without adequate data concerning teacher demand it is difficult properly to advise students concerning opportunities in the teaching profession. The demand problem (especially demand in the areas of elementary teaching and in high school subject fields such as mathematics, sciences, languages, and other academic subjects) needs to be studied in greater detail. From
IIbid., p. 66.
2T!l.!: Eighty-Sixth and Eig;htY-Seven~:: Annual Reports of th~ Department of
Education to ~ General Assembly [ ~ State of Georgia, p. 96.

- 49 -
information derived from other studies, it might be expected that the turnover among elementary school teachers may typically be rather high, especially where numerous young women are employed.l It might also be hypothesized that in certain subject fields where schools must compete ~rith indust~J for talent the demand would be in considerable excess of supply.

IClyde M. Hill, et al., Yale-Fairfield Study of Elementa~T Teaching,

Report for 1954~19~, pp:-44-47.

--

.

... 50 ...
III-B. Curriculum and Staff'l
The curricula in teacher education in Georgia colleges and the qualifications of the professorial and instructional staff in teacher education give some idea of the kinds and quality of teacher education offered. For the benefit of readers villo are not well acquainted vuth teacher education, a few prelimin~r comments need to be made. First, teacher education programs are four year collegiate programs for which the Bachelor of Science in Education and other recognized bachelor's degrees are given. Teacher education is no longer a one or two year normal school program of something less than collegiate standing. Second, teacher education programs include both professional courses in education and regular liberal arts courses. The liberal arts courses are taught by professors in the liberal arts departments, not by professors of education. Third, the courses labeled "teaching field" are composed of the subject matter which the teacher loTill teach. Courses in the "teaching field" are not courses in education, but courses in the liberal arts and/or vocational fields.
The three foregoing points may be illustrated by an example. Suppose Mr. X comes to college to prepare to be a high school history teacher. His program liould likely be made up of two or more years of general liberal education (mathematics, sciences, social sciences, languages, literatures, etc.). In addition, he would complete the requirements for a major in history as specified by the histo~J department. These courses would constitute his "teaching field." Finally, he would take such courses in education as were required for teacher certification. His education courses l-Tould likely include psychology (psychology of adolescence, pS'Jchology of learning, child psychology, or the like), methods of teaching, practice teaching, and possibly history of education, philosophy of education, or education and the social order (educational sociology, etc.).
Though teacher education programs differ somewhat, they are fairly well standardized from institution to institution and with regard to teaching fields. Both the differences and the standardization are determined by conditions frequentl.Y beyond the control of educators. Certification requirements, for example, are uniform throughout the state. Certification is designed to promote teaching and subject matter competence and to protect the public and the profession from incompetence. The particular demands in teaching fields are set by experts in the given field, not by educators. The demands in terms of competencies and subject matter kno1rJledge in such fields as art, music, history, science, mathematics, home economics, agriculture, and the like are determined by the expert practitioners and scholars of those f'ields. The courses re~lired in general liberal education are those courses required either for all students or for liberal arts students by the college or university, plus
Lrhis section l'!as l/iTI'itten by George L. NeHsome, Jr. in collaboration with Mary Ellen Perkins. The data upon 1rThich this discussion is based Hill be found in Tables III-B-l through III-B-5) in A Source Book of' Data Concerning Teachers ~ Teacher Education in Georgia, pp.{J2:B"b:" - - -

... 51 -
such additional liberal arts courses as the student might be advised to t~{e or elects freely of his own choosing.
Table III-B-l provides data concerning the quarter hours in general liberal education, professional education, and teaching fields of teacher education programs in the eighteen white colleges of Georgia. For those readers vJho are not familiar with flquarter hours, II it may be explained that a quarter hour credit is given for a course having one hour per week of classroom instruction for one quarter, provided the student passes the
course. Between 185 and 210 quarter hours of credit is usually required
for the bachelorts degree. It should also be borne in mind that the increasing store of knowledge in technical and professional fields will make it necessary (1) to increase the amount of study in these fields at the expense of general liberal education, or (2) to extend the college program to five years, as is now being done in some fields. Teacher education has not yet been pushed to a five year program to the extent that engineering and some other fields have been. In some teaching fields, how'ever, specialization has cut more deeply into liberal education than in others.
Table III-B-l indicates that in vocational and special teaching fields such as business studies, agriculture, and music, the quarter hours in the teaching field range from 70 to 112 quarter hours. In the academic fields such as English, languages, and social studies the requirements in
the teaching field range from 30 to 55 quarter hours. The fet-Jer number
of quarter hours in academic teaching fields is accounted for by the fact that freshman and often sophomore courses in these fields are frequently required courses for all or many students, and thus are part of general liberal education. For example, a prospective history teacher might have
some 30 to 55 hours in history as his major teaching field plus 5 to 15
additional hours in histor~r taken as part of his general education, and not counted as his major field of study. A student, for example, whose teaching field (major) is in an academic subject, might have luth his
general liberal education and subject field as much as 80 per cent of his
four year program in the so-called liberal arts. On the other hand, a student whose major teaching field is in a technical or special area may have only 60 to 70 per cent of his four year program in general liberal studies.
Table III-B-l also shows that professional education courses (courses in
education) range from 30 to 40 hours. No Hhite college in Georgia requires more than 40 quarter hours (usually eight courses) in education. The requirements in general liberal education range from 55 to 120
quarter hours. The requirements in academic teaching fields range from
24 to 75 quarter hours. The 1mV' of 24 to 30 quarter hours is found in
English, languages, social studies, and mathematics (areas embraced in
most cases in general education), while the high of 65 to 75 quarter
hours is found more frequently in the sciences. In vocational fields
the required quarter hours range from a ION of 45 hours in industrial arts to a high of 98 hours in business education. Among the specialized
teaching fields, music especially has a high requirement in quarter hours
(80 to 112). This high proportion is apparently due to the comprehensive-
.ness of the field and to demands for specialized skills and competencies.

- 52 -
Table III-B-2, iihich provides data concerning the curriculum pattern for programs of teacher education in Negro colleges, sh01iJS that curriculum patterns in Negro colleges differ slightly from those of white colleges.
Negro colleges reqlUre between 94 and 106 quarter hours in general
liberal education, 32 to 36 hours in professional education, and, generally speaking, fewer hours in teaching fields. Negro colleges do not, however, offer as ~dde a range of teaching fields as is found in white colleges.
Table III-B-3 indicates the per cent of professional education courses
(expressed in terms of credits) to total courses (credits) in 114
institutions having teacher education programs. Since the data in this table represent the nation as a 'whole, they serve as a comparati'\,18 standard against which to jndge Georgia colleges. Furthermore, the table shows course credits in education for liberal arts colleges, both public and private, for universities, both public and private, and for public teachers colleges.
Column 3 of Table III-B-3 shows that the per cent of education courses in relation to the total four year program varies only from 18 per cent in public liberal arts colleges to 21 per cent in private universities. The average for all 114 institutions is 19 per cent. Thus, an average of 81 per cent of the courses (credits) in teacher education programs are taken in fields other than education. In any institution some students will take more courses in some fields than in others. Hence, some students in education 1vill take more education courses than do other students. In some institutions more courses in a given field "l-lill be
required than in other institutions. Column 4 of the table indicates
these differences in terms of range (lou and high). The range as indi-
cated in the table is from a 101-1 of 15 per cent credits in education to a
high of 33 per cent credits. Since the indications are that fe1v students represent either extreme, the middle of the range (middle 60 per cent) falls between 18 per cent and 23 per cent of total credits in education courses. Column 6 indicates that practice teaching constitutes about one-fourth of the credits in education. The range in per cent of practice teaching to total credits in education is from a low of 12 per
cent to a high of 43 per cent. These figures mean that in a four year
program of 200 quarter hours, the average student would t~ce about 40 hours in education, of vJhich about 10 quarter hours Hould be in practice teaching.
How do Georgia colleges compare ..lith the national picture? Table III-B-4 shows the quarter hours required in professional education courses in the various programs offered in Georgia colleges and the actual quarter hours t~{en in education courses. The quarter hours required range from a low
of 20 to a high of 54. The high of 54 hours is required in public school
music where more courses in teaching various kinds of music (various instruments, band, voice, etc.) are needed. Except for music teaching and elementa~J teaching, no other field of teaching requires more than 40 quarter hours in education courses. The average (mean) number of quarter hours required ranges from a 101'i of 32.5 to a high of 40.0. Thus, for Georgia colleges as a 11hole, the average nlli~ber of quarter hours required in educational courses is about 36. The actual quarter hours taken in
education also range from 20 to 54, with the average (mean) for all

- 53 -
colleges about 36. In both quarter hours required and quarter hours actually taken in education courses, Georgia colleges are slightly under the national average.
Discussion of professional education, especially the number of courses offered or taken, raises questions concerning the content and quality of education courses. lJithin recent years some self-appointed and often unqualified critics of education have left the impression that education courses are dull, trivial, and boring. These critics, oblivious to the facts, have created the popular notion that all a prospective teacher studies is education courses. Strange as it might appear to uninformed crp~fucs," the content of education courses is frequently drawn from the basic disciplines in the arts and sciences (psychology, sociology, history, philosophy, etc.) and related to the problems of teaching in the contest of use; that is, the application of these disciplines to teaching, learning, curriculum development and the like.
The quality of professional courses in education, like that of any other kind of courses, depends to a large extent upon the professors and students concerned. Well-educated, capable, and scholarly professors, and eager, intelligent, and diligent students make almost any kind of course scholarly and valuable. Since the abilities of the students in education have been treated elsewhere in this report~ only the qualifications of the faculty need be trea ted here.
Table III-B-5 shows the qualifications of the education faculty of Georgia colleges in terms of highest degrees held. From a total of 264 people,
110 hold the doctor's degree, 146 hold the master's degree, and 8 hold
the bachelor's degree. Among the faculties of white colleges 96 held the doctorfS degree, 105 held the master's degree, and 5 held the bache-
lor's degree. In the Negro colleges Ih persons held the doctor's degree,
41 held the master's degree, and 3 held the bachelor's degree. An examination of the original data upon which the table was based reveals that a fairly large number of those holding master's and bachelor's degrees were not regular professors of education, but public school teachers who helped with student teaching. These people are often listed as "critic" or "supervising" teachers, and in some cases, are given instructional or professorial rank in college faculties even though they teach no classroom, oncampus courses. The original data also suggest that in several cases, arts and science professors were listed because they were engaged in teacher education as well as in the arts and sciences.
To the extent that university degrees indicate qualification for scholarship, the teacher education faculties of Georgia colleges are well qualified. In fact, they are better qualified in this respect than are many liberal arts or professional faculties. For all Georgia colleges, both Negro and white, hl.3 per cent of the education faculty members held
doctorates. In the white colleges, 46.6 per cent held doctorates. For
all American colleges as of 1954 only 40 per cent of the faculty held doctor's degrees, and this percentage has been rapidly declining since

- 54 -
that time. 1 The tremendous grm-Jth of teacher education within recent years and the grmnng shortage of qualifj_ed professors suggest that Georgia colleges 1dll have to bid in stiff competition to hold their most highly qualified professors of education.

1

The Fund for the Advancement of Education, Teachers for TomorroVT

(Bulletin No.2, November, 1955), p. 25.

---- --

- 55 -
III-C. Operational Policies and Procedures1
Schools and departments of teacher education, like those in any other field of study, seek bright and capable students. Vigorous campaigns to locate, recruit, and subsidize highly promising young people in teacher preparation programs have been handicapped by many factors--especially the lack of enough adequate scholarships and fellowships, and the fact that the teaching profession has not been financially attractive. Despite the handicaps, however, recruitment in teacher preparation is beginning to gain ground.
Table III-C-l indicates the recruitment practices of 20 Georgia colleges (15 Nhite and 5 Negro uho responded to the questionnaire) with the number and per cent of the colleges employing these practices. College Day programs in high schools are employed by 13 white (86.7 per cent) and
5 Negro (100 per cent) colleges. The College Day program is designed to
acquaint high school students liLth college entrance requirements, college programs, and the like. Ten white colleges (66.7 per cent of the responding institutions) and 5 Negro colleges (100 per cent of the responding institutions) sponsor visits of high school students to the college campus. Planned personal contact and/or visits to the campus are used by 9 white colleges (60 per cent) and 5 Negro colleges (100 per cent). Fourteen white and 5 Negro colleges stated that they fol101ied the same plan of recruitment for teacher education as for other fields. Only one white college specified aqy differences. That one exception was that student leaders for teacher education programs were sought more actively than were students in general.
It is quite evident that the recruitment practices of these Georgia colleges are rather \'Teak. These practices are no more than the usual routine functions performed by college admission offices in practically all colleges. One reason for this apparent absence of vigorous recruitment might be the effectiveness of Future Teacher of America chapters and Student National Education Association chapters in high schools and colleges.
The Future Teachers of Amerj.ca is a high school organization, national in scope, which enrolls in local school chapters stUdents "!'Tho are interested in the teaching profession. The organization also actively recruits capable high school students by sponsoring programs designed to acquaint students lath teaching as a career and Hith the opportunities in teaching. It also furnishes through local chapters printed material and books on teaching and the teaching profession. Those students who enroll in school chapters 'receive additional information on the teaching profession through the many activities of the chapter. Each chapter has a

lThis section lvaS written by George L. NeHsome, Jr. The data upon uhioh

this discussion is based vall be found in Tables III-C-l and III-C-2,

A Source
Georgia;

Bppoo.-k87o-f8Dga:-ta-

-Concerning.

-Te-ac-he-rs

-and

Teacher

Educati-on

-in

- 56 -
faculty sponsor, carries on a planned program of studies and activities, and receives literature and other instructional aids from the national organization.
At the college level the Student National Education Association functions much like the Future Teachers of America. The Student National Education Association for the most part erxolls in its college chapters students who are preparing to become teachers or college students Hho are seriously considering teaching careers. The Student National Education Association chapters recruit prospective teachers in that it brings to the attention of college students through programs and literature information concerning teaching as a career.
The follovrlng data indicate the number and size of the Future Teacher of AhimgehrisccahaonodlsSatunddecnot lNleagteios.nlal Education Association chapters in Georgia

Organi- Number of Chapters Total Nem- Av.No.per Lowest Highest

zation Chapters Reporting bersh:Lp

Chaptel~

~Iembership ~lembership

FTA

195

SNEA

25

121

2,935

24.2

20

835

41.7

--~""~--,,

6

151

4

182

-_-..-.

Considering the fact that both Future Teachers of America and the Student National Education Association are new organizations in high schools and colleges, the number of cha?ters and number of members of each type of organization seem to indicate a grmving interest in the teaching profession on the part of yOW1g people.

Contrary to some unfounded popular opinions, admission to programs of teacher education is not automatic or eas,y. In most cases in Georgia colleges, both Negro and white, formal a~~ission takes place at the beginning of the stUdent's third year in college. Prior to the junior year, a student might be tentatively-listed as a student in education by his own
choice, but he is so listed only for administrative convenience. Table
II-C-2 indicates that 13 white and 4 Negro colleges employ marks or
grades ear.ned in freshman and sophomore courses as one criterion for
admission to programs of teacher education. Aptitude tests are required by 8 white and 2 Negro colleges, personal interviews are used by 11 white and 3 Negro colleges, and high school grades are a criterion in 9
white and 2 Negro colleges. Seven white colleges and one Negro college
require a recommendation by either the high school principal or counselor. In most cases, several of these criteria are used.

IThe data presented in this table "Here made available from the official records of the Georgia State Department of Education (Courtesy of Nary Ellen Perkins, Coordinator of Teacher Education).

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Table III-C-2 shows that 9 white-and 4 Negro colleges use the same
admission criteria for teacher education students as they do fo~ll other students. Snwhite colieges and one 11egro college,"however;-" indicate t~different criteria are used for students in teacher education. In all seYen cases the specific criteria named vJere over and aboYe those specified for other students and reflected comparatIve~ higher standards.

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III-D. Opinions Concerning Teacher Education Programs1

In response to the questionnaire sent to all the institutions in Georgia with a teacher training program, information was received concerning: (1) how the quality of the teaching force in Georgia could be improved most substantially; (2) the greatest need for strengthening the teacher education program in the particular institution reporting; (3) other immediate needs of the institution relating to curriculum, facilities,
staff, and other aspects of the program; and (4) the greatest obstacle
to an effective teacher education program in the particular institution reporting. The questions were of the opinion-type and constructed for open-end responses so the data were not tabulated; hOvJever, a summary of the judgments is presented for the reader!s consideration. The needs and obstacles are not presented as an indictment against the teacher training programs, but rather as a part of the total picture of teacher education in Georgia.

Improvement of the quality of the teaching force in Georgia. To improve the quality Of 'tiie teachingforce in Georgia mostsUbstantIally, approximately 70 suggestions were presented by 15 white and 5 Negro institutions.
Increased salaries for teachers was the suggestion offered most frequently and was noted by 10 of the 20 respondents. Better screening procedures
and more selective admission policies was second in frequency and was named by 9 of the 20 respondents. Other suggestions, in order of decreasing
frequency, centered around the following: (1) certification policies (requiring four years training, requiring master1s degree, teaching in
area of certification), 7; (2) further education of teachers (in-service education, summer sohool study), 6; (3) improved preparation of teachers
(higher quality program, better training, curriculum improvement, additional
subject matter, mastery of content courses), 5; (4) more prestige and
recognition of teachers, 4; (5) requirement of professional training for the superintendent, 4; (6) better working conditions (i.e., tenure, sick
leave, smaller classes), 3. The remainder of the suggestions for the
improvement of the quality of the teaching force were mentioned by only one respondent each. The follmving suggestions rrrere included: the improvement of teaching at the college level, teacher certification on the basis
of national examinations, raising professional standards and f1feeling"
among teachers, having a no~-po1itica1 State Board of Education, consolidation of small high schools, more participation by liberal arts departments in
planning teacher education programs, and more stringent adherence to the regulations of the State Board of Education.

need-rn Needs for strengthening the teacher education program. As the respondent

identified the greatest

his lnstitutIon for strengthening the

teacher education program, there was some duplication of the ways for

improvement of the quality of the teaching force; i.e., selection and

admission policies and better salaries were mentioned. However, the needs

1 This section was written by Bernice Cooper.

- 59 -
for strengthening the teacher education program which were identified most frequently centered around the following items: (1) the improvement of the student teaching program (i.e., addition of centers, closer relationships between the centers and the colleges, better coordination and expansion of the program); (2) the improvement of the program of training (i. e. , strengthening the professional courses, better teaching by the entire college staff, more and better content courses, lTIOre and better methods courses, and active cooperation of subject matter instructors); and (3) needs pertaining to physical plant, additional staff, equipment and supplies.
Most of the curriculum needs which were listed were rather general in nature with no common deficiencies noted an~ generally, the response indicated that the curriculum is constantly being studied and revised for a better program. However, a few institutions identified particular course needs such as science and art for elementary teachers to be taught during the academic year, more stuqy of child grov~h and development, and a wider range of electives.
Five of the institutions (2 white and 3 Negro) reported that, at the present, their facilities are adequate. The needs of other institutions ranged from a neloJ plant (3 white institutions) to lesser needs which included space for a materials center, a reading clinic, offices, art and music studios, and others. Equipment, materials, libr~J books, and audiovisual aids were listed by several institutions.
The staff needs which were noted did not indicate any common shortages but reflected almost as many areas as there vJere needs. The staff needs included student teaching supervisors (2 respondents), reading specialists (2 respondents), secretarial personnel (2 respondents), art instructors (2 respondents), educational psychologist, specialist in junior high education, instructor in music, and specialist in elementary school health and physical education (each mentioned by one respondent). SOlne institutions indicated that, with the increasing number of students, the number of starf members needs to be increased also, but did not specify the particular areas to be staffed.
In addition to the needs specified as curriculum, facilities, and staff, four of the institutions listed other needs. Among these were in-service training for the total faculty, follow-up of graduates, staff time for research, increased library holdings, and a program of testing for help in the screening of students.
Obstacles to an effective teacher education program. The obstacles to an effective teacher education program which"were identified by the teacher training institutions (three institutions reported none) were closely related to the needs listed in the preceding paragraphs. Difficulties arising from limited bUdgets (noted specifically by four institutions), shortage of teachers in specialized areas, inadequate number of centers for observation, lack of time, and inabj_lity to attract and retain competent staff are typical of the obstacles to an effective teacher training program which the respondents reported. Furthermore, respondents from four

- 60 -
institutions evidenced some conflict between the purposes, requirements, and responsibilities of the liberal arts personnel and the education staff. This lack of coordination was considered by these respondents to be the major handicap to an effective teacher training program in their particular institutions.
Despite the enumeration of needs and obstacles as noted above, an analysis of the questionnaire returns indicated that the respondents considered the teacher education programs to be presently functioning in an effective manner. The respondents recognized, however, the possibilities for continuous improvement.

CHAPTER IV
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAINEESl
The University of Georgia annually graduates approximately one-third of the white baccalaureate teachers graduated in the state of Georgia. Thus, the largest available sampling of teacher trainees in Georgia for anyone period 1rJould be at the University. In addition, staff time of the faculty of the College of Education was made available for studYing both the bachelors and masters graduates of the University. These studies were conducted with the specific purpose of comparing certain characteristics of the teacher trainees vuth those of other students on a large university campus.
Consequently, the graduating classes in June and August of 1958 I,rere compared, both on the undergraduate and graduate levels. These findings are reported in the first tHO sections of this chapter l\'hich purports to deal with selected characteristics of trainees. These comparisons Here not made with the intention of comparing persons at the University of Georgia with those in other institutions within the state. These studies are reported in some detail, hovrever, since no other institution in the state had as large a .number of teacher trainees graduating as well as a large number of graduates in other areas of training.
IV-A. Bachelors Graduates of the University of Georgia: 1958
There were 1,219 baccalaureate graduates of the University of Georgia in June and August of 1958. These graduates were distributed as follows: College of Education, 282 (23.1 per cent); College of Business ACLm.nistration, 280 (23.0 per cent); College of Lrts and Sciences, 263 (21.6 per cent); College of Agriculture, 148 (12.1 per cent); School of Pharmacy, 69 (5.7 per cent); School of Journalism, 61 (5.0 per cent); School of Home Economics, 59 (4.9 per cent); and School of Forestry, 57 (4.6 per cent). Thus the College of Education had the largest number of graduates of any of the schools and colleges Iv.ith 282 of the 1,219 graduates.
The place of residence at time of entrance. The teacher trainees at the Universitylived, in general, insmall to'Wns and rural areas. Table IV-A-l shows that over one-half (52.8 per cent) lived in Georgia cities of 25,000 or less population, I'Jith over tl'J"O-thirds of these coming from towns of 5,000 or less. This ratio is not significantly higher than for the graduating class as a whole, inasmuch as 51.8 per cent of the graduating class were from Georgia cities of 25,000 or less. With regard to out-of-state residents, proportionately more Education majors came from
1
This section IoTas 101I'itten by George B. Miller, Jr. The present discussion is based on the data given in Tables IV-A-l through IV-A-14, pages 89 through 102 in the Source Book.

- 62 -
Georgia than did the rest of the graduatir.g clacs (90.4 per cent vee 85.8 per cent).
Fulton, DeKalb, and Cobb Counties contributed 16.6 per cent (one-sixth) of the teacher trainees. This uas slightly more from the Atlanta1Iletropolitan area than for the entire class (13.9 per cent). Thus, the prospective teachers as well as other students graduating from the University in 1958 did not come from the large cities in Georgia, but by-and-large they were from the smaller cities and rural areas.
These percentages for the graduating class are in sharp contrast to the percentages for freshraen in the College of Education at the University. In a study conducted by the writer, it liJaS found that the City of Atlanta alone contributed 26.2 per cent of the fresbmen in the College of Education for the Fall Quarter of 1958. The remainder of the Atlanta metropolitan area contributed 6.7 per cent--a total of 32.9 per cent from Fulton, DeKalb, and Cobb Counties. From this finding and the previous one concerning the percentage of teacher trainees Hho graduated, the conclusion is drawn that many of the freshmen from the Atlanta area do not graduate from the University and that many of the transfers to ~~e University after the freshman year are from the smaller tOlms and rural areas of Georgia.
Occupations of fathers. Hith one exception, the occupations of the fathers~the stUdents 'VJho Here teacher trainees were similar to those of the fathers of the graduating class in general. The exception was in terms of the percentage of students lJho reported that their fathers Here deceased--this percentage being 20.9 for the students in the College of Education versus 11.8 per cent for all students in the graduating class (Table IV-A-2). This difference may be explained in part by the fact that a large number of the teacher trainees were older than the t~rpical student in the graduating class.
The graduating class as a vJhole were sons and daughters of men who Here not, in general, professional persons or those holding high positions in business and industI"J. There were 5.3 per cent of the fathers of Education majors i'1ho Here in the "old" professions (medicine, dentistry, ministry, lallT), 2.8 per cent had fathers who 'uere in educational 'VJork, 8.9 per cent in the "nei-Jer" professions (engineering, pha.1"JTlacy, etc.), and 5.3 per cent i-Jere children of fathers who 'Here in managerial or executive capacities in large cOl~orations and businesses. These percentages came to a total or 22.3 per cent in the professions and managerial or executive positions. This percentage Has greater than that for the graduating class as a vrhole, vrhere the comparable percentage is 17.6.
The fathers of teacher trainees vrere generally engaged in small businesses, agriculture, and occupations of lower socio-economic status. Eleven per cent of the fathers of teacher trainees were farmers (as compared to 13.3 per cent for the entire class), 16.0 per cent were owners of small businesses or in business for themselves (as compared to 14.2 per cent for the graduating class), and 12.1 per cent of the fathers were transportation employees, skilled laborers, employees in the protective services, etc. (as compared to 19.7 per cent for the graduating class). Thus, approximately 40 per cent of the fathers were in these three cate-
gories, as compared to 47 per cent for the entire class. Teacher trainees,

- 63 -
as well as others in the eraduating class, generally came from small towns and rural areas of Georgia and from homes in which the father was engaged in a small business, agriculture, or employed in a comparatively low-income position.
Number of :zear~ ~tvJeen high school aq~ colleg~ graduations. Table IV-A-3 indicates that the teacher trainees in the craduating class had been out of secondary school longer than had the class in general. The typical male teacher trainee at the University had been out of high school for 9.6 years (with one as high as 43 years) compared to the class average of 6.6 years (with the average for the male graduates of the College of Arts and Sciences being the least, 5.6 ;)Tears). Approximately the same finding held for the typical female teacher trainee l'1ho had an elapsed time of 8.1 years between high school and college graduations (vrlth one as long as 46 years), compared to the class average of 6.2 years (vrlth female graduates of the College of Arts and Sciences averaging only 4.5 years). Thus, the typical teacher trainee had been out of high school for approximately nine years at graduation from college. Supplementary data not included in the tables ShOH that 1'Jhile the maj ority of teacher trainees graduated from the University 'Vuthin four years of high school graduation, a considerable number had college entrance delayed or had college training interrupted at one or more points. As might be expected, the August graduation had more of these students proportionately than did the June graduation. These data indicate that the teacher trainees at the University vJere older on the average than Here the students in t..h.e graduating class as a whole.
High school averages. Table IV-A-4 ShOHS the high school averages of 521 of the 1,219 students Fho l"ere in the graduating class of 1958. Teacher trainees had lower high school averages (80.0 for males, 87.9 for females) than had the class as a whole (83.1 for males, 88.1 for females) although the female teacher trainees Here l'Uthin t'l"o-tenths of a point of the class average for female students. The male graduates of the College of Arts and Sciences (86.2) had the best high school averages among the male students 'V1hile graduates of the School of Home Economics (90.1) had the best high school averages among the female students.
Number of Carnegie Units earned in secondary schools. Male teacher traineeS-in the ciass earned an average of l6~ darnegie Units in high school (not counting physical education, milit~T, and/or activity credits), while the female teacher trainees averaged 17.1 Units. These averages approximated the class averages of 16.6 (male students) and 17.0 (female students). The male Education majors approximated the class averages for high school credits in science (2.5 versus 2.5), mathematics (2.8 versus 3.0), foreign languages (0.8 versus 1.0), and vocational credits (1.3 versus 1.6). The female Education majors equalled the averages for all ".:female students in the class in science (1.9), mathe-
matics (2.7), foreign languages (2.0), and vocational credits (2.2). In
this classification, industrial arts, agriculture, home economics, and commercial courses 1Jere considered to be vocational credits.
Scores on the Fres~~an Placement Tests. Tables IV-A-6 and IV-A-7 report the tes~scores of those students in the graduating class on whom scores were available on the Freshman Placement Tests at the University. Test

- 64 -
results l\Tere available for only 390 of the 1,219 students who graduated. The test score averages of the Education majors were consistently lower than the averages of the class as a l'Thole. These differences betw"een Education majors and other students were less for the female students than for the male students. These findings are based on such a small sample that generalizations should be made cautiously.
Age at the time of graduation. As Table IV-A-3 indicated (Years Between HighSchool and College "o:raauations), teacher trainees iJere older at the time of college graduation than were other students in the class. The typical male Education maj or l\TaS 27.2 years old at the time of graduation (as compared to the class average of 24.2 years for male stUdents), lIhile the typical female Education major Has 25.4 years old at the time of graduation (as compared to 23.6 years for the female students in the entire class). These averages are greater than all other male and female groups in the stUdy except for female students in Pharmacy. The ages ranged from 21 to 65 years for the male Education majors and from 20 to 63 for the female Education majors.
Classifi~ation upon entrance to the University. Hith the exceptions of the School of""Forestry and theCollege of AgrIculture, the College of Education had proportionately feHer "native" students (those beginning at the University as first-quarter freshmen) in the graduating class than had any of the other schools and colleges. Table IV-A-9 shows that there were 39.7 per cent of the Education majors lJho began and completed their college careers at the University as compared uith the class average of 42.8 per cent. The College of Arts and Sciences had the highest ratio (52.0 per cent) of "native" students. Also, a higher ratio of Education majors than of non-Education majors transferred to the University luth Senior Division standing (36.5 per cent versus 31.1 per cent). In general, approximate~ tHo-tr~rds of the teacher trainee graduates vIere transfer stUdents to the University.
Number of quarter hours taken at the University. Table IV-A-lO lists the
averagenumber 'Of quarterhoursofCredit earned by the students while
enrolled at the University (IIF" grades lJere not included; thus the average number of quarter hours of credit attempted would be somewhat higher than the averages shown in Table IV-A-lO). Inasmuch as the College of Education had a larger percentage of transfers than had most schools and colleges, the finding that the typical teacher trainee had fewer quarter hours of course work at the University is not unexpected. In general, the male teacher trainees averaged four fewer courses at the University than did all men stUdents in the graduating class uhile the female teacher trainees averaged two courses less than did all women graduates.
Grades achieved in certain designated courses. The only courses at the University whichall students must take are English 101 and 102 (Freshman English). Nany students, however, are also required to take Sophomore English (English 121 and 122), Human Biology (1 and/or 2), College
Algebra (Mathematics 100), Contemporary Georg~a (Social Science 4), and
American Government (Political Science 1). In general, students who transferred from other schools ~1d colleges may have taken the same courses, although the course number ma;y have been different. The averages

- 65 -

shown in Table IV-A-ll disregard the school or college in which a particular course Fas completed. The tabular data rests upon the assumption that course difficulty and standards of instructor grading were the same at all colleges.

From Table IV-A-ll, the following comparisons may be made:

English 101 English 102

Grades of Male Students
- Ed. J.Vlajors Class Diff.

85.4 84.7

84.1 +1.3 84.8 -0.1

Grades of Female Students
- - Ed. Hajors Class .D.' if~ f7

81.1

80.0 +1.1

80.2

79.0 +1.2

Math. 100

85.8

84.3 +1.5

82.2

81.3 +0.9

H. BioI. 1 H. BioI. 2

83.6 82.9

82.4 +1.2 82.7 +0.2

84.3

83.4 +0.9

83.7

83.3 +0.4

Soc. Sc. 4 Pol. Sc. 1

85.6 82.6

82.2 +3.4 80.9 +1. 7

78.8

79.0 -0.2

79.3

78.6 +0.7

The male teacher trainees had higher averages than did the male students as a whole in six of the seven courses and the female teacher trainees had higher averages in six of the seven courses than did the female students as a l'1hole.

Tlv-o statements concerning these comparisons lV'arrant emphasis: (1) these averages were based on passing grades only (previous failing grades were not included in the calculations), and (2) these grades may have been earned at several different colleges as 1;e11 as at the University.

On the basis of these grade comparisons, it is evident that teacher trainees are at least average and perhaps somewhat above average in academic performances in these specified courses, disregarding the institutions where the courses were t~(en. These marks are more favorable than would have been expected on the basis of the Freshman Placement Test scores (Tables IV-A-6 and IV-A-7). The fact remains, however, that while the test scores of teacher trainees were beloH the class average, academic performances in these freslLman courses, as measured by college faculties (i.e., marks assigned),l-Jere above tile class average.

Actual undergraduate average at the University of Georgia. The "actual" undergraduate average include'd-aI1--grades earnedat- theUniversity,
including "E" and "F" grades. The "graduating" average does not include liE" and "F" grades if the courses Here repeated or not counted for graduation.

Table IV-A-12 shows ~~at the male teacher trainees had an actual academic average of 80.7 (as compared to the male class average of 79.5), while the female teacher trainees had an actual academic average of 83.5 (as compared to the female class average of 83.2). Thus, the teacher trainees not only had better-than-average grades in certain designated freshman subjects but also had better-than-average over-all actual grade averages lolhile at the Universit:r. Only male students in the CoJ~ege of Arts and

- 66 -
Sciences had better actual grade averages than did the male teacher trainees, while only the female students in the School of Journalism had better actual grade averages than did the female teacher trainees.
Number of quarter hours and grades in teaching fields. Table IV-A-13
sho1'JS t'fie number 'of quarte"r IiOUr"Sa.llii the teachIn[; fields and the average
grades earned in these subjects by the teacher trainees in the graduating class. The typical male teacher trainee had an average of 51.5 quarter hours in his teaching field while the typical female teacher trainee had an average of 48.1 quarter hours. Taken collectively, Education majors had an average grade of 84.4 in their teaching fields.
Students majoring in general secondary education (mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, English, and foreign languages) averaged approximately 4L~ quarter hours in their teaching fields vnth an average grade of 84.5. Nention should be made that all these subjects 't'Tere taught in schools and colleges outside the College of Education, notably in the College of Arts and ScierK:e~Students in elementarJ education, vocational education (business education and distributive education), music education, art education, special education (teachers of motor handicapped, speech correction, and mentally retarded), industrial arts, and physical education all had grade averages in their teaching fields ranging between 82.3 and 84.7. Again the point should be stres8ed that with the exception of industrial arts, physical education, and special education, almost all, if not all, of the subjects in the teaching fields l-Jere taken outside the College of Education. In general, appro:zimately 80 per cent of all the course work taken by students registered in the College of Education is taken outside the College, primarily in the College of Arts and Sciences.
Students in the College of Agriculture and the School of Home Economics ~Jho planned to be teachers vJere not included in any of these comparisons. Those students were listed in this study with the students in their respective school or college. Students l-Tho obtained an Arts and Sciences degree but 't'lho had taken apprentice teaching and other professional vJOrk in the College of Education were considered to be in the College of Arts and Sciences. (Three of the nine students uho received the Bachelor of Arts degree l-Tith honors completed apprentice teaching in the College of Education prior to graduation.)
Students uhose teaching majors vJere in art, music, and physical education had greater numbers of quarter hours in their respective teaching fields than did students in other teaching fields. Two suggested explanations are offered for this greater number of quarter hours. First, these teaching fields entail acquisition of psychomotor skills uhich require lengthy practice. Secondly, many of the courses in the general education area (those tuo years of the student f s course 't'JOrk 't"Jhich are taken by all stUdents) were, in effect, in the teaching field of the students although not credited as such. For example, the students majoring in English did not count as a part of their teaching field the four courses in English which all Education majors r.1Ust take, although these four courses Here certainly a part of the subject matter competency of the students.
Table IV-A-14 compares the average grade earned in the teaching field with the average grade earned in professional education courses by

- 67 -
teacher trainees in each of the groups. For Education majors as a group, the grade in the teaching field averaged 2.2 points lmver than the average
grade in the professional education courses (84.4 versus 86.6). This
same general pattern vJaS typical for each group, uith the exception of majors in industrial arts, where the average grade in the teaching field 'lrJaS one point higher (82.5 versus 81.5) than the average grade earned in professional education courseS:--
Sunrrnary. Tables IV-A-l through IV-A-14 have presented the major portion of the data collected on the 1958 baccaJaureate classes at the University of Georgia. These 1,219 students were classified by the school or college of major registration and inter-college comparisons Here made on certain items of information. The teacher trainees in the College of Education were compared with the students in the other indiv~dual schools and colleges at the University and Hith the entire 1958 class as a group.
On the basis of these comparisons, it may be inferred that the typical teacher trainee vJaS about the same as the typical student in the 1958 graduating class. Hith regard to comparisons of the students in the several schools and colleges, the typical student in the College of Education most closely resembled the typical student in the College of Arts and Sciences.
In short, the typical teacher trainee in the 1958 graduating class at the University of Georgia was an academically competent and representative student while at the University.

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IV-B. Masters Graduates of the University of Georgia: 19581
There were 177 masters degrees awarded at the June and August graduation ceremonies of 1958. Of these 177 degrees, 106 (65.6 per cent) were awarded to male students and 71 (3Lr~4 per cent) to female students. Of the 106 men, 46 (43.4 per cent) were Education majors and of the 71 women, 51 (71.8 per cent) were Education majors.
These 1958 masters graduates were classified into three major groups: (1) Education majors (97 students), (2) students in the other professional
programs (27 students), and (3) graduates in Arts and Sciences (53 students). Specific areas included in the second group were business administration, agriculture, home economics, forestry, landscape architecture, and fine arts.
Selected characteristics of these 177 students were studied in a manner
similar to that used in the study of the baccalaureate graduation classes. These selected data were taken from the permanent records of the graduates located in the offices of the Registrar and the Dean of the Graduate School. The remainder of this section discusses the results of the comparisons of these data.
Mean scores on the Graduate Record Examination and certain age factors. 'T'hE3GradttateRec~dExamination is ai3'attery of standardizedtests developed and administered under the aegis of the Educational Testing Service of Princeton, New Jerseyo These tests are designed to be given to college seniors and graduate students. Included in this battery are two aptitude tests (quantitative and verbal) and three achievement tests (social science, humanities, and. natural science). This examination, which is administered nationally, is widely used as a criterion for the admission and advisement of graduate students. There are no specific passing scores on these tests -- each institution establishing its own policies concerning the uses of the resultse
Education majors did not attain generally as high a mean score on the Graduate Record Ey..amination (hereafter called the GRE) as did students in other areas. These results are shown in Table IV-B:I. The mean scores for Education majors were lower than the mean scores of the other students, with few exceptions. One exception, for example, was that the Natural Science mean score of male Education majors was higher than the mean score of male students earning other professional degrees. In general, those students earning the }ffi and MS degrees had higher test score averages than did the other students.
In interpreting standardized test results, other factors concerning the
students must be kept in mind. The subtests of the GRE are measures of achievement, at least in part. Achievement depends partly upon memory which, in turn, is closely related to the recency of the learnll1g and the usage or lack of usage of such material. Graduate students in Education
1 This section was written by George B. Miller, Jr. The present discussion
is based on the data given in Tables IV-B-l through IV-B-8, pages 103110 in the Source Book.

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had, on the average, been out of college longer than those students in the other groups. Table IV-B-l shows that the typical male Education major was 30.6 years of age when the GRE was taken. These men were, on the average, 4.8 years older than the males obtaining other professional degrees and 5.6 years older, on the, aver~ge~ than the males obtaining the MA and MS degrees e The t}pical female Education major was 5.6 years older, on the average, than the females obtaining other professional degrees and 9.5 years older, on the average, than the famales obtaining the MA and MS degrees. Thus, students obtaining graduate degrees in Education were older and likely had been out of college longer than the other graduate students.
In most of the United States, inoluding Georgia, the entry level for the vast majority of teachers is the bachelor t s or four-year level. A substantial proportion of graduate students in Education take their work in the summer quarters, Saturday classes, and in a few instances in off-campus workshops while they continue their teaching careers during the regular school year. Bachelors graduates in other professional fields and in the arts and sc iences, however, more frequently continue their graduate work without interruption~ The findings reported in this study support these conclusions.
This generalization is supported, for example, by the finding that the average male graduate in Education was 25.2 years of age at the baccalaureate
graduation as compared with 23.7 years and 23 0 6 years of age respectively
for male students obtaining other professional degrees and the rffi and MS degrees. The mean age of the female graduates in Education v12S 28.0 years at the baccalaureate graduation as compared to 22.1 years and 24.5 years of age respectively for the other female students obtaining degrees in the other professional schools and the NA and lIS degrees.
Another way of expressing this generalization is to note that there was a lapse of 5.7 years between baccalaureate graduation and the administration of the GRE for the average male Education major as compared to 2.3 and 1.8 years f-;r'the other t~10 groups. A similar comparison for the female Educa-
tion majors shows 80 9 years versus 9.8 and 2.6 years intervening between
baccalaureate graduation and GRE testing. It is to be noted that the only exception to the age differentials was beuveen the female Education majors and the female students obtaining other professional degrees. The small size of this latter group (8 students) 1Jarrants cautious generalizations.
Table DJ-B-3 is similar in construction to Table DJ-B-l except that the Education group is sub-divided into: (1) elementary, (2) general secondary (English, foreign languages, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences), (3) special secondary (agriculture, art, home economics, industrial arts, music, physical education, and teachers of special education), and (4) non-teaching (administration, guidance, supervision, and visiting teachers). These sub-divisi~ns were established for the purpose of comparing graduate majors in Education in terms of levels of instruction and fields of specializations.
The students in the general secondary fields made higher average scores an the various sub-tests of the GRE than did the students in the other Education groups. There seemed to~ no particular pattern far descending order among the other groups.

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In terms of age at the time of the GP~, the students in the special secondar,y areas were the youngest (27.4 years for males, 32.5 years for females) while those in the general secondary areas were neJ~ youngest (31.6 and 3108 years). There seemed to be little differentiation among the four groups in terms of length of time needed to complete the requirements for the masters degree, inasmuch as all groups averaged between three and four years.
Students in the secondary fj,elds were younger on the average at the time of the baccalaureate graduations, averaging approximately 23 years of age. This figure compares 'with tl'e average age of approximately 32 years for the elementary majors and 2C years of age for the non-teaching majors.
The female Education majors in the teaching areas generally had a longer elapsed time betl'1een bacca18ureate g raduatlion <Jnd the administration of the GEE than did the male Education majors. The averages for female Education majors were 7.7 years for elementary, 11.2 years for general secondary, and 100 1 years for special secondary. These mean numbers of years were considerably less for the male EWlcation majors: the comparable averages being 1.5 years for elementary, 60 2 years for general secondary, and 3.8 years in special secondary. In the non-teaching areas, the male Education majors averaged a slightly longer inter~n between baccalaureate graduation and the administration of the GP~ than did the female Education majors (9.3 years to 8.6 years)G ---
Mean values on cert~in other factors. The comparisons in Table IV-B-2 US8Ci the samegrot~s did Tai)ie~-r:r-B-l; that is, Education degrees, other professional degrees, and l"IA and 1'lS degrees.. Table IV-B-2 sho-vJs that Education majors did not receive as high grades ll1 their major field (Education) as did the other graduate students in their respective major fields. It is to be noted, however, that the average grades of all graduate students receiving their masters degrees were in the "A" range(90.5 - 95.5), insofar as major fields were concerned.
The typical male Education major had between five and six courses in hia major (Education) field; this is considerably less than the male graduates in the other professional programs (averaged between ten and eleven courses) and the male students Horking for the HA and MS degrees (averaged betHeen ed.:ghtand nine courses). The 'typical female Education major had m.orequartar hours in her major field (Education) than her female counterpart in the other professional programs but feHer quarter hours than the female students receiving the }"JA and }\:;:S degrees o
In terms of grades received in the graduate minors (which were considered to be all graduate courses taken outside the school of major concentration), Education majors approximated the average attained in their major (Education) courses (90.0 versus 90.8 for the males and 90.8 versus 92 0 0 for the females)G Grades for the Education majors in their major fields, then, approxi.l'nated their grades in their subject content areas vrhich, by and large, were taught in the CoLlege of Arts and Sciences. The regulations of the Graduate School of the University of Georgia require an overall grade average of 88~0 for all courses counted to'l-Jard the graduate degree.
Both male and female Education majors attained approximatel;<{ the same grade average in graduate Hark as did the graduate students in the entire group (90~5 versus 91.2 for male students, 91.6 ~~s~s 91.9 for female

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students). The number of quarter hours transferred to the University on the graduate level was negligible, since the average per student was less than one quarter hour.
Table IV-B..2 ShONS that male Education graduates had a "B" average (81.4) on all the undergraduate work as did the female Education graduates (84.4). These averages were somewhat lower than those of the other groups, l-ihich were closer to a "B-plus" average for the females (87.8 and 89.1) and a higher "Bu average for the males (85.4 and 84,,9).
Table IV-B-4 is parallel to Table IV-B-2, except that the groups compared are the Education sub.groups as outlined in the d~scussion of Table IV-B-~. There were few differences in average grades among the groups of Education majors in Education courses or in average grades in other graduate courses. Those students in the general secondary fields had taken fewer courses in Education and hence had taken a greater number of other courses on the graduate level~ There were no appreciable differences in the com'" parisons of the sub-groups.
Graduates in the general secondary areas had slightly higher overall averages in their undergraduate work than did the other sub...groups. The average undergraduate grade for all groups compared (except non-teaching males -- 77.4) was in the "B" range.
N~b~ of ~~ since undergraduate degree conferred. Table IV-B-5 shows the number of years between the baccalaureate graduation and the masters graduation. This t able had cla ssifications of the number of years between graduations. Thus, the typical male graduate had an elapsed time of eight years between the two graduations while all the other male graduates averaged but four years. While this differential interim did not hold for the female graduates, women Education majors had a longer mean span of time between graduations (12 years) than did the other women graduates (10 years).
Graduates classified by institutions of undergraduate work. In Table IV-B::(), the Educationgraduates were compared with the other graduates on the basis of the institutions granting the undergraduate degrees. Those students obtaining their masters degrees in Education received proportionately fewer undergraduate degrees at the University than did students in other groups. On the other hand, proportionately more students in Education received their '~dergraduate degrees at other colleges in Georgia than did the students in the other tl-iO groups. Over 91 per cent of the male Education majors and over 82 per cent of the female Education majors received their undergraduate degrees from Georgia colleges. The corresponding percentages for students receiving other professional degrees were 63 per cent for males and 75 per cent for females. Eighty per cent of the men and 66 per cent of the women students t"Jho received the MA and MS degrees were graduated from Georgia colleges. These figures illustrate the important role of the College of Education of the University of Georgia in supplying post-graduate professional training for the public school teachers of the State of Georgia.
This pattern of a large number of Education students (56 of 97, or 58
per cent) having baccalaurea te degreE:iS frcm institutions other than the University of Georgia closely parallels the pattern of Education trans-

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fers to the University on the undergraduate level (approximately 60 per cent of the undergraduate Education students were transfers). In fact, the only 1958 masters graduates of the University who graduated from Georgia State College for Women, Georgia Teachers College, North Georgia College, Oglethorpe College, Piedmont College, Shorter College, and Brenau College were in the Education group.
Type of undergraduate degree receivede The frequency distribution of the ~ masters gradua tes in terms of the undergraduate degree conferred is
presented in Table rV-B-7. While the largest percentages of Education
graduates had received the B.S"Ed. or A.B.Ed., degrees, over one-fourth (26 e l per cent) of the males had received the B.S. degree and over onefourth (27.4 per cent) of the females had received the A.B o degree. In addition, 21.7 per cent of the male Education majors held the B.S.A. degree and 13.7 per cent of the female Education majors held the B.S. degree. This table shows that most of the male graduates in the other professional
degree programs had received the B.B.A. degree (47.3 per cent), while most
of the women graduates in the same category had received the B.S.H.E. degree (62.5 per cent). As might be expected, the majority of the graduates in the MA and MS degree classification had received the A.B. or B.S.
degrees, although many (41.5 per cent) of the males had received the B.S.A.
as the first degree.
Field of undergraduate major. The frequency distribution of the various undergraduate majors is presented in Table IV-B-8. Although slightly over one-half (52 0 2 per cent) of the male Education majors had Education as their undergraduate major, it is interesting to note that such a large percentage (47.8 per cent) had undergraduate n~jors in fields other than Education. This ratio does not hold for the female Education graduates, although one out of every three of them had an undergraduate major other than Education. The other two groups (other professional degrees and IJ'IA and MS degrees) followed the expected patterns of undergraduate work previously discussed.
Summary. Tables IV-B-I through IV-B-8 may be interpreted as indicating ti'iat graduate students majoring in Education 't'Jere an academically competent and representative group. A similar conclusion has been previously reported concerning undergraduate majors in Education as based on Tables
IV-A-l through rJ-i\.-14. The marks received by gradr:.ate majors in Educa-
tion were much the same as for t he other groups compared and the numbers of quarter hours taken T<Jere approxi.llately the same. The differences found had to do primarily Ivith age and test scores. Education majors were older on the average at both the undergraduate and graduate levels than [.Jere the other students. The test scores of the Education majors were, in general, somewhat lower than the test scores achieved by the other students. Apparently neither greater age nor lower test scores made much difference i11 terms of classroom performance as determined by marks __ since Education majors on the graduate level averaged approxinately 90 (corresponding to "A minus") for courses in Educatioh and courses other than Education.

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IV-C. Supplementary Studies of the Distribution of Harks Assigned to University of Georgia Studentsl
The tabular data related to this sub-topic deal respectively with the distribution of marks assigned undergraduate enrollees of the University of Georgia during the Fall Quarter of 1955 and the Fall Quarter of 1951. These two populations were chosen for inclusion in the present analyses primarily for the reason that I.B"H. punch card data were already available on them2 The use of these two populations also permits the reader to make certain types of comparisons of the 1955 and 1951 populations with bachelors graduates of 1958. See especially Tables IV-A-ll, IV-A-12, and IV-C-14.
In view of the emphasis which the present study must logically place upon the characteristics of trainees for the teaching profession--as compared with the characteristics of other student groups and as compared with standards considered to be desirable--the attention of the reader is directed to (1) a comparison of marks assigned in Education courses versus marks assigned in other areas of instruction, and (2) the relationship between the average mark assigned to students in a particular area of instruction and the average intellectual ability (i.e., in the present instance, as measured by scores on the American Council on Education Psychological Examination, Total Score) of enrollees in that same area of instruction. It is to be noted that Tables IV-C-l, IV-C-2.and IV-C-3 each furnish data concerning the distribution of marks in Education courses and in other specified areas of instruction without relationship to the measured intellectual status of enrollees. On the o-(,her hand, Tables IV-C-4 and IV-C-5 respectively furnish parallel and comparable "standard score" data on marks and intelligence for Junior and Senior Division enrollees in each of several indicated areas of instruction.
Taken collectively, the data in Tables IV-C-l, IV-C-2 and IV-C-3 appear to warrant the following broad and summary generalizations:
1. Enrollees in Junior Division courses in Education were assigned a somewhat higher mean mark (80.1) than that assigned in Junior Division courses in all professional schools (78.6) and in all Junior Division courses in the University (7L~4). On the other hand, enrollees in 15 of the 43 areas of instruction in the Junior Division were assigned higher mean marks than were enrollees in Junior Division courses in Education. See Column 2, Table IV-C-l.
1 Thisseetion1oJ.8s written by Jgmes Eo Greene-,-.SI;~ . The JiJWbll-la:r data related to this sub-topic are shown in the Source Book as Tables IV-C-l through IV-C-5, pp.111-117.
2 University Registrar, vfulter N. Danner, had used the 1955 I.B.M. data in the preparation of a summary report (mimeographed) to the University faculty. Dr. Van Cleve Morris, a former member of the University faculty, had used the 1951 data in two journal articles. (See footnotes to Tables IV-C-4 and IV-C-5, Source ~, pp. 115 and 116).

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2. Similarly, enrollees in Senior Division courses in Education were assigned higher mean marks (85.1) than that assigned in Senior Division courses in all professional schools (82.4) and in all Senior Division courses in the University (82.1). It is noted, however, that enrollees in 13 out of 54 Senior Division areas of instruction were assigned higher mean marks than were enrollees in Senior Division courses in Education. See Column 2, Table IV-C-2.
3. Among enrollees in t he eight schools and colleges offering courses in the Junior Division, the distribution of mean marks, stated in order of decreasing size, was as follows: Home Economics, 85.3; Forestry, 84.5; Journalism, 84~3; Pharmacy, 81.7; Education, 800 9; Agriculture, 80.4; Business Administration, 74~7; Arts and Sciences, 73~lo Thus Junior Division marks among enrollees in the College of Education were lower than the comparable marks in four of the colleges, yet higher than those in three of the colleges.
4. Ranked in order of decreasing size, the mean marks assigned to enrollees in Senior Division courses in the several schools and colleges were~ Veterinary Medicine, 85.5; Journalism, 8L.8; Education, 84.7; Home Economics, 83.5; Forestry, 83.3; Agriculture, 82.0; Arts and Sciences, 81.3; Business Administration, 80.4; Pharmacy, 78.6; Law, 77.8. See Table IV-C-3. Thus among the ten schools and colleges offering Senior Division instruction, enrollees in the College of Education were assigned lower mean marks than were the comparable marks assigned in two of the colleges, yet higher than the comparable marks assigned in seven of the colleges. It is also noted that Senior Division enrollees in Education were assigned slightly higher mean marks (8L.7) than were the comparable marks in all professional schools (82.4) and in the entire University (82.1).
5. It should be noted that of the 9,526 total course registrations in the Junior Division, 7,215 registrations were in courses in the College of Arts and Sciences. This proportionately high ratio (7507 per cent) of Junior Division enrollments in the College of Arts and Sciences is due to the circumstance that the professional schools generally require their prospective majors to have made satisfactory academic records in a variety of required liberal arts courses offered in the Junior Division. It may be seen from Table IV-C-l that the mean mar~s assigned in the Junior Division courses typically required for admission to Senior Division courses in a professional school tended to be comparatively low (e.g., mathematics, social science, English -- See Source Book, pages 111 and 112). The net effect of this total situation is that the Junior Division enrollees with least academic promise tended to be eliminated from the University before they were able to meet the requirements for admission to the Senior Division.
The comments made in the five preceding paragraphs have been descriptive rather than evaluative in character; that is, these co~nents have merely described a general tendency for enrollees in Junior and Senior Division courses in Education to have been assigned mean marks somewhat higher than the comparable average marks for all professional schools and for the entire University, yet some't-Jhat lower than the comparable marks assigned to enrollees in certain other designated areas of instruction. An evalua-

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tive interpretation of these findings (i.e., whether "good" or "bad" -"desirable" or "undesirable") would involve a philosophical consideration of the functions of the marking system in the educative processl While present space limitations preclude a detailed discussion of issues pertinent to an adequate evaluative interpretation of the present findings, it may be mentioned that higher-than-average marks are sometimes cited as evidence of (1) superior scholastic aptitude (i.e. intelligence) of students in a given department; (2) superior motivation of students in a given department; 0) superior instructional skill of teachers LYl a given department; and (4) relative laxness of enforcement of "sound academic standards" on the part of instructors assigning such higher-than-average marks. The present findings do not, per se indicate which, if any, of the above evaluations is valid in the presen~instanceo
It is obviously difficult to secure objective and valid data concerning (1) the comparative motivation of students enrolled for courses in differing areas of instruction, (2) the comparative instructional skills of teachers in differing departments, or (3) the comparative rigor or laxness of enforcement of "sound academic standardslt by teachers in differing dep~rtment$ 0 Fortunately, it is possible to secure reasonably valid measures of the comparative scholastic aptitude of students enrolled in dif-
fering areas of instrfiotian. By uae of such measures of scholastic apti-
tude, it is possible to show the relationship between (1) the average scholastic aptitude of enrollees in a given area of instruction, and (2) the average mark assigned to these identical enrollees in that area of instruction.
A former professor of the University of Georgia, Dr. Van Cleve l"forris, has given permission2 to cite the results of his comparative study of the mean standard scores for marks and intelligence of Junior and Senior Division students enrolled in courses for the Fall Quarte), 1951 in each of the schools and colleges of the University of Georgia. These data are shown as Tables IV-C-4 and IV-C-5.
The use by Morris of ltstandard scoresll involved the conversion of the raw or original scores on both marks and intelligence into scores on a new and IIcommonll scale. This common or "standard score" scale ~'las so constructed as to have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 score points. Thus a standard score of 50 on marks or intelligence represents average performance as based on all University students. A standard score of 47.0 on grades (See Table I'l-C-l~, r01v 1 -- B:i.ological Science) falls three-tenths of one standard deviation unit below the average grade for all University students. Similarly, a st.andard score of 54.0 on grades (See Table rv-c-4, row 8 -- Journalism) falls four-tenths of one standard deviation unit above the average mark of all University students. The remaining standard scores shown in Tables IV-C~4 and IV- C-5 are to be interpreted similarly. The use of such a 8tandard score scale permits
I,"
1 Some 01. 'tlleS8 iS6ue.s have been discussed by Van Cleve Horris, IIHigh Grades and Low Grades", College and University, vol.. 29, ppo 273 - 284.
2 In a personal letter to the writer.
3 Van Cleve Morris, "High Grades and Lmv Grades II", College and Uni~
sity, vol. 29, pp. 273 - 284.

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direct and immediate comparisons of (1) the relative status on llmarks" versus lIintelligence" for enrollees in a given area of instruction, and (2) the relative status on "marks" and/or "intelligence" of enrollees in any two or more designated area of instruction.
For purposes of the present study and in view of space limitations, it seems appropriate to limit the interpretive comments concerning the data in Tables IV-C-4 and IV-C-5 to the following generalizations:
1. Junior Division enrollees in Education courses were assigned average marks (standard score, 56.5) considerably higher than those assigned to all University students (standard score, 50~0), and somewhat higher than those assigned to enrollees in all professional schools (standard score, 52.6); yet lower than those assigned to enrollees in Fine Arts (standard score, 56.7) and in Home Economics (standard score, 57.9).
2. Junior Division enrollees in Education courses had average intelli-
gence scores (standard score, 48.1) considerably lower than those
of all University students (standard score, 50.0), and slightly lower than those of all enrollees in professional schools (standard score, 48 06); yet somewhat higher than the comparable scores of enroLlees in Forestry (standard score, 45.4), in Agriculture (standard score, 45.6) and in Home Economics (standard score, 47.6).
3. Senior Division enrollees in Education courses were assigned average marks (standard score, 50.8), slightly higher than those assigned to all University students (standard score, 50.0), to enrollees in all professional schools (standard score, 50.2), and to enrollees in all courses in Arts and Sciences (standard score, 49~3); yet slightly lower than the comparable marks assigned to enrollees in Journalism (standard score, 50.9), and considerably lower than those assigned to enrollees in Fine Arts (standard score, 52.0), Home Economics (standard score, 54.0) and Veterinary Medicine (standard score, 55.0)0
4. Senior Division enrollees in Education courses had average intelligence scores (standard score, 4907) only slightly below the comparable average intelligence score for all University students (standard score, 50.0), and considerably below those for enrollees in all Arts and Sciences courses (standard score, 52 0 9); yet somewhat higher than those for all enrollees in professional schools (standard score, 48.4). The difference in the mean standard scores for average mark and average intelligence of Senior Division enrollees in Education courses was not statistically significant. Stated differently, the differences can readily be accounted for by chance.
5. Since Junior Division enrollees in Education had mean intelligence
scores considerably below the all-University average (i.e., 48.1 versus 500 0) and since Senior Division enrollees in Education had
mean~ntelligence scores only slightly below the corresponding allUniversity average (i.e., L~9.7 ve~ 50 100), it may be inferred that, comparatively speaking, Senior Division enrollees in Education had been subjected to more rigorous lIscreening" (i.e., comparatively high elimination rates of ~Tunior livision enrollees having relative-

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ly low intelligence scores), than had been Senior Division enrollees for the University as a whole ..
In evaluating the data on marks (i.e., grades) reported in this section and in other sections of the present study, the reader should keep clearly in mind the distinction between (1) marks assigned by teachers to all students (i.e o , majors and non-majors) in a-given area-of instruction versus (2) marks received in all subjects or certain subjects by students--who are majoring in a given area of instruction. This distinction may also be phrased in question form:
1. Do teachers in instructional area A assign higher or lower marks to all oitheir enrollees (iee~, both maTOrs and non-majors) than do te'a'chers in instructional area B?
2. Do students who are majoring in instructional area A receive higher or lowerJ)i"arks in all of t'heir courses (i.e., in the majorfield and in non-major fields) than do students who are majoring in instructional area B?
It is to be noted that the data in Tables IV-C-1 through IV-C-5 are di-
rectly concerned only ,;::i.th the first (i.e 0' marks assigned by teachers in
a given area of instru:~t,ion to all enrollees in that area) of the two above-named issueo c Sirlce teac'i1.ers of Se~l:~_or Division courses in Education assigned average marks to enrollees in these courses (84.7) which were slightly higher than were the corresponding Senior Division marks assigned by teachers in all professional courses (82.4) and in the University as a whole (82 ..1), and since enrollees in Senior Division courses in Education were comprj.sed mainly ._- although not exclusively -- of Education majors 3 it appears to be a reasonably sound inference thet Education majors during the FaJ.l Quarters of 1951 and 1955 received slightly higher marks in their majcr field (i'le oJ Education) than were the comparable marks assigned in Senlor Division courses in all professional schools and in the entire University.
For purposes of comparing the marks received by Education majors in their major field (i.e~j Education) ,'Jith the marks received by these Education majors in areas of instr~ction other than the major field, the reader is referred to data cited in another section of this study (Tables IV-A-l1, IV-A-12, and IV.1-\.-.14).. CalcJ.l.:~tions reported i..'1 or de'ived from data reported in these tables are hlt.erp7.'8ted as warranting the following generalizations concernjllg Edncation majors among bachelors graduates of the University of Georgia in June and August, 19.58~
1. Education majors as a lJhole (i.e., lI all fi.31ds ll ) received somewhat high,":r ma:rks in Education courses (S6~6) than in cour ses in their IIto.1ching fiel<.lsf! (SL04) and in all undergraduate COUl"ses (80 0 7). Since the majority of Education courses are offered L'1 the Senior Division (ice., 25 or 30 out of 35 required quarter hours), since the mean mark in all Senior Division courses tends to be considerably higher than the mean mark in Junior Division courses (See Tables 1I....C~l, 1V-C-2 and IV-C-3), And sLi.ce previously citad evidence indicates that Senior Dj.vision enrollees in Education had been "screened!! 'lrJith respect to scholastic aptitiude, it would be logical to expect -- for the reasons cited -- that the average mark in Education courses would be comparatively" higher than the average mark in all subjects.

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2. Education majors were generally assigned somewhat higher marks in certain commonly required liberal arts courses in the Junior Division (i.e., English 101, English 102~ Mathematics 100, Human Biology
1, Human Biology 2, Social Science 4, and Political Science 1) than
war-e. those assigned to majors in the College of Arts and Sciences
and to all members of the bachelors class of 1958. Expressed in
terms of a weighted composite score, the comparative marks received in these seven courses were as follows: Education majors 82~5;
Arts and Sciences majors, 7g e 6; University average, 82&4. Data
such as these would seem to warrant the inference that the comparatively favorable status of Education majors with respect to academic marks cannot be solely or even mainly attributed to laxness in the enforcement of "sound standards" on the parts of persons who teach counsee 1m Educationo

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IV-D. Selected Comparisons of Education Majors Versus Non-Education Majors
in Certain Georgia Colleges Having Teacher Education Programs1
The data presented in Tables IV-D-l, IV-D-2, IV-D-3, and IV-D-4 in the
Source Book were reported by fifteen of the eighteen white and five of the eight~egro colleges of Georgia with teacher education programs and permit a comparison between teacher trainees and other students on a number of indices. Hany of the comparisons are described in terms of percentages, but the reader should remember the small number of institutions in the sample and should interpret the percentages accordingly.
Responses to opinion-type questions concerning financial assistance, academic achievement, leadership recognition, and general quality of students are reported in Table IV-D-l. In answer to each of these questions, which used a "more often than", "about the same", and IIless often thanll scale,
more than 50 per cent of the respondents reported that teacher trainees
and other students ranked "about the same". However, the variations on either side of "about the same" pointed up the observed differences between the tvJO groups. T~"8~:'e was less variation reported by the Negro respondents than by the li/hite"
Of the white respondents, 13.3 per cent reported that teacher trainees
need financial assistance more often than other students but 60 7 per cent reported that they actually receive financial assistance more often. No differences were noted by the Negro respondents between the two groups concerning the need for ~nd t~~ receipt of financial assistance.
In relation to academic <:~hi8vement as meo.s"cl.t'ed by academic probation and by failtrre of courses., V.12 te3cher trainees Here more favorably rated than other students by both 1'1111ite and Negro respondents. Although 53~3 per cent of the white respondents and 80 per cent of the Negro respondents reported the two groups "about the same", 46.7 per cent of the white respondents and 20 per cent of the Negro respondents indicated that teacher trainees are placed on academic probation and that they fail courses less often than other students~ No respondent, white or Negro, reported that teacher trainees are placed on academic probation or that they fail courses more often than other students.
The quality of the two groups was compared also by noting variations in attainment of leadersrdp roles and honors. Although 60 per cent of the responses from whi te institutions gave the trtJo groups a comparative rating of lIabout the same", 26.7 per cent reported that teacher trainees receive leadership roles and honor'S "more often" than other students and none reported "less oftenll Three of the five respondents from the Negro institutions reported that the teacher trainees won leadership roles and honors more often than other students with one reporting 1I1ess often" and one reporting II about the samell
1 This section was written by Bernice Cooper. The present discussion is based on the data given in Tables IV-D-l through IV-D-4, pages 118 through 121, in the Source ~.

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In the comparison of the two groups according to general quality of the
student, all five of the Negro respondents and 14 of the 15 white respond-
ents rated the groups "about the same" or rated the teacher trainees higher than the other students. The term, "general quality", was intended as an overall evaluation of the student which was based on academic achievement, scholastic ability, and leadership qualities.
All of the white and the Negro respondents who noted any difference in the general quality of present teacher trainees as compared with previous te~Gh
er ' trainees favored the present trainees. In fact, more than half of
the white respondents indicated that the general quality of present teacher trainees is higher than that of previous teacher trainees4
The previous discussion has been based on the opinions of the respondents. The discussion which follows in the remainder of this section is based on factual data accumulated and reported by the respondents. In the instance of scholastic aptitude test data and average high school marks, summary medians could not be determined because different batteries of tests and different patterns of marks were re~orted. In some instances, percentile scores were given; in other instances, raw scores were given. These data were carefully exami~ed to determine the direction of differences where present and the differences were then counted with respect to comparisons of teacher trainees with other students.
Table IV-D-2 shows that five white institutions reported the scholastic aptitude of the 1958 education graduates to be lower than that of the non-education graduates, but four white institutions reported that the scholastic aptitude of the education graduates was higher than that of the non-education graduates. None of the Negro institutions reported data on scholastic aptitude.
Three white and three Negro institutions reported that the 1958 education graduates had higrer high school averages than the non-education graduates. Four white institutions reported no difference in the high school average of the two groups. In one white and one Negro institution, the high school averages of non-education majors were higher than those of education students.
According to the reporters, the education graduates of eight white institutions and ~vo r~gro institutions were older than non-education graduates. Two white institutions indicated the ages of the two groups to be the same and one Negro institution reported the non-education group to be the older.
Further comparisons of the achievement of education and non-education students who graduated in 1958 may be noted in Tables IV-D-3 and IV-D-4 of
the Source BOOK. These comparisons include data for n46 education gradu-
ates and 2~n-education graduates. In twelve white Georgia colleges with teacher education programs, the unweighted mean grade-point average of the 1958 education graduates was 2.67 as compared with 2 ..61 for the
non-education graduates (1 0 0 = D, 2.0 = C, 3.0 = B, 4.0 = A}~ Of the
twelve white institutions which reported grade averages for June graduates, seven institutions reported Ingher unweighted mean grade-point averages for the education graduates, four reported Ingher averages for the noneducation graduates, and one reported the same average for the two groups.

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Of the four white institutions which reported average marks for August graduates, one reported higher averages for education graduates and three reported higher averages for non-education graduates. The difference in averages between the two groups for both June and August graduates was less than one half letter grade.
In the four Negro institutions reyorting comparative data for the 1958
education and non-education graduates, the unweighted mean grade-point average for the non-education graduates was slightly higher than that of the education graduates, or 2.61 as compared vJith 2(1.58. For the June graduating classes, three institutions reported a higher average for the education graduates and one, a higher average for non-education graduates. Of the August granuating classes, education graduates had higher averages in one instttution, non-education graduates had higher averages in one institution, and the t1110 gr'oups had the same average in one institution.
To compare education graduates of June and August, the June graduates had higher averages than the August graduates in four instances, a lower average in one instance, and the same average in tl110 cases. However, for non-education graduates, the August graduates had higher averages in four instances, lower averages in two instances, and the same average in one case.
In a comparison of the 1958 graduates according to race, Tables IV-D-3 and IV-D-4 shaH that the grade average for the non-education graduates,
as reported by fifteen 'VJhite and five Negro institutions, was the same for both races, or 2.610 However, for education graduates, the white institutions reported a slightly higher average than the Negro institutions, or 2.67 as compared with 2.58 0
In sUIT@ary, from the data renorted by the fifteen white and five Negro institutions in Georgia with teacher traDling programs, it may be inferred that, regarding the factors reported, the teacher trainee approximated the student in other areas. 'I'his .finding is in agreement with the more detailed study of the University of Georgia graduate which is described in an earlier section of the report.

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CHAPTER 5
Sun1l\.RY OF HAJOR FTh"DINOSl
It is the pur-pose of the present chapter to attempt to summarize briefly the most significant findings reported in the preceding four chapters and the pertinent tabular materials in the Source Book. To facilitate ease of reference to the tabular and textual materials previously cited, these SUIl'l.mar.r statements have been grouped under the four major areas of investigation and enumerated in the same general sequential order of data presentation as that observed in the text and tables.
I. THE GENERAL STATUS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN GEORGIA
1. Today, well over a million persons, more than one-fourth of Georgia's current population, are actively engaged in public edueation as pupils, teachers, and allied workers G Education is the biggest and most vital single enterprise in the state. It is ever"Jonets business. It is a business which operates 2,177 elementary and high schools (l,362 for white pupils, 815 for Negro pupils) in 199 county and independent systems at an expense of over a million dollars per school day. Official enroD.ment figures for 1957-58 show 978,534 pupils and 31,795 teachers. Total expenses for 1957-58 for public education belo1'7 college level were over $206 million.
2. Generalizations about finance are based on pre-college level public education only. Counting public funds only, 72 cents of each tax dollar spent for public education in Georgia below the college level come from state appropriations, 24 cents from local funds, and 4 cents from Federal funds. Teachers' salaries account for 74 per cent of school e~~enditures; other items include textbooks, 3.5 per cent; maintenance and operation, 9.9 per cent; pupil transportation, 8.9 per cent; and administration, 3.7 per cent.
3. As compared with the 48 states not including Alaska as of the latest year (1957) comparative data are available, Georgia ranks about 40th in ability to support education (personal income per school child); about 8th in burden (relative number of children per 1,000 adults in the labor pool); 42nd in "absolute" effort (amount of money spent per school child) and 17th in "relative" effort (school expenses as percentage of personal income payments per child); and about 44th in measures of acld.evemen-t (median number of school years by adults, and other measureso)
4. Georgia has increased teachers' salaries in recent years, but the rate of increase has been proportionately less than the national gain. For example, from 1956 to 195'1, the average annual salary
i Prepared by the several members of the professional staff.

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of Georgia teachers increased by a sum of $150; the national increase was $195. In 1957, Georgia teachers averaged $65 per week, which was $11 less than the weekly income of factory-workers in the nation during 1955.
5. For the regular elementary and high school teachers' certificates, Georgia requires the bachelor's degree. This pattern of requirements prevails throughout most of the nation. Thirty-seven states require more hours in professional education than Georgia!s 18 semesterliOU'rs.
II. CHARAGrERISTICS OF THE WORK FORCE
1. In 1959, more than 85 per cent of Georgia teachers hold a four-or-
five-year professional teacher's certificate. ~ldte teachers have higher percentages at the five-year level and below the four-yearlevel; more than 80per cent of Negro teachers hold the four-year certificate. Men teachers, who constitute slight;}.y over 20 -per-cent of the teaching force, are better trained an the average (4.4
years, white; 4c 2 years, Negro) than are Homen teachers (3.9 years,
white; 4.1 years, Negro).
2. Slightly over one per cent of teachers have .no college training, and were apparently hired on an extreme emergency basis. The percentage of these untrained persons is greater for the white than for the Negro teacher population.
3. During the past t1venty years, the average nuraber of years of college training of white teachers has increased from 2$8 years to 4.0 years; for Negro teachers, the increase from 1938 to 1959 was from 1.2 years to 4.1 years.
4. Highest mean levels of training are generally found in counties in or near which colleges and universities are located. Lmvest mean levels are found in counties of .northwestern Georgia and a band of counties on or :near the Florida border. Teachers in independent
systems average 4.2 years of college training as compared with the
average of 4.0 years for teachers in county systems.
5. In 1957, 8.2 per cent of teachers reported that they were teaching outside the major field in which they had been certified to teach. Men teachers and white teachers reported higher percentages teaching in fields "not certified" than did women teachers and Negro teachers.
6. As of April 1958, 10 per cent of the 199 county and independent system superintendents did not have a four-year or five-year teacher or administrative certificate. Eight superintendents held merely a permit, which indicated no professional training beyond high school.
7. 1.nIhite teachers in t1'lO large school systems in Georgia earned average acores on a standardized test of teaching aptitUde which

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fairly closely appro:xil11ated national standards. Negro teachers in these two systems earned average scores on the same test of teaching aptitude which consistently fell significantly below national n,orms for all teachers,-, There was vdde variation in both groups on all tests, vdt...~ considerable overlapping.
8. White students enrolled in selected grades in these two school
systems earned average scores on standardized achievement tests which fairly closely approximated natio:nal nonns l) Negro students in the corresponding grades in these two systems had average achievement test scores which co.nsistently fell significantly below national norms for all students.. There was wide variation in both groups on all tests, with considerable overlapping.
9. As of January 1959, the public school teachers of the state of Georgia tended to represent a well-balanced teaching force from the viewpoints of age and experience. At that time the median age for teach.mJ:!s 1'JaB 39 0 0 years.. In general, female teachers of both races were oilider than their male colleagues. White female teachers tended to be the oldest group, with a median age of 42.5 years, and Negro males represented the youngest group, with a median age of 34't0 years.
10. As a total group, the teaching force shol'Jed balance from the viewpoint of experience o Over 68 per cent of the teachers had had six or more years of teaching experience, and only 7 ..6 per cent were beginning teachers. vJhite female teachers represented the most experienced group.. Noticeable differences in the age and experience of teachers employed in the various counties of the state were found.
11. In 11ay 1957, 67 per cent of GeorgLa teachers were married, 23 per cent single, 6 per cent widovJed, and 4 per cent divorced. Men werc married in higher proportions than VJere women; proportionably more women than men were single and widowed" Slighl.1;;r higher proportions of Negro than of white teachers 1'Jere divorced. Nearly two-thirds (64 per cent) of women teachers were married.
12. In J1ay 1957, 86 per cent of teachers reported that they had taught in Georgia the previous year (1955-56). About one out of twelve of these IIstayers" stated that he had moved within the state from one
system to another the previous year. Of the approX'imate1y 14 per
cent 1'Jho had not taught in Georgia the preceding year, 3 per cent had taught in another state and 11 per cent 'Vmre either beginning teaching or retur:ni.ng to the profession after one or more years out of teaching.
13. The Negro teacher population is apparently more stable than the white teacher population, since 80 per cent of IIne1'J11 teachers and "withdra1-Jing teachers II are I'Jhite as compared I'dth the 70 per cent ratio of white teachers in the total work force.
14. In 1958, a total of 2,263 persons withdre'VJ funds from the Teacher
Retirement System and presumably left the profession. This group

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constituted 8.4 per cent of the total teaching force, or approxi-
mately one out of t'tvelve. These persons were prodominantly young and more than two-thirds of them had less than three years experience. The median age of these "vJithdral,Ting" persons was 12 years less than the median age of the total work force.
15. Greater proportions of men, particularly white men, 'tdthdrew their retirement funds in 1958 than their corresponding percentages in the total teaching population 'tvould narrant by II chance" expectancy.
16. The typical school in Georgia had had three or more principals during the decade 1946-56. Greater stability of the principalship was associated ~dth urban schools, ~~th larger, regionally-accredited schools, and uith communities having higher levels of personal income.
17. Women comprise 92 per cent of elementary teac.bers It Men in elementary schools teach mainly in the sixth grade or higher. Seventy per cent of junior high teacners and 60 per cent of sanior high teachers are 'Women.. These prop(i:ctions are true for both "I'!hite and Negro teacher populations.
18. At the high school level, five subject areas and "stUdy hall" account
for 77 per cent of instructional time and pupil enrollment in white
schools and 76 per cent of instructional time and pupil enrollment in Negro schools o These subjects, in order of decreasing frequency, are: English, social sciences, mathematics, health and p...l:lysical education, study hall, and science.
19. Greater proportions of iVhite pupils than Negro pupils take English, business and commercial subjects, foreign languages, and study hall. Relatively the same ratios of white and Negro pupils take vocational agriculture, mathematics, and industrial arts classes. Negro students are found in greater proportions in art, health and physical education, homemaking, music, natural sciences, and social sciences.
20. As compared uith teachers over the nation (1957 data), Georgia teachers spend relatively greater proportions of class periods and teach more pupils in English, health and physical education, and vocational agriculutre. Social sciences, art, and homemaking are taught in approximately equal proportions in Georgia and the nationo Areas with smaller proportions of pupil and periods in Georgia schools are mathematics, foreign languages, natural sciences, business education, i.'1dustrial arts, a.'1d trades and industrial education.
21. Pronounced sex differences in the teaching fields of men and 't-lomen teachers of high school subjects are noted. With greater than chance expectancy frequency, men are more likely (in declining order of relative male predominance) to have classes in in~~strial arts, vocational agriculture, trades and industrial education, mathematics, science, health and physical education, music and social sciences. Conversely, the teaching fields in 'tvhich 't-mmen teachers are found in greater than chance expectancy proportions, enumerated in declining order of relative female predominance, are: home economics, foreign language, English, commercial subjects, art and study hall.

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22. Athletics dominate the extra-class activities reported by white teachers, particularly white men teachers. Negro teacher spent relatively more time in "character-building" (Hi-Y, Junior Civitan, etc.), vocational, and literar,y-dramatic activities.
23. Recent and valid data concerning salaries are based upon teachers registered with the Teacher Retirement System (83 per cent of all teachers). Two significant factors stand out in analyzing the data regarding teacher compensation. First, as a group, Georgia teachers l~ere underpaid in comparison to other teachers in the :nation and in relationship to other professions. As of Januar,y 1959~ the median salal~ paid public school teachers was $289 per month or $3,468 per year. The middle fifty per cent of Georgia teachers at that time earned between $2,868 to $4,320 per year. A second significant factor was the comparatively low sa1ar,y ceiling for the profession, which served to maintain the teacher!s unfavorable economic position throughout his length of service.
Female teachers lvith between 30 and 34 years of service earned
only $51 per month more than those with less than five years of service. Even with advanced preparation and many years of service, the teacher in Georgia actually earned much less per year than most other professional and maqr semi-professional workers earn upon first entering the labor force.
III. PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION PROGRAMS
1. Among the livhite colleges of the state, Georgia State College for 1oJomen, Georgia Teachers College, and the University of Georgia are the major producers of teachers. Albany State College, Fort Valley State College, and Savannah State College are the leading Negro colleges in teacher education. The white public colleges of the
state produce about 75 per cent of the teachers educated in the
state. The public Negro colleges of the state produce about 80
per cent of the Negro elementary teachers and about 50 per cent
of the Negro secondar,y teachers.
2. The average yearly production of teachers by Georgia colleges does not seem to be sufficient to meet the demand. The ratio of supply to demand is too low for elementar,y school teachers and for high school teachers in the academic and cultural subjects; "balanced" for teachers of connnercial studiesJ and probably too high for teachers of vocational subjects. In the case of Negro teachers, supply exceeds demand except in a few special fields.
3. A comparison of the distribution of prospective teachers with the
actual distribution of the work force shows that not enough men are going into teaching. Too few men are preparing to teach in the elementar,y school and in academic fields in high schooL Most of the prospective men teachers prepare to teach social studies, agriCUlture, physical education and industrial arts. Most of the prospective women teachers prepare to teach home economics, English, social studies, and commercial studies. More men and women seem to be needed in mathematics, science, foreign langua,ges, and in special subjects.

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4. The curricula patterns in teacher education amO.ng Georgia colleges
do not vary a great deal. Generally speaking, about 19 per cent of a prospective teacher1s study is in education (courses in education) and about 81 per cent in the arts and sciences and/or teaching fields. The chief variations that are found among curricular patterns are to be found in the teaching fields (subject matter majors).. The larger number of hours in teaching fields and in education courses tend to be found in the vocational and special fields (business, agriculture, music, etc.) where greater specialization is demanded. In the academic teaching fields, the sciences often require more hours than other academio subjects. On the Whole, Georgia colleges require fewer hours in education courses than is generally required in teacher education programs in colleges and universities of the nation. Georgia colleges .not only require fe'tfer hours in education, but the number of hours actually taken by students in teacher education is less than the average for the nation as a whole.
5. The qualifications of faculty members in schools and departments
of education in Georgia colleges are relatively high. In terms of highest degree held, professors of education in Georgia colleges are slightly above the average of all colleges and universities of the nation. Among Georgia colleges, both Negro and White, 41.) per cent of the education faculty held the doctorate. The percentage of college and university faculty in all institutions of
higher education in the nation who held the doctorate was 40 per
cent in 1954, and this percentage had been declining.
6. The policies and practices for recruiting able prospective teacher education students leaves something to be desired. Except for the activities of the Future Teachers of America and the Student National Education Association, no systematic recruitment program seems to exist.
7. The admission requirements in schools and departments of teacher
education in Georgia colleges are equal to, and in most cases, identical v,rith, those for all other sChoOIs and departments of the same"institution. In most cases (17 out of 20) actual admission to programs of teachers education did not occur until the junior year in college.. Where formal admission occurred at the junior year, grades earned in junior division courses vmre made considerations in admission to teacher education programs.
8. In an effort to ascertain which factors might improve the quality
of the teaching force in Georgia, re13pondents from 15 vJhite and 5
Negro institutions with teacher training programs were asked for suggestions. The seventy suggestions Hhich 'Here received indicated, directly or indirectly, that strengthening the present teachi ng force in Georgia ::i.S primarily a financial p:roblernc; The two suggestions offered most freqlle!ltly included increased salaries for teachers (10 of the 20 respondents) and better screening procedures and
more selective admission policies (9 of the 20 respondents). The
most frequent needs for the improvement of teacher training programs Here directly related to financial inadequacies; i.e., lack

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of facilities, inability to attract and retain competent staff, and a limited student teaching program. The improvement of the program of training through better instruction and changes in curriculum was also suggested by a number of rappandents.
IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAINEES
1. Of the 1,219 baccalaureate graduates of the tIniversity of Georgia in 1958, 282 (23.1 per cent) were Bachelor of Science in Education graduates. All of the graduates were compared on the basis of certain selected characteristics.
2. The following generalizations can be made on the basis of the finfings of this study. Education maj ors as compared with the other baccalaureate graduates: (a) l-Jere older; (b) came from similar homes and places of residence; (c) had lower high school averages; (d) had the same number of high school credits; (e) made 10vrer scores on the Freshman placement examinations; (f) made better grades on specified Freshman subjects; (g) had better overall grade averages at the University; (h) had a higher ratio of transfers from other colleges (generally at the junior year). Education majors made the same average grades o:n courses in their teaching fields as on professional Education courses.
3. In a similar ma.rmer, the 177 masters graduates of the University of Georgia were compared. These comparisons were made on the basts of three groups: (a) those receiving degrees in Education, (b) those receiving degrees in the other professional fields, and (0) those receiving the MA. and IYIS degrees., The fol101d.ng generalizations can be made on the basis of the findings of this study.
4. Education majors as compared with the other master graduates: (a)
were older at the time of taking the Graduate Record Examination; (b) made lower scores on the Graduate Record Examination; (c) had been out of college longer; (d) took longer to obtaIn their masters degrees; (e) were older at baccalaureate and masters graduations; (f) had feuer graduates from the University on the baccalaureate level; (g) had more graduated from Georgia colleges on the baccalaureate level; (h) received the same average grades in their major and minor fields; (i) took feuer hours in their major field; (j) had lower undergraduate academic averages.
5. At the University of Georgia, average grades assigned by instructors of Senior Division courses in Education were slightly' higher than the corresponding average grades assigned by instructors in all other professional schools and in the entire University, yet somewhat lower than the corresponding average grades assigned by
instructors in 13 out of 54 areas of Senior Division instruction.
6. Teacher trainees were compared with other students on the follo'ttilng indices: financial assistance, academic achievement, leadership recognition, general quality of stUdent, high school marks, scholastic aptitUde, and marks earned in collegee The teacher trainee approximated the student in other areas as reported by 15 of the 18 white and 5 of tbe 8 Negro institutions in Georgia with teacher training programs.