A guide for the improvement of typewriting instruction

3oo.V(.
1'1 1
I -r S1
uid~ for the Improvement
of
Typewriting Instruction

..

BUSINESS EDUCATION SERVICE

(

DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

(
GEORGE I. MARTIN, Director

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
CLAUDE PURCELL, State Superintendent of Schools
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
1959

A Guide for the Improvement
of
Typewriting Instruction
Prepared by
BUSINESS EDUCATION SERVICE DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
GEORGE I. MARTIN, Director
STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
CLAUDE PuRCELL, State Superintendent of Schools
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
1959

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
ALSO
STATE BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
DR. CLAUDE PuRCELL, Executive Officer

Honorable James S. Peters, Manchester, Chairman . 4th District

Honorable Henry Stewart, Cedartown, Vice-Chairman

7th District

Honorable Paul S. Stone, Waynesboro

1st District

Honorable Robert B. Wright, Moultrie

2nd District

Honorable Clarke W. Duncan, Buena Vista

3rd District

Honorable J. J. McDonough, Atlanta

5th District

Honorable Francis Shurling, Wrightsville

6th District

Honorable Lonnie E. Sweat, Blackshear

8th District

Mrs. Bruce Schaefer, Toccoa

9th District

Mrs. Julius Y. Talmadge, Athens

lOth District

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1

FOREWORD
One of the functions of the State Department of Education is to prepare materials designed to assist school administrators and teachers in improving the program of studies and classroom instruction. Because typewriting has the largest single enrollment of any business education subject, the Typewriting Guide was developed to meet the urgent need for teaching materials.
This Guide was prepared with the teacher in mind. Its purpose is not to supplant methodology courses in typewriting, but it is designed to supplement the teacher's knowledge of teaching techniques in this field. It is to be commended for its down-to-earth teaching suggestions, which teachers can use in their classroom activities to improve the knowledges and skills of students.
Through the use of this instructional aid, it is hoped that the best typewriting instruction possible will be provided. With business teachers striving for similar goals, business education will make a greater contribution to the educational objectives of Georgia high schools.
We appreciate the time, effort, and interest of the initial planning committee, which was composed of business education teachers and business education specialists. We take pleasure in presenting the Typewriting Guide for use in the secondary schools of our state.
~~~
State Superintendent of Schools
~'i7-~
State Director Division of Vocational Education
v.

PREFACE
Approximately sixty per cent of the graduates of Georgia high schools do not attend college. Many of these individuals leave high school with no definite vocational training. The personal and vocational uses of typewriting are numerous, therefore, it merits the attention of educators.
This Guide embodies many significant contributions of educational research in typewriting, and it also includes the opinions of many outstanding authorities in the field of typewriting instruction.
It is hoped that typewriting teachers will use the down-to-earth suggestions contained in this Guide to develop effective teaching techniques in typewriting. Answers to many problems can be found by using the comprehensive bibliographies, which appear at the end of each section. By using all the resource material available, typewriting can be taught effectively; and teachers can feel the satisfaction of a job well done.
The Business Education Service gratefully acknowledges the many contributions of publishing companies, typewriting companies, and other educators. We are also indebted to the people who were members of the initial planning committee, which was composed of the following members: Miss Fay Pilkenton, Business Education Service, Chairman; Charles Tyre, North Georgia Trade School, Clarkesville; Mrs. Catharine B. Merrill, Hapeville High School, Hapeville; Mrs. Dora 0. Smith, Athens High School, Athens; Mrs. Bertie M. Garrett, Dodge County High School, Eastman; Paul LeRoy, North Whitfield High School, Dalton; and Dr. Zenobia T. Liles, Consultant.
The major responsibility for the organization and writing of the Guide was assumed by the Area Consultants of the Business Education Service.
MILDRED ANORA WITTEN
State Supervisor Business Education Service
vii.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD

iii

PREFACE .

v

I. INTRODUCTION . . .

1

Importance of Typewriting

1

Grade Placement

1

Length of Course . . .

1

Credit . . . . . . . . . . .

1

BIBLIOGRAPHY - INTRODUCTION

2

II. OBJECTIVES . . . . . .

3

General Objectives . . . . . .

3

Specific Objectives . . . . . .

4

BIBLIOGRAPHY - OBJECTIVES

5

III. COURSE CONTENT

7

Semester I

7

Semester II .

9

Semester III . . . .

15

Semester IV . . . .

17

IV. LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT

21

Introduction . . . . . . .

21

Factors in Planning Typewriting Room

21

Physical Layout

21

Built-In Equipment . . . . . .

22

Equipment . . . . . . . . .

23

Arrangement of Room . . . . . . . . .

26

BIBLIOGRAPHY- LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT

27

V. THE TYPEWRITING TEACHER . . . . .

29

Attitudes and Personality Traits . . . . . .

29

Educational Training . . . . . . . . . .

30

Classroom Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY- THE TYPEWRITING TEACHER 31

VI. SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS

33

Factors to Be Considered

33

Recommendations . . . . .

35

List of Typewriting Books . . . . . . . . . 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY - SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS 38

VII. TEACHING MATERIALS . . . . .

39

Check List for Evaluating Teaching Devices

39

viii.

TABLE OF CONTENTS- Continued

Description of Teaching Aids . . . Learning Aids of Typewriter Companies Supplies . . . . . . . . . . Visual Aid Catalogs . . . . . . Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY- TEACHING MATERIALS

Page
39 43 47 49 51 52

VIII. PROGNOSIS

55

Factors Contributing to Success . .

55

Procedures Used to Predict Success

56

BIDLIOGRAPHY - PROGNOSIS .

56

IX. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SKILL

DEVELOPMENT

. . . . . . . .

57

Importance . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

BIDLIOGRAPHY - PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT

61

X. METHODOLOGY

Factors Affecting Learning

Attitudes* . . . .

Demonstration* . .

Relaxation . . . .

Motivation*

Technique Development*

Speed Development*

Accuracy Development* .

Drill in Typewriting* . . .

Composing at the Typewriter*

Numbers and Symbols*

Proofreading* . . . . .

Erasing* . . . . . . .

Individual Differences*

. . .

BIDLIOGRAPHY - METHODOLOGY

*BIDLIOGRAPHY at the end of each topic.

63
63
63 64 67 67 71
80 84 89 95
97 100
106 109
. 110

XI. PRODUCTION TYPEWRITING .

113

Definition . . . . . . . . .

113

Guiding Principles . . . . . .

114

Characteristics of Production Typists

115

Lesson Planning . . . . . . .

116

Work Habits . . . . . . . .

116

Plan for Developing Production Skill

117

Sustained Production Tests .

118

ix.

TABLE OF CONTENTS- Continued

Page
Production Standards and Grading . . . . . . . 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY - PRODUCTION TYPEWRITING 123

XII. EVALUATION

125

Definition . . .

125

Testing

126

Grading

129

BIDLIOGRAPHY

Evaluation

136

Testing

136

Grading .

137

Standards .

139

XIII.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Beginning Typewriting . Development of Skill Electric Typewriting Problems . . Television Miscellaneous

140 141
141 143 144 . 144

CHARTS

TECHNIQUE CHECK LIST . . . .

74

ERROR ANALYSIS CHART . . .

87

GRADING SCALE: FIRST YEAR TYPING

133

GRADING SCALE: SECOND YEAR TYPING

134

X.

INTRODUCTION

When typewriters were first used in business, operators were selftrained. Typewriting instruction began in the public secondary schools about eighty years ago. Prior to 1920, the U. S. Office of Education did not report enrollment figures for typewriting. In 1922, approximately 281,524 students were enrolled in typewriting. Today over two million students are enrolled in typewriting courses in the public schools of the United States. In Georgia during the year 1957-1958, there were 37,101 students enrolled in beginning and advanced typewriting.

The typewriter is a necessary factor in business, in industry, and in the professions. More and more, typewriting is being recognized as a communication skill and a tool of literacy for all students. A good typewriting background increases occupational effectiveness and improves the chances for on-the-job promotion. Therefore, if adequate equipment and well-qualified teachers are available, typewriting should be available to all students. Regardless of whether students are taking typewriting for vocational or personal use, the foundation techniques are the same; and they should be taught in the same classroom.

Typewriting must be taught! When organized effectively and taught efficiently, typewriting courses abound in learning challenges. Beginning and advanced students should have separate instructional periods, and no teacher should be in charge of two classes at once. Teachers must set objectives for every lesson and direct and carefully supervise all learning activities. Students must understand these objectives and must strive constantly to achieve these goals by confident and diligent practice. Ability in the office reflects the skills and understandings developed in the classroom.

Grade Placement: Typewriting instruction should begin in the sophomore year (1Oth grade).

Length of Course:
Length of Period: Credit:

Typewriting I One Semester Typewriting II One Semester Typewriting III One Semester Typewriting IV One Semester
\
Fifty to sixty minutes per day, five days per week (double periods are not recommended)
One-half unit per semester.

This teaching guide gives a summary of the skills and the techniques that students should acquire as a result of typewriting instruction; it

1

provides an outline of subject content and teaching methodology for four semesters of typewriting in secondary schools. This material is to be used as a guide and should be adapted to meet the particular needs of schools and communities. It is hoped that beginning typewriting teachers will be given direction and guidance by the use of this material and that experienced teachers will find the Guide for Teaching Type writing useful and helpful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION Crawford, T. James, "Importance of Typewriting in the Training of Clerical
Workers," Business Education Forum, 11 (February, 1957), 19-21. Ehnes, Christian, "Typewriting for All High School Students," Journal of
Business Education, 23 (September, 1947), 19. Erickson, Lawrence, "In Defense of Typewriting," Business Education Fo-
rum, 13 (November, 1958), 4. Flood, Hazel A., "The Invention and the Development of the Typewriter,"
Journal of Business Education, 24 (January, 1949), 19-21; 24 (February, 1949), 27-29; 24 (March, 1949), 28-30; 24 (April, 1949), 25-26. Leffingwell, Elsie, "Recent Developments in Typewriting," Physical Layout, Equipment, and Supplies for Business Education, Fifth Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1948. Rowe, John L., "The Changing Scene in Typewriting Instruction," Business Education Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 6. Seares, AI N., "The Typewriter," Journal of Business Education, 30 (January, 1955), 159-61; 30 (February, 1955), 214-16. Silbert, Nannette, "The Importance of the Typewriter in Public School Education," Balance Sheet, 29 (January, 1948), 196-97.
2

OBJECTIVES
The major objective of the first semester of typewriting is the development of a basic skill-the foundation upon which all other objectives must be built; it includes correct technique, stroking, accuracy, and confidence in the operation of the typewriter. Hosler emphasizes the importance of basic skill by saying that "Vocational competency in typewriting can be only as strong as the foundation."1
There is a general difference in the objectives of beginning typewriting and advanced typewriting. Fuller2 says that advanced typewriting is primarily aimed at developing production techniques, using a variety of business materials, matching the business office situation as nearly as possible, and maintaining business standards rather than school standards. However, in advanced typewriting it is necessary to constantly develop and maintain additional basic skills. When an adequate basic skill is developed, it is easy to apply this skill to typewriting problems.
In this typewriting guide, the general objectives and the specific objectives are given for typewriting; then the course content for each semester is developed according to these objectives.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1. To develop personal and vocational skills and techniques in typewriting.
2. To develop competency in attaining standards set for straight copy and production materials.
3. To develop attitudes, character traits, and behavior patterns; that is, concentration, judgment, initiative, cooperation, resourcefulness, perseverance, and emotional control.
4. To develop the ability to understand oral and written instructions, to analyze problems, and to solve these problems successfully.
5. To increase students' ability to spell, punctuate, syllabicate, and to compose good English sentences and to integrate these related learnings with typewriting skills.
!Russell J. Hosler, "Objectives for High School Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 44.
2Donald C. Fuller, "Motivation Devices for Students in Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (October, 1947), 8.
3

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. To develop skill and to improve technique in control of operative parts and the keyboard.
2. To analyze errors and provide remedial drills.
3. To develop an appreciation of the value of equipment and the importance of caring for it.
4. To teach students to proofread so that they will be able to correct their papers rapidly and accurately.
5. To develop the ability to arrange and type different kinds of materials on various sizes of stationery, for example, handwritten copy, personal and business letters, memorandums, and tabulated material.
6. To develop the ability to type from rough drafts and to make the indicated corrections, which require a knowledge of proofreader's marks.
7. To teach students to center material vertically and horizontally.
8. To develop skill in using carbon paper.
9. To teach the styles of letters and the types of punctuation.
10. To develop skill in addressing envelopes, folding letters, and inserting them into envelopes.
11. To teach students to type postal cards, index cards, labels, and telegrams.
12. To develop the ability to type outlines, title pages, tables of contents, manuscript pages with footnotes, and bibliographies.
13. To emphasize the importance of developing skill in typing figures and characters.
14. To teach the students how to erase correctly.
15. To arrange and type a variety of specialized forms which will include financial statements, checks, invoices, vouchers, legal documents, etc.
16. To fill in printed business forms and printed documents. 17. To develop the ability to compose letters, themes, and to take
dictation at the typewriter. 18. To develop an understanding of general office procedures.
4

19. To develop skill in the preparation of multiple carbons, stencils, and masters.
20. To teach students to align material, to crowd and spread letters, to chain feed and backfeed envelopes and cards, to make corrections on bound copies, and to justify right margins.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-OBJECTIVES Barnhart, Earl W., "The General Objectives of the Teaching of Typewrit-
ing," National Business Education Quarterly, 1 (December, 1932), 8-16. Chapman, Lowell, "Are Goals in Typewriting Worthless?" Business Educa-
tion World, 32 (April, 1952), 377-78. Frook, W. F., and L. F. Newell, ''Trends, Aims, and Objectives of High
School Typing," Balance Sheet, 26 (April, 1945), 306-08. Gemmell, James, "Courses of Study in Typewriting," The Changing Business
Education Curriculum, Fourth Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1947. Hosler, Russell J., "Objectives for High School Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 44-45. Olson, Evalyn M., "Goals Are Where You Find Them," Business Education Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 16-17. Selden, William, "Course Content in Advanced Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 9 (April, 1955), 25-26.
5

COURSE CONTENT
SEMESTER I
I. Mastery of Keyboard and Machine Parts
All parts of the typewriter should not be introduced at the beginning of the first semester; only the parts that are going to be used should be presented. Other parts should be taught as they are needed. Correct use of all machine parts should be demonstrated.
A. Paper Insertion 1. Paper table 2. Paper guide 3. Cylinder 4. Right cylinder knob 5. Paper bail 6. Paper-bail rolls 7. Paper-release lever
B. Size of Type 1. Pica 2. Elite
C. Home-Row Keys 1. Margin stops 2. Carriage-return lever 3. Line-space regulator 4. Space bar 5. Carriage-release lever
D. Upper-Row Keys
E. Lower-Row Keys
F. Numbers and Symbols
G. Special Keys-Characters not on the Keyboard
H. Other Machine Parts 1. Left cylinder knob 2. Back spacer 3. Margin release 4. Shift keys 5. Shift lock 6. Tabulator 7. Tab clear key
7

8. Tab set key 9. Aligning scale 10. Touch regulator 11. Ribbon control 12. Variable line spacer 13. Card and envelope holder 14. Ratchet release or line finder 15. Warning bell
II. Problem Typewriting
A. Typing Position
1. Equipment a. Desk b. Chair c. Machine d. Book
2. Typist a. Body b. Feet c. Elbows d. Hands e. Wrists f. Fingers g. Shoulders
B. Typing Arranged Copy
C. Proofreading 1. Importance 2. Development of habit
D. Special Techniques 1. Horizontal centering 2. Vertical centering 3. Underscoring 4. Indenting
E. Typing from Unarranged and Handwritten Copy 1. Manuscripts 2. Minutes 3. Outlines
8

F. Tabulations 1. Three columns-words, phrases, numbers 2. Main and columnar headings
G. Letter Writing 1. Personal 2. Business 3. Arrangement 4. Parts 5. Styles 6. Punctuation
H. Machine Composition 1. Completion of words in sentences 2. Decoding 3. Selecting correct words 4. Fill-in information 5. Composition of short personal letters and themes
I. Rough Drafts 1. Proofreader's marks 2. Typewritten material with corrections 3. Handwritten materials with corrections
J. Addressing Envelopes 1. Sizes of envelopes 2. Spacing 3. Folding letters 4. Insertion
K. Carbon Copies
L. Care of Equipment
SEMESTER II
I. Manuscripts
A. News Releases
B. Magazine Articles
C. Book Manuscripts 1. Carbon copies 2. Running head 3. Spacing-horizontal and vertical 4. Page numbering 5. Title page
9

D. Legal Documents 1. Bill of Sale 2. Resolutions
E. Minutes of Meetings
F. Outlines
G. Tables of Contents
H. Programs
I. Menus
J. Headings
K. Footnotes
L. Bibliographies
M. Office Bulletins
II. Tabulations
A. Open Tables 1. Main headings 2. Secondary headings 3. Columnar headings
B. Ruled Tables 1. Main headings 2. Secondary headings 3. Columnar headings
4. Horizontal lines
a. Double b. Single
c. Boxed Tables
1. Main headings 2. Secondary headings 3. Columnar headings
4. Horizontal lines
a. Double b. Single
5. Vertical lines
a. Between columns b. Pencil or pen
10

D. Financial Statements 1. Reconciliation 2. Profit and Loss 3. Balance Sheet
E. Unarranged Tables 1. Main headings 2. Secondary headings 3. Columnar headings (Two lines)
F. Six Columns
III. Letter Writing
A. Letter Parts
B. Special Lines 1. Attention line 2. Subject line 3. Postscript 4. Copy notation
C. Form Letters
D. Styles 1. Blocked 2. Modified block a. Paragraphs indented b. Paragraphs not indented 3. Indented
E. Punctuation 1. Mixed or standard 2. Open 3. Close or full
F. Stationery 1. Baronial or half size 2. Monarch or executive size 3. Standard
G. Two-page Letters
H. Application Letters
I. Letters with Tabulated Material and Long Quotations
J. Letters on Half Sheets
11

K. Copies of Incoming Letters L. Letters with Enumerated Items
IV. Addressing Envelopes A. Sizes B. Placement of Address 1. Horizontal 2. Vertical C. Spacing D. Styles E. Notations 1. Airmail 2. Special Delivery 3. Registered 4. Attention Line 5. Hold for Arrival 6. Personal F. Folding Letters G. Insertion
V. Centering A. Vertical B. Horizontal 1. Centering on 8lh by 11-inch paper 2. Centering between points or margins C. Spread Centering
VI. Forms A. Invoices B. Credit Memorandums
C. Statements of Account D. Purchase Orders E. Filling in Personal Information Blanks F. Personal Data Sheets
12

VII. Cards A. Postal Cards 1. Spacing-vertical and horizontal 2. Return address 3. Foreign addresses 4. Fill-in postal cards 5. Individually typed postal cards B. Index Cards 1. Position of card holders 2. Printed 3. Ruled 4. Plain 5. Spacing
VIII. Telegrams A. Classification B. Arrangement and Typing
IX. Addressing Labels
X. Memorandums
XI. Composition at the Typewriter (Thinking while Typing) A. Completion of Printed Forms B. Filling in Missing Words C. Typing Foreign Words and Phrases D. Typing Sentences Backward E. Direct Dictation F. Completion of Sentences G. Correction of Sentences H. Typing Responses to Questions Asked by Teachers
XII. Related Learnings A. Punctuation Marks 1. Comma 2. Question Mark
13

3. Semicolon 4. Colon 5. Dash 6. Exclamation Mark 7. Quotation Marks 8. Apostrophe to show possession 9. Apostrophe 10. Parentheses 11. Hyphen 12. Hyphen in a series B. Number Guides C. Syllabication D. Capitalization E. Organization of Materials and Desk Arrangement F. Care of Typewriter G. Abbreviations
XIII. Alignment A. Line of Writing B. Blank Lines
XIV. Justifying Right Margins A. Counting Spaces B. Preparation of Copy for Newspaper
XV. Squeezing and Spreading Letters
A. Omission of a Letter at the Beginning or End of a Word B. Omission of a Letter within a Word C. Addition of a Letter within a Word
XVI. Rough Drafts A. Markings B. Handwritten C. Typed
14

SEMESTER Ill I. Tabulations
A. Tables 1. Open 2. Ruled 3. Boxed 4. Leaders-open and close 5. Rough Drafts 6. Double lines
B. Reports 1. Uniform spacing between columns 2. Unequal spacing between columns
C. Typewritten Rulings 1. Single lines 2. Double Lines 3. Bottom lines
II. Forms
A. Purchase Requisitions
B. Stock Requisitions C. Purchase Orders
D. Invoices 1. Without ruled columns 2. With ruled columns
E. Bills of Lading
III. Carbon Copies A. Multiple Carbons B. Assembling of Carbon Pack C. Technique Tips
IV. Off-the-Line Typing A. Ratchet Release B. Variable Spacer
15

V. Manuscripts A. Preface B. News Releases-Rough Drafts C. Speech
VI. Related Learnings A. Titles B. Apostrophes C. Leaders
VII. Window Envelopes A. Folding B. Insertion
VIII. Telegrams A. Telefax Messages B. Letters of Confirmation
IX. Interoffice Correspondence
X. Chain Feeding A. Cards B. Envelopes C. Methods 1. Front feeding 2. Back feeding
XI. Letter Writing A. Tabulations in Arranged Form B. Tabulations in Rough-Draft Form C. Tabulations in Unarranged Form D. Letters on Government-Size Stationery E. Filling in Duplicated Letters F. NOMA Simplified Letter G. Notations in Business Letters
16

XII. Duplicating
A. Stencils 1. Preparation of model letter 2. Preparation of stencil master 3. Correcting stencils
B. Direct or Liquid Process 1. Preparation of model letter 2. Preparation of masters 3. Correcting masters
XIII. Mailing List
A. Arrangement of Information on Index Cards
B. Numbering and Coding of Cards
SEMESTER IV
I. Correspondence
A. Letters 1. Personal business letters 2. Letters with enclosures 3. Hanging-indented letters 4. Letters with tabulated reports 5. NOMA Simplified letters 6. Exact copies of incoming letters 7. Blocked letters with displays 8. Form letters with fill-ins 9. Letters from form paragraphs
10. Application letters 11. Personal data sheets
B. Memorandums
C. Telegrams
D. Special Lines 1. Standard carbon copy notation 2. Blind carbon copy notation (BCC)
IT. Forms
A. Checks
B. Notes
17

C. Payrolls D. Voucher Checks E. Coupons F. Visible Index Cards G. Discount Invoices H. Telephone Message Blanks I. Bills of Lading J. Fill-in Postal Cards K. Fill-in Index Cards L. Bills of Sale M. Purchase Orders N. Correspondence Transfer Sheets
III. Legal Forms and Documents A. Proxies and Powers of Attorney B. Acknowledgments C. Endorsements D. General Releases E. Contracts F. Wills and Endorsements G. Leases H. Folding
IV. Oversized Tabulations-14 to 16 Columns
V. Spacing A. Half Spacing B. Single Spacing C. One and a Half Spacing D. Double Spacing
18

E. Triple Spacing F. Spreading and Squeezing Words
VI. Stencils A. Preparing Master Copies B. Typing Stencils C. Correcting Stencils D. Patching Stencils
VII. Manuscript Display A. Justifying Lines B. Display Lettering C. Display Boxing D. Banner Heading E. Bulletin Board Captions F. Advertisements
VIII. Special Techniques and Problems A. Constructing Brackets B. Centering on Lines C. Using the Diagonal D. Spread Centering E. Underscoring for Italics F. Taking a Civil Service Test G. Inserting Thick Carbon Packs H. Quotations within Quotations I. Drawing Lines on the Typewriter J. Changing Ribbons K. Back Feeding Bound Papers L. Horizontal Half Spacing
19

M. Typewriting Contest Rules N. Direct Dictation 0. Characters not on the Keyboard P. Centering between Vertical Lines Q. Composition of Short Letters R. Typing Labels S. Chain Feeding of Envelopes and Cards
20

LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The layout and equipment of typewriting rooms are planned to conform to the objectives of the typewriting course, the size of the school, and the enrollment in the course. The effectiveness of instruction is conditioned, to a great extent, by the room layout and physical equipment.
It is the purpose of this section to give practical help to administrators and teachers in planning and equipping the typewriting room, and it is not to be construed as an attempt to reduce planning to absolute uniformity.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING TYPEWRITING ROOMS
The planning of functionally efficient typewriting rooms must be based on the following factors: 1
1. Generally accepted principles of school planning. 2. Effective room planning-light, ventilation, colors, storage
facilities, chalkboards, bulletin boards, audio-visual aids, etc. 3. Careful analysis of the needs of the youth of the school
community. 4. Special needs of the typewriting room which are unique to
this room.
PHYSICAL LAYOUT
Location. Care should be taken in locating the typewriting classroom when planning a new building. A desirable location is on the northern or eastern side, as this provides the best natural lighting. A ground floor location is preferable because typewriter equipment is heavy, and it can be moved or transferred easily. The room should be near the office-practice and shorthand rooms if the typing equipment is to be used in these courses.
Size of Room. Mandatory requirements for typewriting classrooms in Georgia are: "The typewriting room shall be 35' by 25', contain 875 square feet, with an allowance of 25 to 30 square feet per student station (approximately 30 students)."
lFred S. Cook, "Planning Tomorrow's Business Classroom," Balance Sheet, 38 (November, 1956), 100-02.
21

Monograph 81 2 gives the most frequently found room dimensions as 30' by 36', 30' by 32', 32' by 35', and 24' by 36'. Rooms used for typing and bookkeeping are frequently found to be from five to ten feet longer than those used as general classrooms.
Doors3 If the room is large, it should have doors at both the front and rear of the room leading into the corridor to facilitate entering and leaving the room.
Walls and Ceiling. Walls and ceiling should be of acoustical material.
Floors. Classroom floors should be of asphalt tile or its equivalent.
Windows. Windows should be above the head of the average pupil when he is seated. To give maximum natural light and to eliminate as much glare as possible, the windows should extend to the ceiling.4
Electrical Outlets. Since more electrically operated machines are being used in typewriting classrooms, it is important for administrators and teachers to include sufficient electrical outlets in building plans for classrooms.
The recommended requirements in Georgia for typewriting rooms are: double outlets for the front and back of the room, a double outlet along each wall (12" from floor) for each pair of desks if no outside aisles are provided. If outside aisles are provided, a double electrical outlet in the floor is recommended for each pair of desks.
Lighting. The lighting system should provide uniform illumination of adequate intensity, without glare. A minimum of 40 to 50 foot candles of light is recommended for the typewriting classroom.
BUILT-IN EQUIPMENT
Storage Space. Built-in storage cabinets should be provided for keeping teaching materials and supplies. The cabinets can be built into walls with sliding and adjustable shelves or drawers ( 12 to 18 inches in depth).
Bulletin Boards or Tack Boards. The bulletin board or tack board should be located in an easily accessible place for students. The mandatory requirements in Georgia are 12 to 14 lineal feet of tack board in
Layout and Facilities for Business Sducation, Monograph 81 (Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Company, 1953), 5.
BJane E. Clem, Techniques of Teaching Typewriting (second edition; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 34.
M. Herbert Freeman, National Business Education Quarterly, 19 (Winter, 1950).
22

each room. Metal hanger strips should be installed above the tack board space for use in hanging of displays.
Chalkboards. The mandatory requirement in Georgia is two sections of 12 lineal feet of chalkboard along the front and side walls of each room.
Lavatory. It is necessary to have convenient washing facilities in the typewriting classroom. Students constantly work with typewriter ribbons, carbon paper, and duplicating materials. With these facilities, frequent washing of hands takes place with a minimum of disturbance and loss of time.
EQUIPMENT
Factors to be Considered in Selecting Equipment"
1. Will the equipment selected actually contribute to effective learning?
2. Can the equipment be adjusted to take care of individual differences?
3. Is the equipment practical-serviceable without being too elaborate?
4. Is it durable-sturdy, substantial construction?
5. Can it be used easily and comfortably by all students?
Desks.6 The classroom should be equipped with desks or tables that are instantly adjustable in height. The height of the machine at which students type has a pronounced effect on speed, on productivity, and especially on accuracy. If funds are not sufficient to buy adjustable desks or tables, tables of different heights should be bought.
The following is recommended: 20 per cent of the tables should be 27 inches high; 60 per cent, 29 inches; and 20 per cent, 30 or 31 inches.
The typing teacher should have a double-pedestal, flat-top office desk with ample drawer space. A chair, same design as desk and suitable to the teacher, should accompany the desk.
Chairs.1 Posture chairs or chairs designed for typewriting rooms
5James Crawford, "Your Typing Questions," Balance Sheet, 28-29 February, 1947), 275.
6Alan C. Lloyd, "Making the Most of Your Typing Classroom," Business Education World, 35 (February, 1955), 16-18.
7Loc. cit.
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should be used. In the new chairs designed for typing classroom use, the seats are instantly adjustable in heights but the backs are stationary. The height of the chairs will vary from 16 (few) to 18 (most) to 20 (two or three) inches high. There should be metal gliders, not casters, on the chairs; casters permit the chair to roll back as the student types.
Typewriters-Make. If there is only one typing room, most machines should be alike, with a pair each of other makes.8
If more than one typewriting room is used, authorities recommend that only one make be used in the beginning typewriting classroom and machines of several makes and varieties be used in the advanced typewriting room. 9
Typewriters-Size of Type. Machines called pica are those with "10 pitch"-ten spaces to a horizontal inch. Elite machines are those with "12 pitch"-twelve spaces to a horizontal inch.10
Rowe and Therese11 state that elite type is more prevalent in business than pica type. Therefore, they recommend that most machines in the typewriting classroom be elite.
Typewriters-Manual and Electric. Today over 25 per cent of all typewriters are electric, and the trend toward electrification is steadily increasing. It is assumed that representative electric machines will be found in all typing rooms, and that the ratio will be a minimum of one electric for each three manuals.12
Lloyd1a states:
Electrics are infinitely superior to manuals for learning how to type. Get as many electrics as you can beg, borrow, or abduct. The reason for getting electrics is not to train electric typists but to train better all-round typists. A student trained on an electric and finally given four or five periods of orientation to a manual machine will type on the manual faster, much more accurately, and with vastly superior operating habits than if he has been trained only on manual. ... Typewriters-Keyboard, Blank and Lettered. Blank keyboards are
suoyd, loc. cit.
9John L. Rowe and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting?" National Association of Secondary School Principals, Bulletin 41 (January, 1957), 117-24.
lOA.B.E.W. Survey Report. "Pica vs. Elite Typewriter Type-1951," Business Education World, 32 (May, 1952), 441.
llRowe and Therese, loc. cit.
12Cook, loc. cit.
lSLloyd, /oc. cit.
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used in typewriting classrooms; however, business education literature indicates that lettered keyboards are preferred:
In 1949, Rowe and Therese stated: 14
The modern trend is to use open keyboards (with the letters showing). Teachers who get the best results believe the pupil actually acquires touch typing more easily if he is permitted to look at the typewriter during the intital keyboard presentation.
Approximately six years later Lloyd wrote: 15
Typewriters used in the classroom should have lettered, not blank, keyboards ... All contemporary typing textbooks tell the learner to locate new keys by looking at his keyboard! Blank keyboards, incidentally, do not keep the student from looking at the keyboard.
Typewriters--Cleaning. Cleaning the typewriter is an aid to keeping the machine in good working condition. To be sure this necessary housekeeping duty is not overlooked, an outline of proper cleaning procedures should be distributed to all students. Brady16 submits an outline to use in cleaning typewriters and a list of supplies in the October, 1952, issue of Journal of Business Education, pages 24-26.
Typewriters-Numbered. Typewriters should be numbered to keep students from exchanging machines, to specify a particular typing station, and to guide the serviceman in repair work.
Typewriters-Repair. Typewriters that need repairing should be identified in a systematic and efficient manner. Clem17 suggests the following as workable plans:
1. Have a diagram of the room on which a small card is hung when a machine needs repair. From the cards the serviceman can tell quickly which machines need repair and what the difficulty is.
2. Keep a card index. The card is made out when the typewriter is bought. On this card is kept an exact account of the expenditures for repairs, the type of repairs, and the parts replaced. This information will help to determine which machine should be replaced.
When the student reports the need of repair, a description of the mechanical defect should be included.
a Rowe and Therese, op. cit., p. 142.
15Lloyd, loc. cit.
16Mary Margaret Brady, "Teach Cleaning the Typewriter," Journal of Business Education, 28 (October, 1952), 24-6.
17Clem, op. cit., p. 33.
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Typewriters-Trade-In:18 It is recommended that no classroom contain typewriters over five years old. A student can learn on an older machine, but not so efficiently as on a newer one.
Authorities recommend that schools, for the best combination of economy and instructional results, use the three-year trade-in plan.
DEMONSTRATION STAND19 Teacher demonstration is one of the most effective ways of teaching skills; every teacher of typewriting should be able to demonstrate the correct techniques of typewriting. With a typewriter and demonstration stand, teachers can show how-not tell how.
Since teachers vary in height, the demonstration stand should be adjustable; and it should be on casters, so that it can be moved to the most advantageous sections of the room. There should be a drop leaf on the right of both sides for the textbook or copy.
There are excellent, adjustable demonstration stands on the market. Often it is too difficult to purchase a stand; however, a good carpenter can construct one when given proper directions.
Chandler and Feller2() recommend a demonstration stand, 20" by 20", adjustable levels 41 ", 43", and 45" from the floor and a 12-inch shelf at the side to hold copy.
ARRANGEMENT OF ROOM21 Room arrangement in typewriting has a pronounced effect on the accomplishments of any class. It controls the learning conditions, working habits, and use of time.
Lloyd recommends the following:
1. The desks or tables seem best in paired rows, with aisles of 30 inches.
2. The teacher's desk traditionally has been in the front of the room, but many experienced typing teachers will affirm that moving the desk to the rear reduces misbehavior.
lBLloyd, loc. cit. lDLloyd, loc. cit. 2()Dorothea Chandler and D. W. Feller, "Do You Have an Ideal Typewriting Classroom?" UBEA Forum, 7 (March, 1953), 30-1. 21Lloyd, loc. cit.
26

3. Windows should be at the students' right (the reverse of what is normal in other classrooms) so that the natural light will fall directly on the textbooks, without shadows. Second choice arrangement would be to have the windows behind the students.
4. Chalkboard should cross the front of the room.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-LAYOUT AND EQUIPMENT
A.B.E.W. Survey Report, "Pica vs. Elite Typewriter Type," Business Education World, 32 (May, 1952), 441.
Bast, M. L., "A Survey of the Use of Pica and Elite Typewriters," UBEA Forum, 3 (April, 1949), 10, 40-1.
Boyd, Wayne S., and M. Herbert Freeman, "Specific Considerations in Planning the Typewriting Room," Physical Layout, Equipment, and Supplies for Business Education, Fifth Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1948. pp. 115-21.
Brady, Mary Margaret, "The Tab-Signal Method of Typewriting Repairs,'' Balance Sheet, 29 (February, 1948), 244-45.
- - - - - , "Teach Cleaning the Typewriter," Journal of Business Education, 28 (October, 1952), 24-6.
Cain, Marietta, "Can We Successfully Teach Uncovered Keyboards?" Typewriting News 28 (Spring, 1958), 8.
Carmony, Paul B., "Know Your School Typewriters," Balance Sheet, 30 November, 1948), 123.
Carter, Juanita, "Storage of Supplies for the Typewriting Classroom," UBEA Forum, 7 (April, 1953), 30, 39.
Chandler, Dorothea, and D. W. Feller, "Do You Have an Ideal Typewriting Classroom?" UBEA Forum, 7 (March, 1953), 30-1.
Clem, Jane E., Techniques of Teaching Typewriting. Second edition; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
Cook, Fred S., "Planning Tomorrow's Business Classroom," Balance Sheet, 38 (November, 1956), 100-02, 114.
Crawford, James, "Your Typing Questions," Balance Sheet, 28-29 (February, 1947), 275.
DeLaney, Opal H., "25 Suggestions on Planning the One-Room Business Department," Business Teacher, 27 (March, 1950), 192-95.
Freeman, M. Herbert, National Business Education Quarterly, 19 (Winter, 1950).
Fries, Albert C., "Equipment and Floor Plans for Business Education," Journal of Business Education, 22 (February, 1947), 23-5.
Kronenwetter, Evelyn F., "Wiring Plan for Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 33 (June, 1953), 497-98.
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Layout and Facilities for Business Education, Monograph 81. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1953. p. 5.
Lloyd, Alan C., "How Old Are Your Typewriters?" Business Education World, 34 (September, 1954), 30-1.
- - - - - , "Making the Most of Your Typing Classroom," Business Education World, 35 (February, 1955), 16-18.
McDermand, Clarabelle, "Desk Height Can Influence Typing Output," The Office, 44 (December, 1956), 72-3.
Nanassy, Louis, C., and Christine Stroop, "Designing the Typewriting Classroom for Business Teacher Education," UBEA Forum, 7 (November, 1952), 18-20.
Rahe, Harves, "Lettered Versus Blank Typewriter Keyboards," Business Education World, 33 (May, 1953), 435-38.
Rowe, John L., and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting?" National Association of Secondary School Principals, Bulletin 41 (January, 1957), 117-24.
Schlicting, A. A., "Let's Modernize Before We Motorize," UBEA Forum, 3 (May, 1949), 10-11.
Smith, Harold H., "When Supervisors Question Lettered Keyboards," Business Teacher, 28 (February, 1951), 141.
28

QUALIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT TYPEWRITING TEACHERS
John Ruskin wrote: "Teaching is a painful, continual, and difficult work to be done by kindness, by watching, by warning, by precept, by praise, but-above all-by example."
Good teaching is more than making assignments, grading papers, checking rolls, and performing clerical duties; good teaching is invigorating lives through learning. Before learning can take place, however, teachers must have a good philosophy and must have a command of good classroom procedures.
Typewriting teachers must be teachers of skills and knowledges, which must be taught and retaught in order that students will be able to apply them to practical situations. Along with the development of skills and knowledges, typewriting teachers must develop social attitudes, which emphasize service to society.
Typewriting can be taught effectively only if teachers possess the necessary attitudes and personality traits, educational training, and classroom methodology. The following qualifications and characteristics are essential:
I. Attitudes and Personality Traits
A. Just
B. Courteous
C. Professional in all relations with students
D. Considerate of individual differences, needs, interests, temperaments, aptitudes, and home environment
E. Understanding
F. Sympathetic
G. Patient
H. Cooperative
1. Respectful of others (altruistic)
J. Willing to learn
K. Properly groomed
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L. Emotionally stable M. Optimistic N. Sense of humor 0. Strong desire to be of service P. Ability to get along with people Q. Love for teaching
II. Educational Training A. Bachelor's degree including general education, general professional education, specialized professional education, with a major in business education. B. Certificated to teach business education C. Professional courses in methodology D. Thorough foundation in psychology E. Familiar with business procedures F. Knowledge of subject matter G. Membership in professional organizations H. Desire to grow professionally by continuous study I. Competent typist
III. Classroom Procedures A. Regulates physical factors for best learning situation B. Plans every lesson in advance C. Begins class promptly D. Arouses student interest E. Provides continuous class activity F. Demonstrates correct techniques G. Directs activity and checks individual techniques throughout class period H. Makes explanations adequate and timely I. Uses effective speech
30

J. Provides relaxed atmosphere K. States the purpose or objective of each activity L. Uses praise and reproof effectively M. Keeps students informed of progress N. Makes clear, definite, and purposeful assignments 0. Uses available resources to a good advantage
BIBLIOGRAPHY-TYPEWRITING TEACHERS Anderson, George W., "I'm a Good Teacher of Typewriting," Balance Sheet,
30 (January, 1949), 200-02. Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in
Typewriting. Second edition; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949. Clem, Jane E., Techniques of Teaching Typewriting. Second edition; New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955. Hall, J. C., "Activities of a Typewriting Teacher," Journal of Business Edu-
cation, 32 (April, 1957), 319-22. Johnston, Jean, "Are You an Inspiring Typing Teacher?" Balance Sheet, 34
(February, 1953), 252-54. Meyer, Stephen, Jr., "The Preparation of Typewriting Teachers," Journal
of Business Education, 29 (April, 1954), 304. Tonne, Herbert A., Estelle Popham, and M. Herbert Freeman, Methods of
Teaching Business Subjects. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957. Turille, Stephen J., "Teacher Qualifications and Certification," Administration and Supervision of Business Education, Ninth Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. Des Moines, Iowa: Wallace-Homestead Company, 1952, pp. 89-101. Wanous, S. J., "Teachers Should Meet Performance Standards Too," UBEA Forum, 5 (May, 1951), 11-13. Winger, Fred E., "What Is Your Efficiency Rating in the Typewriting Classroom?" Business Education Forum, 12 (March, 1958), 28-29.
31

I I
I I
I I
I

SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS
Since the textbook is the basic instructional material used in a typewriting course, its selection is a great responsibility of the teacher.
In evaluating textbooks, careful consideration should be given to the following factors:
1. Physical Make-Up of Textbook a. Attractive and durable binding b. Correct size c. Quality of paper d. Clear and readable type
2. Author a. Education b. Experience c. Professional standing d. Present occupation
3. Title of Textbook 4. Publisher
a. Reputation b. Services to schools 5. Copyright a. Present date b. Revision frequency 6. Price 7. Preface a. Importance of subject b. Author's objectives c. Brief treatment of content 8. Table of Contents a. Completeness b. Organization
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9. Index a. Subject b. Alphabetical c. Completeness
10. Subject Matter a. Organization b. Up to date c. Realistic terminology d. Flexible e. Quality f. Supplementary information
11. Instructional Aids a. Teacher's Manual b. Workbooks c. Printed Tests d. Awards
12. Illustrations, Diagrams, and Pictures a. Printing b. Size c. Relation to subject matter d. Number e. Up to date f. Human interest g. Placement on page h. Captions and descriptions
13. Bibliography a. Number of references
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b. Arrangement c. Quality
14. Usage a. Number and quality of schools
b. Endorsements
RECOMMENDATIONS1
1. A committee of business education teachers, in cooperation with the administrative staff, select local typewriting textbooks.
2. In selecting textbooks, each text be carefully analyzed by means of the above check list.
3. The same textbooks be used within a school system.
LIST OF TYPEWRITING BOOKS TEXTBOOKS
Altholz and Altholz, Modern Typewriting Practice. New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1951.
Leslie and Pepe, Typing Simplified. New York: American Book Company, 1952.
Lessenberry, Crawford, and Erickson, 20th Century Typewriting, Seventh Edition. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Lloyd and Hosler, Personal Typing, Second Edition. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959.
Pepe, Personal Typing in 24 Hours, Second Edition. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953.
Pepe, Refresher Typing in 24 Hours. New York: Gregg Publishing Division McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.
Rowe Typing, Fourth Edition. Baltimore: The H. M. Rowe Company. Rowe and Lloyd, Gregg Typing, Second Edition. New York: Gregg
Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.
Tidwell and Stuart, Typing: Complete Course. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
1E. G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting (New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1949), p. 235.
35

Wanous, Personal Typewriting. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
DRILLS TECHNIQUE, SPEED, AND ACCURACY
Bell, Speed Typing, Third Edition. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Blackstone, Speed Typing, Intensive Course. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Blackstone, Technique, Speed, and Accuracy Typing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Faster Typing. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company. High Speed, Fourth Edition. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company. Lloyd, Rowe, and Winger, Typing Power Drills. New York: Gregg
Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1956. MacClain and Dame, Typewriting Techniques and Short Cuts, Second
Edition. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company. Rowe, Typewriting for Speed and Accuracy. New York: Gregg Pub-
lishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1952.
Speed and Accuracy Builder, Fifth Edition. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company.
Tidwell, Kittleman, and Suver, Tested Typing Drills. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Typing for Accuracy. Fifth Edition. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company.
Typing Speed Builder. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company. Wanous, Basic Typewriting Drills, Second Edition. Cincinnati: South-
Western Publishing Company.
TIMED WRITINGS AND SPEED TESTS
Grubbs and White, Sustained Timed Writings. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.
Mount, Progressive Typewriting Speed Tests. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
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Thompson and Phillips, 101 Typewriting Timed Writings. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Tidwell and Bell, Clocked Practice Writings. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Tidwell and Bell, Tested Timed Writings. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Typewriting Speed Tests, Second Edition. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company.
PRODUCTION AND OFFICE PRACTICE
Agnew, Typewriting Office Practice, Second Edition. Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Company.
Bowman, Business Letter Typing. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company
Frisch, Applied Office Typewriting-A Practice Set in Clerical Typewriting. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
McGill, Production Typing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc.
Office Typing. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company. Production Typing. New York: The H. M. Rowe Company. Reynolds and Skimin, Office Practice Typewriting. New York: Gregg
Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954. Wanous, Statistical Typing, Second Edition. Cincinnati: South-Western
Publishing Company.
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR TEACHERS
Blackstone and Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Clem, Techniques of Teaching Typewriting, Second Edition. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1955.
Dame and Brinkman, Guidance in Business Education. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Hardaway and Maier, Tests and Measurements in Business Education. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Harms, Methods in Vocational Business Education. Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Company.
37

Lamb, Your First Year of Teaching Typewriting. Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Company.
Nolan and Hayden, Principles and Problems of Business Education. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company.
Tonne, Principles of Business Education, Second Edition. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1954.
Tonne, Popham, and Freeman, Methods of Teaching Business Subjects, Second Edition. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., 1957.
MISCELLANEOUS
Stuart and Gibson, Typing Employment Tests. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Thompson, Tabulation Typing. New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
Tidwell, Pelz, and Wells, Legal Typing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS
Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949.
Clem, Jane E., Techniques of Teaching Typewriting. New York: McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
Douglas, Lloyd V., and James T. Blanford, "Preparation of Courses of Study and Selection of Instructional Materials," Administration and Supervision of Business Education, Ninth Yearbook of The National Business Teachers Association and The Eastern Business Teachers Association. Des Moines, Iowa: Wallace-Homestead Company, 1952.
Lloyd, Alan C., "The Development of American Typewriting Textbooks," Journal of Business Education, 28 (November, 1952), 74.
Nolan, C. A., and Carlos K. Hayden, Principles and Problems of Business Education. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1958.
Perry, WarrenS., "An Experimental Study to Compare the Achievement of Classes Using Different Textbooks in the Teaching of Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 24 (October, 1955), 74.
Strong, L. G., "Selection of a Typewriting Textbook," Balance Sheet, 38 (December, 1956), 148-51.
Tonne, Herbert A., Estelle L. Popham, and Herbert Freeman, Methods of Teaching Business Subjects. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.
38

TEACHING MATERIALS
Teaching materials are most effective when used as a supplement to the personality and teaching skill of the instructor. Good results with them depend upon wise selection and proper presentation.
Some aids are merely interesting and do little to promote desirable learning. The teacher should be able to evaluate teaching aids by using the following check list:
CHECK LIST FOR EVAlUATING TEACHING DEVICES1
The items of the scale are arranged in order of importance according to the findings of the study.
1. To what extent does the activity produce desirable changes in the student?
2. To what extent does the activity produce student interest?
3. To what extent do the students participate in the activity? 4. To what extent does the activity develop personality, traits, or
attitudes?
5. To what extent do the students know of their success in the activity?
6. To what extent does the activity provide for individual differences?
7. To what extent does the activity provide for cooperative endeavor?
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING AIDS
Awards. Recognition for outstanding achievement is an excellent motivating device. When students have tangible incentives for which to strive, work becomes a game and proficiency and skills increase. Information and typewriting awards may be secured from:
Gregg Tests and Awards Services 330 West 42nd Street New York 36, New York
10.ren W. Tarbox, "The Evaluation of Bookkeeping Teaching Devices," (Master's TheslS, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1942).
39

South-Western Publishing Company 5101 Madison Road Cincinnati, Ohio
Bulletin Board. The supply of materials for the typewriting bulletin board is inexhaustible. Teachers, with the help of students, should use this medium to advantage. It is recommended that the bulletin board be changed at least every two weeks.
Howell2 suggests the following breakdown:
1. Student Work 2. Charts and Graphic Material 3. Honors and Recognition 4. Information
(New developments in equipment and supplies, etc.)
5. Human Interest (Typists from various fields; personality materials on good posture, etc.)
6. Kartoon Korner (Business Cartoons brought in by students.)
Chalkboard. As the teacher develops the chalkboard habit, he will discover effective ways of using it. It can be an aid in
1. Presenting subject matter
2. Helping students follow instructions
3. Ranking of students' records of gains during intensive drill periods.
Charts. Charts are used to give direction to students of their progress. As students chart their own progress, they are constantly aware of accomplishments and weaknesses. Weekly requirement charts, typewriting score charts, and the typewriting personal attainment charts are good aids in helping students attain desired goals.
To avoid unnecessary embarrassment to students who are progressing at inferior rates, many teachers feel that numbers should be used to identify students instead of names. Another method is to permit each student to choose a nickname.
Different types of charts may be secured from publishers of typewriting textbooks.
2Doris Howell, "Motivating Devices in the Learning of Typewriting,'' UBEA Forum, 5 (April, 1951), 30.
40

Demonstration Ribbon Carriers.3 Thompson recommends making several models of ribbon carriers to demonstrate changing ribbons. Direction for making the different ribbon carriers are found in the Business Education Forum, October, 1955, page 29.
Field Trips. The "School Journey" is another name for a class excursion or field trip, which will give life to class descriptions of activities. Trips should be adequately planned in terms of purpose, time, and transportation. There should be a follow-up discussion and check on what students have observed.
Films. Films are valuable instructional aids for teaching intangibles. They have great merit for creating attitudes and building general understanding of the subject. Many excellent films are available to typewriting classes. For more information, check visual aid catalogs and other sources listed for films in this section.
Filmstrips. Many times a single glance at a picture is a greater source of information to the student than an explanation by the teacher.
Games. Games are good motivating devices. They may promote individual competition and co-operative competition.
Blackstone4 suggests the following games:
1. Have a ladder tournament. Give a number of tests and determine the rank of each student in each. Have students compete to raise their ranks.
2. Have a contest between the boys and the girls. Secure the average for each group and compare results.
3. Have contests by rows of students. Determine the average score for each row and compare.
4. Have a challenge tournament. Give a test and rank students according to net score.
5. Have an automobile race. Each student takes the name of a particular kind of automobile. Then a test is given in which each correct word counts as a mile. Penalties are called blowouts and for each blowout ten miles are deducted.
6. Use the racing chart device. Prepare a background representing the earth and the sky. Place a white fence on this background. Then place numbered horses on the chart to record the speeds attained by the students.
3Robert J. Thompson, "Demonstration Ribbon Carriers Aid Ribbon Change Instruction," Business Education Forum, 10 (October, 1955), 29.
4E. G. Blackstone and Sofrona Smith, Improvement of lnstruc.tion in Typewriting (second edition; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), pp. 244-55.
41

--------
7. Use the airplane device. Prepare a background representing the field and the sky. Divide the sky into horizontal sections, representing miles per minute (or typing speed). Place small airplanes (with the individual students' names inscribed on them) in the sky according to the speed attained. It is a good idea to have a maximum allowance for errors. If a student makes too many errors, he would have to make a forced landing, his plane would be taken from the sky, and a black parachute would be placed on the ground for him.
Many additional suggestions are given in Blackstone and Smith's Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting, pages 236-258.
Graphs. Graphs are especially useful for making comparisons and contrasts or for presenting complicated facts.
Honor Roll. The honor roll may be used for typing speed and accuracy achievements. As soon as the student meets the required goal, his name will be placed on the roll.
Illustrated Poster Board.5 The illustrated poster board has individual drawings showing the various techniques. As a new idea or technique is presented, the illustrated idea or technique may be mounted on the frame in full view of the class. This presentation magnifies the textbook illustrations.
Intellectual Teaching Aids.6
1. Imagination - Have you constructed a drill of your own lately for a typewriting class?
2. Wit - How long has it been since your typewriting class has dissolved in laughter just before a timed writing?
3. Knowledge of Psychology- It can teach us that the first day of typewriting instruction . . . the first month finds the novice filled with a fountain of wrong responses to the situation . . . .
Keyboard Charts. The keyboard chart is a familiar aid to teachers. Students must be taught how to use it. Lloyd7 says, "You need a keyboard chart mounted on a window shade, rolled up when not needed."
Free charts are available from typewriter companies.
5Edward T. Burda, "How to Prepare and Use Posters in the Teaching of Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 27-28.
6Edward J. Laurie, ''Teaching Aids for Typewriting Instruction," Business Education Forum, 10 (January, 1956), 20.
7Alan C. Lloyd, "The A-B-C's of Good Typing Room Arrangement" (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.)
42

Opaque Projectors. Opaque projectors are used to a good advantage in teaching typewriting. Through illustrations of business forms, typewriting techniques may be put on the screen to provide visual impression and thereby increase the effectiveness of verbal instructions.
Reference Books.8 Reference books are a major need for the typewriting classroom. The teacher should provide many opportunities for students to use them. It is impossible to list all of the available reference books, but the following includes a minimum for the classroom:
1. Dictionary It holds the undisputed place of importance among reference books for typists and stenographers.
2. Handbooks for secretaries
3. Style manuals 4. City telephone directory 5. A city directory 6. A good atlas 7. A geographical dictionary
8. Official Postal Guide 9. Copies of typewriting textbooks other than the ones used in class
LEARNING AIDS OF TYPEWRITER COMPANIES
Typewriter companies provide helpful supplementary teaching materials. The following aids may be secured upon request.
1. International Business Machines Corporation Electric Typewriter Division 545 Madison Avenue New York 22, New York
a. Partners in Perfection (55-6194) Standard Instruction Booklet
b. How to Make a Perfect Impression (55-6194) Executive Instruction Booklet
T 8Sistc:r. M. Alexius Wagner, "Reference Books-A Primary Need for the Modem ypewntmg Classroom," UBEA Forum, 7 (January, 1953), 26.
43

c. Executive Centering Scale (35-8002) d. History of IBM Electric Typewriters (35-3128) e. Electric Typewriters in Education (35-6578) f. Trend If Clear (55-6773) g. Guide to "Electric Typing Time" (55-8873) h. Guide to "The Right Touch" (55-6613) i. IBM Typing Guide (55-3907) j. A Short Course in Electric Typewriting k. Practice Exercises for Electric Typewriting 1. Typewriter Proficiency Program-Drills for Advanced
m. Typewriter Proficiency Program-Drills for Advanced Typists
n. Suggested Course Outline for Executive Typewriter o. Secretarial Shortcuts p. Manual for Teaching on Executive Typewriter q. Teacher Workshop Certificates
For Educators Only r. Planning a Modem School (540-0013) s. 10 Ways to Add Zip to Your Typing Methods Class
(540-0022)
t. Teach the Teaching Typewriter ( 540-0023)
u. Suggestions for Teaching Electric Typewriting (540-0025) v. Blank Folders (540-0024) Films. "Electric Typing Time" is a 16 mm, 20-minute sound film in color-an ideal aid for teachers, whether their students are being trained on manuals or electrics. "Electric Typing Time" will enable teachers to show the fundamentals of correct electric operation and prepare manually trained students to "take over"-quickly and easily--on an electric. "The Right Touch." In 18 minutes teachers can show students the hands-head-heart method to develop "The Right Touch."
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2. Royal McBee Corporation Westchester Avenue Port Chester, New York
a. Typing Do's and Don'ts
b. How Old Are Your Typewriters
c. You . . . As a Secretary d. Royal Electric - Your Key to Typing e. Finger Dexterity Drills f. New Royal Manual Operating Parts Test g. Answer Sheet for New Royal Manual Operating Parts Test h. The Expert Simplifies Erasing i. The History of the Typewriter j. Blank vs. Visible Keyboards k. Championship Techniques 1. Building Typewriting Skill and Speed. m. Today - Office Procedures are Mechanized n. Electric Typewriting for the Classroom Teacher o. How I Use the Royal Film, "Right - at the Start," in my
Typing Class p. Building Transcription Skill q. A wall diagrammatic chart containing a large illustration of
the current model Royal manual typewriter
Film. "Right - at the Start" consists of 19 sequences or lessons in 16 mm sound film. It is a complete and authoritative demonstration film that assists the teacher to instruct students in basic typing techniques-precise use of operating controls, proper fingering, and key reach drills. "Right - at the Start" is available for weekly periods throughout the year at actual cost of handling.
1 week $ 6.00 2 weeks 10.00 3 weeks 12.00
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3. Smith - Corona 701 East Washington Street Syracuse 1, New York
a. Error Chart
b. Test on the Parts of the Business Letter
c. Check Sheet for Test on the Parts of the Business Letter
d. Writing Difficulties
e. Operating Features and Keyboard Tests Smith - Corona Office Typewriter
f. Scale for Computing Typewriter Strokes and Words
g. Touch Typewriting Chart
h. Tips to Typists
i. Corrective Drills - Price 25 cents
Film. "Better Typing at Your Fingertips" is suitable for beginner and advanced typing students, typists, stenographers, and secretaries in high schools, colleges, and business offices. Thirty minutes running time, 16 mm, and no charge except transportation.
Order from:
Modern Talking Picture Service, Inc. 714 Spring Street, N. W. Atlanta, Georgia
4. Sperry Rand Corporation Remington Rand Division 315 Fourth Avenue New York 10, New York
(The following aids are available from your local Remington Rand representative.)
Professional Aids for the Teacher: (Teachers may order one desk copy of each)
a. School Typewriter Electric Program (Step Kit, RE-8773)
b. Teacher Has Questions About Standard Typewriters (RE-8858)
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c. Teacher Has Questions About Electric Typewriters (RE-8857)
d. Methods of Teaching Electric Typing (RE-8833) e. Remington Model Letter Kit (R-8730) f. Typewriter Keyboard Wall Chart Proficiency Aids for the Student: (Teachers may order a copy
for each student in addition to their own desk copy) g. Letter Centering Simplified (R-8667) h. Tabulation Simplified (R-8812) 1. A Brief History of the Typewriter (R-8677) j. 25 Typing Short Cuts (R-8808) k. How You Spell It (R-8224) 1. How to Be a Super Secretary (R-7936) m. Typing Test Copy (R-8805) n. Film Summary Brochure (R-8826) Film. "The Typewriter in Business" is a complete, 35 mm, noncommercial sound and picture story of the amazingly wide range of applications of the typewriter in the modern business world. Twentytwo minutes running time. Available to teachers on loan only. 5. Underwood Corporation 1 Park Avenue New York 16, New York
a. The History of the Typewriter b. Underwood Typing Tests c. Electric Typing is Easy Typing d. Posture Chart
SUPPLIES
The following list of business education supplies includes only the major needs:
1. Type Cleaner 2. Rubber Bands, Assorted
47

3. Letter Basket 4. Brushes for Cleaning Typewriters
a. Tooth Brush Style b. Paint Brush Style 5. Cards, Ruled 5 x 3 6. Cheesecloth 7. Gem Clips 8. Typewriter Covers 9. Chalk 10. Envelopes a. Small Plain No. 6%, b. Small Window c. Large Plain No. 10 d. Large Window
11. Typewriter Erasers 12. Folders
a. Letter b. Legal
13. Alphabetical Guides, Letter Size (25 division) 14. Stamp Pad 15. Stamp Pad Ink 16. Carbon Paper
a. 81f2 x 11
b. 8lf2 X 13 17. Paper
a. Letterheads, 81;2 x 11 b. Ditto, 8~ x 11, 8~ x 13 c. Mimeograph, 8~ x 11, 8~ x 13 d. Onion Skin, 8lh x 11, 8lh x 13
48

e. Bond, 8~ x 11, 8~ x 13 f. Yellow, 8lh. x 11 18. Typewriter Ribbons 19. Staples 20. Ditto Carbon 21. Stencils 22. Correction Fluid
Miscellaneous Items 1. Interval Timer 2. Waste Baskets 3. Pencil Sharpener
4. Copy Holders
5. Filing Trays 6. Paper Cutter 7. Current Calendar 8. Collator 9. Hole Punch 10. Scissors 11. Ball Point Stylus 12. Stapler 13. Staple Remover
VISUAL AID CATALOGS
General 1. Bell and Howell Company 1801-1815 Larchmont Avenue Chicago 13, Illinois 2. Business Education Visual Aids 330 West 72nd Street New York 23, New York
49

3. Pamphlet 80 U. S. Office of Education Washington, D. C.
4. Teaching Aids Exchange Modesto, California
Films
1. Castle Films Division of United World Films, Inc. 1445 Park Avenue New York 22, New York
2. Catalog of Classroom Teaching Films for Georgia Schools State Department of Education Atlanta, Georgia
3. Consolidated List of Free Films De Vry Corporation 111 Armitage Avenue Chicago, Illinois
4. Educational Film Catalog The H. W. Wilson Company New York, New York
5. Educators Guide to Free Films Educators Progress Service Box 497 Randolph, Wisconsin
6. Ideal Pictures Corporation 26-34 East 8th Street Chicago 5, Illinois
7. U. S. Government Film Directory U. S. Office of Education Federal Security Agency Washington, D. C.
8. Audio-Visual Extension Service The City College Bernard M. Baruch School of Business & Public Administration 17 Lexington Avenue New York 10, New York
50

9. Business Education Films Film Center Suite 409 630 Ninth Avenue New York 36, New York
Other Sources of Visual Aids
1. Journal of Business Education 512 Brooks Building Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania "Film Guide for Business Teachers" Column is a monthly feature
2. Business Education World Gregg Publishing Company 270 Madison Avenue New York, New York "Audio-Visual Aids" Column is a monthly feature
3. South-Western Publishing Company Cincinnati, Ohio Monograph 92, "Visual-Aids for Business and Economic Education"
4. Sources of Teaching Aids The Business Education Forum January, 1958, page 38
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Kocher9 makes the following conclusions and recommendations on aids in teaching typewriting:
1. Aids used effectively should conform to a general-use pattern.
The follwing steps are suggested: a. Selection
b. Teacher preparation
c. Student preparation d. Presentation
e. Follow-up f. Evaluation B~ L. Koch~r, "Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching Beginning Typewriting," National
ss Education Quarterly, 24 (October, 1954), 47.
51

2. The effectiveness and adequacy of the various teaching aids depend upon how they are used. Successful use of teaching aids results partly from the teacher's enthusiasm for the aid and partly from his care in selecting, preparing, planning, and timing the aids.
Kocher recommends:
a. That we have more teacher-producer planning for improved production of audio-visual aids material and equipment.
b. That more aids and devices correlated and integrated with typewriting texts be commercially produced.
c. That high schools establish an audio-visual budget to provide an adequate supply of materials, equipment, and classroom facilities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-TEACHING MATERIALS
A.B.E.W. Interview, "Using Slides in Typewriting," Business Education World, 34 (April, 1954), 33-4.
Ahlering, Inez, "Christmas Typing Games," Balance Sheet, 40 (December, 1958), 151-52.
Baugher, James M., "The Use of a Tape Recorder in Beginning Typewriting," Typewriting News, 23 (1953), 2.
Boehme, Frederick 0., "A Survey of the Use of Audio-Visual Aids in the Teaching of Typewriting, Bookkeeping, and Shorthand in the State of Wisconsin," National Business Education Quarterly, 24 (October, 1955), 11.
Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. Second edition; New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1949.
Brockemeyer, Mildred, "Using Audio-Visual Aids in Typewriting Instruction," National Business Education Quarterly, 23 (October, 1954), 9.
Burda, Edward T., "How to Prepare and Use Posters in the Teaching of Typewriting," VBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 27-28.
Collins, L. M., "Do You Use That Blackboard in Teaching Typewriting?" VBEA Forum, 9 (December, 1954), 26.
Dorsey, Wilbur C., "A Scoresheet for Typewriting Classes," Business Education Forum, 9 (May, 1955), 24-25.
Ettinger, Clifford, "Film Guide for Business Teachers," Journal of Business Education, 23 (April, 1948), 33.
Flood, Kathleen, "How I Use the Royal Film, 'Right-at the Start,' in My Typing Classes," Business Education World, 31 (May, 1951), 440-41.
Gibson, E. Dana, "Ideal Audio-Visual Equipment for Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 15-18.
52

Haas, Kenneth B., "One Showing Is Worth 100 Tellings," UREA Forum, 6 (January, 1952), 12-14.
Hayden, Carlos K., "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 34 (March, 1953), 292-95.
Hosler, R. J., "Selected Aids for Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (January, 1958), 30-1.
Howell, Doris, "Motivating Devices in the Learning of Typewriting," UREA Forum, 5 (March, 1951), 31, 40; 5 (April, 1951), 30.
Howell, Harry E., "Teaching Materials Available from Industry," Business Education Forum, 11 (January, 1957), 21-23.
Kocher, Mary Louise, "Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching Beginning Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 24 (October, 1954), 47.
Laurie, E. J., "Teaching Aids for Typewriting Instruction," Business Education Forum, 10 (January, 1956), 20.
Lindberg, Ruby, "It's Ladder Time-Methods of Motivating Typewriting Classes and Establishing Grades," Balance Sheet, 29 (November, 1947), 110-14.
Lloyd, Alan C., "100 Ways to Enliven Typing, Shorthand Classes," Business Education World, 37 (December, 1956), 20-21.
- - - - . , "Starting a Typing Contest?" Business Teacher, 36 (December, January, 1958),31.
----,"The A-B-C's of Good Typing Room Arrangement." New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
- - - - , "Ways to Strengthen Skill-Drill Games," Business Teacher, 36 (November, 1958), 31.
Lynch, Delphine, "A Typewriter Repair Chart," UREA Forum, 8 (December, 1953), 29.
McGill, E. C., "Use of Charts to Motivate Typing,'' Journal of Business Education, 26 (November, 1950), 113-14.
Rahe, H. C., "Selected Devices for Teaching Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 18-20.
Roberts, Margaret S., "Spur Typing Students By Using Goal Sheets," Business Education World, 35 (January, 1955), 16-17.
Rund, David M., "A Motivative Device," UREA Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 18-20.
Slappey, M. M., "Simple Devices Work Best in Typing," Business Education World, 38 (December, 1957), 27.
Speciosa, Sister M., "Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 31 (January, 1950), 211-15.
, "The Effective Use of Modem Teaching Aids in Typewriting," UREA Forum, 6 (January, 1952), 19-21.
53

Tarbox, Oren W., "The Evaluation of Bookkeeping Teaching Devices." Master's Thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1942.
Thompson, Robert J., "Demonstration Ribbon Carriers Aid Ribbon Change Instruction," Business Education Forum, 10 (October, 1955), 29.
Wagner, Sister M. Alexius, "Reference Books-A Primary Need for the Modern Typewriting Classroom," UBEA Forum, 7 (January, 1953), 26.
54

PROGNOSIS
In his article "Prognosis in Typewriting," Rowe1 says that it is a generally accepted conclusion today that everyone can learn to typewrite-at various degrees of usefulness. For students who study typewriting for personal use, there is no need for prognosis. However, for those students who take typewriting for vocational use, teachers should use all information which has prognostic value; because these students should possess the abilities, capacities, and interests that will enable them to succeed in the position for which they are preparing.
From the studies pertaining to prediction of typewriting success, it is concluded that many tests and measurements cannot be used alone for prognosis. 2 Rowe3 believes the following factors contribute to successful vocational typewriting and that they can be used as criteria in predicting success and in determining who has an aptitude for vocational typewriting:
1. Basic typewriting skill - the ability to typewrite accurately at a rapid rate. Schools should set up realistic standards based on occupational surveys, job analyses, and close contact with their business communities.
2. An intelligence quotient of above-average or average (depending on other considerations listed here)-the ability to take directions and execute them intelligently; the knowledge of proper procedure in usage of good form; the exercise of judgment.
3. A familiarity with the mechanics of English-the ability to proofread and to correct errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and form; a good working vocabulary; a knowledge of correct form for letter writing, manuscript writing, and outlines.
4. Emotional stability-the ability to work for long periodssometimes under stress; the ability to get along in a spirit of co-operation with fellow employees; the ability to adapt to various situations.
19slJ7.),L1.6R-1o7w. e, "Prognosis in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (November,
E;Haryes Rahe, "A Review of Research in Typewriting Prognosis," National Busine11 ucatwn Quarterly, 20 (March, 1952), 44-53. 8Rowe, loc. cit.
55

5. Interest-interest is one of the most important factors because it serves as an incentive to overcome deficiencies in any of the other factors-it is the spur to success; it insures vocational satisfaction and stimulates occupational achievement.
6. Health-the physical ability to meet the job requirements. The following procedures4 should be used with the foregoing criteria to predict success, with satisfactory reliability, in a vocational type writing course:
1. Students electing the business curriculum are given four tests: (a) typewriting test using straight-copy material to determine speed-accuracy scores, (b) typewriting test using material which requires a knowledge of proper procedure, (c) IQ test, and (d) English test.
2. Teachers review the scholastic records of prospective students to determine: (a) capacity for learning and (b) interest and perseverance as reflected in their attendance record, which may also indicate their health.
Up to the present time, prognostic tests for predicting typewriting success have not been entirely reliable. Therefore, it is a challenge to teachers and other specialists in typewriting to find new devices or instruments of measurement that will insure greater reliability.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-PROGNOSIS Hardaway, Mathilde, "Prognostic Tests for Skill Subjects," Business Edu-
cation World, 25 (March, 1945), 371-73; 25 (April, 1945), 427-33; 25 (May, 1945), 489-90. Morgan, Raymond W., "The Current Status of Prognosis in Business Education," Business Teacher, 28 (November, 1950), 50-52. Pollack, Abraham S., "How to Tell Whether Aptitude Tests Are Trustworthy," Business Education World, 30 (December, 1949), 170-72; 30 (January, 1950), 216-19. Rahe, Harves, "A Review of Research in Typewriting Prognosis," National Business Education Quarterly, 20 (March, 1952), 44-53. Rowe, J. L., "Prognosis in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 16-17.
4Rowe, loc. cit.
56

PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Psychology is important in the acquisition of any skill. Typewriting teachers must study and develop an understanding of the psychological principles of skill building and must justify all classroom activities according to sound principles of skill learning.
Price1 says that the quickest way to strengthen teaching in the skill subjects is to find out whether any of these principles for skill building are being violated. In his article, "A Practical Review of Skill Psychology," he gives fifty questions to be answered; he also gives twelve basic rules of skill psychology which govern the questions. He says that if the honest answers do not concur with the answer given, then teachers will know that they have a teaching plan that needs correction. This analysis will indicate how instruction may be improved.
PRINCIPLES*
1. Skills are best learned under the most favorable conditions. Students respond to their environment. This includes the classroom setting, the physical conditions, and the emotional atmosphere. The room and all the equipment should be conducive to proper learning; desks and chairs should be of proper height; and all distractions such as noise and glaring lights should be eliminated. Teachers are also responsible for creating a friendly classroom environment. Tension creates frustration, which retards progress. There must be a friendly relationship between teachers and students.
2. Teachers must be able to demonstrate the pattern that the learner is trying to attain. Imitation is a factor in acquiring any motor skill. Teachers should demonstrate frequently the various skills for every learning phase. They should show rather than tell. Every skill and motion in typewriting should be presented by the teacher at a demonstration typewriter where all can see and hear the purpose
1Wilmoth C. Price, "A Practical Review of Skill Psychology," Business Education World, 35 (September, 1954), 27-28.
2John L. Rowe and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effechv~ne.ss of the Teaching of Typewriting," National Association of Secondary School Prmc1pals, The Bulletin, 41 (January, 1957), 117-126.
*"Principles"-Adapted from the articles and books listed in the bibliography.
57

of each drill as he demonstrates. Rowe and Therese~ believe that it is of paramount importance to be more interested in the process than the product.
3. Purposeful repetition is a requisite for the development of skill. Teachers must make repetition purposeful, alive, and successful. Since the purpose of the practice determines the practice levels and the practice procedures to be followed, there must be reasons for repeating drills or exercises. MERE REPETITION DOES NOT GUARANTEE LEARNING. Purposeful repetition brings about refinement of technique. Blackstone3 believes that "The successful teacher will find ways of getting students to want to improve their techniques of typewriting, and that in any repetition drill the aim should not be merely to do the same thing again and again, but to try with each successive attempt to do it a little better, by constantly trying slight changes until the very best possible performance has been attained."
4. If teaching is to be efficient and successful, a specific lesson plan is essential. Teaching is more effective and more meaningful to students if lessons are well planned. Therefore, planning is worth all the time and effort spent in the selection and organization of the material; a plan makes sure that the essentials are taught. The plan should be clear, concise, definite, flexible, and in outline form.
5. Skill is best developed in repeated short, intense periods of activity.
Leslie4 says that 5-, 10-, and 15-minute timed writings in typewriting are of little or no value in the development of speed; they may even hamper the development of speed. In the early stages of skill building, drills should be short. When building speed, students push beyond their established levels of control. Therefore, this intense effort that is made to reach new levels of speed can be maintained at first for only a few moments at a time. Then these short spurts of activity can be lengthened into a sustained skill or longer writings.
6. The development of basic skill requires that teachers and students must analyze and study the motion pattern of the expert.
BE. G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), p. 296.
4Louis A. Leslie, Methods of Teaching Gregg Shorthand (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953), p. 418.
58

In order to improve techniques and in order to develop basic typewriting skill, teachers must be able to analyze the motion pattern of the expert. By analyzing this pattern, they will know what brings about improvement and what impedes progress; they will be able to prescribe remedial drills to correct students' faults. Without this knowledge and understanding, bad habits will be formed.
The expert does not make rapidly the movements that the beginner makes slowly. The Gilbreths, in Applied Motion Study, emphasized that correct motions have to be fast motions. Therefore, the motion pattern of the expert must be taught from the first day of typewriting. The pattern of the expert has the following characteristics: 5
a. Establishment and maintenance of a steady, even flow of motion.
b. Easy and economical movements. c. Relaxed performance unhampered by nervous tension and
hurry. d. Concentration upon the task at hand. e. Intelligent use of the senses. The expert sees, hears, and
feels each correct technique employed.
7. Students and teachers must be aware of goals and objectives. Knowledge, goals, objectives, and progress are essential to the development of skill because students learn more thoroughly and more quickly if they know the progress they are making in attaining their desired goals and objectives. The goals must be simple; goals must be within reasonable attainment; and as goals are reached, new goals should be established. Students must understand the purpose and expected outcome of each activity.
8. Correct technique and rapid stroking should precede the emphasis on accuracy and precision.
In beginning typewriting, the acquisition of correct motions is the first goal to be attained. Correct motions are fast motions. Therefore, speed is the second goal; accuracy of typewritten work is the third goal. The FORMULA for the development of typewriting skill is: Development of basic techniques; Development of speed or fast motions; Development of accuracy or precise motions.
G~erbert A. Tonne, Estelle Popham, and M. Herbert Freeman, Methods of Teaching
IBnucs.m, 1e9ss57S)u,bpj.ec5t6s. (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
59

9. Plateaus are not necessary and may be prevented by analyzing students' difficulties, by using properly graded materials, and by teaching techniques.
Progress in typewriting is represented by a rising line; no progress is indicated by a flat line, which is called a plateau. Clem6 says that "Plateaus are regarded as the limits of performance achievable by students handicapped by poor tables, chairs, machines, teaching, practice methods, and poor techniques." In other words, plateaus may result from classroom conditions or from the teacher's lack of skill in teaching typewriting. The teacher's problem is to reduce these plateaus in length and in number.
10. Intense motivation makes learning proceed more rapidly. Learning takes place when students are interested. In the classroom, positive motivation should be used as much as possible; that is, the student should be interested in typing itself and not in the concomitants of typewriting. Teachers must set goals that are simple and attainable. Unreasonable standards and remote goals postpone too long a feeling of satisfaction in the learner. Students work better when they have a feeling of accomplishment.
11. Relaxation is necessary for skill development. Greatest progress in typewriting skill occurs when students are relaxed and striving for objectives that are natural and real. Teachers should see that students experience a minimum amount of tension, because it retards the skill building process in the beginning. Perfect copies in typewriting should not be expected. Emphasis should always be placed upon improvement, rather than upon absolute perfection.
12. Easy practice material develops speed more effectively than difficult practice material.
Easy material is the most effective practice material; it increases the total skill; and it eliminates tension. Mursell recommends plenty of carefully graded practice in developing fluency: 7
Most experts prepare themselves for contests by practicing on easy material taken much below their maximum rate of speed. They center upon ease and rhythm of motion, and pay attention to any factors that seem to cause interruptions.
6Jane E. Clem, Techniques of Teaching Typewriting, Second Edition (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 236.
7James L. Mursell, "The Rhythm of Learning" in Psychology Applied to Skill BuUding, B.E.W. Service Booklet No. 23 (New York: The Gregg Publishing Company),
p. 18.
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One of the mistakes commonly made by teachers and coaches who are trying to build some skill is to fail to give a sufficient amount of easy, comfortable practice.
13. Speed should not be forced in the early skill building stages. A skill is defined as an efficient way of doing. Teachers must suggest the what and how of skill development. The development of skill must not be forced; development must come from within the individual. Students must be permitted to experiment and find out how things are done before accuracy can be stressed and also before the skill can be applied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SKill DEVELOPMENT
Benson, Charles E., "The Psychology of Skill," Business Education World, 14 (March, 1934), 355-59.
Jasinski, H., "Psychology of Teaching Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 33 (April, 1958), 287-88.
Leslie, Louis A., "The Psychology of Shorthand and Typewriting," Business Education World, 23 (November, 1942), 121-22; 23 (January, 1943), 252-53; 23 (February, 1943), 373-74; 23 (March, 1943), 418-19; 23 (April, 1943), 475-76; 23 (May, 1943), 541-42.
MacGregor, Geraldine T., "Psychology and Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 37 (September, 1955), 12-13.
Murchel, Alvin J., "Educational Psychology Applied to Business Education," Journal of Business Education, 25 (September, 1954), 15-17.
Mursell, James L., "Comments on Ten Commandments for Skill Building," Business Education World, 24 (October 1943), 64.
----."The Rhythm of Learning," Psychology Applied to Skill Building. Business Education World Service Booklet, 23 (New York: The Gregg Publishing Company), 18.
Nanassy, Louis C., and Julius Nelson, "Some Principles of Learning Applied to Typing," Business Education World, 29 (June, 1949), 610-12.
Price, Wilmoth C., "A Practical Review of Skill Psychology," Business Education World, 35 (September, 1954), 37-38.
Rowe, John L., "Some Principles of Teaching Motor Skills," Business Teacher, 27 (September-October, 1949), 12-15.
Smith, Harold H., "A Classic Research in Human Skills," Business Education World, 24 (January, 1944), 284-85; 24 (February, 1944), 397-99; 24 (June, 1944), 576-78; 25 (December, 1944), 173-77; 25 (February, 1945), 311-13; 25 (March, 1945), 366-67.
"Some Applied Psychology for Typing Teachers from 'Cheaper by the Dozen'," Journal of Business Education, 25 (October, 1949), 32.
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Tidwell, M. Fred, "The Psychological Aspects and Conflicting Practices in the Methodology of Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 16 (March, 1948), 44-51.
West, Leonard J., "Mental Practice in the Skill Subjects," Journal of Business Education, 30 (April, 1955), 313-14.
62

METHODOLOGY FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
ATTITUDES
Emotions and attitudes have a tremendous effect upon the development of skill. If students have a negative attitude toward their work, they cannot relax. Therefore, students must have a positive attitude toward the acquisition of typewriting skill. Beginning typewriting students must believe that typewriting is not difficult. However, they must be convinced that the development of basic skill requires a lot of time and energy.
Human beings like praise! Teachers must use the technique of praise and praise students, no matter how slight the improvement may be. The use of praise will sustain enthusiasm and will help students attain success in typewriting. Confidence, purpose, and success are "musts." Success builds on success.
Job success depends as much on the personal qualities as it does on the office skills. These traits and attitudes may be developed and evaluated in the typewriting classroom. Crawford1 believes that the following personal attributes may be developed by the typewriting teacher:
1. Wholesome attitudes toward work. A general disposition to do good work results from meaningful typewriting experiences emphasizing quality performance.
2. Pleasing personal manner.
3. Emotional stability under pressure. Problems in personality adjustment often arise during periods of stress accompanying sustained performance at the typewriter.
4. Poise and self-assurance.
5. Personal initiative and perseverance. The amount of personal drive and persistence possessed by a future office worker is very easily detected in the typewriting classroom, and whatever steps are necessary to make adjustments in these traits may be taken directly and purposefully as each typist pursues his daily assignments. Since achievement in typewriting reflects these traits so directly, there is a premium placed on their development in all typewriting courses.
6. Concern about detail. Through the countless jobs and problems encountered, typists develop a sensitiveness to and a
B 1~ James Crawford, "Importance of Typewriting in the Training of Clerical Workers," USmess Education Forum, 11 (February, 1957), 19-21.
63

proficiency in this trait. Typewriting is especially well suited to increasing its strength.
7. Interest and practical skill in maintaining records. In typewriting, the preparation of performance rates, progress charts, and the like provide springboards for developing a wholesome approach to record keeping as well as refining those computational skills needed for completing records speedily and without error.
8. Skill in self-appraisal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-ATTITUDES
Cambier, Dennis W., "Building Self-Confidence-A Typewriting Teacher's Responsibility," Balance Sheet, 39 (March, 1958), 292-93.
Hardy, Roger A., "Attitudes, Their Acquisition and Modification," VBEA Forum, 2 (May, 1948), 27-29.
Howard, Mildred, "Can Attitudes Be Taught?" Balance Sheet, 33 (November, 1951), 112-116.
Jones, Harold J., "Personality Is Back," Journal of Business Education, 25 (March, 1950), 15-16.
Moore, Ernestine V., "Teaching Attitudes in Advanced Typing," Journal of Business Education, 25 (January, 1950), 13-14.
Moore, Phelma Newton, "Personality Development," Balance Sheet, 31 (February, 1950), 255-57.
Nickerson, Marion, and Jane Stewart, "Career Guidance in Beginning Typing," Business Teacher, 32 (February, 1955), 2.
Smith, Marvin, "Mental Health in the Typing Class," Journal of Business Education, 25 (September, 1949), 27-28; 25 (October, 1949), 21-22.
Stevens, Catherine, "Human Relations in Typewriting Classes," VBEA Forum, 2 (November, 1947), 32-36.
Stewart, Jane, and Marion Nickerson, "Guidance Activities in Typewriting," American Business Education Yearbook, 1954, Volume 11 pp. 187-95.
Strony, Madeline S., "Measuring Personal, Social, and Business Behavior Traits of Potential Employees," American Business Education Yearbook, 1950, Volume 7, pp. 137-149.
Trumper, Elizabeth F., "What We Can Do About Personality Development," Business Teacher, 27 (April, 1950), 230-32.
Walker, Galen G., "Teaching Personal Traits in Shorthand, Typewriting, and Transcription," Typewriting News, 22 (1952), 3.
DEMONSTRATION
The statement, "one picture is worth a thousand words," applies to typewriting instruction. Demonstration is one of the most effective audio-visual aids used in the typewriting class.
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In the skill subjects, demonstrations are necessary; they clarify the purposes of drills or problems. Students learn many things by imitation; therefore, demonstrations provide successful patterns for them to follow.
The tempo of the demonstration is determined by the tempo of the class. At times "slow motion" demonstrations should be given. This is a step-by-step demonstration so that students will know all the specific steps involved; at times, the pace may be slightly increased. It might be necessary to demonstrate the same thing several times. Some students might even require individual attention, and a demonstration would have to be given at the individual typewriter. Rapid, expert demonstration gives students confidence in the teacher.
Lessenberry1 says that "show-how" is far better than tell how. He believes that demonstrations will help students learn efficient control of the operative parts in a minimum of time and that brief, daily demonstrations will set the patterns of stroking rate, and provide a picture of good techniques needed for building maximum skill.
A movable demonstration stand should be used in typewriting classes. It can be used for group demonstration and can also be used very effectively for remedial work with individual students.
DEMONSTRATION PLAN
Developed By Dr. Inez Ray Wells Ohio State University 1. What are the elements of a good demonstration?
2. Choose one technique, analyze, and practice demonstrating. Analysis:
a. What are our purposes?
b. What are the most economical movements to be used?
c. How can the demonstrator describe the parts as he demonstrates?
d. At what rate should the demonstration be given?
e. How and when should the technique be redemonstrated?
1 D. D. Lessenberry, "Teaching the Letter Keyboard," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 9-11.
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Tips:
1. Memorize an easy sentence. Practice it at 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80.
2. A ten-second demonstration is long enough to let the class hear the sound of the stroke.
3. Make your machine noisy-the students should hear as well as see. Use a heavy backing sheet-part of a manila file folder will do nicely. Leave the paper bail off of the paper-let it clatter. Use the stencil lever. Double purpose: noisier; mistakes won't show.
4. If you make an error, like over-reaching the carriage lever or jamming the keys, call attention to the cause; follow by correct demonstration.
5. Occasionally clown a demonstration-exaggerate a wrong technique. Follow by correct demonstration. Then who knows when you make an error whether it was intentional or not!
6. Plan your demonstration-what to do; how to do it.
7. Practice before class, or while students are busy on something else.
8. Keep it brief; repeat it after the students have tried the activity.
9. Demonstrate practically everything-let the students see it work.

TECHNIQUES WHICH SHOULD BE DEMONSTRATED
Techniques that need to be taught and retaught:

1. Carriage throw 2. Tab key reach 3. Straightening paper 4. Inserting and removing
paper quickly 5. Shifting for capitals 6. Changing ribbon

7. Centering the paper at an assigned centering point
8. Fingering action 9. Rhythm and sounds at
various speeds 10. Automatic warm-up drills

BIBLIOGRAPHY-DEMONSTRATION
Allen, H. M., "The Case for Demonstration Stands,'' Business Education World, 30 (June, 1950), 532-33.
DuFrain, Viola, "A Demonstration Stand for Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 7 (November, 1952), 26.
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Green, Helen Hinkson, "We Prefer A Demonstration Platform," Business Education World, 30 (June, 1950), 531-32.
Haas, Kenneth B., "Do You Tell Them or Show Them?" American Business Education, 4 (May, 1948), 282-84.
"Jim the Jury-Teacher Demonstration in Advanced Typing," Business Education World, 29 (February, 1949), 350-55.
Oelke, Lewis R., "Typewriting Demonstration Stand," Balance Sheet, 32 (October, 1950), 81.
Sanders, Frank F., "Demonstration in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 31 (November, 1949), 105.
Stewart, Jane, "Teacher Demonstration in Your Typewriting Class," Balance Sheet, 39 (September, 1957), 13-15.
RELAXATION In beginning typewriting, students have a tendency to use more muscles than are necessary. They should use only as much effort as is necessary. Clem1 says that "Relaxation involves complete relaxation of mind and muscle except for that part of the mind and those muscles actually needed for the task at hand."
Typewriting teachers can promote emotional stability in the classroom by a friendly and positive attitude; they must observe students for signs of tenseness. Tensions cause typewriting motions to become jerky, slower, more inaccurate, and less fluent. Tension and suspense retard the development of skill.
Too much pressure for greater speed and accuracy creates tension; long intensive practice periods also create and hasten fatigue. Periods of intense activity should be alternated with periods of relaxation, but the periods of activity should gradually be lengthened.
Leslie2 gives this advice to skill teachers: To avoid physical tension and encourage physical relaxation, avoid teaching procedures that make unreasonable demands on the learner's skill. Avoid teaching procedures that create anxiety in the learner's mind. A relaxed, easy mind will give relaxed, easy skill performance.
MOTIVATION
Webster defines motivation as the stimulation of active interest or by special devices.
lJane E. Clem, Techniques of Teaching Typewriting (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), pp. 101-102.
0.2~~uis A. Leslie, Methods of Teaching Gregg Shorthand (New York: Gregg Publishing IVlSJOn, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953), p. 326.
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Without motivation there can be very little learning. It is most important in a subject where results can be easily measured. Rowe1 gives the following principles as guides to be used with any motivation device in typewriting classes:
1. Intrinsic motivation is more effective than extrinsic.
2. All students should profit through the employment of any major motivation device.
3. To be most effective, a variety of motivation devices should be employed. In general, each device should be frequent and short lived.
4. All aspects of typewriting skill should be covered through motivation devices. Awards for typewriting speed and accuracy are not enough.
5. The student's knowledge of his own growth and rate of production can be a powerful force in the mastery of a skill.
6. The maturational development of skill should be kept in mind constantly when using any type of motivation.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic motivation is functionally and organically related to the activity; extrinsic motivation is artificially related to the activity.
Rowe and Therese2 are of the opinion that devices stressing personal worth and growth (intrinsic motivation) are probably more valuable than pins, certificates, and awards (extrinsic motivation)-although these have a place in typewriting instruction.
Types of Intrinsic Motivation
1. Recognition is a basic need of all students. Therefore, recognition for outstanding achievement is an excellent motivating device.
2. Realistic problems develop interest and impel students to reach their goals. If students see the immediate need for learning because the activity has real value to them personally, the experience will be more effective than something artificially created for them.
3. Desire is a strong intrinsic motivation device. Teachers must increase the desire of students to do quality work, to develop
lJohn L. Rowe, "Motivation Devices in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 22 (November, 1946), 11-12.
2John L. Rowe and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting?" National Association of Secondary School Principals, The Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 225, (January, 1957), 122-23.
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seriousness of purpose, and to develop emotional stability and confidence in themselves.
Types of Extrinsic Motivation
There are many extrinsic motivational devices which may be used to maintain interest; i.e., class competitions, student progress charts, bulletin board displays, bonus work, and professional demonstrations.
Motivation and the Typewriting Teacher. Beginning typewriting students are highly motivated! Teachers must capitalize on that interest. Provide actual experience at the typewriter the first day. Interest and enthusiasm must be kept alive. Teacher enthusiasm creates student enthusiasm. This enthusiasm will lead inevitably to the development of a dynamic, wholesome learning atmosphere in the classroom.
Teachers must set goals so that they will be able to plan and organize their work effectively. Students must have goals that are worthwhile and obtainable, and they must understand the purpose of each activity in relation to the goals. Therefore, learning activities are most effective when they are means of attaining goals.
Short-term goals are better than long-term ones; clear goals are better than vague ones; and goals closely associated with the job at hand are stronger than remote goals.
Anderson3 believes that no matter how scientifically a lesson is planned and presented, unless the teacher and the students are really anxious to develop the maximum degree of skill possible every single period, much of the potentialities of the course will be lost.
Calmness and friendliness on the part of the teacher, rather than too much vim and vigor, bring the best results in beginning typewriting. A tense, uneasy student makes little progress. The competent teacher watches the progress and needs of individual students, has the knowledge and energy for motivation, keeps up to date with new developments, and has an interest in the problems of students.
Success is a vital factor in the learning process; success breeds success; nothing succeeds like success itself. Nowhere are these statements more true than in the typewriting classroom.
Recognition of success, no matter how small, sets the stage for bigger success. Positive suggestions are stronger than negative ones, and praise
3Ruth I. Anderson, "A Good Lesson in a Skill Subject," Business Teacher, 27 (September-October, 1949), 24-25.
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is stronger than reproof. Teachers must use the technique of g1vmg praise. They must find something good in students' work no matter how slight the improvement may be; that is, your work is improving, your stroking is better than it was yesterday. When this is done, their response and extra efforts can actually be felt. All students must experience success. They do well whatever they find they can do well.
Great care must be exercised in the selection of learning materials, in organizing them, and presenting them in the proper sequence. Varied motivational devices should be used to keep the students interested and working at their optimum ability. Only when students see a relationship between the motivating device and the goal to be achieved will it be successful.
BIBliOGRAPHY-MOTIVATION
Clayton, C. C., "Motivation for Advanced Typing Classes," Balance Sheet, 39 (March, 1958), 309.
Deutchman, Bernard V., "Motivation That Works," Journal of Business Education, 26 (March, 1951), 291-92.
Dvorak, Earl A., "Enthusiasm in Advanced Typing Classes," Journal of Business Education, 24 (January, 1949), 17-18.
Fuller, Donald C., "Motivation Devices for Students in Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (October, 1947), 8.
Hatfield, E. E., "Devices for Motivating Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 26 (October, 1950), 67-68.
Musselman, Vernon A., "How to Use 'Problem Situations' to Motivate Instruction in Typewriting," Business Education World, 31 (February, 1951), 285-86.
Rothrock, Minda S., "Motivation in Typing," Business Education World, 29 (January, 1949), 298-99.
Rowe, John L., "Motivation Devices in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 22 (November, 1946), 11-12.
Steffes, Robert A., "Heightening Interest in the Typing Class," Business Education World, 29 (September, 1948), 23.
Stout, Richard C., ''Typewriting and Motivation," UBEA Forum, 6 (November, 1951), 12-14.
Sufana, Mary, "Motivation Devices for Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (October, 1948), 8-9.
Wanous, S. J., ''The Need for Motivation in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 11-13.
Yerian, Charles Theodore, "Motivating Devices for Beginning and PersonalUse Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (January, 1949), 10-11.
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TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT
DEFINITION
According to Lloyd,1 technique has two meanings-general and specific. In the general sense he defines technique as the whole manner of operating the machine-it is basic skill. In the specific sense, he defines technique as the habits and motions used in a particular operation.
Lessenberry2 lists the following seven basic techniques for typewriting:
1. Type on the appropriate level of response.
2. Use appropriately rapid and correct stroking of the keys.
3. Return the carriage with precision; operate the space bar, the back-space key, margin release, and the tabular mechanism with certainty and economy of motion, and shift for capitals with exactness.
4. Hold the eyes on the copy while typing and learn how to glance at the copy when it is necessary to appraise spacing of material for the line length or determine space left on the page for further lines.
5. Type at all times (irrespective of materials to be typed) with the minimum of hand and arm motion.
6. Know how to type with minimum of tension. Mental relaxation that is based on confidence in the ability to do well whatever has to be done will produce the desired physical release from taunt muscles.
7. Approach each day's practice (whether skill building or production typing) with the right mind set-the attitude that comes from staying with a problem until it has been typed successfully.
He believes these techniques are basic at all levels of the skill and that they must be initiated in the beginning lessons and skillfully improved through right practice in succeeding lessons. Also, he stresses the fact that it is more important for teachers to observe students and to develop these techniques than it is to check the finished work of students. In other words, no papers should be graded during the first several weeks of typewriting. By doing this, students will not be given an opportunity to form incorrect habits that will have to be broken in order to attain higher speed and accuracy.
1Alan C. Lloyd, "The Care and Feeding of Good Typing Technique," Business Edu. cation World, 38 (February, 1958), 11-14.
2D. D. Lessenberry, "Basic Skill for Production Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 9-12,
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Blackstone3 says that typewriting technique, at the expert level, has three characteristics-speed, accuracy, and rhythm-all of which are the results of good technique rather than the cause of it.
PRINCIPLES OF TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT
The principles involved in developing the seven basic techniques are: 4
1. Determine techniques that should be learned-provide drills involving the various techniques.
2. Isolate techniques and work on one technique at a time.
3. Students must know the purpose of a given drill.
4. No papers should be graded during the initial skill-building stage.
5. Timings should be used primarily as a learning aid and not to determine amount of work completed for grading purposes.
6. Familiar material should be used.
7. Students should be graded on technique. This can be accomplished through the use of a check list of desirable techniques.
Importance. Skill development must emphasize the effective use of correct techniques. From the first day, the HOW in typewriting must receive the primary emphasis. This means that correct technique should be stressed rather than speed or accuracy. Speed and accuracy are achieved only through the use of good techniques; poor techniques cause errors and are blocks to speed. Lloyd 5 believes that:
Nothing in a typing course outweighs the development of technique, and nothing must be allowed to interfere with its development . . . Basic technique is so important, in fact, that any teacher who increases the attention his class devotes to it will see-like magic--a corresponding and proportionate improvement in all-over performance by the entire class.
Rowe and Lloyd in their Teachers Manual for Gregg Typing, New Series, say that errors are symptoms of faulty techniques and that a technique check list is a basic tool of instruction. Frequently, teachers should use check lists to talfy each student on techniques-watch fingers, wrists, elbows, feet, eyes, head, and all expressions. Remedial work,
aE. G. Blackstone, "A Better Way to Practice Typewriting," UB;EA Forum, 5 (November, 1950), 12.
4Carlos Hayden, "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 34 (March, 1953), 292-95.
5Lloyd, loc. cit.
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which will help students overcome these faults, must be planned. Improvement in all the techniques at once cannot be accomplished. Stress one specific technique at a time. Improvement is a result of correct practice-not quantity of practice. A technique check list is given as a suggested guide for teachers to use in checking students' techniques. The specific evaluation of each technique is left up to the discretion of the teacher.
CAUTION: Do not call attention to ALL mistakes and incorrect techniques. In the early stages of skill development, let students build confidence and speed and then make students aware of their incorrect techniques. Assist them in correcting these techniques before they become habits.
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TECHNIQUE CHECK LIST*

Name - - - - - - - - - - Date: Fro,.._.__ _ _ _ _ _ __

Class - - - - - - - - - -

To

Teacher - - - - - - - - - Period

-------------------.--------------Technique

I. Physical Factors
A. Body
1. Leaning slightly forward from waist
2. Right of keyboard center 3. Hips against back of chair 4. Feet flat on floor 5. Shoulders erect and relaxed 6. Distance from typewriter
B. Arms and Elbows 1. Almost motionless 2. Close to body
C. Wrists 1. Parallel with keyboard 2. Relaxed
D. Fingers 1. Curved constantly 2. Short nails
E. Thumbs 1. Right thumb above space bar 2. Left thumb under palm
F. Eyes 1. Constantly on copy
II. Machine Operations
A. Machine Adjustments
1. Paper guide 2. Margin stops
Blackstone, lloyd, Lessenberry, & Crawford have also developed "Technique Check Lists"
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Technique
3. Tabulator stops 4. Line-space regulator 5. Paper bail 6. Ribbon lever
B. Paper Insertion 1. Quick 2. Use of paper release 3. Use of left hand 4. Twirling of paper 5. Position of paper
C. Stroking 1. Continuous and even 2. Quick, snatch stroke
D. Carriage Return 1. Quick throw 2. Hands on home keys instantly 3. Eyes on copy 4. Position of hand
E. Shifting 1. Correct timing 2. Fingers over home keys 3. Use of little finger
F. Removing paper 1. Use of paper release 2. Left hand
G. Alignment 1. Vertical 2. Horizontal
H. Ribbon Changing 1. All ribbon on one spool 2. Ribbon winds from front of spool 3. Correct ribbon threading 4. Time used to change ribbons
III. Erasing A. Position of Carriage B. Use of Soft Eraser
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Technique C. Use of Hard Eraser D. Carbon Protection E. Circular Strokes IV. Stencils A. Position of Ribbon B. Even Stroking C. Margins D. Stroking of O's and other round
letters E. Corrections V. English A. Spelling B. Punctuation C. Syllabication VI. Carbon Copies A. Position of Carbon B. Carbon "trees"
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The development of good technique is just as important in advanced typewriting as it is in beginning typewriting. Lloyd6 attributes the meagerness of skill growth in advanced typewriting to the belief that little or no attention should be given to technique in advanced courses. He believes that the more a student advances, the more important technique becomes. Therefore, the basic techniques must be developed, reconstructed, and improved throughout the learning period.
Blackstone7 says:
Let's stop overemphasis on speed and accuracy-which are only symptoms showing the presence or lack of good technique. Let us emphasize improvement of techniques as the one and only way that speed and accuracy can be attained. Let us grade on improvement of techniques. Let us get around the room more often to assist students in recognizing poor techniques and help them find ways to improve these techniques.
Posture. When developing typewriting skill, correct posture is essential. Guthrie8 says that in order to achieve correct posture at the typewriter, students should:
1. Sit with backbone straight. 2. Have both feet flat on the floor. This helps to reduce muscle
fatigue, and this is the first step in correct body balance.
3. Have thighs parallel to the floor. This reduces leg strain and improves body balance.
4. Have the small of the back well supported.
5. Have the forearms sloped slightly forward.
Correct posture helps to: 9
1. Present a good appearance 2. Feel better 3. Reduce muscle fatigue to a minimum 4. Breathe more efficiently and improve the body's functioning. 5. Reduce typing errors and increase speed.
Stroking. From the first day, basic stroking skills should be emphasized; they should be constantly developed and consistently
6LJoyd, Zoe. cit. 7Blackstone, loc. cit. 8Mearle R. Guthrie, "Let's Make No Bones About Improving Typing Posture," Business Education World, 38 (October, 1957), 36-37. 9Guthrie, Zoe. cit.
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re-emphasized. Stroking skill must be built to increasingly higher levels as the students progress.
Students learn by doing! Let them type the first day! Teach them to use a firm, sharp, metronomic stroke, keeping fingers curved and close to the home keys, releasing the key quickly and passing to the following stroke without a pause. Demonstrate the correct stroke, and follow with dictation from the blackboard. Improve the stroking technique each day through well-directed practice.
Willins1() believes that:
The basic principle of sustained speed with accuracy in typewriting is uninterrupted continuity of stroking. Stroking continuity can be achieved only when stroking control is well developed. Stroking control is the ability to tap the keys with precision and dexterity. Stroking control is dependent upon building strength and stretch-or key reach facility-into the fingers.
Typewriting teachers should stress methods and techniques in the development of correct stroking. Demonstrations should be given, drills should be dictated, and direct dictation at the typewriter should be given.
Rhythm. Rhythm is an essential factor in the operation of the typewriter. In typing, rhythm is destroyed by hesitations and jerky stroking. Rhythmic typing is a succession of quick beats and partial relaxation. When typing rhythmically, some stroke sequences are typed more rapidly than others; but the writing is without interruptions and pauses.
Rahe11 in his article, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," points out that rhythm may be described by such words as rippling, flowing, and continuous; that it is characterized by a continuous movement of the carriage, very rapid typing of easy-letter sequences and a slower, more careful typing of difficult-letter sequences.
Machine Operation. At first, students must not be burdened with the names of all the typewriter parts. Students should learn the parts as they are used. Only six machine parts, other than the keys, are used in actual typing. They are the space bar, shift keys, backspace key, carriage-return lever, margin release, and tabulator key. Faulty operation of any one of these parts can cause a reduction in efficiency and production.
1(}Stella Willins, "Championship Techniques," Journal of Business Education, 31 (February, 1956), 206-09.
nHarves Rahe, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (December, 1953), 49-57.
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Daily drills should be given in which students have an opportunity to develop skill in the use of these parts. In the Business Education World, March, 1954, page 11, Dr. Fred Winger gives some effective drills that can be used to improve students' techniques in operating the special mechanisms of the typewriter.
Elimination of Excess Motions. When excess motions are eliminated, rapid rates will be easier to attain. Teachers must endeavor to eliminate all excess motions by giving correct demonstrations, by correcting students' techniques, and by using carefully selected drills.
Some of the excess motions to be eliminated are:
1. Incorrect operation of carriage return, tabulator, and margin release
2. Eyes not on the copy
3. Breaks between words by faulty space-bar control
4. Bouncing hands and arms
If beginners repeat inefficient motions over and over, they will become fixed habits and will prevent students from learning to type effectively. Lessenberry12 gives the following motto for daily practice: "Hold the arms and hands quiet; let the fingers do the work."
Push toward greater speed by cutting down on waste motions.
Reading Copy. How far ahead should students read? Hossfield believes that when writing average words that students should read no more than one word ahead of what is being written. When writing a long word, students should read only a syllable or two ahead. When writing unusual or unfamiliar work, it may be necessary for students actually to "spell out" the word as it is being written.
Eyes on Copy. Students must keep their eyes on the copy. They must be instructed and constantly reminded that it is detrimental to their progress to acquire the habit of looking back and forth. Writing most of the time and not just part of the time is what boosts the average speed of a typist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE
Cain, Marietta, ''Teaching Posture in Typing," Business Education World, 29 (September, 1948), 44-45.
12D. D. Lessenberry, "The Seven Basic Techniques for Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 30 (October, 1948), 52-55.
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Colvin, A. 0. and Mildred Thompson, "Bad Habits and Typewriting Achievement," Journal of Business Education, 20 (April, 1945), 11-12.
Davis, Elsie M., "How to Correct Bad Typing Habits," Business Education World, 31 (June, 1951), 496-97.
Dilmore, Margaret Hamma, Grace Phelan, Marian Wigand, and G. M. Moodie, "Typing Techniques," American Business Education, 9 (March, 1953), 152-156.
Guthrie, Meade R., "Let's Make No Bones About Improving Typing Posture," Business Education World, 38 (October, 1957), 36-37.
"How's Your Technique," Business Education World, 33 (December, 1952), 180-81.
Hubbell, M. H., "Secondary Technique in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 15-16.
Hudnall, Sarah Warren, "Building Typewriting Technique," Journal of Business Education, 32 (May, 1957), 368-70.
Lessenberry, D. D., "The Seven Basic Techniques for Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 30 (October, 1948), 52-55.
Lloyd, Alan C., "Don't Limp on the Space Bar," Today's Secretary, 53 (October, 1950), 78.
- - - - , "Six Steps to Better Typewriting Techniques," Business Teacher, 34 (April, 1957), 10.
- - - - , "Test Your Typing Techniques," Today's Secretary, 57 (April, 1955)' 21-22.
- - - - , "Typing Teacher as a Technician," Business Education World, 38 (February, 1958), 11-14; 38 (March, 1958), 29-33; 38 (April, 1958), 24-25; 38 (May, 1958), 21-22; 38 (June, 1958), 29-30.
Robinson, Jerry W., "The Problem of Typewriting Rhythm," Business Education Forum, 10 (March, 1956), 35-36.
Willins, Stella, "Championship Techniques," Journal of Business Education, 31 (February, 1956), 206-09.
Winger, Fred, "Typing Drills for Technique," Business Education World, 34 (March, 1954), 10-11.
- - - - , "Typing Therapy-Machine Manipulation," Today's Secretary, 59 (February, 1957), 28-29.
SPEED DEVELOPMENT
Old Philosophy of Teaching Typewriting. The way to get speed is merely to do more and more typewriting, and the way to get accuracy is to increase the penalty for inaccuracy.
New Approach to Teaching Typewriting. From the very beginning of typewriting, speed and accuracy should be developed concurrently,
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though emphasized and drilled on separately.1 When developing speed and accuracy concurrently, Kennedy2 believes that the first aim is perfection of technique, not perfection of typescript.
Speed and accuracy are considered as a part of the desirable end products of the skill-building program; they must be worked on daily and developed gradually and consistently; they are best developed in short intensive bursts of effort.
Speed does not come from practical application; speed is the result of correct habits formed in beginning typewriting. Real speed must be built through the use of correct techniques, and this will in turn inevitably lead to the development of speed with accuracy. Correct motions are fast motions; they are sharper, shorter strokes, and they are entirely different from slow motions. Therefore, teachers should teach students to make fewer, faster, easier motions, which will result in fast, accurate typing.
Clem substantiates this point of view by saying: 3
Speed is the natural outgrowth of proper techniques that have become habits, of right attitudes that have been formed, of controls (both mental and physical) that have been learned, and of much practice that has been intelligently done.
Clem believes that the following are essential for speed development: 4
1. Physical fitness
2. Correct posture
3. A knowledge of the keyboard
4. Proper technique
5. Smooth, even stroking
6. Quick, snappy, but precise key stroke
7. Efficient fingering ability
8. Continuity of writing 9. Ease of operation 10. Ability to relax
lHarves Rahe, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," National Business EducaJion Quarterly, 22 (December, 1953), 49-57.
2Sister Marie Edna Kennedy, "Developing Accuracy and Speed Concurrently in Beginning Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (April, 1950), 26-28.
3Jane E. Clem, Techniques of Teaching Typewriting, Second Edition, (New York: Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 216.
4Jbid., p. 223.
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11. Elimination of waste motions
12. Mental control
13. Co-ordination of mind and muscles
14. Motorized vocabulary
15. Willingness to work
Crawford and Liguori, at the Ohio Business Education Association meeting, April 24, 1953, made the following comments on speed building.
I. Generalizations
a. Fast typists are accurate typists. Do not fear speed emphasis because of the appearance of errors. Errors can be explained and eliminated when approached and handled intelligently.
b. Success in speed building is based upon sound basic techniques. Weaknesses in basic writing skill must be corrected; and there must be continuous concentration on that training designed to produce refinement in technique elements.
c. Speed building requires an abundance of teaching supervision and direction. There must be an intelligent understanding of what is being done, an awareness of pupil reaction and response, and an alertness of the scores of ever-present, constantly changing classroom problems. Students must not be allowed to work alone and without specific instruction.
d. Speed writers must be equipped to handle difficult material. Opportunity must be provided for typists to practice on uncommon, strange, and awkward words; strength must be built on unfamiliar as well as relatively easy copy.
e. Speed building must be taught. Special procedures and devices designed especially for speed emphasis must be used; and students must be LED to higher levels of achievement, not DRIVEN, or allowed to WANDER AIMLESSLY by themselves.
2. Speed Building Essentials.
a. Materials used must be skillfully prepared and carefully selected. Students should not be permitted to practice copy that has not been carefully analyzed by the teacher. The teacher, on the other hand, must KNOW that the copy being used will actually contribute to the success of her students.
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b. There must be a DEFINITE PLAN for the teacher and students to follow. "Hit-and-miss" or "at random" practice yields inferior performance and cannot be justified.
c. Students must IDENTIFY MEANINGS and see PURPOSES in all work being done. There must be specific objectives underlying the entire speed building program.
d. Teachers must develop a wholesome MIND-SET toward speed building; there must be an appreciation of the relationship of effort expended to results achieved; and there must be a willingness to attack all problems eagerly and intelligently.
e. RESULTS must be ACCURATELY MEASURED and CAREFULLY EVALUATED. Students must know what successes or failures have been realized and must be given the opportunity to ascertain the extent of such growth or failure.
f. There must be REMEDIAL WORK provided in abundance; it must be carefully assigned and teacher-directed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-SPEED DEVELOPMENT
Blaisdell, H. 0., "Hints on Becoming a Speed Typist," UBEA Forum, 5 (February, 1951), 28-29.
Boyle, Joan, "Office Typing Is Not Just Speed," Business Teacher, 33 (March, 1956), 3.
Brendel, Leroy A., "The Uses and Abuses of Timed Writings," Business Education World, 37 (September, 1956), 22-24.
Crawford, T. James, "A Direct Approach to Speed Building," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 14-15.
DuFrain, Viola, "Speed Building Techniques for Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (November, 1947), 31-32.
- - - - , "Speed-First in Elementary Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 27 (September, 1951), 12-14.
- - - - , "Which Speed-Accuracy Emphasis," Business Education World, 26, (May, 1946), 478-79.
"Grading Timed Writings," Business Teacher, 32 (December, 1954), 10.
Guthrie, Mearle R., "Is the Stop Watch Being Overworked in the Teaching of Typewriting?" Balance Sheet, 38 (January, 1957), 200-202.
Humphrey, Katherine, "The Risk of 'Speed First' in Typing," Business Education World, 33 (September, 1952), 29-30.
Kennedy, Sister Marie Edna, "Developing Accuracy and Speed Concurrently in Beginning Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (April, 1950), 26-28.
Landwehr, Bernard J., "Relaxation-the Key to Building Typing Speed," Typewriting News, 24, (1954), 8.
83

Lloyd, Alan C., "Boost Your Typing Speed by Special 'Pacing' Practice," Today's Secretary, 58 (February, 1956), 26-27.
- - - - , , "For a Speed Drive," Today's Secretary, 53 (June, 1951), 477.
- - - - , , "How Long Should a Timed Writing Be?" Business Teacher, 35 (November, 1957), 10.
- - - - , "Let's Try Again to Find Out About Typing Speed," Business Teacher, 34 (May-June, 1957), 4.
----,, "You Have to Have Rhythm-If You Want to Have Speed," Today's Secretary, 53 (September, 1950), 32.
Maxwell, W. C., "A Typewriting Rate Survey," Journal of Business Education, 29 (October, 1953), 17-19.
McGill, B. C., "Typewriting Speed-A False Goal?" Journal of Business Education, 25 (October, 1949), 11-12.
Mount, Dick, "The Zigzag Road to Typing Speed," Business Teacher, 33 (December-January, 1955), 4.
Nelson, Roger H., "Speed and Accuracy in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 12-13.
Schmale, V. B., "Comparison of Achievement in Gross Speed of 15 Beginning Typewriting Classes Using Electric and Manual Typewriters," Business Education Forum, 12 (December, 1957), 18-19.
Strong, Earl P., "How to Increase Employees' Typing Skill," Office Executive, 31 (December, 1956), 16-17.
Willins, Stella, "Building Typewriting Skill and Speed," UBEA Forum, 4 (February, 1950), 25-27.
Winger, Fred, "Typing Drills for Speed," Business Education World, 34 (January, 1954), 18-19.
ACCURACY DEVELOPMENT
Perfect copies should not be expected in the early stages of typewriting. Rowe and Therese1 state that the only way students can produce perfect copies at the outset is by imperfect technique.
The traditional approach in the teaching of typewriting has been to emphasize accuracy of copy first on the assumption that it is easier to speed up stroking than to correct errors. This approach hinders the development of typewriting skill because it creates tension by focusing attention on results.
More difficult or average material is good for control. Therefore, when typing for accuracy, the practice material should be changed from
!John L. Rowe and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting?" National Association of Secondary School Principals, The Bulletin, 41 (January, 1957), 122-23.
84

relatively easy, short, speed material to more difficult copy that is typed for longer periods of time.
Errors. In beginning typewriting, many errors are chance errors and do not have a specific cause or remedy. Rowe2 thinks that typewriting teachers must realize the complexity of initial difficulties and accept the fact that errors are natural and that they are expected and should be ignored, more or less, in the early stages of the learning process. In fact, in the early learning stages more attention should be given to technique errors than to errors appearing on the typewritten page.
As skill development progresses, Rowe3 says that persistent errors must be discovered, analyzed, and eliminated--even though this task must remain secondary to the development of the fast skillful motions, which are prerequisite to efficient typewriting.
Error Analysis. Error analysis charts will aid teachers or students in detecting the errors or difficulties that are persistent.
Some business educators may say that they take too much time. Blackstone and Smith4 do not think that it takes too much time to fill out these charts. They believe that persistent errors will show up in almost any short period (two or three minutes) of typing. They suggest that teachers tell students at some time during a class period, or even twice a week, to mark on the chart the errors made on the last twenty lines of practice
T. James Crawford5 answers the question, "Should error analysis charts be used in the teaching of typewriting?" by saying:
Error analysis charts, like many other teaching devices, are useful aids in typewriting instruction. They serve several purposes:
1. They force the student to do accurate proofreading by requiring specific information to be classified and recorded.
2. They provide a clear, visual record of the typist's control and show him, in compact form, the exact nature and quantity of the errors being made.
3. They provide cumulative records which may be used for purposes of analysis, comparison, or as the basis of selecting remedial materials and procedures. Just how they are used depends largely upon the individual teacher.
2John L. Rowe, "Remedial Instruction in Typewriting," Journal of Business ;Education, 28 (March, 1953), 231-33.
aLoc. cit.
4. G. Blackstone and S. L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting, (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950), p. 357.
5T. James Crawford, "Your Typing Questions," Balance Sheet, (September, 1946), 14.
85

Past experience has revealed two noticeable weaknesses in the use of error analysis charts: 1. An excessive amount of time is wasted in making the neces-
sary entries. 2. No follow-up on "use" is made of the information recorded. It must be remembered that error charts are basically teaching aids and, as such, should aid teaching; their primary purpose is to make possible more intelligent remedial practice by helping the student select meaningful drill materials and procedures. Unless typists are taught that the real value of error charts lies in the use made of the information recorded thereon, there is little gained by requiring him to make detailed entries. Without intelligent application, error charts amount to nothing more than mere "busy-work."
86

ERROR ANALYSIS CHART

Name Class _ __ Teacher _ __

Date: FrOllL_ _ _ _ _ _ __ To
Period

Technique
- - - - - - - - - ------~---~-~~ 1 - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - , . . - - -
I. Machine Operation

A. Shift Key
1. Flying "Caps" 2. Luwer-case letters high 3. Lower-case letters low 4. Failure to shift for special
characters 5. Failure to capitalize

B. Vertical Spadng 1. Failure to space 2. Too many spaces

C. Horizontal Spacing
1. Too many spaces 2. Failure to space

D. Stroking

1. Strikeovers

2. Crowding

3. Two keys at once 4. Shadowed letters 5. Too light

I !

l 6. Punctuation marks too heavy

E. Arrangement

1. Top margin too wide 2. Top margin too narrow

I
!

3. Uneven right margin

4. Uneven left margin 5. Bottom margin too wide

I

I 6. Bottom margin too narrow
7. Last line slanted

87

Technique 8. Material not centered
correctly F. Tabulation
1. Uneven left margin 2. Uneven spacing between
columns 3. Uneven paragraph indentions II. Omissions A. Spaces in place of letters B. Omitting words C. Omitting lines III. Additions A. Added strokes B. Added words C. Repetition of lines IV. Transpositions A. Letters reversed B. Words reversed V. Substitutions A. Wrong letters B. Wrong words VI. Erasing
88
I

BIBLIOGRAPHY-ACCURACY DEVELOPMENT
Barnhart, Earl W., "Reducing Typing Errors," Business Education World, 36 (October, 1955), 22-23; 36 (November, 1955), 14; 36 (December, 1955), 26-27.
----,"Reducing Typing Errors-Errors Made by Transposing Letters," Business Education World, 36 (February, 1956), 24-25.
- - - - , "Reducing Typing Errors-Errors Made in Vertical Reaches," Business Education World, 36 (January, 1956), 20.
Clevenger, Earl, "When to Correct Typing Errors," Business Education World, 36 (September, 1955), 22.
DuFrain, Viola, "Our Traditional Accuracy Emphasis in Teaching Elementary Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 28 (September, 1946), 12-13.
Griffith, Ruth, "Devices for Error Elimination," UBEA Forum, 5 (December, 1950), 28-29.
Holmes, Helen M., "A Study of the Frequency of Key-Stroking and Reading Errors in Typewriting, Their Probable Causes, and the Effect of Remedial Drills," National Business Education Quarterly, 24 (October, 1955), 42.
Humphrey, Katherine S., "Constructive Analysis of Typewriting Errors," Business Education World, 24 (February, 1944), 325-28; 24 (April, 1944), 432-36.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Typewriting Errors and Corrective Measures," Balance Sheet, 29 (April, 1948), 340-43.
Lloyd, Alan C., "Some More Ways to Improve the Accuracy of Your Typing,'' Today's Secretary, 53 (January, 1951 ) , 229.
McCarthy, R. A., "Accuracy Grade Based on Per Cent of Error,'' Journal of Business Education, 34 (November, 1958), 72-74.
Oliverio, Mary Ellen, "Accuracy-A Skill to Be Developed," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 11-12.
Rowe, John L., "Remedial Instruction in Typewriting,'' Journal of Business Education, 28 (March, 1953), 231-33; 28 (April, 1953), 277-78; 28 (May, 1953), 318-20.
Winger, Fred, "Typing Drills for Control,'' Business Education World, 34 (February, 1954), 16-17.
- - - - , "Typing Therapy-Correcting Consistent Error Patterns,'' To day's Secretary, 59 (April, 1957), 18-19.
DRILLS
The teaching of a skill is based primarily on drill, which means that repetition is necessary for skill building. Therefore to maintain and develop basic skill, regular and repetitive practice in typewriting
89

is essential. Wanous1 emphasizes the importance of drill by saying that students will not reach 60 words a minute on straight copy unless they do a considerable amount of drill work in order to improve stroking, rhythm, machine manipulation, and other techniques.
In order for drill work to be successful, students must be taught to diagnose the causes of their speed plateaus or their errors and to understand which drills will be helpful in overcoming these barriers; the students' work must show definite and measurable improvement. Drill books usually contain many special exercises that are designed for students needing special help in such factors as concentration practice, locational security, and fingering dexterity. Special drills and special paragraph material are loaded and weighted to provide special reviews and improvement in specific areas. Teachers should utilize drills for the entire class only when it is evident that a majority of the students need drill.

Basic Principles of Drill in Typewriting2

1. Direct Dictation.

Effective method of developing quicker response, word recognition can be developed easily, and typing power can be achieved quickly. This type of practice should be used for short courses only.

2. Unison Copy.

Effective in teaching the reaches and may be used later for smoothing out stroking and for speeding up those who are using a heavy touch. Teacher should call the letters as the student follows the copy in the text in order to establish the pattern that the student is trying to develop.

3. Individual Typing. Students learn at varying rates; therefore, procedures should be adopted that will allow each student to move ahead at his own rate of speed. Individual goals should be set for the period and for the week. Direct dictation of words and phrases allow the individual student to type at his best rate.

4. Timed Sentences and Paragraphs.

The function of this drill is to improve stroking. Short timings should be used during this stage of learning. Individual goals should be set.

lS. J. Wanous, "How to Get Better Results on Production Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 13-15.
20. D. Lessenberry, "Methods of Teaching Typewriting," Monograph 71, (Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company), February, 1949, pp. 7-8.

90

5. Manipulation Drills.

Primary purpose of this type of drill is to teach control of the service mechanism. Drills involving the use of the various parts of the service mechanism should be held frequently and should be of short duration. In the learning stage, the teacher should concentrate on one part at a time.

Some drills used both to build proper control and to correct improper habits are:

1. Controlled or paced writings

2. Call-of-the-throw drills

3. Direct dictation 4. Stroking exercises 5. Manipulative control 6. Rhythm drills 7. Relaxation drills 8. Reading-the-copy drills 9. Alphabetic sentences

Students must know why they are performing a drill and how they are supposed to benefit from it. "Practice makes perfect when intelligently directed."

Purposeful repetition is basic to skill building. Confusion of goals makes a drill worthless. Therefore if drills are meaningful, they must have a single purpose. Rowe3 thinks that a few meaningful drills used regularly and frequently are far more beneficial than numerous drills used spasmodically and only occasionally. Therefore, drills must be spread over a period of time. Motor skills cannot be mastered at one sitting or through one brief experience. Drills should be discontinued as soon as they cease to be effective.
Students must understand the purpose of the drill, why it is important, and how the drill is to be performed. Drill is most effective when it focuses on improvement in one thing at a time. Goals must be clear, important, personal, obtainable, and single.
Lessenberry4 says that the teacher should help students see the

BJohn L. Rowe, "How and When to Use Drills in Typewriting," Business Education World, 32 (April, 1952), 383-85.
4D. D. Lessenberry, "Basic Principles of Drill in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 30 (September, 1948), 12-13.

91

purpose of a drill, determine the outcomes expected, select the practice procedures that will guarantee the achievement of the expected outcomes, and decide the approximate number of repetitions needed.
Monotony should be avoided. The typewriting class should provide for intensive drills of brief duration with an opportunity for short periods of relaxation between drills.
For a detailed description of the use of drills in typewriting, see John Rowe's articles in the Business Education World, April, May, and June, 1952.

SUGGESTED DRILLS
I. Machine Operation
Shift Key
Errors. Flying "caps"; lower-case letters high; lower-case letters low; failure to shift for special characters; failure to capitalize; use of wrong finger on shift key.
Causes. Shift key not depressed firmly or released too quickly; shift key held down too long after capital is struck; lack of knowledge of typewriter.
Corrective measures. Teacher demonstration of good techniques; depress shift key firmly and hold key down to a lengthened one count, then release; stretching and strengthening drills.

CAPITAL-LETTER DRILLS
aAa bBb cCc dDd eEe fFf gGg hHh iii jJj kKk ILl mMm nNn oOo pPp qQq rRr sSs tTt uUu vVv wWw xXx yYy ZZz
Vertical Spacing
Errors. Failure to space; too many spaces; irregular spacing.
Causes. Incorrect carriage return because of finger position; platen loose or worn; spacing regulator not properly set; variable line spacer in operation; paper release in operation.
Corrective measures. Check machines before typing; demonstration of correct method; timed carriage return drills emphasizing wrist movement.

to your skill. to your skill.

CARRIAGE-RETURN DRILL

this will add this will add this will add

92

Horizontal Spacing
Errors. Uneven left margin; too many spaces; no spaces after words.
Causes. Faulty carriage return; incorrect space-bar technique; articles under typewriter; stroking keys too hard; not releasing keys quickly.
Corrective measures. Carriage-return drills; correct space-bar manipulation which means quick inward movement of the thumb; quick, "snatch" stroke of keys; check hand position.

CARRIAGE-RETURN DRILL

Type each 10 times emphasizing correct carriage return.

this

will

add

to

your

skill

SPACE-BAR DRILL
Type alphabet in lower-case letters leaving a space between each letter; for example, a b c.
Tabulation
Errors. Uneven left-hand margin; uneven spacing between columns; uneven paragraph indention.
Causes. Tabular key released too quickly; tabulator set incorrectly; stops not set or checked at the beginning of each exercise.
Corrective measures. Always check position of tabular stops; demonstration of correct use of tabulator key emphasizing that it must be held firmly until the carriage stops.

TABULATION DRILLS

us

so

as

if

be

me

do

it

on

or

to

of

II. Stroking Errors. Crowding and light letters. Causes. Uneven stroking; not using a sharp, quick stroke. Pauses

93

in typing; typing too fast; insufficient practice with weak letters; long nails; dirty keys.
Corrective measures. Development of even stroking by using rhythm drills which are found in typewriting textbooks; finger gymnastic drills; drills on letters controlled by the "a," "s," "1," and ";" fingers; right-hand drills; alternate-hand drills, drills for each row of keys; double-letter word drills; hyphen drills; analyzing carbon copies.
Error. Heavy letters.
Causes. Uneven stroking; heavy and "sluggish" stroking due to pushing keys instead of hitting them; too much emphasis upon slow-but-sure typing.
Corrective measures. Teacher demonstrates correct stroking by holding fingers curved slightly above the keys and hitting them with a combination of wrist and finger motions; students type material deliberately using a sluggish stroke; students retype the material concentrating on a quick "snatch" stroke; students check backs of papers to see whether or not punctuation marks show through; analyze typewritten material to determine letters consistently struck heavily and write that letter with each letter of the alphabet; use drills containing many punctuation marks.
III. Transposition
Errors. Letters reversed; words reversed.
Causes. Poor vision; inadequate lighting; reading too far ahead; typing too rapidly; difficult material; inability to spell.
Corrective measures. Even stroking; concentration; drills emphasizing individual letters; drills on difficult material; alphabetic sentences and paragraphs.

INDIVIDUAl-lETTER DRill The zoo bought a rhinoceros, a hippopotamus, and a giraffe.

~:: ii

CONCENTRATION PRACTICE

j

N.

yrenoitats rof ruo 'stseug srettd no eht yranoitats sksed.

ji'i
Error. Poor Erasure.

94

Causes. Erasure made too hurriedly and with too much pressure; wet eraser; wrong kind of eraser used; cheap paper; dirty eraser; area too large.
Corrective measures. Reduce typing rate and avoid errors; demonstration of correct erasing; use hard eraser on originals and soft eraser on carbons; clean eraser with sandpaper; timed erasing drills.
V. Paper Insertion and Removal
Error. Incorrect paper insertion.
Causes. Paper held in wrong hand; paper not held straight and against paper guide; paper not twirled into machine.
Corrective measures. Teacher demonstration of correct paper insertion; paper insertion drill.
Error. Incorrect paper removal.
Causes. Rolls paper out; jerks paper out.
Corrective measures. Demonstration of correct procedure by depressing paper release. Paper removal drill.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-DRILLS
Blanchard, Clyde I., "How to Drill on Double Letters," Business Education World, 37 (February, 1957), 26-27.
Ferguson, Robert L., "A Daily Drill on All Important Operative Parts of the Typewriter," Business Education World, 32 (January, 1952), 236-37.
Friedman, Sherwood, "When to Use Unison Drills in Typing," Business Education World, 30 (April, 1950), 414.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Basic Principles of Drill in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 30 (September, 1948), 12-13.
Rowe, John L., "How and When to Use Drills in Typing," Business Education World, 32 (April, 1952), 383-85; 32 (May, 1952), 447-49; 32 (June, 1952), 488-89.
- - - - , "How to Use a Drill Book," Business Teacher, 30 (May-June, 1953), 228-29.
Winger, Fred E., "Left-and Right-Hand Word Typing Drills," Journal of Business Education, 28 (February, 1953), 189-90.
COMPOSING AT THE TYPEWRITER
Composing at the typewriter is thinking while typing without materially curtailing the typist's pace.1 Any person who uses the typewriter
lAlan Lloyd and John Rowe, Teacher's Manual for Gregg Typing-New Series (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954), p. 32.
95

for personal and/ or business purposes uses it to a great extent in putting his thoughts in typed form. Therefore, there is a real need for teaching the fundamental skill of composing at the typewriter.
The following points should be emphasized in developing this skill:
1. Training for composing at the typewriter should be started after the keyboard learning period.
2. The teacher should work from the simple to the complex in short steps. Examples of elementary steps are: 2
Spacing after punctuation marks Indenting for paragraphs Dividing words at end of line Constructing special symbols Handling quotation punctuation Correcting misspelled words Correcting punctuation Interpreting rough-draft marks Making simple word substitutions
3. As students develop skill, the teacher should build up gradually to more complex composing. Examples of more complex steps are: 3
Providing dates, salutations, etc. Rearranging copy while typing it Setting up unarranged copy Punctuating unstyled copy Paragraphing unbroken copy Creating copy at the machine
4. Composition should be taught throughout the typewriting course with constant repetitive practice.
Some situations that may be used to stimulate advanced composing at the typewriter are: 4
1. Make original sentences from words found in drills in textbooks.
2. Compose a kind description of one of the students in class.
3. After letter forms have been taught, give the students a few brief notes from which to compose a reply to one of the letters in the text.
2Loc. cit. BLoc. cit. ~E. G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting (second edition; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), p. 159.
96

4. Give students an interesting article and have them compose a synopsis of a single paragraph or of the complete article.
5. Encourage students to type first drafts of English themes, indicate necessary corrections, and type a final draft.
Composing at the typewriter is a valuable skill and should be included in the plans for classroom instruction-always remembering to go from the SIMPLE to the COMPLEX rather than from complex to the simple.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-COMPOSITION
Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. Second edition; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949.
Cook, Fred S., "Helpful Typing Device-Having Students Compose a Film Evaluation at Machine," Business Education World, 31 (April, 1951), 388.
Lloyd, Alan, and John Rowe, Teacher's Manual For Gregg Typing-New Series. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954.
Murphy, Glen, "Teaching Composition in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 10 (April, 1956), 21, 28.
Rainey, Bill G., "Emphasizing Composition in Typewriting II," Typewriting News, 27 (Spring, 1957), 2-3.
Rowe, John L., "Principles of Developing Typewriting Composition Skill," Typewriting News, 18 (Spring, 1948), 3.
NUMBERS AND SYMBOLS
In this rapidly changing, technical world, skill in typing numbers and symbols is a must. The need for statistical typists is increasing year by year.
The majority of typewriting teachers do not know how many numbers a minute their students can type. Lloyd1 says, "The average student types numerals at a mere tenth of his straight-copy rate." Therefore, teachers and students must work for a complete mastery of these keys.
For the development of skill on the number and symbol keys, a planned program that is continuous and intensive should be integrated with the total practice plan.
Consideration should be given to the following basic factors:
1. A sincere belief on the part of teachers and students that the top row of keys can be learned as effectively as the other rows.
lAlan C. Lloyd, "For Positive Number Control," Business Teacher, 29 (November, 1951), 50-52.
97

2. Numbers and symbols should be introduced after students have had an opportunity to develop security on the letter keys.
3. Correct fingering must be used.
4. Numbers and symbols should be taught daily, including a thorough review in the warmup.
5. There must be a specific objective in each practice effort.
6. Provide timed writings on numbers and symbols. Lloyd2 feels that one-minute writings are long enough because writings on numerals are difficult.
7. There should be constant evaluation of students to type numbers and symbols. Consideration of students' ability should be in the grading plan.
DRILLS There should be frequent number and symbol drills.
I. Basic Groups3
A. Verbal-those given audibly through dictation; their chief purpose is to get a direct, quick response from the group.
B. Verbal-Sight-the teacher directs the typists to write from printed copy while he paces them through dictation. The teacher strives for continuous, uninterrupted writing at rates equal to straight-stroking rates of the students. The purpose of this drill is to speed up sluggish, hesitant typists; or to slow down typists who need external control to produce greater accuracy.
C. Sight-the teacher directs the students to type from the printed copy at their own rates of speed. When difficulties are encountered, students isolate the difficulties and practice the passages until the problems are removed. Number drill periods should give the student an opportunity to type on his own. Each of the above drills may be illustrated through the use of the following line of numbers:
135804 6 5 9 27 1 35 80 4 6 5 9 2 7
2Loc. cit. sT. James Crawford, "Dynamic Influences in the Development of Number Writing Skill," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 9-11.
98

II. Other Drills for effective Skill Building
A. To Speed Up Number Stroking:
We- 23 twos we 23 up 70 or 94 it 85 ou 92 pi 08 re 43 yo 69 to 59 we 23 We- 23 threes wet 235 you 697 ore 943 pie 083 tie 583 ire 843 two 529 529 Number race To 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 or 7 or 8 or 9 or 10 or Etc.
~1~2~3~4~5~6~7~8~9~
B. To develop control on numbers and symbols:
12 3 4 56 7 8 9101112131415161718 19 2019591959 (a) (b) (90) (39) (28) (46) (67) (10) (11Y2) (11~)
C. To develop control of special characters, review only one or two each day typing three or more lines:
$45.50 $75.50 $36.60 $56.50 $78.70 $28.85 $89.90
D. To develop the ability to move quickly from words to numbers and symbols, and vice versa.
I saw 33 or 34 of the girls take the 19:34 train. Prisoner 1928 served 3,645 days; No. 1938 served out 2,377. Please send 3# (3 pounds) of #9 (number 9) nails. Charge them 4% commission, 5% profit, 6% service.
METHODS OF TEACHING
The method of teaching numbers and symbols may be one of three: (1) Traditional or home-row, ( 2) Pipe-organ, or ( 3) Third-row method. From the findings5 in an experimental program in the Los Angeles Area, it is indicated that neither the pipe-organ nor the thirdrow method had a particular advantage over the home-row reach method unless the copy was composed predominantly of numbers.
BIBliOGRAPHY-NUMBERS AND SYMBOLS
Arensman, R. W., "Hints on Figure Control," Balance Sheet, 32 (November, 1950), 129.
Butler, Elizabeth V., "Statistical Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (May, 1948), 10-12, 36.
Alan C. Lloyd, "The Typing Teacher as a Technician," Reprint from Business Education World (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1958).
~Lawrence W. Erickson, "Teaching the Number Row," Joumal of Business Education, 32 (October, 1956), 23-25.
99

Connelly, Mary E., "More Typing Drills for Number Control," Business Education World, 34 (May, 1954), 28-29; 34 (June, 1954), 28-29.
- - - - , "Typing Drills for Number Control," Business Education World, 34 (April, 1954), 36-37.
Corey, Marion, and Edwin Weber, "Developing Number Writing Skill," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 12-13.
Crawford, T. James, "Dynamic Influences in the Development of Number Writing Skill," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 9-11.
Erickson, Lawrence W., "Teaching the Number Row," Journal of Business Education, 32 (October, 1956), 23-25.
Henning, Virginia D., "How to Build Typing Accuracy on Numbers in Context," Business Education World, 35 (April, 1955), 28-29.
Huffman, Harry, "Procedures and Techniques for Developing Statistical Skill in Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (November, 1947), 25-28,44.
Lloyd, Alan C., "For Positive Number Control," Business Teacher, 29 November, 1951), 50-52.
- - - - , "Some Drills for Number Mastery," Today's Secretary, 54 November, 1951), 129.
Rowe, John L., "Typing Drills: Numbers and Symbols," Business Education World, 33 (November, 1952), 134-38.
Sadoff, Frances, "Simplified Teaching of Numbers in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 31 (September, 1955), 9-10.
PROOFREADING
Proofreading is a developmental skill process. It requires skillbuilding technique just as much as the development of basic skill in typewriting. To develop the ability to proofread rapidly and accurately is one of the most important skills in typewriting. However, it is probably one of the least taught activities. Therefore, it is not sufficient for teachers to tell students to "proofread carefully." Telling students to proofread is not teaching students to proofread.
Proofreading skill must be developed. The most logical time for concentrating on it is when erasing is first introduced. Canfield1 emphasizes this fact by saying that "Students have been reading typescripts for the purpose of finding errors almost from the beginning of the typewriting course, but it takes on added significance when the production phase of typewriting is begun and students are required to submit mailable copy."
1Mary Canfield, ''Production Typewriting Must Be Taught, Too," Business Education Forum, 11 (March, 1957), 26-27.
100

Canfield further points out the importance of proofreading by saying: 2
Many teachers impose rather stiff grading penalties for failure to proofread accurately. It is usually more effective, however, for the teacher to assist students to develop a responsible, objective attitude toward their work. They need to be made aware and probably reminded often of the importance of finding and correcting their errors. The success of all production work in typewriting shorthand, transcription, and on-the-job performance hinges to a great extent upon good proofreading ability.
Leslie and Pepe say that "Poor proofreading should never be condoned or encouraged by the practice of permitting the learner to retype material for credit after the teacher has proofread it and has discovered additional errors. The learner must be brought to realize that he must do his proofreading before the paper leaves his hands."3
Brendel4 believes that the pupil's initial desire to learn proofreading is unlike his initial desire to learn typewriting. In fact it is conspicuous by its absence; therefore, in addition to developing the know-how in proofreading, the teacher must also create a desire.
Watkins gives the following suggestions for proofreading: 5
CAUSES OF POOR PROOFREADING
1. They don't have a clear understanding of exactly what constitutes an error.
2. They have a hazy and unworkable knowledge of business form requirements.
3. They haven't had sufficient practice under actual office standards.
TEACHING RESPONSIBiliTY
1. Really sell ourselves on the idea that proofreading can be interesting and challenging.
2. Study and analyze the whole process of proofreading: a. Understand it psychologically from the students' viewpoint. b. Know the different types of errors and the relative difficulty of each type.
2Loc. cit. BLouis A. Leslie and Philip Pepe, "Classroom Training for Office Production Typing," Journal of Business Education, 27 (January, 1952), 194-96. 4LeRoy A. Brendel, "Yes, They Proofread, If-," Journal of Business Education, 29 (March, 1954), 241-43. 5Grace V. Watkins, "Proofreading Can Be an Adventure," Journal of Business Education, 25 (April, 1950), 19-20.
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c. \Vork out a scientific succession of the progressively difficult phases.
3. Devise effective and interesting ways of teaching the successive phases.
PLAN FOR TEACHING PROOREADING
Developed By Dr. Inez Ray Wells Ohio State University
We usually assume that anyone can proofread correctly, but this is a skill which needs to be taught.
I. Why do students have difficulty in proofreading?
A. "The eye has a way of passing over the lines of typescript and seeing what the mind wishes were there instead of what the fingers actually put there." (Lloyd, BEW, March, 1950.)
B. Proofreading is nearly always done in haste in the classroom. Time must be allowed for this important activity.
C. The practice of grading on the basis of errors is NO INCENTIVE to find errors. Lloyd suggests that one may grade, instead, on:
1. the quantity of work accepted on the basis of an allowable maximum number of errors, the number allowed to be decreased gradually as the students advance;
2. the extent of improvement demonstrated by the students;
3. technical operative skills.
D. It is impossible to catch all types of errors by reading once. The copy must be read once for meaning, which gives a cue to omitted words, misused words (their for there, etc.), incorrect punctuation, etc. It must be read again for details such as typographical errors, errors in hyphenation, capitalization, spelling, etc.
E. Students must know which types of work must (or should) be read by a team rather than by an individual, such as stencils; tables, especially those which contain numbers; and any work that must be compared word by word and punctuation mark by punctuation mark with the copy from which it was written.
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II. How should proofreading be taught?
A. Arouse interest on the part of the students:
1. Students must understand why proofreading is important and they must understand that proofreading is part of the whole process of typing.
2. Use some device for arousing interest. A competitive spirit may be a motivating factor, Lloyd suggests that the World's Worst Transcripts may be used in the following ways: a. Duplicate the transcript so that each member of the class may have a copy. b. Challenge students to find the errors within a time limit. ( 1) Introduce the problem and "play the game" in class a few times. (2) After that, they may be assigned for homework, with the understanding that working together is all right. c. Use these letters on a regular schedule of once every week or two. The percentage scores of students rise rapidly, indicating that students learn "what to look for." d. Sometimes divide the class into teams and use these transcripts as contest material. In a class of 30, have six teams. Each member of each team is given a letter, so that five different letters are used by each team. The score is figured on a percentage basis for the team average.
B. Teach the students what errors to look for:
1. Lloyd says that the following are examples of the types of errors:
a. Date errors
b. Word division errors
c. Misspelling of city and state
d. Incongruities, such as directing the reader to tum to page 96 of a 64-page booklet or asking him to skip something by a date that is prior to the date of the letter.
e. Structural errors, such as indenting but one paragraph.
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f. Name errors, such as spelling the name of the addressee differently in the body of the letter.
g. Obvious errors in grammar, particularly in verb-subject agreement and in possessives.

2. Foster (BEW, April, 1950) says:

a. Errors are more likely to occur in the latter half of a line, especially if the line is over four inches.

b. Errors are more likely to occur in the middle of long words than at the beginning or end.

c. More than 60,000 errors that have been found by (professional) proofreaders were tabulated to form a guide of 'most frequent errors for which to look'. A part of the table is given below; the kinds of errors not applicable to typists have been omitted.

Letters omitted Substitutions Space omitted Punctuation mark omitted Transpositions Words omitted Small letter for capital Full line omitted Spelling error Capital for small letter

14.5 % 14.1 % 10.7 % 10.5 % 6.6 % 5.9 % 2.9% 1.75% 1.6 % 1.1 %

Other types of errors:

a. Most frequent transpositions: r and t; v and b; n and m; a and s.
b. Common letter substitutions: m and n; e for i; d for s; d and k

c. One ending substituted for another: s for ed; tion for ing.

C. Direct the students in establishing a pattern of checking systematically for each kind of error:

1. Proofreading a letter: (Lloyd)
a. Stop after typing the complimentary closing so that, in case of poor placement, the final lines can be spaced far apart or close together to perfect the placement.

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Scrutinize the general placement of the letter, making a note of the best treatment of the remaining lines; but do not type them yet. (To do so might bring the paper hazardously close to the bottom of the sheet and make the process of making corrections more complicated.)
2. Check the "externals."
a. Glance up the right-hand margin, checking for word divisions, if any.
b. When the eyes reach the top of the page, check the date.
c. If there are dates mentioned in the letter, check them, especially in relation to the current date.
d. Check the spelling of the addressee's name, and check it again if it is used in the body of the letter.
e. Check the address, with special attention to the numbers and to the postal zone.
f. Check the appropriateness of the salutation.
g. Check the structural elements of the letter-the paragraph blocking or indenting, the placement of any subject or attention line, etc.
h. Read the message:
( 1) Read for meaning.
(2) Read, saying each word and each punctuation mark. Verify meanings and spellings. Make any corrections necessary.
D. When two persons work together in proofreading:
1. The typist should read the copy from which typing was done, reading in all punctuation, capitalization, etc., and spelling any unusual words.
2. The helper reads the typed copy. This is better because the typist may have misspelled words that he habitually misspells, and he will not see them as misspelled wordsthey look right to him. And it is always easier to find the errors that someone else has made than our own.
3. Numbers should be read in groups.
Til. Devices which may motivate improvement in proofreading:
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A. Require that all papers (except drill papers) be mailable copy. Charge no penalty for neat erasures and corrections; charge a heavy penalty for failure to erase and correct.
B. Approve and encourage cooperative work in proofreading.
C. (Lloyd) Duplicate several one-line sentences on a sheet of paper, with errors in each line. See how many strikeovers you can spot in 15 seconds. Or how many spacing-after-punctuation errors you can detect in 30 seconds. Two minutes a week devoted to such an exercise will keep proofreading fresh in students' minds-and simultaneously will provide a review of technical typing rules.
D. Give students a duplicated letter in which there are errors. How many can they find in one minute?
E. (Lloyd) Post on bulletin board examples of actual letters containing uncorrected errors, with a card caption, "Can You Spot the Error?"
F. (Lloyd) Post actual letters with erasures, with "How Many Erasures Are On This Letter?" (lllustrate excellent corrections as motivation for your students.)
G. (Lloyd) Post clippings of newspapers and magazines having errors. Caption: "What is Wrong?"
H. Encourage students to bring and post exhibits.
Bl BLIOGRAPHY-PROOFREADING Brendel, LeRoy A., "Yes, They Proofread, If-," Journal of Business Educa-
tion, 29 (March, 1954), 241-43; 29 (April, 1954), 295-97. Commentary on "Let's Make Proofreading Affirmative," Business Education
World, Foster, William R., 30 (April, 1950), 383-84; Willins. Stella, 30 (May, 1950), 451-52; Anderson, Ruth 1., and Samuel J. Wanous, 30 (May, 1950), 452; Hossfi.eld, George L., 30 (May, 1950), 452-53. Henning, Virginia D., "A Lesson on Proofreading," UBEA Forum, 5 (October, 1950), 28-29. Lloyd, Alan C., "Let's Make Proofreading Affirmative," Business Education World, 30 (March, 1950), 335-37. Watkins, Grace V., "Proofreading Can Be an Adventure," Journal of Business Education, 25 (April, 1950), 19-20.
ERASING
When should erasing be taught? This is a question in the minds of many typewriting teachers.
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At first, the use of the eraser was avoided. Then, at the other extreme were those who believed that an eraser should be used with complete freedom from the very first day of instruction.
Since some students may be able to take only one semester of typewriting, erasing should be introduced during the latter part of the first semester. Probably the best time to present erasing is when students first apply their skill to problem typewriting or shortly thereafter; this will be near the end of the first semester.
Erasing is important; it is a skill that must be taught. Teachers must demonstrate. From the beginning they must insist that erasures be done skillfully and rapidly. Students must be taught that poor erasures are just as undesirable as typographical errors. A good erasing technique is a tool that every typist must have.
In addition to the textbooks, there are many articles and books that can be used to teach erasing. All the instruction cannot be done in one day, one week, or one month. Erasing has to be taught and retaught. Doris N. Phelan has an excellent article in the Journal of Business Education, October, 1957, entitled "Do You Teach Erasing?" Eleanor Skimin also has an excellent article in the Business Education World, March, 1946, entitled "Correcting Typewritten Copy."
Rahe1 reminds teachers that not all errors are erased and corrected. If the purpose of a particular exercise is the improvement of technique, time is not wasted erasing errors; but if the purpose is the production of mailable or usable typescripts, errors are neatly erased and corrected. The correction of carbon copies, as well as original copies, is included in this phase of instruction.
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING ERASING
In Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting, pp. 213-220, Blackstone gives a lesson plan for teaching erasing. The following points should be emphasized in teaching erasing:
1. Have students place their erasers and erasing shields in the same location on their desks.
2. Insist that students move the carriage either to the extreme right or left when erasing.
3. Soft Eraser. Usually red. Use on cheaper grades of paper, carbon copies, and thin paper.
lHarves Rahe, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (December, 1953), 49-57.
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4. Platen or Cylinder. If the erasure is near the top of the paper, the platen should be turned forward, so that the erasure can be made easily. If the erasure is near the bottom of the paper, the paper should be turned backward.
5. Hard Eraser. White eraser, containing grit. Use for heavy bond paper.
6. Movement. Stroking action, directed away from the machine. Should not be too vigorous.
7. Related Exercises. a. Use of erasing shields b. Correction after paper has been removed from machine c. Spreading and crowding d. Erasing on carbon copies
BIBLIOGRAPHY-ERASING Cain, M., "Why Do We Avoid the Teaching of Erasing?" Business Education
World, 37 (September, 1956), 25.
Hofer, J. P., "A Dissertation on Erasing," Business Education World, 30 (February, 1950), 302.
Humphrey, Katherine, "Let's Use More Erasure Tests," Business Education Forum, 12 (May, 1958), 25-26.
Karnau, Bill, "Teach Erasing-But Not Too Soon," Typewriting News, 24 (1954), 6.
Lockwood, Julia, "The Art of Erasing," Journal of Business Education, 30 (December, 1954), 131-32.
Neher, Martha E., "To Erase or Not to Erase?" Balance Sheet, 30 (April, 1949), 363.
Norton, Viola A., "Erasing in Typewriting, "Typewriting News, 26 (1956), 2.
Phelan, Doris N., "Do You Teach Erasing?" Journal of Business Education, 33 (October, 1957), 32-36.
Ristau, Robert A., "Practical Erasing-Do We Really Teach It?" Balance Sheet, 38 (October, 1956), 59-60.
Rowe, John L., "A Symposium: When and to What Extent Should Erasing Be Taught and Practiced in Typewriting Instruction?" UBEA Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 9-12.
Shostak, Rosalyn, "Erasing-A Verbatim Script," Business Education World, 33 (May, 1953), 443-44.
Walradth, Berl E., "An Experimental Study of the Use of the Eraser in Beginning Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 23 (October, 1954), 97.
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INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Individual differences are usually quantitative; that is, there are differences in the degree or amount of the same thing. The implication of the above statement for typewriting teachers is that each student has the same kind of capacities and traits as other students, but the speed and manner of learning will vary greatly within any group. Because there are many distinct capacities and because some of them may be weak and others strong, typewriting teachers must be able to recognize the strength of different capacities in their students.
Teachers must know students in order to understand them. When teachers have large groups of students, it may be difficult for them to take the time to study individual needs. However, this is necessary if teaching is to be effective. Some of the differences in individuals may be due to emotional make-up, physical features, speed of learning, and manner of learning.
Stroop1 believes that typewriting teachers must do three things in order to take care of individual differences in the classroom:
1. Recognize the various types of individuals who make up the class.
2. Must know when to ignore the group in order to help an individual.
3. Must be master of a variety of teaching techniques so that he will always have an alternate plan by which to teach those whom the first plan fails to reach.
Methods must provide for the difference between the fast and slow typists in the class. Therefore, lessons must be planned to take care of these differences.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Becker, Herbert, "Teaching Typewriting to the Slow Learner," UBEA
Forum, 6 (February, 1952), 26.
Blume, Robert, "Individual Differences in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 6 (May, 1952), 28.
Feather, I. James R., "Meeting Individual Differences in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 34 (December, 1958), 125-26.
Harrer, Alice, "Meeting Individual Differences in the Typewriting Class," UBEA Forum, 6 (November, 1951), 9-11.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Providing for Individual Needs in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 33 (December, 1951), 148-50.
!Christine Stroop, "Individual Differences in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, January, 1952.
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Lloyd, Alan C., "What to Do With Gifted Students in Typewriting," Business Teacher, 35 (April, 1958), 10.
Plymire, Boyd G., "Integrating Slower and Faster Beginning Typists," Journal of Business Education, 33 (May, 1958), 350.
Reid, Jayne, "Recipe for Teaching Slow Learners to Type," Business Education World, 38 (January, 1958), 24-25.
Roderiquez, Adrienne, "Is There a Place for the Slow Learner in Typewriting?" UBEA Forum, 6 (November, 1951), 14-15.
Seger, Anne, "Differences in a Beginning Typewriting Class," Journal of Business Education, (January, 1954).
Silverthorn, J. E. and Others, "Providing for the Fast Learner in Typewriting," American Business Education, (May, 1958), 248-51.
Stroop, Christine, "Individual Differences in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, (January, 1952).
BIBLIOGRAPHY-METHODOLOGY
Anderson, Ruth I., "A Good Lesson in a Skill Subject," Business Teacher, 27 (September-October, 1949), 24-25.
Barrord, Sara L., "How I Teach the Ribbon Change," Business Education World, 34 (November, 1953), 25.
Blackstone, E. G., "Better Ways to Practice Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 5 (November, 1950), 12-13.
Borland, Helen B., "Saving Time-For What?" Journal of Business Education, 28 (December, 1952), 108-10.
Bruno, Ralph E., "Developing Typewriting Confidence," Business Education Forum, 10 (October, 1955), 23-24.
Clevenger, Earl, "Directing Learning Drives in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 25 (May, 1950), 13-14.
Colvin, J., "Typewriting and the Fundamental Processes," American Business Education, 14 (October, 1957), 45-51.
Crawford, T. James, "Lesson Planning for Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 9 (January, 1955), 14-16.
- - - - , '"Teaching Advanced Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (May, 1956), 239-40.
Ellison, Nellie Hope, "Self-Improvement for Typewriting Students," Journal of Business Education, 29 (March, 1954), 239-40.
Erickson, L. W., "Improvement of Typewriting Instruction," Business Education Forum, 13 (December, 1958), 22-23.
- - - - . , "Some Confusions in the Teaching of Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 5-6.
----.,"The Teaching of Typing," Balance Sheet, 30 (December, 1948), 162-64.
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- - - - , "Typewriting Instruction," Business Education Forum, 11 (May, 1957), 14-17.
Flood, Kathleen, "Relaxation in Typewriting Classes," UBEA Forum, 6 (December, 1951), 26.
Gran, James R., "Eleven Recommendations for Improving Typewriting Instruction," Balance Sheet, 38 (November, 1956), 117-18.
Grossman, Jack, "Lesson Planning for the Typewriting Class," Typewriting News, 23 ( 1953), 1-2.
Henderson, K. B., "Teaching Problem-Solving Skills," Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 13-15.
Hossfield, George, "How to Improve Teaching of Typing," Journal of Business Education, 24 (November, 1948), 25-28.
Jackson, Mary Frances, "Incentives to Improvement in Learning to Typewrite," Typewriting News, 21 (Spring), 3.
Jellinek and Others, "Trends in Typing Instruction," American Business Education, 7 (March, 1951), 151-60.
Kensy, Louise, "Typing Budgets Aren't Adequate," Business Education World, 28 (September, 1947), 21-22.
Kevin, Sister Mary, Patricia Brock, and Sister Rosaine, "Teaching Tips on Typewriting," American Business Education, 13 (December, 1956), 120-21.
Klein, A. E., "Fallacies in Teaching Typewriting," Business Education World, 32 (October, 1951), 70-72; 32 (November, 1951), 135; 32 (December, 1951), 184; 32 (January, 1952), 230-32; 32 (February, 1952), 291; 32 (March, 1952), 330-31.
Krause, Ruthetta, "Ten Ways to Add Zip to Your Typing Methods Class," Business Education World, 38 (May, 1958), 16-17.
Lennon, Mary R., and Adrienne S. Rodriguez, "Can You Type the Way You've Been Teaching Your Students to Type?" Business Education World, 31 (April, 1951), 403-404.
Leslie, Louis A., and Philip S. Pepe, "New Discoveries in the Teaching of Typing-Simplification of the Learning of Typing By Changes in the Order of Presentation," Journal of Business Education, 27 (November, 1951), 114-16; 27 (October, 1951), 55-56; 27 (December, 1951), 153154; 27 (January, 1952), 194-196; 27 (February, 1952), 243-244.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Purposeful Practice in Typewriting," Modern Business Education, 15 (November, 1948), 6.
Lifton, Marks, "The Teacher's Work in the Typewriting Classroom," Typewriting News, 22 (1952), 8.
Lloyd, Alan C., "Practice in Pretranscription Typing," Business Education World, 29 (December, 1948), 226-29.
- - - - , "Saving Time in Your Typing Classroom," Business Education World, 35 (May, 1955), 22-24.
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- - - - , "Your Work Up Front in Your Typing Classroom," Business

Education World, 35 (March, 1955), 18-20.



Maxwell, N. C., "Technical Lesson Plan for the Manual Typewriter," Journal of Business Education, 29 (November, 1953), 262-64.

McConnell, Helen, "The Pretranscription Responsibility of the Teacher of Typewriting," Business Education World, 30 (January, 1950), 243-44.
McDonald, F. J., "Typewriting Methodology," Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 10-12.
Moore, Mary Virginia, "Know, Talk, or Do?" Business Education Forum, 11 (October, 1956), 19-21.

Morgan, Odus L., "Typing Tips to Typing Teachers," Typewriting News, 27 (1957),4.

Pellett, E. A., "Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 16-18.
Popham, Estelle, "Is There Such a Thing as Method in Typewriting?" UBEA Forum, 5 (November, 1958), 21-23.

Przychodzin, J., "Supervising the Typewriting Class,"Journal of Business Education, 33 (February, 1958), 201-202.
Rowe, John L., "The Theory of Three," UBEA Forum, 1 (May, 1947), 10.
Satlow, I. D., and I. Raskin, "Supervisor Views Lesson Planning," Business Education World, 28 (June, 1948), 596-601.
Smith, Harold H., "Teaching Methods in Typewriting," Business Education World, 27 (January, 1947), 276-77; 27 (February, 1947), 320-22; 27 (March, 1947), 404-405.
Stevens, Catharine, "Results-No Fooling! From More Purposeful Typewriting Practice," Balance Sheet, 30 (February, 1949), 249-50.
Swinson, Myrtis, "Teaching Tips for Teachers," American Business Education, 7 (December, 1950), 134.
Whelan, J., "Twenty Do's for Typing Teachers," Journal of Business Education, 34 (October, 1958), 29-30.
Whitmer, Carroll A., "The Lesson Plan," Business Education World, 27 (March, 1947), 384-87.
Winger, Fred, "Pretranscription Training in Typewriting," American Business Education, 15 (October, 1958), 54-55.
- - - - , ''Typing Therapy-Fighting Distractions," Today's Secretary, 59 (June, 1957), 22-23.
---,"Typing Therapy," Today's Secretary, 59 (October, 1956), 16-17; 59 (December, 1956), 12-13.

Wood, Marion, "When Beginning and Advanced Typewriting Students Are Placed in the Same Class," UBEA Forum, 2 (December, 1947), 17.
Woodward, Theodore, "Teaching Tips for Teachers," American Business Education, 7 (March, 1951), 220; 8 (December, 1951), 152-54.

Young, J. H., "Teaching Tips for Teachers," American Business Education, 4 (May, 1948), 312.

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PRODUCTION TYPEWRITING
What Is Production Typewriting? Production typewriting is more than just having students type letters and tabulated materials from models; it is the application of basic skill to practical typewriting problems, and it also involves the ability to plan and organize materials, good vocabulary, knowledge of placement, power of concentration, and speed and accuracy in typewriting. The ultimate goal is the development of sustained production skill.
Production typewriting skill is a continuation of basic skill practice and not something separate or distinct; it is achieved by a sequence of growth. Therefore, a lesson plan providing for a well-rounded practice program is essential; the plan must also provide for the continuous development of good technique and manipulative skills previously attained, the development of production typewriting skill, and the development of habits, concepts, and understandings. To achieve high production rates, good teaching is needed.
Crawford1 stresses the importance of production typewriting skill by saying:
It is in the problem typewriting section of the lesson that teachers discover the real strength of their students and that it is the ability of a student to apply his speed and "know how" to problem solving that determines his real worth.
When Should Production Typewriting Begin? Wanous2 answers this question by saying that "the purposes of students will, in large measure, determine when production copy is to be introduced during the first semester. If the majority of the students do not plan to continue with a second semester of typewriting, then it is necessary to introduce production work relatively early."
In general, however, he believes that "best results seem to come when students are introduced to office-type work after they have acquired the basic technique of typewriting. If they are given production units before they have acquired basic techniques, earlier gains in technique development are largely dissipated, and letters and other papers turned out fall below acceptable standards."3
lT. James Crawford, "Lesson Planning for Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 9 (January, 1955), 14-16.
25, J. Wanous, "How to Get Better Results on Production Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1959), 13-15.
awanous, loc. cit.
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Guiding Principles for Developing Problem Solving Abilities
1. Problem typewriting experiences must consist of a great deal more than routine copying. Prime objective of all problem instruction should be to produce typists capable of working without constant direction and supervision. Specific training, therefore, must be provided in techniques and procedures for identifying and defining the exact nature of problems encountered as well as for selecting appropriate methods of attack for effecting their solution.
2. Problem typewriting should include much repetitive practice Ability in solving problems at the typewriter is accelerated through repetitious performance just as stroking power is enhanced through repeated writings. Repetitive practice in problem typewriting should include all activities related to the completion of the jobs concerned rather than just the keystroking activities involved, for strength in the nontyping as well as the typing phases of problem solving is essential if maximum development is to be realized.
3. Problems assigned should be completed under the pressure of time. Amount of pressure exerted should be in increasing amounts from the beginning through the advanced courses and should vary within the problem cycle. It is imperative that typists be required to attack and complete their problems under the influence of time limitations. Generally, the real strengths or serious weaknesses of typists are more accurately determined under timed conditions than through leisurely, untimed experiences. Strong, capable typists have learned how to solve problems in minimum time; and application of time restrictions promoted problem typewriting efficiency by demanding immediate results. Typists trained to produce under the pressure of time have little difficulty adjusting to less demanding situations. Requiring performance within specified time limits, therefore, is excellent training for all types of later experiences.
4. Measure of problem typewriting should require total performance. All activities involved in completing problems should be included in problem testing. These activities include:
a. Handling directions b. Organizing materials
c. Adjusting equipment d. Making computations e. Proofreading f. Making corrections
4T. James Crawford, "Problem Solving-Typewriting's Third Dimension,"Business Education Forum, 11 (April, 1957), 20-22.
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Experience has shown that problem typewriting ability is often influenced more by the related, nontyping activities than by the actual stroking strength of a typist.
Characteristics of a Production Typist5
1. Emotional Stability. Students must acquire self-control that will practically eliminate periods of emotional instability. Students should be taught early to do many kinds of work under pressure, and this training should continue to the end of the typing course.
2. Fast and Accurate Work. Determine the pace as a production typist. This is done by setting up time and accuracy goals that are easy and attainable in every type of activity. When the goal is attained, a new goal should be set. The normal pace as a production typist is based upon the latest attained goal. A production typist must be willing to work faster than this normal pace when emergencies arise and to keep at it until the job is finished.
3. Endurance. Perhaps the most difficult adjustment to make in the transition from the classroom to the business office is that of working continuously for a full business day. The learning situation should be arranged to provide for continuous application on specific tasks for full class periods.
4. Ability to Follow Instructions. Either oral or written.
5. Attention to Details. Students have a natural tendency to slight details. Teachers must stress the importance of attending carefully to every detail in every job, which involves such things as checking the spelling of names, titles of individuals, accuracy of figures, the number of enclosures, the number of envelopes addressed against the number of names.
6. Ability to Organize Materials. Before the work is begun, students should be taught to assemble and arrange everything that is needed. Students should plan their work so that every effort will contribute to production.
7. Proofreading. Production typists must proofread and correct all typing work so that it is 100 per cent correct.
8. Industriousness. Typists should keep busy. As soon as specific assignments are finished, related things should be done, which include rearranging working materials, sorting papers, filing, etc.
9. Resourcefulness. This includes starting to work without specific instructions, finding ways to save time on routine jobs,
5Esta Ross Stuart, "Production Typing Concepts," UBEA Forum, 4 (January, 1950), 27-28.
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and planning practice that will improve typewriting skill and output.
10. Dependability. Classroom activities should provide opportunity for self-directed activity. This activity should be well within the capacity of students, so that they can be held strictly to an exact accomplishment of it.
LESSON PLANNING
A lesson plan providing a well-rounded practice program is highly important to continuous, uninterrupted skill building. Wanous6 has this to say about the plan of daily assignments:
In the beginning of any unit, it is suggested that a daily assignment be made, preferably at intervals throughout the class period. This will assure closer teacher attention to the work of the student. The teacher must demonstrate, observe, suggest, and guide the learning of the students. The daily assignment is better adapted to this type of instruction.
Nothing is so deadly to the acquirement of good techniques in production work as the practice of giving students several days or several weeks to hand in production units-no emphasis being given to the way in which the job is done. This practicetype training does very little to develop desirable work habits. The teacher does not direct learning.
Because correcting students is more effective than correcting papers, it is advisable to do a minimum amount of paper marking and to devote the time and energy to more important classroom activities. The drill work that is used to build the basic techniques of production typing need not be submitted for grading purposes.
WORK HABITS
Students should develop good work habits. Materials arrangement is a good place to begin the process of improving production.
Wanous7 writes:
In production typing, "between-problem" time is of paramount importance. Arrangement of the work to be done so that a new problem begins as another ends is essential. Materials that are to be used for a problem or a group of similar problems should be arranged before the first problem is begun. A high production rate requires proper arrangement of work and materials.
swanous, Zoe. cit. TWanous,loc. cit.
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PLAN FOR DEVELOPING SUSTAINED PRODUCTION SKILL8
An outline of Robinson's 4-step plan for the development of sustained production skills is given below.
This plan is illustrated by the use of a single type problem-the letter. However, the same plan may be used for timing students on addressing envelopes, typing simple rough drafts, tabulated reports, stencils, fill-in work, etc.
1. Learning. Learn the nature of the problem; its form; its arrangement; and its special characteristics. Then, have students type a copy of the letter.
2. Skill Building. Purpose: To build good techniques and speed. a. Repetitive Practice. Have students proofread carefully the model letter typed in Step 1. Then have them type the letter again making the needed corrections.
b. Timed Practice on Opening Lines, Closing Lines, in Business Letters. Have students type a 1-minute writing on the opening parts of the model letter (the date line through the salutation) and determine the rate. Using this rate as a base, have them add four words to that rate and take another 1-minute writing trying to reach the new rate. Repeat this procedure for three or four 1-minute writings, each time conditioning the students to improve by showing them how to increase speed by more efficient operation of the carriage return, in spacing between letter parts, by more expert use of the tabulator bar or key, and by starting a new line more quickly after the carriage return or use of the tabulator. Similar drills should also be given on the difficult parts of other office forms.
c. Teacher and Time-Interval Pacing. Teacher and students type at a reasonable rate. Before they start typing, the teacher has the students mark certain points on their copy. When the teacher reaches these, she calls them out so that the students can compare their rates with the teacher's. After the teacher makes suggestions for improvement, the typing is repeated.
d. Timed Writing on the Whole Problem. Length of these writings may vary from three minutes for short letters in the beginning to 15 minutes on longer letters later in the skill-building program. The practice of giving 3-, 5-, 10-, and 15-minute timed writings on individual problems makes possible the comparison of problem-copy rates with straight-copy rates for the purpose of guiding the next practice and of conditioning the students to longer writings in preparation for sustained production work.
SJerry W. Robinson, "Building Problem and Sustained Production Skill," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1957), 14-15.
117

3. Measurement Review. Purpose: Build sustained production skill on familiar copy. Time students from 20 to 30 minutes as they type representative problems selected from those in the immediately preceding lesson. Emphasis is upon ( 1) careful following of directions, (2) efficient arrangement of working materials, (3) profitable use of between-problem time, and (4) rapid disposal of completed materials. These are the elements that most affect the sustained production rate of the student.
4. Measurement. Purpose: Determine the growth in typewriting power. To reflect real growth, the measurement must be of the performance on new, but similar problems for a sustained period of time from twenty to thirty minutes. Assign enough material so that the fastest typists will have enough work to keep them busy for the entire time allotted. On the basis of this performance, grades may be assigned.
Wanous9 suggests an additional exercise for developing sustained production skill:
Students set a straight-copy goal by typing from paragraph material for a short period of time. Then by seeing the relationships given between straight-copy speed and speed on other types of copy, the production standard can be set for each student. Comparison drills serve two purposes: ( 1) they motivate the learner through goal-setting and (2) they indicate to the teacher approximately when the alternative drives to improve straightcopy rates and production-copy rates should begin.
Production standards are usually expressed in terms of percentage of straight-copy rate. The production rate is found by dividing the straight-copy rate into the sustained production rate. Then, the student's straight-copy rate is compared with the rates given on page 122 by Wanous, Lessenberry, and Crawford.
SUSTAINED PRODUCTION TESTS
A sustained production test should include a score sheet, a direction sheet, and the problems to be typed.
On page 111 of the teacher's Manual for 20th Century Typewriting, Seventh Edition, Lessenberry, Crawford, and Erickson give an example of a score sheet. Other examples of score sheets are given on pages 116, 120, 125, 130, 132, 140, 144, 150, 160, 167, and 191 of the above Manual.
The appropriate score sheet should be duplicated and placed on each student's desk for each production test. The score sheets expedite paper
9Wanous, loc. cit.
118

handling, provide records of pupil progress, and make it possible for students to know their test results immediately.

Teachers may develop their own production tests. On pages 120-121 of this guide are three letters that may be used for a production test. Examples of sustained production tests may also be found in the teacher's Manual for 20th Century Typewriting, Seventh Edition, on the following pages:

Problems in typing business letters

pp. 111-114

Problems in typing business forms

116- 119

Problems in typing communications

120-124

Letters containing tabulations

125-128

Arranging letters on off-size stationery

130- 131

Tabulated reports

132- 136

Handling a large mailing list

137- 140

Letters with special features

144-145

Problem typing ability

150-154

Interoffice correspondence

Purchase order

NOMA simplified letter

Government correspondence

Tabulated report

Index cards

Envelopes

Problems in typing business letters

160- 164

Typing form letters and index cards

167- 168

Form paragraphs

169-175

Stenciling and form fill-in

178-179

Typing letters and an article of a constitution

191 -194

Typing interoffice correspondence and a

tabulated report

191- 194

Typing a letter and a tabulated list and

chain feeding envelopes

191- 194

DIRECTIONS
1. The object of your work will be to complete as many jobs as possible in the time allotted. To get credit for a job, it must be ready for use. Misinterpretation of directions, uncorrected errors, sloppy appearance, etc., will cause a problem to be rejected. Be certain that each job meets the requirements of the finished product.
119

2. Before leaving an assignment, proofread carefully and make sure it is ready for evaluation.
3. Move steadily from one assignment to the next. Utilize every minute.
4. Do not type the stroke numbers or the paragraph symbols.
5. Unless otherwise directed, prepare one carbon for each job assigned. File the carbons with the original copies when the jobs have been completed.
6. Work as rapidly as possible but do not rush; take time to discover what it is that is expected in each job. The finished product should be useable.
7. To aid in measuring your progress, check off the jobs completed as you work through each assignment. Be systematic in your work habits.
8. Type your name and the assignment number in the UPPER right hand corner of each page.
9. Place the score sheets and the completed problems in manila folders.
WORK RAPIDLY ...... DO YOUR BEST
(This direction sheet is given only as an example. Teachers should develop and duplicate their direction sheets)

EXAMPLE OF BUSINESS LETTERS FOR PRODUCTION TESTS

Letter _______Full Block _______Modified Block with Punctuation: ________Qpen

Style:

Indented Paragraphs

_______Modified Block _______Indented

________Mixed _______Close

1. (148 words)

Current Date

16

Mr. Robert M. Chase, 812 Dillon Building, Nashville, Tennessee

80

Dear Mr. Chase: I am answering your letter to our manager, Mr. Johnson, in 154

which you asked him whether he could talk to the meeting of your national

228

council, which will be held in Philadelphia on April 16. I am afraid that

302

Mr. Johnson will have to disappoint you. For the past several weeks, he

375

has been busy with the reorganization of a number of our plants in England; 451

consequently, he may have to sail for that country on a moment's notice.

524

(P) I think, though, that you might like to invite Mr. Frank Brown, who is

600

. director of public relations for our organization. If you will invite him,

676

I think he will be happy to accept. (P) If at any time I can help you in

751

any other way, I hope you will be sure to write me. Very truly yours,

822

Wyatt-Bigelow Company, Harry M. Kohler, President XXX

885

120

2. (ISS wordS)

Current Date

901

Mr. Charles F. Lane, 320 Randolp~ Street, Wilmington, Delaware

96S.

Dear Mr. Lane: As you requested m your letter of September s we are

1036

enclosing the pictures of our cabinets that you want. The factory has

1107

promised to let us have some pamphlets with pictures and descriptions of our 1184

various cabinets. As soon as these arrive, we will forward a number of them 1260

to you. (P) At the present time all we can send you is one model; that is, the 1339

No. 422. We have our order in for all the other models, which should arrive 1416

shortly. Why not place your order with us now so that we shall have it on 1491

file as soon as our shipment arrives. (P) I still recall the pleasure of my

1567

visit with you about ten years ago. At that time I was representing the Acme 1643

Lumber Company, which has recently been taken over by our organization. Very 1723

truly yours, Rand & Company, Eugene B. Stauber, Sales Manager XXX Enclosures 1808

3. (143 words)

Current Date

1824

Mr. William 0. Jackson, 804 Lexington Avenue, Richmond, Virginia

1890

Dear Mr. Jackson: Enclosed is a copy of our new booklet, Guide to Reading. 1983

You will see that we have not only listed the finest periodicals for children 2061

but that we have also classified them according to the fields of interest

213S

that they serve. (P) The prices listed in the Guide to Reading are for one-

2211

year subscriptions. From this price you may deduct a discount of 25 per cent. 2304

We can serve you quickly and efficiently. (P) The prices we have listed are, 2381

of course, subject to change without notice. Because of the possibility that

2459

these prices might rise in the near future, we strongly advise you to place

253S

your order now while these low, economical prices are still in effect. Very 2613

truly yours, Howard Printing Company, Carl T. McLendon, Vice-President XXX 2696

PRODUCTION STANDARDS AND GRADING
Grading. Wanous10 has made the following suggestions about grading sustained production work.
It is suggested that only the timed writings that are given on production copy after a student has had an opportunity to acquire production skill be graded. There is little value in grading production tests that are given to develop skill. . . . A few carefully checked papers are of much greater value than a host of others that are given a hasty "once-over." It is suggested that this careful checking be done by the teacher.
On page 8 of the teacher's Manual for 20th Century Typewriting, Seventh Edition, is a grading scale for sustained production tests.
Standards. More than ever before, business is demanding more speed and greater output from office workers. Therefore, students must realize the importance of acceptable production standards. Jessa11 thinks that when the standard is definite and the outcome reasonable and measurable, the student accepts some responsibility for his own improvement and has more of a desire and determination to succeed.

lOWanous, loc. cit. 11Marie Jessa, "Devices for Developing Production Power in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 8 (May, 1954), 30-31.
121

Liguoriu says that "typewriting teachers can help students meet rigid employment standards by becoming more typewriting production conscious."
Wanous13 in his article, "How to Get Better Results on Production Typewriting," says that when typing teachers give their students timed writings on production copy, they get a shock. Students who do 60 or more words on straight copy fall below the 20's when typing letters, tables, and manuscripts. He believes that rates under 20 on officetype work are shockingly and inexcusably low.
Wanous14 gives the following production standards: Percentagewise, it is reasonable to expect students to attain the following rates of production in terms of their straight-copy rates: letters 75 per cent; tabulations 40 per cent; rough drafts, 50 to 60 per cent; manuscripts and statistical copy, 75 per cent. Students who can type 60 words a minute from straight copy should be able to type letters at 45 words a minute; rough drafts at 30 to 35 words a minute; tabulations at 25 words a minute; and manuscripts and corrected copy containing words and figures at 45 words per minute.
Lessenberry and Crawford15 suggest the following standards: 75 per cent of nwpm when typing- business letters 50 per cent of nwpm when typing- envelopes 40 per cent of nwpm when typing - simple rough drafts
25-40 per cent of nwpm when typing- simple tabulated reports 50 per cent of nwpm when typing- stencils
60-75 per cent of nwpm when typing- manuscripts without footnotes
40-50 per cent of nwpm when typing- manuscripts with footnotes
These rates can be achieved only after the students have had the benefit of good instruction on production typewriting.
Business standards vary during different economic periods and between firms. Therefore any production schedule can be used only as a general guide rather than as a hard and fast rule of achievement to be met by all office typists.
Some typical production standards deemed desirable by businessmen and educators are: 16
1eFrank E. Liguori, "What About Typewriting Production?" UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 23-25.
1aWanous, loc. cit.
HWanous, loc. cit.
15D. D. Lessenberry and T. James Crawford, 20th Century Typewriting Manual, Fifth Edition (Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Co., 1947), p. 35.
1sD. J. Mu!kerne, "Levels and Competencies in Typewriting," American Business Education Yearbook. Vol. XIII (1956), pp. 67-68.
122

Typing Task 1. Form letters and envelopes

Hourly Production Rate
10

2. Addressing envelopes - 3 line

150-225

3. Addressing envelopes -Chain fed

200

4. Fill-ins - name, street, address,

100-220

city, salutation

5. Salutation only

225

6. Business letters - 20-line body

10

with envelope

7. Stencils- 8Y2 x 10 having 200 words 4-6

8. Articles

8-10 pages

9. Straight Copy - 60 space line, double 100 lines

10. Ediphone and Dictaphone

124 lines or 1~

cylinders

11. Printed copy

200 lines

12. Transcribing stenographic notes

125 lines

13. Addresses or labels from printed copy 141

14. Ledger sheets

111

BIBLIOGRAPHY-PRODUCTION TYPEWRITING
Ahlering, Inez, "Students Like Production Work," Balance Sheet, 32 (May, 1951)' 392-93.
Bendixen, Ethel T., "Building Typing Production," Typewriting News, 21 (Spring), 1-2.
Brady, Mary Margaret, "Teaching Office Typing-Preparation for Duplication," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 79-83.
Brown, James G., "Teaching Office Typing-Recordative Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 73-75.
Butler, Elizabeth V., "Statistical Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (May, 1948), 10-12.
Canfield, Mary, "Production Typewriting Must Be Taught, Too," Business Education Forum, 11 (March, 1957), 26-27.
Connelly, Mary E., "Developing Production Output in Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 15-18.
Crawford, T. James, "Problem Solving-Typewriting's Third Dimension," Business Education Forum, 11 (April, 1957), 20-22.
Crawford, T. James, "The Effect of Emphasizing Production Typewriting Contrasted with Speed Typewriting in Developing Production Typewriting Ability," Journal of Business Education, 33 (January, 1958), 175.
Darst, Marion, "Problem Typing-for Thinking Typists," Business Education World 29 (May, 1949), 557-58.
Giordano, AI, "Problem-Solving Typewriting Rates vs. Straight-Copy Rates," Balance Sheet, 40 (September, 1958), 14-16.
Hatfield, E. E., "Teaching Office Typing-Multiple Copy Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 83.

123

Holland, Frances L., "Teaching Office Typing-Statistical Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 70-73.
Huffman, Harry, "Procedures and Techniques for Developing Statistical Skill in Advanced Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 2 (November, 1947), 25-28.
Humphrey, Katherine, "Handicap-Hurdles for Production," Business Education World, 27 (March, 1947), 393-97; 27 (May, 1947), 511-14.
Jessa, Marie, "Devices for Developing Production Power in Typewriting, UBEA Forum, 8 (May, 1956), 30-31.
Kelleher, Mary, Isabelle Krey, Anne Pezzuti, Harriett Rockefeller, and Mary Tomaine, "Production Rates in Typing Business Letters," Journal of Business Education, 23 (November, 1947), 23-24.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Basic Skill for Production Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 9-12.
Liguori, Frank E., "What About Typewriting Production?" UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 23-25.
Lloyd, Alan C., "How to Achieve Business Production Rates in Advanced Typing," American Business Education, 5 (October, 1948), 39-43.
----,"How to Make a Letter Distinctive," Today's Secretary, 58 (September, 1955), 24-25.
----,"Tabulations Are Really Easy," Today's Secretary, 58 (November, 1955), 26-27.
Lockwood, Julia, "Let's Vitalize Production," Business Education World, 35 (March, 1955), 26-28.
Martin, George E., "Production Rates for Problem Typewriting,'' Business Education Forum, 10 (February, 1956), 22-23.
Nicks, Earl G., and Robert J. Ruegg, "Bridging the Gap to Tabulation,'' Business Education World, 36 (March, 1956), 30-31.
Noyes, Honora M., "How Can We Build Production Skill in Advanced Typewriting Classes?" Balance Sheet, 31 (April, 1950), 348-51.
Oerlein, Helen B., "Typing Production and Job Competency," American Business Education, 14 (December, 1957), 101-104.
Reynolds, Helen, and Anthony Lanza, "Materials Arrangement for Improved Production in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (January, 1950), 15-18.
Robinson, Jerry W., "Building Problem and Sustained Production Skills," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 14-15.
Steinberg, Harlene, "Increasing Tabulation Production in Advanced Typing Classes," Balance Sheet, 40 (November, 1958), 132.
Stuart, Esta Ross, "Production Typing Concepts," UBEA Forum, 4 (January, 1950), 27-28.
Thompson, James M., "How Long Should It Take to Set Up and Then Type a Tabulation?" Business Teacher, 33 (February, 1956), 6.
Wanous, S. J., "How to Get Better Results on Production Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 13-15.
Wayner, Sister M. Alexius, "Teaching Office Typing-Forms and Fill-In Typing," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 77-79.
124

EVALUATION
DEFINITION
"Evaluation," as it is discussed in this presentation, must be clarified. The words "evaluation" and "grading" are frequently used synonymously. Lamb1 distinguishes them in this manner:
Evaluation is the rating of the student on all the objectives established for the typing course, which would, of course, include objectives related to the development of certain attitudes and personal qualities. Grading is used to denote the determination of the percentage or letter grade given to the student according to a definite and acceptable plan!
Characteristics of Evaluation2
1. Evaluation should be comprehensive and concerned with all aspects of the growth of the student.
2. Evaluation should be a continuous process. It should extend from the beginning to the end of the course and should not be done only at specific grading periods.
3. Evaluation should be a co-operative enterprise, participated in by students and teachers. More growth will take place if students participate in setting up objectives so they may know the goals toward which they are working.
4. Evaluation should emphasize growth and be concerned primarily with appraising the progress of the student in terms of his own development.
Use of Evaluation in Improving Instruction3
1. It focuses attention on the difficulties and successes of the learner and enables the teachers to see possible ways of meeting student needs.
2. It provides a means for identifying and analyzing learning difficulties of individuals and of groups.
3. It places major emphasis on students rather than on subject matter.
4. It requires interpretation of the evidence collected.
!Marion M. Lamb, Your First Year of Teaching Typewriting (Cincinnati: SouthWestern Publishing Company, 1945), p. 103.
2Adapted from Harry Smallenburg, "Evaluating Pupil Progress," Educational Leadership, (April, 1945), 291-92.
BClyde W. Humphrey and Marion Lamb, "Evaluating Pupil Progress," Appraising Business Education, Third Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and The Eastern Business Teachers Association (Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1946), pp. 321-22.
125

TESTING
Testing is one method of evaluating achievement. It is the most common procedure for determining whether or not the teacher's responsibility has been fulfilled and the student's achievement has been satisfactory.
Testing Serves Several Purposes4
1. To motivate students 2. To obtain data for use in analyzing student difficulties 3. To determine the extent to which students meet occupational
standards 4. To determine grades for administrative purposes
Types of Tests
Each test has its place, but one type should not be used exclusively. Comprehensive testing requires the use of many different kinds of tests. The best test to use is the one that proves most helpful in realizing a particular purpose.
1. Straight-Copy or Timed Writings
Timed writings are a means of determining students' sustained rate of writing under test conditions. Timed writings have their place in typewriting instruction, but modern classroom technique does not depend on straight-copy tests as the only way of measuring achievement. If they are used with discrimination at proper intervals, students will benefit from them.
2. Objective Tests
The term as used has more to do with the method of scoring than the form of question. An answer to an objective question will always be right or wrong.
Objective tests should be constructed, used, and scored carefully. The course objectives should determine the content of the tests. These tests may include several types of questions; for example, true-false, completion, multiple-choice, matching, and identification.
Examples of objective tests can be found in Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting by Blackstone and Smith, pages 31524.
4Harves Rahe, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (Winter, 1953), 56.
126

3. Production Tests
Production tests me~~ure progress in copying facility, knowledge of correct typewntmg form, and application of typewriting to problem situations.
Evaluation of Typing Tests
To determine the value of a given test, Blackstone5 suggests the following considerations:
1. Whether or not the test measures what it purports to measure. 2. Reliability, that is, the probability that a student's score on
taking the test at a given time will be similar to his score if he takes it at another time. 3. Ease of administration. 4. Ease of scoring. 5. Objectivity of scoring. 6. Price. 7. Ease of interpretation of test results, through provtston of norms, standards, probable errors, and/or percentiles.
Prepared Tests
Prepared tests enable teachers to receive norms by which each school may judge its product in relation to the products of other schools.
1. National Business Entrance Tests
These tests are production tests and not simply speed-spurt tests. They are a reliable basis for measurement of the students' employability and the effectiveness of the curriculum content and teaching.
Two series are available-the General Testing Series intended for both school and office use scored by the examiner; and the Official Testing Series administered at National Business Entrance Testing Centers.
Five subject classifications, used to measure production ability, are included in both series. They are: Stenography, bookkeeping, office clerical, typewriting, and machine calculation.
National Business Entrance Tests are sponsored by and available from United Business Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington 6, D. C.
5E, G. Blackstone and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), pp. 314-15.
127

2. Students Typewriting Tests
A revision of the Students Typewriting Tests has been completed and Volume XIV is now in print. The tests are end-ofsemester examinations to be used for each of the four semesters of a two-year course. Designed for use with any textbook, they combine rough draft, straight copy, business letters, reports, and other production jobs.
These tests can be secured from United Business Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington 6, D. C.
3. Additional Sources of Published Tests
Teachers interested in practical measurement of student competence in typewriting at the various levels are urged to study published typing tests. You can secure information on available tests from:
a. Publishers of typewriting textbooks.
b. Science Research Associates, Inc. 57 West Grand Avenue Chicago, lllinois ( 1) SRA Typing Adaptability Test (2) SRA Typing Skills Test
c. Psychometric Techniques Associates 413 Morewood Avenue Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania The Tapping Test has been designed to predict success in typing and other keyboard operations.
d. World Book Company 441 West Peachtree Street, N. E. Atlanta 8, Georgia Thurstone Employment Test: Examination in Typing
e. The H. M. Rowe Company Baltimore 17, Maryland Typewriting Technique Test is among a variety of materials for testing and measurement.
f. Public School Publishing Company 345 Calhoun Street Cincinnati 19, Ohio Commercial Education Survey Tests, Junior and Senior Typewriting by Jane E. Clem.
128

GRADING
Grading measures achievement. Referring again to Lamb's~ definition, grading is used to denote the determination of the percentage or letter grade given to the student according to a definite and acceptable plan. It should be a fair, impersonal, and objective evaluation of the achievement of the student for the piece of work or for an entire grading period.
Grades are used for many purposes1
1. Administrative a. Promotions or demotions b. Grouping students
2. Incentives 3. Academic honors 4. Entrance into honor societies 5. Exemptions from tests 6. Eligiblity to student activities 7. Reports to parents 8. Placement of students in jobs 9. Entrance qualifications into colleges
Grading Plans
Grading plans are usually spelled out in the teacher's manual, which accompanies the typewriting textbook. These plans should be carefully studied and used. The grading scale in the manual can be modified to meet the needs of the particular school.
1. Point Systems
Many components are included in a grade. For that reason, some teachers have found the point system a satisfactory method of grading. Points are assigned for all the elements that comprise the grade. At the end of the grading period, the cumulative points are added and the grades are assigned.
2. Speed-Improvement Plan or Control-Improvement Plan9
The speed-improvement grade is computed by averaging the three best writings of one week and comparing this average with
aLamb, loc. cit. 7Blackstone and Smith, op. cit., p. 278. SHerbert A. Tonne, Estelle L. Popham, and M. Herbert Freeman, Methods of Teaching Business Subjects (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1947), p. 44. Dfbid., p. 132.
129

the previous week's average. The number of words improved is put in rank order for each member of the class. The median improvement is located, and grades are assigned approximating the normal curve of distribution.
For control-improvement grades, the decrease in errors is compared the same way.
These improvement grades are extremely encouraging to the low-ability students in the class. They are given a good opportunity to obtain a high weekly grade. These grades also stimulate the superior students to greater effort.
3. Relative-Standing Plan or Normal-Curve Plan1<>
The procedure in this plan is based on the idea that grades shall depend upon the student's rank in class.
List and grade separately all the different elements necessary. The list might include the following: accuracy, speed, technique, production exercises, ability to operate the parts of machine, arrangement of materials, traits, and term tests. According to the judgment of the teacher, a weight may be assigned each activity. The grades under each element will be added, averaged, and the average multiplied by the weight. The weighted averages should be added, and final grades may be determined by the use of the normal frequency curve.
This procedure prevents a few elements from dominating the grade and permits the teacher to point out to any student the elements in which he is strong or weak.
4. Normal-Curve Plan11
The normal-curve plan is one by which each student's grade is determined by comparing his performance with that of his classmates.
Two disadvantages of this plan are:
1. You need a group of students who have had the same chance to learn whatever is being graded.
2. Students' scores must be converted to grades by a laborious statistical procedure.
!<>Blackstone and Smith, op. cit., p. 236. 11Alan C. Lloyd, "The Paper Work in Your Typing Classroom," Business Education World, 35 (April, 1955), 20-22.
130

Lloyd believes that where classes are uniform and include 15 or more students (the case in most high schools), the NormalCurve Approach is not only the superior one but also the only fair one.
5. Budget Plan
Blackstone'" reports: "It is probable that all the values claimed for the budget system may be as well or better attained in a plan where the teacher is constantly active in instructional work, and where there is variety, change, and periods of relaxation in the typing class. Allowing students to type budgets without pressure for speed, at rates far below their possible speeds, ..., is a highly doubtful method of teaching typewriting."
6. Accuracy Plan13
Use 100 per cent as the highest grade obtainable for accuracy. Subtract from one hundred the total for the errors made. The score for each student would be arranged from the highest to the lowest and graded according to a plan of distribution, or whatever method the teacher uses.
Timed Writings (Straight Copy)
To get maximum value from timed writings, Guthrie14 believes that any reference to the word "test" should be avoided and that there should be a definite objective for each writing. Objectives for the writing may be:
1. To compare the results with the speed and accuracy figures of a previous timed writing.
2. To compare straight-copy rates with production typing rates.
3. To encourage the student to type continuously for a definite period of time.
4. To increase speed or accuracy by discussing the purpose of the timed writing before it is typed.
5. To establish individual goals toward which each student should work.
12BJackstone and Smith, op. cit., p. 295. 13Winnie A. Stratton, "The Weighting of Typewriting Errors," National Business Education Quarterly, 17 (October, 1948), 24-28. 14Mearle R. Guthrie, "Is the Stop Watch Being Overworked in the Teaching of Typewriting?" Balance Sheet, 38 (January, 1957), 200,202.
131

6. To encourage correct typing habits, such as
a. Keeping eyes on the copy b. Correct carriage throw c. Proper shifting for capital letters d. Correct stroking techniques

Students should understand the purpose of every timed writing.

Rowe15 points out the following elements to be considered in interpreting a grade:

1. Gross or net speed 2. Length of test in minutes 3. Number of errors permitted 4. Frequency of score, this is the number of times required for
passing the test in a given marking period. 5. Whether or not the timed writing was on practiced or unprac-
ticed matter.
Hosler16 feels that timed writings should be only one factor in measuring typewriting achievement and that this factor should decrease in
weight as the class progresses.

He suggests approximately weighting of timed writings in determining the final achievement:

First semester

75%

Second semester

50%

Third semester

25%

Fourth semester

25%

Standards. Miller17 writes: "It is impossible to set standards that can be adapted to all classes and situations throughout the nation. Some schools have different aims; the type of teaching varies; students and classes are not the same; or the beginning course may be offered at various grade levels."

Although school standards do not have to be the same, some basic standards have been sufficiently well established that they can be used as guide-posts for setting standards.

The following grading scale was prepared by Dr. John L. Rowe:

15John L. Rowe, "Justification for a Typewriting Grading Plan," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 35-7.
16Russell J. Hosler, "Scoring Timed Writings," Journal of Business Education, 25 (December, 1949), 19..21.
17C. C. Miller, "Blueprint for Grading in Beginning Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 31 (January, 1956), 171-73.
132

GRADING SCALE: FIRST YEAR TYPING

1st SIX WEEKS

A (Outstanding) B (Good) C (Satisfactory)

Rate
25 20 15

2nd SIX WEEKS A

30

B

25

c

20

3rd SIX WEEKS A

35

-w

B

30

c

25

w 4th SIX WEEKS A

40

B

33

c

28

5th SIX WEEKS A

45

B

35

c

30

6th SIX WEEKS A

50

B

40

c

35

Errors
5 4 3
5 4 3
5 4 3
5 4 3
5 4 3
5 4 3

GorN*
G G G
G G G
G G G
G G G G G G
G G G

Length**
3 3 3
5 5 5
5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Frequency*** Material****

3

p

3

p

3

p

2

p

2

p

2

p

1

p

1

p

1

p

2

p

2

p

2

p

3

p

3

p

3

p

3

p

3

p

3

p

* Gross or Net ** Number of Minutes in Timed Writing

*** Number of times student should achieve goal during
the six weeks period
**** P: Practiced Material; N.M.: New Material

1st SIX WEEKS A B
c
2nd SIX WEEKS A B
c
3rd SIX WEEKS A B
c
C 4th SIX WEEKS A
~
B
c
5th SIX WEEKS A B
c
6th SIX WEEKS A B
c

GRADING SCALE: SECOND YEAR TYPING

Rate

Errors

GorN

Length

55

5

G

5

45

4

G

5

40

3

G

5

55

6

N

5

45

5

N

5

40

4

N

5

60

5

G

5

50

4

G

5

40

3

G

5

60

8

N

10

50

6

N

10

40

4

N

10

68

5

G

10

55

4

G

10

45

3

G

10

70

8

N

10

60

6

N

10

50

4

N

10

Prepared by: John L. Rowe, Chairman Department of Business Education University of North Dakota Grand Forks, North Dakota

Frequency
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3 1 1 1
1 l l
1 1 1

Material p p p
p p p
p p p
p p p
N.M. N.M. N.M.
N.M. N.M. N.M.

Production
Production typewriting is the application of basic skill to practical typewriting problems; it should be the ultimate objective of typewriting instruction. Because of its importance, an entire section in this Guide is devoted to Production. See pages 113-124.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Carter18 reports the following conclusions and recommendations from a study on grading typewriting papers:
1. The grading system should be flexible.
2. Typing papers should not be graded during the keyboardlearning period.
3. All typing papers should not be graded; the teacher should grade a selected group.
4. Students should be informed of the grading method.
5. Acceptable work on the first attempt should receive more credit than after two or more attempts.
6. After erasing instruction, timed production work and exercises should be graded on the basis of perfect copies and mailable copies.
7. There seems to be a movement for using gross words a minute and five-minute tests in first-year typewriting.
8. Timed production work, daily assignments, or the planned lesson is taking the place of the budget plan.
9. The final goal for the vocational typist should be production and useable copies rather than speed and accuracy.
10. The practice of requiring perfect copies is being replaced by requiring mailable copies with neat erasures.
11. A mailable letter should be arranged well on the page, have no misspelled words, no errors in grammar, and no uncorrected errors.
12. Research indicates that standards set in the office are no more than estimates and have not developed scientifically.
13. The few standards developed by schools and offices on production work compare favorably with each other.
14. The businessman cannot be depended upon to establish grading and office standards.
15. Research indicates that there are no uniform standards for timed writings.
lBWilliam Kenneth Carter, "A Study and Evaluation of Methods of Grading FirstYear Typewriting Based on a Comprehensive Review of Current Professional Literature, 1947-1952," Natkmal Business Education Quarterly, 23 (October ,1954), 13.
135

The late Dr. Frederick G. Nichols said: "In the grading proposals, discrepancies are as great as are those among news commentators. So pick your favorite author and adopt his plan. The variations are mostly as to details."19
BIBLIOGRAPHY-EVALUATION
Baker, Claude, "Self-Evaluation in Typing" Journal of Business Education, 32 (February, 1957), 220-21.
Baten, Charles E., "Rating Applicants for Typing Jobs," Journal of Business Education, 25 (March, 1950), 19-20.
Green, Helen H., "A Workable Teacher Evaluation Practice," Journal of Business Education, 27 (October, 1951), 67-9.
Humphrey, Clyde W., and Marion Lamb, "Evaluating Pupil Progress,' Appraising Business Education, Third Yearbook of the National Business Teachers Association and the Eastern Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1946, pp. 321-22.
Jelley, Herbert M., "Include Attitudes in the Evaluation of Your Typewriting Students," Business Education Forum, 9 (February, 1955), 26, 32.
Lamb, Marion M., Your First Year of Teaching Typewriting. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1947.
McGill, E. C., "Motivation Through Evaluation in Typing," Journal of Business Education, 26 (September, 1950), 15-16.
----,"Principles to Be Considered in Evaluating the Success of Beginning Typists," Business Education Forum, 9 (April, 1955), 31.
Mulkerne, D. J., "Levels and Competencies in Typewriting," Curriculum Patterns in Business Education, Thirteenth Yearbook of The Eastern Business Teachers Association and The National Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, 1956. pp. 60-70.
Rowe, John L., and Sister M. Therese, "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting?" National Association of Secondary School Principal's Bulletin, 41 (January, 1957), 117-24.
Smallenburg, Harry, "Evaluating Pupil Progress," Educational Leadership, (April, 1945), 291-92.
Strong, Earl P., and Mildred E. Reed, "Evaluating Your Typewriting Classroom," Business Education World, 32 (May, 1952), 444-46.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-TESTING
Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1949.
Cleary, Joseph E., "Objective Inventory Test in Typewriting," Business Education World, 35 (January, 1955), 32-3.
lOFrederick G. Nichols, "Grading Students," Journal of Business Education, 24 (February), 9.
136

Clem, Jane E., Techniques of Teaching Typewriting. New York: McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
Dickinson, Tilly S., "An Integrated Testing Program," Business Education World, 34 (March, 1954), 27-8.
Douglas, Leonard M., "A Prognostic Test of Typewriting Success," Journal of Business Education, 33 (March, 1958), 262.
Kruger, Ellen, "A Test On the Mechanics of Typing Business Letters," Business Education World, 33 (October, 1952), 75-6.
Lloyd, Alan C., "Getting a Typist Ready for an Employment Test," Business Teacher, 35 (May-June, 1958).
Lomax, Paul, "Use Made by Schools and Business of the National Business Entrance Tests," UBEA Forum, 3 (May, 1949), 35-36, 44-46.
Murray, Joseph J., "A First-Year Typewriting Examination," Balance Sheet, 35 (December, 1953), 178.
Nelson, John Howard, "A Study of Relationships Between Achievement of Stenographers and Typists on the National Business Entrance Tests and Their Performance in Beginning Positions," Journal of Business Education, 28 (March, 1953), 249.
Nichols, Frederick G., "Student's Typewriting Tests," Journal of Business Education, 23 (April, 1948), 9.
Rahe, Harves, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," The National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (Winter, 1953), 56.
Roach, J. Kenneth, "The Test-An Instructional Device for Homework," Typewriting News, 28 (Spring, 1958), 4.
Stewart, Jane, "Clerical Errors in a Clerk-Typist Employment Test," Journal of Business Education, 24 (October, 1948), 27-9.
Tidwell, M. Fred, ''Testing Procedures in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 27-8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-GRADING
Bailey, Culver, "A Reasonable Penalty for Typing Errors," Balance Sheet, 35 (May, 1954), 414.
Balsley, Irol W., "The Inadequacies of Net Words Per Minute Scoring as a Measuring Device," Balance Sheet, 38 (October, 1956), 56-8.
Blackstone, E. G., and Sofrona L. Smith, Improvement of Instruction in Typewriting. New York: Prentice Hail, Inc., 1949.
Carter, Wiiiiam Kenneth, "A Study and Evaluation of Methods of Grading First-Year Typewriting Based on a Comprehensive Review of Current Professional Literature 1947-1952," National Business Education Quarterly, 23 (October, 1954), 13.
Casadei, Kay, "How to Grade Typewritten Letters," Business Education World, 32 (February, 1952), 296.
Clevenger, Earl, "Grading Typewriting Papers," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 41-3.
137

Dotson, Verner L., "Standards for Grading in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 19-23.
Flood, Kathleen, "13 Grading and Record-Keeping Short Cuts for Typing and Shorthand Teachers," Business Education World, 31 (March, 1951), 345-7.
Guthrie, Mearle R., "Is the Stop Watch Being Overworked in the Teaching of Typewriting?" Balance Sheet, 38 (January, 1957), 200, 202.
Horning, Kenneth B., "On Grading Business Letters," Journal of Business Education, 27 (November, 1951), 106-8.
Hosler, Russell J., "Scored Timed Writings," Journal of Business Education, 25 (December, 1949), 19-21.
- - - - , "The Gross Speed-Per Cent of Error Method of Scoring Timed Writings," UBEA Forum, 9 (December, 1954), 29-31.
Huffman, Harry, and Mary L. Bell, "Measuring Typewritability," Journal of Business Education, 25 (November, 1949), 15-16.
Lamb, Marion M., "Grading Plan for a Typewriting Program," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 31-4.
Lessenberry, D. D., "When to Use CWPM and When to Use NWPM in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 29 (December, 1947), 152-54.
Lloyd, Alan C., "The Paper Work in Your Typing Classroom," Business Education World, 35 (April, 1955), 20-22.
Marie, Sister Bernadette, "Scales for Grading Typewriting Timed Writings," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 29-31.
Miller, C. C., "Blueprint for Grading in Beginning Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 31 (January, 1956), 171-73.
Nichols, Frederick G., "Grading Students," Journal of Business Education, 24 (February, 1949), 9.
Reva, Virginia, "Grading for Varying Levels in Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 20 (October, 1951), 22-4.
Roberts, R. L., "Do You Grade Accuracy in Typing," Journal of Business Education, 33 (January, 1958), 157-58.
----,"How Do You Measure Accuracy In Typing?" Office Executive, 31 (September, 1956), 12.
Rowe, John L., "Justification for a Typewriting Grading Plan," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 35-7.
- - - - , "Remedial Instruction in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 28 (May, 1953).
Ruegg, Robert J., "A Plan for Teaching Speed Development," Business Education Forum, 9 (January, 1955), 16-17.
Spurlock, F. M., "A Philosophy for Grading in a Skill Subject," Typewriting News, 28 (Spring, 1958), 4.
Stratton, Winnie A., "The Weighting of Typewriting Errors," National Business Education Quarterly, 17 (October, 1948), 24-8.
138

Tonne, Herbert A., Estelle Popham, and M. Herbert Freeman, Methods of Teaching Business Subjects. New 1 ork: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.
BIBLIOGRAPHY -STANDARDS
Archer, Fred C., "Standards in Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 26 (May, 1951), 294-95.
Booth, B., "New Standards for Beginning Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 40 (October, 1958), 52-4.
Brady, Mary Margaret, "Establishing Production Rates for Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 28 (January, 1953), 158-60.
Firra, Eva E., "Office Standards as Shown by a Survey of Industrial and Business Offices," VBEA Forum, 3 (December, 1948), 18.
Frisch, V. A., "Let's Be Realistic About Standards," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 28.
Gibson, Mildred, Margaret Linnan, and Frances Sadoff, "Want Better Typing Results?" Journal of Business Education, 24 (December, 1948), 25-8.
Goldsmith, S., "Study of Standards for Typewriting and Shorthand," Balance Sheet, 39 (January, 1958), 205-11.
Green, Helen Hinkson, "Weekly Goals for Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 33 (December, 1957), 119-22.
Haskell, Francis L., "What to Expect of Office Beginners," Journal of Business Education, 26 (December, 1950), 167-70.
Kashner, Robert J., "New Jersey Survey Reports Standards," Business Teacher, 36 (December-January, 1958-59), 2-3.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Measuring Competence of Students Preparing for Typing Positions," Evaluating Competency for Business Occupations, Seventh Yearbook of The National Business Teachers Association and The Eastern Business Teachers Association. Somerville, New Jersey: Somerset Press, Inc., 1950. pp. 45-54.
McCarthy, Richard A., "Accuracy Grade Based on Per Cent of Error," Journal of Business Education, 34 (November, 1958), 72-74.
Moline, Ruth, "Definite Goals Obtain Definite Results," Typewriting News, 26 (Spring, 1956), 1.
Rahe, Harves C., "Performance Standards in Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 3 (November, 1948), 38-41.
Reesman, Wayne C., "NOMA Studies Office Job Requirements," VBEA Forum, 3 (May, 1949), 33-4.
Ruegg, R. J., "Typewriting Standards in Business,'' Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 29-30.
Rygiel, Walter S., "Typewriting Standards and Curricular Practices in the Four Classes of School Districts of Pennsylvania," Balance Sheet, 33 (November, 1951), 113-16.
139

Sherman, Marsdon A., "How Long Must We Endure Standards by Injection," UBEA Forum, 3 (May, 1949), 30-2.
Stuart, Esta Ross, "Relation Between Office Standards and Classroom Standards," UBEA Forum, 3 (May, 1949), 27-9, 45-6.
Tate, Donald J., Glenna Dodson, Mildred Marshall, and Irma Turner, "Let's Standardize the Standards," Journal of Business Education, 26 (March, 1951), 303-4.
Wanous, S. J., "How to Achieve High Standards in Office Typing," Balance Sheet, 30 (March, 1949), 292-94.

BIBLIOGRAPHY-BEGINNING TYPEWRITING
Booth, Betty, "Getting the Most Out of Our Beginning Typewriting Students," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 19-20.
Cleary, Joseph B., "Suggestions to Beginning Teachers of Shorthand and Typing," Journal of Business Education, 26 (May, 1951), 387-89.
Clevenger, Earl, "Starting a Typewriting Class," Journal of Business Education, 23 (October, 1947), 21-22.
Fradella, Santina G., "Teaching Beginning Typewriting," Typewriting News, 19 ( 1949)' 1.
Hayden, Carlos, "The First Two Weeks of Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 34 (March, 1953), 292-95.
Hoskinson, Robert E., "Ten Rules for the Beginning Typewriting Teacher," Business Education Forum, 11 (January, 1957), 26-27.
Hosler, R. J., and C. Mordy, "Message to the Beginning Typewriting Teacher, Business Education Forum, 13 (October, 1958), 19-20.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Teaching the Letter Keyboard," Business Education Forum, 12 (November, 1957), 9-11.
Rahe, Harves, "Beginning Typewriting-Twenty-Six Tips," American Business Education, 12 (May, 1956), 236-38.
- - - - . , "Teaching the Typewriter Keyboard," Journal of Business Education, 27 (May, 1952), 372-74.
Rowe, John L., "The First Day of Manual Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 30 (April, 1955), 292-95.
- - - - , "Teaching Learners to Typewrite," National Business Education Quarterly, 27 (December, 1958), 11-15.
Seger, Anne, "Differences in a Beginning Typewriting Class," Journal of Business Education, 29 (January, 1954), 155-56.
Smith, Harold H., "A Running Start in Typing," Business Education World, 30 (June, 1950), 527-29.
Weisberg, Leonard J., "A Modern Approach to Keyboard Learning,'' UBEA Forum, 4 (October, 1949), 29-30.

140

J
'

'

BIBLIOGRAPHY-DEVELOPMENT OF SKILL
Altman, P. G., "One More Step to Building Skill," Journal of Business Education, 27 (December, 1951), 165-66.
Anderson, Ruth I., "How Much Skill Should We Expect?" Business Education World, 29 (November, 1948), 153-54.
Duchan, S. A., "Patterns of Skill Development in the Learning of Typewriting," Business Education World, 12 (February, 1958), 26-27.
Erickson, Lawrence W., "Building Basic Typewriting Skill," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 8.
Lamb, Marion M., "Skiii Building in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 29 (November, 1947), 115-19.
Leslie, Louis A., "Paradoxes of Skill Learning," UBEA Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 12-13.
Sharp, Ella Beckey, "Build Your Skiii, Improve Your Teaching," UBEA Forum, 2 (April, 1948), 10-12.
Smith, Harold H., "How to Build Typing Skiii Quickly," Business Education World, 22 (March, 1942), 614-15.
Winger, Fred E., "Building Basic Skill in Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 17-18.
BIBliOGRAPHY-ELECTRiC TYPEWRITING
Blaisdell, Otis, "Methods of Teaching Electric Typing: The Familiar Techniques Still Apply," Business Education World, 31 (January, 1951).
Boyd, Edna M., "We Got More Speed and Accuracy on Electrics, Too," Business Education World, 32 (June, 1952), 494-96.
Brendel, LeRoy A., "What Typewriting Teachers Want to Know About Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 32 (September, 1951 ), 34-35; 32 (October, 1951), 80-82.
Carroll, John C., "Electric Versus Manual Typewriters," Office Executive, 32 (January, 1957), 23-24.
DuFrain, Viola, "Relative Abilities of the Eight Fingers on the Electric Typewriter," UBEA Forum, 9 (October, 1954), 29-30.
Eckersley, Ann L., "Electric Typewriter-Recognized Time Saver for Clerical Workers," UBEA Forum, 7 (November, 1952), 29-30.
Edwards, Donald A., "A Survey of Electric Typewriters," Journal of Business Education, 25 (December, 1949), 13-14.
Ewing, Prisciiia, "Electrify Your Teaching of Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 5 (March, 1951), 29.
- - - - , "Results of Teaching Electric Typing," Business Education World, 31 (May, 1951 ), 435-37.
~edor, Laddie J., "How We Orient Our Students on Electric Typewriters," Typewriting News, 24 (1954), 1-6.
141

Freeman, Claire L., "A Survey of the Use of Electric and Manual Typewriters in the Public High Schools of Massachusetts," National Business Education Quarterly, 26 (October, 1957), 27-28.
Green, M. Louise, "What Is the Trend in the Use of the Electric Typewriter?" National Business Education Quarterly, 20 (October, 1951), 15-17.
Hossfield, George L., "Electric Typing," Business Education World, 28 (May, 1948), 516-18.
Kalabaugh, A. James, "Electric Typewriters Go to School," Business Education Forum, 11 (November, 1956), 31-32.
Krause, Ruthetta, "Bring the Electric Typewriter to the Classroom," UBEA Forum, 5 (November, 1950), 19-21.
Kronenwetter, Evelyn F., "Are You Still Hesitating About Getting Electric Typewriters?", Business Education World, 35 (October, 1954), 23-24.
- - - - , "Electric Typewriters Help Create Enthusiasm and Produce Results."UBEA Forum, 8 (December, 1953), 24-26.
- - - - , "Teaching Office Typing-The Electric Typewriter in Business," American Business Education, 12 (December, 1955), 75-77.
Laurie, Edward J., "Some Observations About Electric Typewriters for Beginners." Typewriting News, 26 (1956), 1.
Missling, Lorraine, "Electric vs. Manual Typewriters," Balance Sheet, 38 (March, 1957), 300-303.
Murphy, Seward U., "We Do Quite a Job With One Electric Typewriter," Business Education World, 32 (February, 1952), 283-84.
Pepe, Philip S., "The Advantages of Electric Typewriting," Systems for Education, 3 (March-April, 1957), 11-12.
----., "Electrification of the Modern Typewriting Classroom," UBEA Forum, 7 (November, 1952), 11-13.
- - - - , "Methods of Teaching Electric Typing-The Business Use of Electric Machines," Business Education World, 31 (March, 1951), 340341.
- - - - , "Teaching Electric Typing," Journal of Business Education," 29 (February, 1954), 197-98.
Rosen, Seymour, "You Can Quickly Improve Manual Typing Skill by Training on Electrics," Business Education World, 32 (January, 1952), 238-40.
Rowe, John L., "The First Day in Teaching Electric Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 30 (May, 1955), 344-46.
- - - - , "Methods of Teaching Electric Typewriting to Beginners," Business Education World, 31 (October, 1950), 67-69.
- - - - , "Methods of Teaching Electric Typing: Carriage Return and Service Controls," Business Education World, 31 (November, 1950), 123-24.
- - - - , "Methods of Teaching Electric Typing: Changing from Electrics to Manuals,'' Business Education World, 31 (December, 1950), 179-81.
142

Rowe, John L., "Methods of Teaching Electric Typing; Instruction in Electric Transcription," Business Education World, 31 (February, 1951), 301-303.
Savage, William G., "Report on Electric and Manual Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 29 (December, 1953) , 111-12.
Selden, William, "Why Use Electrics?" Motives and Methods," Business Education World, 39 (September, 1958), 30-33.
Stevenson, Lalla, "The Electrical Keyboard," Balance Sheet, 34 (November, 1952), 128-29.
Van Der Jagt, Ruth, "Comparing Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 37 (January, 1957), 7-10.
----,"You and Your Electric," Today's Secretary, 60 (October, 1957), 23-26.
Willins, Stella, "Planning Your Electric Typing Program," Business Education World, 31 (April, 1951), 385-86.
Winger, Fred, "What We Know About Electrics," Business Education World, 34 (June, 1954), 7-11.
"Wiring Plan for Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 33 (November, 1952), 119.
Wood, Marion, "The First Lesson in Typewriting-When You Use Electric Machines," Business Education World, 34 (November, 1953), 23-24.
- - - - , "Suggestions for Teaching Electric Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 38 (April, 1957), 343-46.
- - - - , "Teaching the Use of Electric and Manual Typewriters in the Same Class," UBEA Forum, 8 (November, 1953), 24.
-----, "A 10-Hour Program for Orienting Typing Teachers to Electrics," Business Education World, 32 (April, 1952), 392-94.
- - - - , "Ten Suggestions About Teaching Manual Typists to Use Electrics," Business Education World, 34 (February, 1954), 27-28.
- - - - . , "Using Two Electrics in a Room Full of Manuals," Business Education World, 35 (January, 1955), 28-29.
----.,"We Used Electric Typewriters for a Personal-Use Course," Business Education World, 32 (February, 1952), 284-85.
"You Should Know Your Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 30 (June, 1950), 514-15.
Zelliot, Ernest, "What We Do With Our Electric Typewriters," Business Education World, 32 (May, 1952), 431-32.
Zimmer, Kenneth, "How to Organize an Electric Typing Clinic," Business Education World, 33 (June, 1953), 501.
143

BIBLIOGRAPHY -PROBLEMS
Brendel, LeRoy A., "Meeting Administrative and Curriculum Problems in Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (October, 1953), 5-12.
Humphrey, Katherine, "Our Problems in Advanced Typing," Business Education World, 27 (February, 1947), 346-48.
Maier, Thomas B., "Fifth Annual Problem Clinic-Problems of Teachers of Elementary Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (March, 1956), 134-36.
Oliverio, Mary Ellen, James Crawford, and Marietta Parr, "Fifth Annual Problem Clinic-Problems of Teachers of Advanced Typewriting," American Business Education, 12 (March, 1956), 136-38.
"Problems of Typewriting Teachers," American Business Education, 10 (December, 1953), 86-88.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-TELEVISION
Carpenter, W. G., "Closed Circuit Television Is Used at Evanston Township High School," National Association of Secondary School Principals, The Bulletin, 42 (January, 1958), 19-54.
Cook, Fred S., "How to Run a TV Typing Course," Business Education World, 38 (April, 1958), 22-23.
Crawford, T. James, "Television Typing Research," Balance Sheet, 39 (December, 1957), 148-49.
Gress, John J., "I Had to Put on a Television Demonstration," Business Education World, 34 (June, 1954), 12.
Lanza, A. R., "Business Education and Television," Journal of Business Education, 33 (January, 1958), 176.
O'Toole, M. C., "Three Thousand Eyes Upon Me," Journal of Business Education, 34 (October, 1958), 26-28.
Pasewark, William R., "The Effectiveness of TV as a Medium of Learning Typewriting," National Business Education Quarterly, 26 (October, 1956), 54-55.
"Teaching Typewriting by Closed-Circuit Television," Balance Sheet, 40 (November, 1958), 100-107.
"Television Audiences Learn About Typewriters-Old and Electric," Business Education World, 31 (January, 1951), 227.
"Television Invades Teaching of Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 37 (October, 1955), 83.
BIBLIOGRAPHY-MISCELLANEOUS
Anderson, Ruth I., "Application of Research Findings in Business Education," NABTE Bulletin, 66 (1957), 72-80.
144

Berns, Sylvia A., "Does Music Training Aid Typing," Business Education World, 33 (February, 1953), 293.
"Businessman Gets Specific About Typing Weaknesses," Business Teacher, 33 (February, 1956), 3.
Conte, Anthony E., "Incentives for Teaching Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 31 (December, 1949), 153-55.
Costello, Eileen T., "Professionalization of Subject Matter in Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 34 (April, 1953), 343-44.
Finch, Robert, "Typewriting-A Fundamental Skill," Balance Sheet, 36 (September, 1954), 4-6.
Forkner, H. L., "What I Wish I Had Learned About Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 13 (November, 1958), 7-9.
Fuller, Donald C., "The Philosophical and Scientific Background for Typewriting," Balance Sheet, 29 (October, 1947), 63-65.
Greenfield, Mary F., "Let's Narrow the Gap Between the Typewriting Classroom and the Initial Job," Business Education Forum, 11 (December, 1956), 22-23.
Hosler, Russell J., "Personal Typewriting: What? Where? When? Why?" Business Education Forum, 10 (November, 1955), 20-22.
Humphrey, K. S., "Why Not Try a Job Breakdown for Typing Efficiency?" Business Education World, 35 (June, 1955), 23-25.
Lessenberry, D. D., "Conditioned to Succeed," Balance Sheet, 37 (May, 1956)' 388-90.
Lloyd, Alan C., "Ten Typewriting Questions," American Business Education, 8 (March, 1952), 193-96.
Meehan, James R., "Trends in the Teaching of Typewriting," Business Education World, 27 (June, 1947), 577-79.
Pepe, Philip S., "Results of a Survey of High School Typing Enrollments and Objectives," Business Education World, 31 (April, 1951), 402-03.
Rahe, Harves, "Evaluation of the Typewriting Program," National Business Education Quarterly, 22 (December, 1953), 49-57.
Rowe, John L., Philip S. Pepe, and Bessie Block, "Area Conference ReportTypewriting," American Business Education, 13 (October, 1956), 19-23.
Rowe, John L., "Developing Skill in Taking Dictation at the Typewriter," UBEA Forum, 2 (March, 1948), 13-15.
- - - - , "Editorial Statement," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 7.
- - - - , "How Does the Principal Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Typewriting," National Association of Secondary School Principals The Bulletin, 33 (November, 1949), 138-45.
- - - - , "Non-Textbook Activities in the Teaching of Typewriting." UBEA Forum, 1 (April, 1947), 11-13.
145

- - - - , "Personal-Use Typewriting or Typewriting for Personal Use," Business Education Forum, 10 (November, 1955), 8.
Sawatzky, J. J., "How the Small School Can Combine Advanced Typing and Shorthand,'' Business Education World, 39 (September, 1958), 34.
"Selected Readings on the Teaching of Typewriting," UBEA Forum, 9 (November, 1954), 17.
Seufer, Elizabeth, "The Master Teacher Teaches Typewriting," Business Education Forum, 9 (March, 1955), 24.
Skimin, Eleanor, "Changing a Typewriter Ribbon,'' Business Education World, 26 (January, 1946), 237-39.
Steffes, Robert A., "Typewriter Ribbons Need Attention," Business Education World, 28 (October, 1947), 104-06.
Stroop, Christine, "Research Conclusions for Teaching Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 29 (May, 1954), 333-34.
Stuart, E. R., "What Makes the Difference?" Journal of Business Education, 32 (November, 1956), 75-77.
"What Do We Really Know About Teaching Typewriting," Journal of Business Education, 33 (December, 1957), 119-22.
"What We Know About Typewriting-From Research," UBEA Forum, 8 March, 1954), 31-32.
Winger, Fred, "Pretranscription Training in Typewriting," American Business Education, 15 (October, 1958), 54-55.
Wood, Marion, "Carbon Copy Facts," UBEA Forum, 4 (November, 1949), 29-30.
146