Education curriculum guide for gifted students, grades 9-12 [1991]

A Resource Development Project
Developed and Produced in Cooperation with the Georgia Department of Education
and James Alan Curry and John Samara
University of Southern Maine
Werner Rogers State Superintendent of Schools
1991



Introductory Section

1

Section I: Content Differentiation

26

Section II: Process Differentiation

38

Section III: Independent Study Skills

85

Section IV: Product Differentiation

132

Section V: Conclusion

164

Selected References

173

,Note: No glossary of terms is included within this document. Terms are defined and explained within the text.

The Quality Basic Education Act has established the role of the Georgia Board of Education in defining public school curriculum. Code Section 20-2-140 charges the state board of education with two basic responsibilities: to establish competencies that each student is expected to master and to establish competencies each student should be afforded the opportunity to master. The state board is also directed to establish and adopt a uniformly sequenced core curriculum as the Statewide Basic Curriculum. Code 20-2-240 empowers the state board to prescribe rules, regulations, standards and policies as are reasonably necessary or advisable for proper implementation of curricula in local school systems.
Local school systems are responsible for implementing the quality core curriculum according to state standards. However, the expansion and enrichment of this curriculum to improve services to the students and to the community are highly encouraged. To help local school systems meet the requirements of the statewide curriculum as well as improve and expand their curricula in general education, curriculum guides and other resource materials are being developed.
Curriculum Guidefor the Education of Gifted Students, Grades 9-12, a resource produced to refocus and strengthen the curricula, has been designed specifically for use by the department of education and local school system personnel. The resource guide interprets the Quality Core Curriculum objectives through instructional strategies, student activities, resources and evaluation methods. The central focus of this document is the promotion of a unified effort to develop and use curricula that reflect the expressed needs of students within Georgia schools. The reinforcement of basic academic skills identified in the state board-adopted competencies, the incorporation of the Quality Core Curriculum objectives and the inclusion of subject area activities are emphasized.
2

A special note of thanks and recognition is due to individuals who have provided support, encouragement and information for the successful completion of this project.
Sandra Kaplan, who provided an understanding of the framework and the art of curriculum development
John Samara, who provided invaluable information on independent study skills and student products as well as his expertise in producing the publication
Peyton Williams, Jr., Associate State Superintendent of Schools; Maitland Adams, Assistant State Superintendent of Schools; and staff of the Division of Curriculum and Instruction directed by Edith Belden are acknowledged for their overall support and guidance of the project. Special recognition is expressed to Lonnie Love, Director of the Gifted Education Unit; Chris Nelson, Coordinator of the Gifted Education Unit; and Joyce Gay, Consultant for the Gifted Education Unit.
The members of the Advisory Committee who offered their support and their ideas for the development of the publication:
Judy McCoy Internship Program Fulton County Schools
Thelma Mumford-Glover, Coordinator Program for the Gifted Atlanta City Schools
Susan Putzell, Learning Services Coordinator Instructional Resource Center Georgia State University
Betty Sloop, Assistant Professor Gifted Education Program Mercer University
Joseph J. Walker, Professor Gifted Education Program Georgia State University
and the students of Oconee County, Georgia, who provided me with some of my best experiences as a classroom teacher.
James Curry Former Teacher Oconee County, Georgia
3

Curriculum Guidefor the Education of Gifted Students, Grades 9-12 is designed for teachers, consultants and program coordinators responsible for providing educational services for gifted students. The model used is appropriate with any area of content and within any educational environment.
The guide requires that teachers using the model have requisite experience in working with the skills listed in Georgia Board of Education (GBOE) Rule 160-4-2-.01 which outlines student competencies and the Quality Core Curriculum (QCC). Individuals lacking essential information regarding GBOE student competencies and the QCC as well as background information in the specific discipline being taught may encounter some difficulty in applying the model of differentiation.
The model used in this guide does not tell teachers what to teach to gifted students. Rather, it provides a tool for adapting the regular curriculum so that the learning experiences in the classroom fit or match the traits and the needs of the gifted learner. There is, in fact, no such thing as a "gifted curriculum," but there are specific strategies for designing curricula that will be responsive to gifted learners.
Educators using this book are encouraged to use the information presented (as well as other sources of information, including personal experience) to develop activities that will respond to individual children and local needs.
Educators may use this resource guide in several ways.
First, use this book as a means for solidifying your own personal and professional beliefs about education in general and about education for gifted learners in particular. A number of opinions are offered in this guidebook. You are invited to agree, disagree or withhold judgment.
4

Introduction (continued) Second, use this book as a means for identifying your strengths. Many teachers do provide appropriate modifications of the regular curriculum for gifted students but are unclear as to exactly why their efforts are "correct." Third, use this book as a means for talking with gifted students about curriculum and about the need to modify learning experiences for them. Fourth, use this book as a point of discussion with colleagues in the same department and in other departments. Fifth, use this book as a planning guide for modifying specific dimensions of curriculum for gifted students in your classes. Sixth, use this book as a map to determine which direction(s) you would like to travel in terms of your own search for information on curriculum and instruction. There is no such thing as "mastering" the field of gifted child education. Teachers of the gifted are individuals intent on learning ways to adapt and develop appropriately matched curricula for gifted learners. Best wishes for your success!
5

Differentiation is one name for the process of modifying learning experiences so that they match the needs and nature of the learners. As applied to the education of gifted students, differentiation is a method for realigning curricula to help gifted learners to convert their potential into performance.
Several dimensions of curriculum can be modified. These include (1) the content or subject matter; (2) the processes or thinking skills; (3) the enabling skills, including skills of independent study; and (4) the products or outcomes of learning. Within this guide, strategies will be presented for changing each of these dimensions of curriculum.
The recommendations within this guidebook are based on the following assumptions regarding the education of gifted and talented students.
1. The education of gifted students is part of each school district's commitment to provide services to all students.
2. Gifted students need and must learn basic skills, master required content and be able to present ideas through traditional product forms.
3. Gifted students may be gifted in one content area and not gifted in others.
4. Gifted students can be gifted and have a handicapping condition, be economically deprived, be culturally diverse and/or have a behavior problem. These conditions should not be viewed as "deficits," but rather as indicators of individual differences within the population of gifted students.
5. Curriculum for gifted students should be developed based on a clear understanding of the characteristics that distinguish gifted students from their age peers (for whom the regular curriculum is planned).
6

The content dimension of curriculum focuses on the infonnation that is included within learning experiences. Content may be divided into two parts: simple (or required) and complex. Simple content includes the facts, details, rules, concepts and generalizations that relate to the topic of study. Complex content includes the issues, problems and themes related to a topic of study (or that cut across various topic areas or across various disciplines). Section I of this guidebook provides additional infonnation regarding the content dimension of curriculum and specifies strategies for differentiating content for gifted and talented students. Examples are provided that use the Quality Core Curriculum as the foundation for differentiation.
7

The process dimension of curriculum includes two domains: the cognitive domain and the affective domain. The first focuses on thinking skills and the second focuses on feelings, beliefs, perceptions and attitudes. The cognitive domain may be divided into two sections: basic and abstract. Basic cognitive processes include the mental skills of remembering, understanding and utilizing information. Abstract cognitive processes include the mental skills of creative thinking, critical thinking and problem solving.
The purposes of basic cognitive thinking skills include (1) becoming a good "consumer" of information, (2) mastering that which is already known and (3) learning information that may be manipulated through abstract thinking skills. The purposes of abstract thinking skills include (1) becoming a good producer of information, (2) becoming a good decision maker and (3) becoming a good problem solver.
The affective domain, according to Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1964), includes the levels of receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing. Each level is divided into component parts. The purposes of the affective domain include (1) assessing students' level of interaction with content, (2) reinforcing content through activities that have personal meaning to students and (3) responding to the affective needs of students.
Section II of this guidebook provides information regarding process education and specifies strategies for using abstract thinking skills with gifted students. The three areas of focus are (1) creative thinking, (2) critical thinking and (3) problem solving. Sample objectives are offered that combine elements of the Quality Core Curriculum with specific skills of abstract thinking.
8

Enabling skills allow students to pursue and understand knowledge -- dependently and independently. Enabling skills include basic school skills, research skills and personal study skills.
The skills delineated in the Quality Basic Education (QBE) Act are used within this guide as the "basic school skills." These skills allow students to obtain, organize and use information and are listed in the QBE Act under the subheadings of reading, writing, listening, viewing, speaking and computing.
Research skills assist students in acquiring and discovering information with varying degrees of "independence" from direct instruction. Stages of independent study may include selecting a topic, stating a challenge, selecting a design, gathering information, organizing information and reporting findings.
Personal study skills relate to individual preferences in the pursuit, acquisition and discovery of knowledge. These include skills of time management, developing personal priorities, designing a home learning environment, preferred styles of learning, personal interaction skills and other individualized skills.
The purposes of enabling skills include increasing the level of personal autonomy, facilitating independent work and producing new information.
Section III of this guide provides information regarding independent study skills along with strategies for using these skills with gifted students.
9

The product dimension of curriculum includes the tangible and intangible means through which students demonstrate what they have learned. Products may be classified as written, visual, verbal and kinesthetic. The purposes of product forms are to (1) accommodate various learning styles and learning preferences, (2) provide suitable and adequate forms for the presentation of complex information and/or productive thinking and (3) individualize instruction. Section IV of this guidebook provides information regarding the product dimension of curriculum as well as strategies for using product differentiation with gifted students.
10

The purpose of programs for gifted students is to identify and to nurture their abilities, thereby helping these students to translate gifts of "potential" into productive performances that are commensurate with their abilities. Curriculum is the vehicle for the development of potential.
For curriculum to be an effective vehicle of talent development, it must be well organized, sequential and articulated with the required mastery of basic skills and information. Isolated learning experiences that only entertain or "enrich" gifted learners may be counterproductive to good programming practices. Activities that lack an origin and a destination produce learning experiences without substance and academic rigor.
There is a common misconception in the field that a "topic" or a "thinking skill" may serve as the focal point of differentiation for gifted learners. Consequently, units on "Greek mythology" and on "thinking creatively" too frequently serve as the foundation of programs for gifted learners. Education should provide all students with opportunities to know about mythology and to think creatively. There is absolutely nothing about these areas that "belongs" to education for gifted students. At best, the study of topics and abstract thinking skills can only serve as medium for differentiation and can never be the focus of differentiation.
Another misconception in the field is that the regular curriculum is inappropriate for gifted learners. This is not so. Gifted students, as all students, must master the content and the skills deemed by society as essential to be good participants in society. However, the regular curriculum may be inadequate to help gifted students develop their potentials.
11

Some educators have mistakenly asserted that programs for gifted students are elitist in nature. This may be because many programs seem to provide learning experiences that are "privileged" forms of entertainment and enrichment rather than curricula that are appropriately challenging to the academically gifted learners. High school athletic programs provide rigorous opportunities for students with high potential to develop kinesthetic abilities. Similarly, programs for identified gifted students should provide rigorous opportunities for the development of academic and intellectual potentials. The educational opportunities provided in the school should clearly match the students' traits and needs.
12

The figure on the next page depicts the dimensions of curriculum as they are used in planning and implementing learning experiences. This model will be used for the following purposes.
-To help educators assess existing curricular practices used to provide appropriate learning experiences for learners within a school system
-To demonstrate ways in which the basic school skills delineated in the Quality Basic Education Act of 1985 and the objectives delineated within the Quality Core Curriculum document of 1988 may be used as the foundation for providing learning experiences for gifted students
-To organize a procedure through which any dimension of curriculum (i.e., content, process, enabling skill or product) may be modified to increase the fit or match with the needs of gifted students
-To provide a structure to assist educators in generating curricula in areas where there are gaps in information or materials
The content dimension of the model includes both simple and complex content; the process dimension includes both cognitive (basic and abstract) and affective skills; the enabling skills dimension includes independent study skills; and the product dimension includes product forms in specific categories.
13

Curriculum Development Model

Cognitive basic:
-know -understand -use

abstract: -creative -critical -problem solving

Affective * -receive -respond -value -organization -characterization

*Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, 1964

Simple -facts -details -rules -concepts -generalizations
Complex -issues -problems -themes

PROCESS

I-
Zw Iz-
0
U

LEARNING EXPERIENCE

-0
:::0 0 0
c
n
-I

ENABLING SKILL

-kinesthetic -verbal -visual -written

Independent Study Model** -select a topic -state a challenge -select a design -gather information -organize information -report findings
** Samara, 1988

Curry, 1986, revised 1990 14

Objectives for Learning Experiences
Educators use objectives to describe the interaction of the dimensions within a learning activity. Each objective includes the content, the process, the enabling skill and the product that will be included within the learning activity. (The enabling skill dimension may be omitted in some cases.) For example, an objective might be written:
In their study of (content), the students will use (enabling skill) in order to (process) and will demonstrate what they have learned through a (product).
As written, this objective is only a template. The educators must add the specific dimensions for it to have meaning. For example, the template might be completed in the following way:
In their study of Georgia history, the students will interview residents in their community in order to identify and understand key issues of concern to voters and will present their findings through a chart and a written report.
Of course, educators could insert any element of content, any enabling skill, any thinking skill and any product into the template.
Frequently, educators are given the dimensions of curriculum that are to be taught. The information may be provided through a document from the state department of education, through a textbook company, from the local school board or from some other source. In such cases, the teachers teach the dimensions of curriculum that have been prescribed by someone else. However, even when the curriculum is prescribed, the teachers must tailor the learning experiences within the curriculum to accommodate the needs of students. By identifying the dimensions of curriculum through templates for objectives, the options open to teachers may become clearer.
15

Objectives for Learning Experiences (continued)
The dimensions of curriculum may be moved around and reconfigured within an objective. The objective template might follow any number of patterns: Example: Pattern: content - enabling skill- product - process Template: In their study of (content), the students will use (enabling skills) to develop a (product) to demonstrate their ability to (process). Objective: In their study of the economy of Georgia, students will use primary and secondary sources to develop a map identifying key agricultural and industrial areas of the state.
Example: Pattern: product - enabling skill- process - content Template: The students will develop a (product) using (enabling skill) in order to (process) in their study of (content). Objective: The students will develop a written report, collecting information through the school library and state agencies, explaining changes regarding the expansion of industry in their study of changes in the state's economic growth since 1950.
Practice: Pattern: Template: Objective:
16

Objectives for Learning Experiences (continued) Educators must determine in which order the dimensions of curriculum should be listed within the objective. Considerations for making this decision include the order of importance of the dimensions (usually, the most important dimension is
listed first), whether the objective is to include an expected level of achievement within it, in
which case the product dimension is usually listed last, and the clarity of the objective for the reader. Regardless of the pattern selected, the dimensions must be compatible with one another. This will be discussed later in this manual.
17

In July 1985, the Georgia legislature approved the Quality Basic Education (QBE) Act. Section 20-2-140 of QBE directs the Georgia Board of Education (GBOE) to establish competencies for all students. The GBOE approved Rule 160-4-2-.01 which states that "certain basic skills or abilities must be developed to serve as tools for acquiring and applying other skills and knowledge. Such skills are interdependent with each other and are included in all academic subjects and disciplines."
The basic skill areas included in the Rule are (1) reading, (2) writing, (3) speaking, (4) viewing, (5) listening, (6) mathematics, (7) reasoning and (8) computer literacy. For each of these skill areas, specific skills are listed and numbered. In total, there are 76 GBOE competencies listed under the eight skill areas. As stated previously, it is essential that gifted students learn and be able to use basic school skills. Therefore, a method for including these competencies within an objective of a differentiated curriculum will be presented.
In the place for the "process" dimension or the "enabling skill" dimension of an objective, an educator may insert one of the student competencies required by the Quality Basic Education Act and the Georgia Board of Education Rule. In fact, by placing student competencies in an objective, teachers in all content areas may integrate these basic school skills with any content area. For example, an objective might be worded as follows.
In their study of (content), the students will "select and organize ideas and information into paragraphs" (GBOE competency 10) and demonstrate what they have learned through a (product).
Clearly, the "content" could be a topic in language arts, mathematics, science, social studies or any other discipline. Similarly, a product could be selected that is particularly ap-
18

Quality Basic Education Act (continued)
Example: Language Arts In their study of the effects of history on American literature, the students will select and organize information into paragraphs and present their findings in an oral presentation and a short paper.
Example: Mathematics In their study of the distinction between correlation and causation, the students will select and organize ideas and information into paragraphs and present their findings in a written report with graphics.
Example: Science In their study of mammals, the students will delineate traits of monotremes, select and organize ideas and information into paragraphs and present their ideas in an article and a chart.
Example: Social Studies In their study of the contributions of immigrants, the students will select and organize ideas and information into paragraphs and present their findings through a dramatization and a mural.
The inclusion of basic school skills within disciplines is important for all students, including gifted students. By embedding OBOE student competencies within objectives, teachers increase the probability that students will be able to apply the skills to various disciplines. In addition, the QBE skills serve as a foundation for more sophisticated skills that gifted students may need in order to develop their potential. Exclusion of the basics may place gifted students "at-risk" in terms of their being able to benefit from a set of differentiated learning experiences.
19

The Quality Core Curriculum (QCC) was approved by the state board of education in July 1988, and "is part of Georgia's ongoing initiative to ensure a quality basic education in each public school in the state" (Werner Rogers, State Superintendent of Schools).
Objectives are defined for 13 subject areas: dance, drama, English language arts, foreign language, health and safety, Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, mathematics, music, physical education, visual arts, science, social studies and vocational education.
This guidebook will use examples from: language arts, mathematics, science and social studies for grades nine through 12. However, the procedures used with these four areas may be used with the other content areas and at other grade levels.
The Quality Core Curriculum may be inserted into the objective as the "content" dimension and/or as the "process" dimension.
Example: Language Arts In their study of the novel A Separate Peace, the students will be able to speak clearly and expressively and demonstrate this ability through a class discussion regarding the plot, setting and characterization within the novel.
(Note: QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept A: Speaking/Listening, 1, which is cross-referenced with Georgia Board of Education (GBOE) competencies 15,16 and 17, is used as the process component of the objective.) [po 39] {Note: the page number reference in this and other examples is to the QCC version sent to local school systems in 1988}
20

Quality Core Curriculum (continued)
Example: Mathematics In their study of inferential statistics, the students will be able to identify trends including patterns, clusters and outliers in a set of data represented graphically and present their findings in a class presentation.
(Note: QCC, Mathematics - Statistics: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept F: Inferential Statistics, 24, which is cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 23-28 and 30, is used as the process component of the objective.) [p.91]
Example: Science In their study of the Okefenokee Swamp, the students will be able to determine the role of the alligator in providing water holes during droughts and present their ideas in a report.
(Note: QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Natural Ecosystems of Georgia, which is crossreferenced with GBOE competencies 4, 11, 12,25,30,40,48,50,51,56 and 62, is used as the process component of this objective.) [po 176]
Example: Social Studies In their study of ancient civilizations, the students will be able to trace the development of early cultures and identify methods of human adaptation and change and present their ideas through a written report and a series of illustrations.
(Note: QCC, Social Studies - World History: 9-12, Topic/Concept A: Ancient Civilizations, 1, which is cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 53,57 and 59, is used as the process component of the objective.) [po 89]
Learning experiences for gifted students can be designed that use the GBOE competencies and the QCC elements as a foundation of learning. The following sections will present strategies with which this may be done.
21

To modify the regular curriculum (as specified in the QBE Act, the OBOE Rule and the QCC), it is essential to understand the characteristics and the needs of gifted learners. The regular curriculum must be adapted to the same degree that the characteristics of gifted learners distinguish them from their age-peers. The following is a list of general characteristics of gifted students, across disciplines.
As compared to their age-peers, gifted students tend to:
-learn more rapidly -have a stronger need to know -be more adept at using abstract thinking skills -demonstrate more sophisticated communication skills -have a longer attention span -perceive more unusual and remote associations -see and create patterns of meaning -have intense and/or broad interests -be more intellectually playful -be better at discerning discrepancies -have greater retention of information -be more imaginative
Listing characteristics of gifted learners can be misleading as the characteristics are interactive and dynamic, not singular and static. Hence, curriculum for gifted learners must be interactive and dynamic. Based on the general characterisics of gifted students, generalizations regarding the modification of curriculum may be formulated as principles of differen tiation.
22

Content 1. Content differentiation should include the modification of the rate of learning, includ-
ing the point at which students are allowed to begin their study, the rate at which they are allowed to learn and the point at which they are allowed to leave an area of study.
2. Content differentiation should include opportunities for student-selected areas of study within and across the disciplines.
3. Content differentiation should include the modification of the complexity of the area of study so that it includes issues, problems, themes and multidisciplinarity.
Process 1. Process differentiation should include the learning and usage of abstract thinking
skills, including creative thinking, critical thinking and problem solving.
2. Process differentiation should include the application of abstract thinking skills to complex content, resulting in the production of sophisticated products.
3. Process differentiation should include the integration of basic skills and abstract thinking skills.
Enabling Skills 1. Enabling skills differentiation should include the learning and the usage of self-
directed, independent study skills.
2. Enabling skills differentiation should include the in-depth application of independent study skills to areas of concern and interest to students.
23

Principles of Differentiation (continued) 3. Enabling skills differentiation should include the learning of specialized skills that are
the "tools of the trade" in specific areas of human endeavor. Product 1. Product differentiation should include the learning and usage of multiple and sophis-
ticated forms of communication. 2. Product differentiation should include the opportunity to present information to di-
verse and appropriate audiences. 3. Product differentiation should include the opportunity for students to participate in
the assessment of learning activities and the resulting product forms. (Adapted, National/State Leadership Training Institute on the Gifted and the Talented, 1979 and 1981) These principles may be used as guidelines for the modification of the required curriculum. Specific strategies are presented within the following chapters of this guide for using these principles with the dimensions of content, thinking skills, enabling skills and products.
24

The principles of content differentiation are tied to the characteristics of the gifted learners. Propensities of high impact in this area include (1) learning rapidly, (2) having better retention of information, (3) making remote associations and (4) manipulating abstract symbol systems.
Principles of content differentiation:
1. Content differentiation should include the modification of the rate of learning, including the point at which students are allowed to begin their study, the rate at which they are allowed to learn and the point at which they are allowed to leave an area of study.
2. Content differentiation should include opportunities for student-selected areas of study within and across the disciplines.
3. Content differentiation should include the modification of the complexity of the area of study so that it includes issues, problems and themes.
The first principle, modifying the rate of learning, may be applied to the GBOE competencies and the QCC elements through specific strategies that include pretesting for content mastery, "compacting" of information, accelerating the rate of learning and modifying the point at which the student "exits" the subject.
The second principle involves the application of independent study skills to a selfselected area of study. Section IV of this guidebook will present strategies for assisting students to learn and use skills for independent study.
The third principle of differentiation may be implemented through increasing the com-
26

Content Principles (continued) the content. Complexity may include extension of content to the study of issues (which are debatable), problems (which may be solvable) and themes (which are multidisciplinary in nature). The emphasis within this guidebook is on how the application of the third principle of differentiation may be utilized for the purpose of modifying and planning curriculum for gifted students.
27

A topic of study within a discipline (Le., subject area) may be extended to the consideration of an issue when there is "controversy" within the topic. It is essential that an issue be genuinely debatable, and not necessarily solvable. Students must also have mastered sufficient information so that they may consider the issue objectively. (For example, students should not be asked to debate issues regarding ecology and energy conservation if they do not possess adequate information regarding these topics.) The following are examples of issues in disciplines of language arts, mathematics, science and social studies for grades nine through 12. The same approach may be used with other content areas and at other grade levels.
Example: Language Arts Objective: In their study of censorship as it has been applied to the works of authors, the students will be able to use what they have learned to address the issue, "What restrictions, if any, should be placed on the free expression of ideas and/or beliefs? " and will present their positions in a class debate.
Students who have read views about censorship in such works as John Milton's essay Areopagitica, the decisions of courts or the laws of municipalities should be able to understand the arguments relating to the issue.
Example: Mathematics Objective: In their study of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider and discuss the issue, "Is the existence of a fourth dimension a mathematical possibility?" and will present their positions through a model or a proof.
Students who have studied plane geometry should have information for formulating a hypothesis and either supporting or disputing the question.
28

Strategy 1 (continued)
Example: Science Objective: In the study of ecology, students will be able to use what they have learned to consider the issue, "In what ways should economic development be balanced with the preservation of the natural environment? " and will present their positions in a class discussion.
Students should have mastered requisite information regarding ecosystems and should have had opportunities to consider position papers prepared by federal and state agencies, the business community, developers and conservation groups.
Example: Social Studies Objective: In their study of representative forms of government, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider the issue, "What assurances should be included in law that will maintain a balance between the rights of individuals and the powers of government? " and will present their ideas through a class discussion.
Students should have requisite information for considering the issue. They may read documents that distinguish powers of central authority from individual prerogatives (e.g., Code of Hammurabi, Mayflower Compact, U.S. Constitution and Magna Carta).
The inclusion of issues within the study of a discipline provides gifted students with opportunities to develop and use a number of their propensities (including seeing remote associations and discerning patterns and relationships). Moreover, the use of issues will allow students to consider the interrelatedness of information, cause and effect, and the relative (rather than absolute) merits of various points of view.
29

Simple (required) content may be extended to the study of complex problems related to a topic or topics of study within a discipline. As with the study of issues, it is essential that students have sufficient information about the topic so that they may consider and generate creative, sophisticated and realistic potential solutions for the problem.
Example: Language Arts Objective: In their study of literature, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider the problem of recognizing "good" and "evil" and will share their perceptions in a class discussion and a paper.
Students who have read Shakespearean tragedies may consider the problem of distinguishing "good" from "evil" in the context of studying the actions of Iago in the play Othello and the dilemma posed by the Ghost in the play Hamlet.
Example: Mathematics Objective: In their study of prediction, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider the problem of establishing levels of confidence and will share their ideas through a class discussion.
Students should have requisite information that will allow them to consider the application of correlation and regression to the problem of setting appropriate and acceptable levels of confidence when making predictions. Actual applications of prediction, and their uses in weather forecasting, economic predictions and safety standards might be considered.
30

Strategy 2 (continued)
Example: Science Objective: In their study of weather patterns, agriculture and levels of production, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider problems relating to the "greenhouse effect" as it relates to global warming and implications for conservation. Students will share their ideas in a class discussion.
Students should have requisite information prior to considering this problem, including documents from federal and state agencies, conservation groups and other sources.
Example: Social Studies Objective: In their study of ancient civilizations, the students will be able to use what they have learned to consider the problem of how to collect information and artifacts through archaeological expeditions in such a way that future scientists will not be deprived of "firsthand" data. Students will present their ideas in a class discussion.
Students who have reviewed case study information about past archaeological expeditions and guidelines provided by various countries regarding restrictions on research may consider problems relating to protecting sources of data.
By incorporating problems related to topics into an area of study, educators will be able to utilize a multidisciplinary approach that will allow students to examine the ways in which seemingly discrete pieces of information may be interrelated. In addition, the use of problems in the curriculum will help gifted students to become more proficient at finding as well as at solving problems.
31

Themes may be used to increase the complexity of content within an area of study. When used with a specific discipline, the use of a theme will allow students to examine the interrelationships between and among facts, details, rules, concepts and generalizations. When used across-disciplines, a theme will allow students to study the interrelatedness of areas of human endeavor. Sample themes include

change,

community,

conflict,

exploration,

force,

patterns,

power,

structure and

systems.

Kaplan and Curry, 1985

32

Strategy 3 (continued)
For a theme to be used effectively in the adaptation or the planning of learning experiences, it is essential to select generalizations that can be verified and/or disputed in the course of study. The following are possible generalizations for the themes.
1. Change Change generates additional change. Change can be either "good" or "bad ". Change is inevitable. Change may vary in rate. Change is necessary for growth.
2. Community A community has members. Community members share a common environment. Communities follow patterns of growth and change. When one community comes in contact with another community, change may occur
(through accommodation, assimilation, or dominance).
3. Conflict Conflict is composed of opposing forces. Conflict may be natural or man-made. Conflict may be necessary or unnecessary. Conflict may be intentional or unintentiona1. Conflict may allow for synthesis and change.
4. Exploration Exploration requires taking risks. Exploration confronts the unknown. Exploration may result in new findings or the confirmation of old findings. Exploration requires leadership (i.e., explorers).
33

Strategy 3 (continued)
5. Force Force attracts, holds or repels. Force influences or changes. Force and inertia are codependent. Force may be countered with equal or greater force.
6. Patterns Patterns have segments that are repeated. Patterns allow for prediction. Patterns have an internal order. Patterns may have symmetry.
7. Power Power is the ability to influence. Power may be used or abused Power is always present in some form. Power vacuums are always filled. Power may take many forms (chemical, electrical, political, mechanical, spiritual,
etc.). Power may be used to facilitate, dominate or maintain the status quo.
8. Structure Structures have parts that interrelate. Parts of structures support and are supported by other parts. Smaller structures may be combined to form larger structures. A structure is no stronger than its weakest component part.
9. Systems Systems work to complete a task or a mission. Systems are composed of subsystems and parts. Parts of systems are interdependent upon one another and therefore form symbiotic re-
lationships.
34

Strategy 3 (continued)
Themes may be used within disciplines to assist students in understanding the interrelatedness of the information within a topic of study. The following are examples in the disciplines of language arts, mathematics, science and social studies.
Example: Language Arts Theme: Patterns
Generalization: patterns allow for prediction
Objective: In their study of tragic heroes, the students will be able to use what they have learned to verify or dispute the assertion that the plays Hamlet, King Lear, MacBeth and Othello have commonalities that allow for prediction regarding the development and the demise of the protagonist. Students will use primary sources to collect data and will present their views in a class discussion.
Example: Mathematics Theme: Patterns
Generalization: patterns allow for prediction
In their study of tetrahedrons, the students will be able to use what they have learned about three-dimensional geometric shapes to verify or dispute specific hypotheses regarding the relationship of angulation to volume. They will use models to test ideas and present their ideas through a written report.
Example: Science Theme: Patterns
Generalization: patterns allow for prediction
35

Strategy 3 (continued)
In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned regarding coastal wetlands to predict the condition of a specific area on the coast of Georgia. Students will use primary and secondary sources and will present their ideas through a report that will describe the environment in terms of five-, 10- and 20-year conditions.
Example: Social Studies Theme: Patterns
Generalization: patterns allow for prediction
In their study of proletarian revolutions, the students will be able to use examples from history to verify or dispute the proposition that all such events are the result of extreme social and economic inequities between social classes and that future revolutions may, therefore, be predicted. Students will use primary and secondary sources and present their conclusions in a written and verbal report.
While themes and generalizations may be used within a specific discipline to extend the study of a topic, they may also be used to develop multidisciplinary curricula.
Example: Language Arts, Mathematics, Science & Social Studies In their study of patterns, the students will be able to use what they have learned to verify or dispute the generalization, "patterns allow for prediction, " using examples from literature, mathematics, science and social studies and will present their conclusions in a self-selected product.
Summary on Content Differentiation: There are three basic ways to modify the content dimension of curricula for gifted students: rate of learning, the degree of self-selectedness and the complexity of content. Within this chapter, strategies and examples have been presented for implementing the third approach to content differentiation.
36

Creative thinking skills include the mental tools that allow students to generate ideas. These tools have been classified by some educators into four categories: fluency, flexibility, elaboration and originality. Each category has its own function in creative thinking.
"Fluency" focuses on generating many ideas.
"Flexibility" focuses on changing ideas.
"Elaboration" focuses on adding to or extending ideas.
"Originality" focuses on generating new, unique ideas.
While these categories are presented separately, they may overlap. For example, one might generate many unique ideas (combining fluency and originality) or add to an idea by combining it with another idea (using both elaboration and flexibility).
Advantages of including creative thinking skills within a learning experience include (1) reinforcing the mastery of basic skills and requisite information, (2) increasing the abilities of students to "produce" information as well as "consume" information and (3) responding to various levels of students' interests, abilities, and learning styles within the classroom.
On the following pages, templates are presented that will allow educators to develop objectives and activities for incorporating creative thinking with the required curricula prescribed by the Quality Core Curriculum.
38

Learning Objective Template

In their study of

, the students will be able to use

what they have learned to through a

and will share ideas ,a

________________, a

_________________ or a self-selected product,

Verb Phrases
Brainstonn a variety of means to ... Come up with many ideas to ... Generate a lot of alternatives to ... Give at least ideas for .,. Greatly increase ... List all of the situations wherein ... Think of many ways to ...

Learning Objective Examples
Example: Language Arts
In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to use what they have learned to think of many ways that Hamlet could have checked the veracity of the Ghost's claims about the actions of Claudius and will share their ideas in a written list.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics
In their study of probability, the students will be able to use what they have learned to think of many ways in which having skills and infonnation about estimation would help citizens to make better consumer choices and will share their ideas through a class discussion.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept A: Problem Solving! Reasoning, 1, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 22-24, 26-28 and 30) [p.88]

39

Learning Objective Examples (continued)
Example: Science
In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to think: of many possible ways to balance conservation with economic progress and will share their ideas through a series of illustrations, charts and oral presentations.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic/Concept: Endangered Species, 31, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 4, 11, 12, 30, 50, 51, 56 and 62) [po 179]
Example: Social Studies
In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to generate many ideas as to how the question of state representation could have been resolved (other than by the Connecticut Compromise) and will present their ideas in a class discussion.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept B: Problem Solving, 17, crossreferenced with OBOE competencies 53, 56 and 57) [po 154]
Practice Templates: Fluency

In their study of

_

the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and will share ideas through a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '

a ----------------------------

a

or a self-selected product.

In their study of----------------------
the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and a

will

share

ideas

through

a

-

-

-

--

--

--

-

-

-

-

-

-_

a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - or a self-selected product.

40

Learning Objective Template

In their study of

', the students will be able to use what

they have learned to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _', a ________________, a

and will share ideas through a

_________________ or a self-selected product.

Verb Phrases
Adapt ... Combine/Change ... Eliminate ... Modify/Maximize/Minimize ... Put to other uses ... Reverse/Rearrange ... Speculate, what would happen if ... Substitute ... Suppose, in what ways might we ...

Learning Objective Examples
Example: Language Arts
In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to use what they have learned to speculate on other ways Hamlet might have confronted his mother with "the truth" and will present their ideas through a dramatization.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics
In their study of descriptive statistics, the students will be able to use what they have learned to speculate on what might happen if advertisers were required to explain the basis for comparisons of products and will present their ideas through a class discussion and a written proposal to a federal or state agency.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: Statistics, Topic/Concept B: Descriptive Statistics, cross-referenced with OBOE competency 25) [po 89]

41

Learning Objective Examples (continued)
Example: Science
In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to speculate on ways in which the goals of conservation and the goals of industry might be combined and will present their ideas through a self-selected product.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic/Concept: Population Change, 15, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 12, 18, 19,20,22,25,50,51,52 and 56) [po 172]
Example: Social Studies
In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to speculate on what might happen if one branch of government were preeminent over the other two and will share their ideas through a series of written newspaper articles or editorials.
QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept B: Structure of American Law, 5, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 61 and 62) [po 151]

Practice Templates: Flexibility

In their study of

_

the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and a

will

share

ideas

through

a-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-_

a -----------------------------
or a self-selected product.

In their study of- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the students will be able to use what they have learned to
and will share ideas through a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - a ----------------------------a -----------------------------
or a self-selected product.
42

Learning Objective Template

In their study of what they have learned to through a ________________, a

, the students will be able to use and will share ideas
,a

________________ or a self-selected product.

Verb Phrases
Add Add to . Append . Build on . Enlarge . Extend .

to make it more ...

Learning Objective Examples
Example: Language Arts
In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to use what they have learned to add a scene in which Hamlet (1) questions the Ghost, (2) confronts his mother or (3) discusses "fate" with Horatio and will present their ideas through a written script and a dramatization.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept D, 46, crossreferenced to GBOE competencies 40, 41 and 42) [po 43]
Example: Mathematics
In their study of descriptive statistics, the students will be able to use what they have learned to add new safeguards against possible bias in sampling precedures and will share what they have learned through a written proposal and a discussion.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: Descriptive Statistics, 3, cross-referenced with
43

Learning Objective Examples (continued)
Example: Science
In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to add flora and/or fauna to a specific habitat that will increase the viability of the food web and will share their ideas through a class discussion and a chart.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic/Concept: Population Change, 15, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 12, 18, 19,20,22,25,50,51,52 and 56) [po 172]
Example: Social Studies
In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to add language to the Tenth Amendment that will clarify the balance among federal powers, state powers and the rights of the people and will present their ideas through a rewritten amendment.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: Structure of American Law, 5, 6, 7 and 8, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 54, 58, 61 and 62) [po 151]

Practice Templates: Elaboration

In their study of

_

the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and will share ideas through a

_

a ----------------------------a -----------------------------
or a self-selected product.

In their study of--------------------.,....--
the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and will share ideas through a

_

a ----------------------------a -----------------------------
or a self-selected product.

44

Learning Objective Template

In their study of

', the students will be able to use

what they have learned to through a ________________, a

and will share ideas ,a

_________________ or a self-selected product.

Verb Phrases

Create a new way to ...

Design or invent a ...

Develop a unique process for ...

Give "zany" or unusual ideas to ...

Imagine how you could ...

Show your own ideas about ...

Suggest diverse improvements for ...

Suppose that ...

Think of an idea that no one else has thought of to

.

Learning Objective Examples
Example: Language Arts
In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to use what they have learned to write a soliloquy in which Hamlet considers unique responses to his situation and will present their ideas through a dramatization.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 63, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 39, 40 and 42) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics
In their study of probability, the students will be able to use what they have learned to think of a unique way to solve a given problem and will present their ideas through a written outline and a verbal explanation.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept C: Probability, 13, cross- referenced with GBOE competencies 22-28 and 30) [po 89]

45

Learning Objective Examples (continued)
Example: Science
In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to develop a hypothetical and unique habitat in which symbiotic interactions assure balance in the food web and will present their ideas in a self-selected product.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Population Change, 15, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 1, 18, 19,20,22,25,50,51,52 and 56) [po 172]
Example: Social Studies
In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to develop a unique way to maintain balance of power among the three branches of the federal government and will present their ideas through a speech.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept E: Major Issues of American Legal History, 21, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 3, 54, 57, 58 and 62) [po 153]

Practice Templates: Originality

In their study of

_

the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and will share ideas through a

_

a

_

a -----------------------------
or a self-selected product.

In their study of

_

the students will be able to use what they have learned to

and will share ideas through a

_

a

_

a

_

or a self-selected product.

46

In encouraging creative thinking in the classroom, teachers may also wish to consider using the skills of fluency, flexibility, elaboration and originality with an "inquiry" method at the beginning of a lesson to assist students in determining what they already know about a topic and to allow students to learn from their class peers.
Example: Literature (with skills of fluency) Students might, prior to the reading of the play Hamlet, be invited to list as many attributes of a "tragic situation" as they can in order to compare their list with the traits of a classical tragedy.
Example: Mathematics (with skills of flexibility) Students might be invited to think of how things would be different if there were no agreed upon means of measurement before their study of consumer mathematics in order to assist them in understanding the need for standardized, interval measurements.
Example: Science (with skills of elaboration) Students might be invited to think of ways in which their own knowledge of science has added to their understanding of the community in which they live in order to assist students in considering causal relationships in their study of ecosystems.
Example: Social Studies (with skills of originality) The students might be asked to imagine new and unusual ways for people to have their ideas and their rights represented in a legislative branch of government prior to learning ways that they actually can lobby their representatives.
These examples use skills of creative thinking at the beginning of a lesson via an inquiry approach rather than at the end of a lesson to reinforce previously learned information.
47

The use of creative thinking skills with the required content specified by the Quality Core Curriculum provides educators with several planning options.
-A strategy for reinforcing information that has been previously presented to students other than the traditional strategy of reinforcement through repetition
-A strategy through which the teacher may facilitate the learning and the usage of prooductive thinking by students
-A means for motivating students by inviting them to synthesize course content with their own experiences and ideas
-The development of diverse products, thereby allowing students to demonstrate their mastery of content through media that complement each student's preferred style of learning.
-A way to make teaching more interesting to the teacher
Creativity and the Quality Basic Education Act
Educators may also use skills of creative thinking in conjunction with the skills delineated in the Quality Basic Education (QBE) Act and the GBOE competencies. However, the creative thinking skills should not be used with these skills unless the combination makes good educational sense.
48

Critical thinking skills include the mental tools that allow students to analyze, judge, defend and dispute ideas. These tools have been classified by educators in a variety of ways. However, the heart of each classification system is an emphasis on assisting students to set and use criteria for making decisions. In this chapter, strategies are presented for incorporating critical thinking skills into learning objectives.
49

Educators may increase the likelihood that students will think critically if the thinking skill within the learning objective requires students to make judgments. The following verbs may be used for this purpose.

-analyze -classify -conclude' -criticize -defend -detect -determine -define -dispute -distinguish

-estimate -formulate -interpret -judge -propose -prove -select -show -test -verify

Critical thinking demands the use of analytical, evaluative and logical thinking. By placing one of the above verbs in the "process" slot of the following objective template, the educator will be able to aim the thinking of students toward critical thinking.

In their study of learned to a

, the students will be able to use what they have

and will present their ideas through

,a

or a self-selected product.

Of course, the verb must be followed by information (related to the content of the objective) that will facilitate critical thinking.

50

Strategy 1 (continued) Example: Language Arts In their study of the genre of tragedy, the students will be able to use what they have learned to distinguish the traits of protagonists from the traits of the antagonists and will present their ideas in a chart and a report.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics In their study of descriptive statistics, the students will be able to use what they have learned to distinguish appropriate from inappropriate uses of the term "average" and present their findings in a written report and a panel discussion.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: Descriptive Statistics, 7) [po 89]
Example: Science In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to distinguish the impact of biotic factors from the impact of abiotic factors in a given niche and will present their ideas through a speech and a chart.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Parts of an Ecosystem, 3, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 4, 12,22,25,40,50,51 and 56) [po 167] and 4, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 12, 18, 19,20,22,25,48,50,51 and 56) [po 168]
Example: Social Studies In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to defend or dispute the practice of appointing justices of the Supreme Court "for life" and will present their positions in a debate.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept B: Structure of American Law, 7, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 54 and 61) [po 151]
51

Anita Harnadek (1976), in her book Critical Thinking: Book One, presents introductory information on critical thinking skills and provides a number of exercises for practicing these skills. Several of the activities encourage the student to examine dichotomous relationships, including
"resolvable" vs. "ambiguous,"
"possible" vs. "probable"
"literal" vs. "figurative" and
"factual" vs. "emotional."
The first two pairs have been adapted for use in this publication.
"Resolvable" vs. "ambiguous" One area where a dichotomy may be established for the purpose of critical thinking is in the area of "resolvable" versus "ambiguous.''The following phrases may be of assistance in constructing objectives.
determine whether the answer is recorded... verify or dispute the source(s) of the answer... give evidence from source(s) that will support... detect inconsistencies in opposing arguments that... conclude from evidence that...
adapted from Harnadek, 1976
52

Strategy 2 (continued) Example: Language Arts In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to detennine whether the assertion that Gertrude (Queen of Denmark and mother to Hamlet) knew of the murder committed by Claudius is "resolvable" or "ambiguous" and will present their conclusions in prepared notes and in a class forum.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics In their study of descriptive statistics, the students will be able to give evidence from sources to verify or dispute the position that no systematic bias exists in a population sampling and will present their conclusions in a class discussion, a written statement or a selfselected product.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: 3, cross-referenced with GBOE competency 25) [p.89]
Example: Science In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to detect inconsistencies in the arguments of conservationists and developers regarding the probable impact of specific actions on the environment and will present their conclusions in a written report and a chart.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Conservation of Resources, 42, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 7,8,9, 10, 11, 14,40,53 and 56) [po 184]
Example: Social Studies In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to conclude from evidence whether the proposition that the extent of the influence of the media in the decision-making process of the courts is knowable or ambiguous and will present their positions in a debate.
53

Strategy 2 (continued)
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept E: Major Issues of American Legal History, 21, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 4,61 and 62) [po 153]
"Probable" vs. "possible" A second area of dichotomy that may be used to build critical thinking skills is that of "probable" versus "possible." The following verb phrases may be of use in constructing
objectives.
conclude and verify that, with certainty,... conclude and verify that it is probable . conclude and verify that it is possible . determine whether __ is certain, probable, possible or impossible
Adapted from Harnadek, 1975
Example: Language Arts In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to use what they have learned to determine whether Gertude's complicity in the death of Hamlet's father is certain, probable, possible or impossible and will present their positions in a class discussion and with reference cards.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics In their study of statistics, the students will be able to use what they have learned to determine the probability of an event occurring and will present their ideas through a written or an oral report.
(QCC, Statistics, Topic/Concept C: Probability, 11, cross-referenced with GBOE competency 25) [po 90]
54

Strategy 2 (continued) Example: Science In their study of ecology, the students will be able to use what they have learned to conclude whether the present wanning of the environment is "possibly" or "probably" related to specific human actions and will present their findings in a written report with charts. (QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Conservation of Resources, 42, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 7, 8, 9,10,11,14,40,53 and 56) [po 184] Example: Social Studies In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to present evidence to verify or dispute the proposition that the authors of the Constitution probably intended for power among the three branches of the federal government to fluctuate and will present their positions in a class discussion and a position paper. (QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept E: Major Issues of American Legal History, 21, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 3, 54, 57, 58 and 62) [po 153]
55

Students must learn how to set and use several types of criteria if they are to think critically: "yes" vs. "no" criteria, nonnegotiable criteria, objective criteria, subjective criteria and weighted criteria. These types overlap with one another; for example, a weighted criterion may be objective or subjective.
56

Strategy 3 (continued)
"Yes" vs. "No" Criteria Yes/No criteria are used when "membership" or "belonging" is being established. If a person, place or thing has the requisite attribute, then a "yes" (qualifying) mark may be given; if not, then a "no" (disqualifying) mark may be given.
Example: Language Arts In their study of the play Hamlet, the students will be able to verify or dispute (with evidence from the text) that Hamlet had the following requisite traits of a tragic hero: nobility; involved in a struggle of life and death; prideful; and tragic flaw. Students will present their conclusions in a class discussion and a checklist.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics In their study of probability, the students will be able to use what they have learned to set and use criteria for distinguishing "independent" and "dependent" events and will present their conclusions in a matrix or a flow chan.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept C: 9, cross-referenced with GBOE competency 25) [po 90]
Example: Science In their study of ecosystems, the students will be able to use what they have learned to determine whether a planned development meets state requirements and will present their findings in a matrix and an oral report.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Conservation of Resources, 42, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 7,8,9, 10, 11, 14,40,53 and 54) [po 184]
57

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Social Studies In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to establish "yes" and "no" criteria to detennine domains of influence of each branch of the federal government and will present their findings in a chart or through written job descriptions.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept B: Structure of American Law, 5, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 61 and 62) [po 151]
Non-Negotiable Criteria: A nonnegotiable criterion is used when there is no room for compromise. It is used the same way as a yes/no criterion, but with different consequences. If a nonnegotiable criterion is not met, then the "candidacy" of the idea or the item will be rejected. Matters of degree are not considered; it is or it is not, sine qua non.
Example: Language Arts In their study of tragic heroes, the students will use the criterion "unintentional error" to
verify or dispute with evidence that Satan in Milton's Paradise Lost qualifies as a true
tragic hero and will present their conclusions in a class discussion and a position paper.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept E: Literature, 66, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 39 and 40) [po 45]
Example: Mathematics In their study of prediction and sampling procedures, the students will use the criterion, no gender bias, to verify or dispute that a sample is or is not representative of a heterogeneous population and will present their findings in a chart or a checklist.
(QCC, Statistics: 9-12, Topic/Concept B: 3, cross-referenced with OBOE competency 25) [po 89]
58

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Science In their study of fauna in an ecosystem, the students will be able to use what they have learned to decide whether a particular animal can or cannot be classified as an endangered species requiring special protection and will present their findings in a report and a checklist.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic/Concept: Endangered Species, 31, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 4, 11, 12,30,50,51,56 and 62) [po 179]
Example: Social Studies In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will use the criteria (1) 35 years of age or older, (2) natural-born citizen and (3) 14 years of established residence to determine whether a candidate meets the legal requirements to become the President and will present their findings in a chart.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept A: Foundations of American Constitutional Law, 1, cross-referenced with OBOE competency 62) [po 151]
Objective Criteria An objective criterion is used to determine questions of "degree" or to measure relative value. Numbers are used as ordinal measurements for ratings and comparisons. For example, the number 5 might indicate "excellent" while the number 1 might indicate "unacceptable." To make judgments, specific parameters must be determined that will allow for comparisons.
Example
5 =500 - 401
4 = 400 - 301 3 = 300 - 201 2 = 200 - 101 1 = 100 - 001
59

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Language Arts If students are detennining which play to select for a school production, they may establish ranges of cost to assist in selecting a script. Of course, the amounts and the ranges must have meaning to the individuals making the decision and must assist in discriminating among more and less fiscally viable scripts.
5 = $25 - $50
4 = $51 - $75 3 = $76 - $100
2 = $101 - $125
1 = $126 - $150
Objective: In their selection of a script for the school play, the students will establish and use a fiscal criterion to make a decision and will present their conclusion through a report.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory: Topic/Concept A: Speaking! Listening, 8, cross-referenced with OBOE competency 16) [po 39]
Example: Mathematics If students are determining the relative merit of various computer utility programs, they might set an objective criterion regarding the cost of each program (similar to the example given above).
Objective: In their selection of computer software for use in solving mathematical problems, the students will set and utilize at least five objective criteria to select computer software and will present their findings on a matrix.
(QCC, Computer Mathematics: 9-12, Topic A: 6, cross-referenced to OBOE competencies 20-31) [po 93]
60

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Science If students are studying ecosystems, they might use established criteria to examine the impact of a specific form of pollution on public health.
Objective: In their studying of air pollution, students will utilize a measuring system used by local, state or federal government to assess the possible impact of levels of smog on the health of residents of their community and will report their findings in a graph and an editorial.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic/Concept: Air Pollution, 33, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 3, 7,8, 11, 12, 18, 19,20,22,25,30,40,47,48,50,51,52,53,56,59 and 62) [po 180]
Example: Social Studies If students are studying change as it relates to individual liberty, they might make judgments about the influences of court decisions.
Objective: In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to set and use objective criteria to measure the expansion of individual rights through decisions by the courts and will present their findings in a written report and a timeline.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept E: Major Issues of American Legal History, 20, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 53,54,57,58 and 62) [po 152]
Subjective Criteria: A subjective criterion is used to measure "soft data" that may not be easy to quantify. This does not suggest that subjective measurements are not as important as objective measurements. It does mean that students should have skills of making judgments in matters of perception, preference, style and attitude. Subjective criteria can be quantified for the purpose of decision making. Ratings are usually based on a "case study" approach, an "attributes" approach or an expert opinion.
61

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Language Arts If students are discussing the relative leadership skills of protagonists in Shakespeare's plays, then the teacher may wish to have students establish a basis for comparisons and ratings. Students might develop a set of traits that distinguish an outstanding leader (giving each trait a rating of 5) from traits of a mediocre leader (giving each trait a rating of 3) and a poor leader (giving each trait a rating of 1). Using this "attribute" approach, students will be able to apply subjective criteria in their assessment of leadership skills of protagonists.
Objective: In their study of tragic heroes, the students will set and use subjective criteria to judge the relative leadership qualities of the protagonists and will present their findings in a class discussion and on a matrix.
(QCC, English Language Arts: 9-12, College Preparatory, Topic/Concept A: Speaking! Listening, 13, cross-referenced with GBOE competencies 13 and 16) [po 40]
Example: Mathematics If students are studying the use of geometric shapes in the arts (including painting, sculpting and architecture), they may be asked to set and use subjective criteria for assessing the aesthetic value of various two- and three-dimensional shapes, used singularly and in combinations. By examining a number of examples (through a case history approach), the students may be able to establish a rating system for judging new forms.
Objective: In their study of the use of geometric shapes in the arts, the student will be able to use what they have learned to set and use subjective criteria for rating the aesthetic value of shapes (singularly and in combination) and will present their ideas in a class discussion.
(QCC, Geometry or Informal Geometry: 9-12, Topic/Concept A: Problem Solving! Visualizing/Reasoning, 6, cross-referenced with GBOE competency 30) [po 63]
62

Strategy 3 (continued)
Example: Science If students are studying ecosystems and the impact of humans on the environment, they might use the information to make judgments about proposed civic programs.
Objective: In their study of renewable resources, the students will be able to set and use subjective criteria for judging the desirability of various proposed civic recycling programs and will present their conclusions in a class discussion and a written report.
(QCC, Ecology: 9-12, Topic: Conservation of Resources, 40, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 22, 25, 40, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 56,59 and 62) [po 183]
Example: Social Studies If students are studying influences of cultural heritage on the present, they might make decisions relating to legal traditions.
Objective: In their study of the United States Constitution, the students will be able to use what they have learned to set and use subjective criteria for assessing the contributions of the colonial political system to the development of the American legal tradition and will present their findings in a class presentation.
(QCC, Constitutional Theory: 11-12, Topic/Concept A: Foundations of American Constitutional Law, 4, cross-referenced with OBOE competencies 53, 55, 57, 58 and 59) [po 151]
Weighted Criteria A weighted criterion is used when there is a need to give one criterion more influence than other criteria (when several criteria are being used in making a decision). A judgment can be made as to how much weight to give a criterion. For example, if other crite-
ria are rated on a five-point scale (5 =excellent and 1 =poor), then a criterion with a
weight of 2 would receive double the score (10 = excellent, 2 =poor). A criterion should
only be given a "weight" if it truly is twice (or three times) as important as other criteria being used for judgment. The grid on the following page is one way to represent each criterion's weight for a given decision.
63

Strategy 3 (continued)

Evaluation Grid

Criterion 1

Criterion 2

Criterion 3 (2X)

Total Score

Idea 1

Idea 2

Idea 3

Idea 4

64

Robert Ennis (1962) has delineated the following 12 aspects of critical thinking, which may be used as a part of curriculum construction. Grasp the meaning of a statement. Judge whether ambiguity exists. Judge if contradiction exists. Judge if a conclusion necessarily follows. Judge the specificity of a statement. Judge if a statement relates to a certain principle. Judge the reliability of an observation. Judge if an inductive conclusion is warranted. Judge if a problem has been identified. Judge if a definition is adequate. Judge if a statement is credible. Judge if something is an assumption. These verb phrases may be inserted into an objective, thereby "aiming" the thinking of
65

Strategy 4 (continued) the students toward critical thinking. A sample objective might resemble the following. In their study of an author's theory, the students will be able to use what they have
learned to judge if a conclusion necessarily follows and will present their opinions in a
class discussion. Teachers in each content area should assist students to examine the statements made about the information within disciplines. Students must be good consumers of information, and good consumerism requires skills of discernment.
66

Section 20-2-140 of the Quality Basic Education (QBE) Act directs the Oeorgia Board of Education (OBOE) to establish competencies that each student is expected to master prior to completion of the student's public school education. These competencies, in the form of brief statements, are outlined in OBOE Rule 160-4-2-.01. Some statements indicate skills that may be classified as elements of critical thinking. Educators may identify these by looking for OBOE competencies that use verbs requiring students to make judgments. Below are some of the OBOE competencies that may be included.
Reading OBOE competency 1: determine word meanings...
OBOE competency 2: make valid inferences...
Writing OBOE competency 10: select and organize ideas...
OBOE competency 11: adjust writing for purpose and situation...
Listening, viewing, and speaking OBOE competency 13: interpret oral messages...
OBOE competency 14: evaluate the intentions and messages...
Mathematics OBOE competency 22: make estimates and approximations and judge the reasonableness of a result...
OBOE competency 23: formulate and solve a problem...
OBOE Competency 24: select and use appropriate tools in solving problems...
67

Strategy 4 (continued)
Reasoning and solving problems GBOE competency 26: identify and formulate problems...
GBOE competency 27: propose and evaluate various ways to solve problems...
GBOE competency 28: locate and evaluate information needed to solve problems...
GBOE competency 29: distinguish between fact and opinion...
GBOE competency 30: reach a valid and supportable conclusion...
Literature GBOE competency 40: interpret, analyze and form judgments...
Science Note: While the GBOE student competencies under science do not seem to specify particular skills of critical thinking, there are references to students knowing and using methods of scientific inquiry, which does include skills of critical thinking.
Social Studies GBOE competency 53: show an understanding of the relationship...
GBOE competency 61: locate, interpret and analyze information from a variety of sources...
Health Education GBOE competency 65: select and participate in...
Career and Vocational Education GBOE competency 67: make tentative...decision...
68

Strategy 4 (continued) Fine Arts OBOE competency 71: identify the relationship between... Foreign Languages Note: While the OBOE student competencies under foreign languages do not seem to specify particular skills of critical thinking, there are references to students studying "socio-cultural, aesthetic, and literary content," which may include the use of critical thinking skills. Computer Education OBOE competency 74: demonstrate...problem solving... Health Education OBOE competency 75: understanding of...reasons for and skills needed to... These skills may be incorporated into learning activities for students, across disciplines, and should not be seen as belonging to one area of study.
69

Certain sections within the Topic/Concept structure of the Quality Core Curriculum focus specifically on critical thinking skills. These sections should be used by all teachers, across disciplines, to encourage critical thinking skills.
For example, in the Quality Core Curriculum for the program area of English Language Arts 9-12 (college preparatory), Topic/Concept F is entitled "Critical Thinking." The following skills (with modifications to the verbs so that they will fit within the structure of an objective) are included.
QCC 83: distinguish between fact and opinion
QCC 84: comprehend, develop and use concepts and generalizations
QCC 85: create hypotheses and predict outcomes
QCC 86: draw reasonable conclusions from information found in various sources
QCC 87: defend conclusions rationally
QCC 88: test the validity of an assertion by examining the evidence
QCC 89: understand logical relationships
QCC 90: construct logical sequences and understand the conclusions to which they lead
QCC 91: detect fallacies in reasoning
Secondary teachers should examine the critical thinking skills that have been delineated within each subject area and work with colleagues to provide a comprehensive approach to the teaching of critical thinking skills.
70

The purposes of teaching critical thinking skills to students in all disciplines include the following.
To assist students in making infonnedjudgments about the information (and the decisions that have been made) within a field of study
To assist students in understanding how to examine existing criteria for validity and appropri ateness
To assist students in understanding how to adapt and/or generate criteria for making judgments
To assist students in understanding how critical thinking skills can provide guidance in the decision-making process
To assist students in becoming good "consumers" of information within a discipline and across disciplines
To assist students in preparing for their roles as leaders and decision makers in our society and in the larger world community
Critical thinking skills do not "tell" students what to think; rather, they help students make informed, valid and thoughtful choices.
71

Problem solving combines the skills of creative thinking and critical thinking to provide a method of exploring, understanding and solving problems. The Creative ProblemSolving (CPS) process, as presented by Isaksen and Treffinger (1980), is divided into six stages:
-mess finding -data finding -problem finding -idea finding -solution finding -acceptance finding
Each stage is defined at the top of the worksheets that are included in this section. Each stage has two phases: a "divergent" phase (in which there is a focus on generating ideas) and a "convergent" phase (in which there is a focus on narrowing or judging ideas). Sample objectives in the content areas of language arts, mathematics, science and social studies have been developed for the divergent and the convergent phase of each stage of creative problem solving to demonstrate how the CPS process can be utilized with required subject matter prescribed by the Quality Core Curriculum.
72

Language Arts In language arts, the play Hamlet has been used as the focus of content. However, the creative problem solving process may be used with any piece of literature in which the protagonist must understand, confront and resolve a problem. The sample objectives for Hamlet move sequentially through each stage of creative problem solving, allowing students to (1) consider the "mess" that Hamlet finds upon returning home, (2) determine what information Hamlet may need, (3) decide the nature of the problems confronting him, (4) generate ideas for responding to the problems, (5) judge the options that may be available to Hamlet and (6) decide how the selected ideas might have been implemented within the play.
Mathematics In mathematics, the area of computer mathematics has been used as the focus of content. While the nature of mathematics is such that the use of the entire (and sequential) creative problem-solving process may not be usable with all areas of study, the individual stages of the process may be used with selected areas and applications of mathematics. The creative problem-solving process is applied to the use of computer mathematics, software and consumerism. In the objectives, students are guided toward (1) considering the advantages and disadvantages of consumer software and why some software may not be used by the public, (2) collecting data regarding the "amathematical" nature of some consumers, (3) determining the problems and the subproblems regarding the use of computer software by consumers, (4) generating ideas for responding to the problems, (5) setting and using quantitative criteria for assessing potential solutions and (6) planning strategies for implementing ideas.
73

Multistage applications (continued)
Science In science, the area of ecology has been used as the focus of content Inherent "problems" in the study of ecology make it a prime area with which to use the creative problem- solving process. The sample objectives move sequentially so that students may (1) consider the "mess" effecting biomes and a local ecosystem, (2) determine the need for information, (3) generate and select problem statements to be investigated, (4) produce ideas for responding to problems relating to conservation, (5) set and use criteria for assessing the ideas generated and (6) select a plan for implementing their ideas.
Social Studies In social studies, the study of the United States Constitution (and the balance of power between and among branches of the federal government) has been selected as the focus of content. The Constitution is a monument to a great history of problem solving and is, therefore, an appropriate focus for the application of creative problem-solving skills. The sample objectives are sequentially delineated so that students may (1) consider difficulties inherent in the division of power, (2) determine the information that they possess about the branches of government and their interactions, (3) define problems relating to balancing power and operating the government, (4) generate ideas for assuring an equitable balance of influence among branches, (5) set and use criteria for judging ideas and (6) develop plans for gaining acceptance for their ideas.
The area of focus selected in each content area was chosen because it includes an inherent or potential problem to which the process may be applied. Educators should avoid attempting to apply the creative problem solving process to areas of study in which the "right answers" are already known (e.g., the study of subject and verb agreement in language arts, the calculation of the volume of a cube in mathematics, the molecular structure of water in science and the names of state capitals in social studies).
74

Creative Problem Solving Process
Mess Finding, Stage 1: Mess finding "involves probing our interests, experiences, and concerns to consider a number of general topics which might serve as possibilities or starting points for CPS" (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p. 15).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

ill
CJ
CJ)
~~
CJa:
Z
.....J

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to list the pressures Hamlet may be feeling by the end of Act II and will share their list in a class discussion.

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to list, from the point of view of any major character, good and bad points about life at court and will share their ideas in a class discussion.

In their study of computer mathematics, In their study of computer mathematics,

CJ)
()

students will be able to use what they have students will be able to use what they have

~

learned to list possible reasons why some people may avoid learning how to use

learned to list advantages and disadvantages of using software to solve problems in

~ computer software to solve problems in consumer, business and leisure mathemat:'

ill consumer, business and leisure mathemat- ics and will present their ideas in a chart.

I
~

ics and will share their ideas in a list.

~

In their study of ecology, students will be In their study of a local ecosystem, stu-

able to use what they have learned to list dents will be able to use what they have

ill possible positive and negative effects of learned to list specific positive and nega-

() technology on terrestrial, marine and fresh tive influences of humans on a food web

Z
-ill

water biomes and will share their ideas in and will present their ideas on a chart and

a class discussion.

in a report.

()

CJ)

In their study of the United States Consti-

tution, students will be able to use what

.....JCJ) they have learned to list potential conflicts

ill that could occur when power is shared by

(O-)0 ~~

three branches of government and will present their ideas in a class discussion.

CJ)CJ)

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to list incidents in which having three branches of government has helped or hindered effective and/or efficient governance and will present their ideas in a chart.

75

Creative Problem Solving Process
Data Finding, Stage 2: Data finding involves "gathering all available infonnation, knowledge, facts, feelings, thoughts, opinions, or questions about the mess" (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p.15).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

In their study of the play Hamlet, students

W
<.!J
:<::t::.Hen-

will be able to use what they have learned to generate a list of questions relating to Hamlet's situation (Act ITI, Scene 2) and will present their ideas in a class discus-

<.!Ja: sion.
Z<t:.

:5

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to place in priority order the questions that Hamlet must answer at the end of Act lIT, Scene 2, and will present their ideas in a list.

en
0 /<t:.

In their study of computer mathematics, In their study of computer mathematics, students will be able to use what they have students will be able to use what they have learned to discuss their impressions as to learned to construct a survey fonn and colwhy many individuals are "amathemati- lect infonnation to detennine to what de-

~ cal" in their daily lives and will organize gree classmates use software for consumer

W and present their ideas in a web or a list. mathematics and will present their find-

I

ings on a spreadsheet.

/-

<t:.

~

In their study of ecology, students will be In their study of a local ecosystem, stu-

able to use what they have learned to de- dents will be able to use what they have

W velop a list of questions that, when an-

learned to use key words (who, what,

0 swered, would increase their understand- when, why and how) to organize the infor-

Z
W-

ing of biomes.

e0n

mation that they already have and will present the facts in a resource paper.

-J
<t:.

en
W

-0

0::J

Oen /e-n

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to consider ways in which one branch of government might influence the powers of another branch and will present their ideas in a written script.

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to list specific incidents in which two branches of government worked cooperatively or worked at crosspurposes and will present the infonnation on a chart.

76

Creative Problem Solving Process
Problem Finding, Stage 3: Problem finding involves "consider[ing] many possible questions, or . 'problem statements,' about which [one wishes] to gather ideas." It also includes selecting "a problem statement, or a combination of problem statements that seem best to fit the most important aspects of the situation..." [or the mess] (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p. 15).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

W ~
<J:.CJ)
~~ ~((
Z<J:.
:5

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate a list of problem statements describing Hamlet's situation and will share their ideas in a class discussion.

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to formulate a problem in the broadest sense describing Hamlet's situation and will share their statement in a class discussion.

In their study of computer mathematics, In their study of computer mathematics,

CJ)
()

students will be able to use what they have students will be able to use what they have

~
<J:.

learned to speculate on what might be (in the broadest sense) the "problem" regard-

learned to construct a written series of subproblem statements ("In what ways might

~ ing the under-utilization of software in

we...") that, if solved, would increase the

W consumerism and share ideas in a discus- use of software among consumers.

I sion.
~

<J:.

~

In their study of ecology, students will be In their study of a local ecosystem, stu-

able to use what they have learned to de- dents will be able to use what they have

W velop a list of problem statements about learned to formulate several sub-problem

() topics related to biomes, including extinc- statements ("In what ways might we...")

Z
W

tion, resources, pollution and conservation, that address the broad-based problem of and will present their statements in a list. balancing conservation and economic ex-

() CJ)

pansionism.

-JCJ) <J:.W
-()0~
01-
CJ)CJ)

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate a list of problem statements about the sharing and balancing of power and will share their ideas in a class discussion.

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to formulate a problem statement that addresses, in the broadest sense, the conflicts inherent in the operation of the balance of power among branches of government.

77

Creative Problem Solving Process
Idea Finding, Stage 4: Idea finding "involves searching for many possible responses or ideas for the question or problem statement selected in problem-finding" (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p. 15).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate many ideas for solving a selected component of Hamlet's dilemma and will share their ideas through a list.

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to add marks to their list of generated ideas that will identify them as relating to "person," "place," or "situation." Additional ideas may be added.

In their study of computer mathematics, In their study of computer mathematics,

(f)
g

students will be able to use what they have students will be able to use what they have

l-
e::(

learned to think of many ways to respond learned to review the brainstormed ideas to one of the sub-problems regarding con- and mark those that are most exciting.

~ sumer software and will share their ideas

:Wr: in a list.

l-

e::(

~

In their study of a local ecosystem, stu- In their study of a local ecosystem, stu-

dents will be able to use what they have dents will be able to use what they have

ozw
w
o

learned to brainstorm ideas for solving one learned to present and discuss the brainof the subproblems relating to conserva- stormed ideas with conservationists in ortion and will record their ideas on a flip- der to adapt and extend their list of ideas. chart.

(f)

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to think of many, varied and unusual ideas for securing an equitable balance among the branches of government and will share their ideas through a position paper.

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to utilize role-playing techniques to explore and modify the ideas generated.

78

Creative Problem Solving Process
Solution Finding, Stage 5: Solution finding involves "consider[ing] many possible criteria for evaluating ...promising ideas." It also includes choosing and applying the criteria "to determine which idea or ideas...offer the greatest potential for solving the problem" (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p. 17).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate a list of possible criteria to assess ideas for solving Hamlet's dilemma and will share their ideas in class discussion.

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to assess ideas for actions that Hamlet could take and will present their ideas in a matrix.

In their study of computer mathematics, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate various quantitative criteria that might be used to assess their ideas.

In their study of computer mathematics, students will be able to use what they have learned to select and utilize criteria for ranking ideas for responding to the underuse of software in consumerism and present their ideas in a matrix.

In their study of a local ecosystem, stu- In their study of ecology, students will be

dents will be able to use what they have able to use what they have learned to se-

w learned to generate a list of possible crite- lect specific ideas for supporting conserva-

() ria to assess ideas regarding conservation tion efforts and will present their ideas on

wZ and will share their ideas in a list.

a matrix and in a report.

(en)

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to generate "ground rules" that could be used for resolving disputes between and among branches of government and will share their ideas through a guidebook.

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to list criteria and principles for resolving conflicts between and among branches of government and will present their ideas through a speech.

79

Creative Problem Solving Process
Acceptance Finding, Stage 6: Acceptance finding involves "taking those promising problemsolving possiblities and considering the specific elements that will promote successful implementation" (Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985, p. 17).

Divergent Phase

Convergent Phase

W
(!J
<!.(/)
::JI(!JOC
Z<!.
:5

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to develop a list of characters who might help Hamlet to implement his solution and will present their ideas in a list.

In their study of the play Hamlet, students will be able to use what they have learned to select allies and a plan of action for Hamlet to implement his plan and will present their ideas through a script.

In their study of computer mathematics, In their study of computer mathematics,

(/)
0 I-
<!.

students will be able to use what they have students will be able to use what they have learned to imagine what it might take to learned to delineate strategies to promote increase the use of consumer software in the use of computer software and will

~ our society and will share their ideas in a present their plan in a flow chart.

W discussion or a written scenario.

I

I-

<!.

~

In their study of ecology, students will be In their study of ecology, students will be

able to use what they have learned to think able to use what they have learned to de-

W of who might support and who might op- velop a plan of action for implementing

0 pose the ideas to enhance conservation ef- selected ideas and will present their plan in

Z W

forts and will present their ideas in a class a timeline. discussion.

0

(/)

-.oJ(/)
<!.W
-0 O::J
01-
(/)(/)

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to think of sectors of society that could mediate the acceptance of guidelines for resolving disputes between or among branches of government and will share their ideas through a web.

In their study of the United States Constitution, students will be able to use what they have learned to list the advantages and the disadvantages for selected solutions and will present their ideas through a chart.

80

The creative problem-solving model does not need to be used in ta sequential format. Educators may use any stage or any phase within a stage of the process with subject matter, providing that these prerequisites are met: (1) Students know the subject matter well enough to use the process constructively; (2) students have sufficient knowledge of and experience with the stage/phase so that they may apply the process successfully to the subject matter; and (3) final products such as discussions, lists or papers are sufficient for students to present their ideas.
Language Arts A language arts teacher might use the "mess-finding" stage to have students list, before writing a book report, aspects of a novel that they did and did not enjoy.
Mathematics A mathematics teacher might have students use the solution-finding stage with their study of geometric shapes to set and use criteria to establish whether the requirements of a "proof' have been met.
Science A science teacher might have students use the idea-finding stage with their study of laboratory procedures to generate many, varied and unique ways to assure the safety of each student in the class.
Social Studies A social studies teacher might have students use the fact-finding stage to determine what information they already possess and what information they need regarding their study of ancient civilizations.
Even when the entire creative problem-solving process is being utilized with a discipline, the process does not need to be used in a particular order. One may always jump ahead or return to a stage as needed. Creative problem solving is composed of mental skills and tools that may be applied as needed to any area of study in which the outcomes will be productive.
81

The creative problem solving process provides a useful structure for organizing the study of some areas of subject matter or reinforcing specific elements within an area of subject matter. As an "advanced organizer" in curriculum planning, the creative problem solving process has the following specific strengths. providing continuity in the study of a topic emphasizing the interrelatedness ofthe information within an area of study allowing for the mastery of facts, the generation of ideas and the judging of ideas including a dimension of open-endedness that will allow students of varying abilities,
interests and backgrounds with opportunities to succeed in learning and using information; giving teachers opportunities to utilize varied instructional strategies providing students with opportunities to present their ideas through varied product forms Educators are encouraged to use the creative problem solving process with the areas of study specified in the Quality Core Curriculum rather than with content they have devised.
82

The creative problem-solving process was initially developed by Alex F. Osborn. In his book Applied Imagination, he presented many of the ideas .that were hiter incorporated into the process. Sidney Parnes, Ruth Noller and Angelo Biondi developed the Creative Behavior Guidebook (1967), the Guide to Creative Action (1977) and the Creative Actionbook (1976), which detailed the stages and steps of the process. In 1985, Scott Isaksen and Donald Treffmger developed the publication Creative Problem Solving: The Basic Course. This book provides a detailed, step-by-step guide to the learning and use of the creative problem solving process.
Educators considering the use of the creative problem solving process are strongly encouraged to review the following publications: Feldhusen, J.F. and Treffinger, D.J. (1980). Creative Thinking and Problem Solving
in Gifted Education. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Isaksen, S.G. and Treffinger, D.J. (1985). Creative Problem Solving: The Basic
Course. Buffalo, NY: Beady Limited.
83

Independent study comprises skills that enable learners to acquire, manipulate and/or generate information and communicate the results to others. "It involves a series of activities which may be taught in "large-group" situations (e.g., whole class or to one student at a time). The skills must, however, be taught and practiced with supervision before students are asked to apply them to areas of interest.
Skills of independent study should be matched to the scholastic abilities of various types of learners and are especially well suited to the intellectual abilities of gifted learners. These skills enable gifted learners (who learn and memorize information rapidly) to learn at rates commensurate with their own abilities. The skills also provide gifted learners (who have a wide range of interests) with mechanisms to self-select topics of genuine concern. Gifted learners (who are adept at problem-solving and at reasoning) apply their abilities to independent study as they recognize cause-effect relationships, set and use criteria to make judgments, and analyze concepts and situations. Gifted learners have the intellectual traits which warrant instruction in skills of independent study.
How To Use This Section This section of the curriculum guide is arranged within a repeating structure. Beginning with a listing of guidelines for developing independent study programs, the reader is next introduced to an independent study model that includes a sequence of stages. Following the model is a description of each of the six stages. Each stage is presented with student objectives, activities and planning sheets, which may be adapted or adopted to meet the instructional needs of the reader. Readers are also encouraged to use the format of this section of the guide to substitute or generate new stages, objectives and activities to develop their own programs. Through tailoring the examples provided, the reader will increase the likelihood of implementating an independent study program successfully.
85

Guidelines provide recommended practices for establishing an independent study program. Responding to intellectual characteristics that distinguish gifted learners from their age-peers, these guidelines are offered to assist educators in developing learning experiences and independent study programs.
-Skills of independent study are imparted through direct instruction. -Independent study is appropriately introduced through whole-group instruction. -Stages of independent study programs are small enough to ensure successful completion of anyone stage. -Evaluation occurs at every stage of independent study. -A common language of objectives, skills and activities is established for communicating key ideas between students and teachers. -Support materials are available to students wishing to pursue independent study. -Process skills (i.e., skills of acquiring and managing information) are of primary importance, and content acquisition is of secondary importance. -Self-selection of a topic is a key factor in maintaining student motivation. -Schoolwide support structures (e.g., scope and sequence of skills, fairs, recognition via grades and awards) facilitate ongoing interest and program growth. -Students may enter and exit may occur at any reasonable stage of the independent study program, as guided by their interests and needs.
86

Below are recommended stages for an independent study program. Educators should select the' stages that support the subject matter and learning environment in which they teach. The model provides a structure for teachers to adapt or adopt activities that meet their specific instructional needs. The model also provides students with a structure to learn the skills of independent study and later to carry out investigations on their own. Each stage will be presented in detail. Select a topic State a challenge Select a design Gather information Organize information Report the findings
Samara, 1988
87

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to generate topics, organize topics, explore topics and/or select a topic for independent study. If a topic has already been selected, this stage may be omitted. Sample worksheets for the activities are provided on the following pages.

Stage I Planning

Objectives

Activities

to record progress and evaluate Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satis-

activities

faction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by at-

taching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a

stage of study has been completed

to brainstorm many, 'varied top- Rules of Brainstorming: by applying the rules of brainstorm-

ics for possible study

ing in a small-group or individual setting

to organize select topics of in- Tree, Bullet or Compare/Contrast Charts: by structuring ide-

terest

as generated in brainstorming session through a tree, bullet or

compare/contrast chart

to explore (or "dabble" with) information related to select topics of interest

Tree, Bullet or Compare/Contrast Charts: by reviewing several available sources of information (e.g., filmstrips, videos, books, experts) and elaborating on the previously selected chart

to select a topic of genuine in- Topic Evaluation Grid: by setting and using criteria to guide

terest for further study

the decision-making process

Samara, 1988
88

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will acquire a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Brainstorming Topics
---.l-l_

Starting Date: ---.l---l._

Organizing
Ideas: Tree Charts
---.l-l_

Exploring Ideas: Tree
Charts-2
---.l-l_

Evaluating!
Selecting Topics
---.l---l._

Stage I
Other
---.l-l_

Self-Rating Activities

1=low 2

3

brainstorm many, varied topics for possible study 1.

organize select topics of interest using a tree chart 2.

explore sources of information and further develop 3. tree chart

select a topic of genuine interest for further study 4.

Student Comments: Student Signature:
Completion Date: ---.l---l._

Teacher Comments:

Teacher Signature:
ft: Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988
89

By fIrst brainstonning many and varied topics, students increase the likelihood of discovering a topic of genuine interest. When the rules of brainstonning in the figure below are applied to a brainstonning session, students are more likely to generate many new ideas.
Rules Of Brainstorming
We avoid criticism and evaluation. We search for quantity, trying to get as many ideas as possible. We entertain all ideas, even those that seem wild or silly. We look for ways to combine ideas.
adapted from: Treffinger, 1980
90

Organizing ideas with the help of visual aids allows students to examine what they know and what they don't know about given topics. In this activity, students select several ideas of interest from Activity 1 and organize them using a tree chart (see figure below).

Tree Charts - 1
When you encounter information that is new to you, it is helpful to arrange it visually. Map out your ideas by developing a chart like the one below.

Related Idea A,1

Related Idea A

Related IdeaA,2

Main Topic

Related IdeaA,3

Related

--- Related Idea B,1

IdeaB

--- Related Idea B,2

Samara, 1990
91

Once students have organized their ideas using visual aids, they will explore (or "dabble" with) information related to topics of interest using sources such as filmstrips, videotapes, books and experts. As they explore these sources, they will continue to develop their tree charts in more depth.
Tree Charts - 2
After you have generated many and varied ideas through brainstorming, use sources such as filmstrips, videos and books to develop your tree chart further.
Main Topic
Samara, 1990
92

Once students have explored several topics and further developed their visual aids in Activity 3, they will set and/or select criteria and apply the criteria to choose one topic for further study. They will use the rating scale below to make ali informed decision. The final rating will not dictate a decision, as the Topic Evaluation Grid incorporates criteria of varying significance (e.g., the criterion "interesting for the learner" may be of much greater significance to some students than "accessibility of materials"). Students should set and use criteria and apply critical judgement by interpreting the results of the grid.

Topic Evaluation Grid

List topics that you would be interested in studying further in the cells below labeled "topics." Then rate each topic from 1-5 (low-high) for each criterion. Work your way down each column, rather than across each row. When you are done rating, add the totals across. Now you are ready to make an informed decision.

1. appropriate level of complexity

Selection

2. available information

T

Criteria

3. interesting for the learner

0 T

A

4. potentially useful findings

L S

I

1. T
0 P 2. I
C
S 3.

4.
adapted from Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985
93

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to generate many, varied questions, assess the degree to which questions will result in "old" vs. "new" information, refine questions into hypotheses and rate and select a question or hypothesis for further study. If a challenge (Le., question or hypothesis) has already been selected, this stage may be omitted. Sample worksheets for the activities are provided on the following pages.

Stage II Planning

Objectives

Activities

to record progress and evaluate Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satis-

activities

faction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by at-

taching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a

stage of study has been completed

to generate many, vaned ques- 5 W's (who, what, when, were and why): by observing the

tions

rules of brainstorming to generate questions in eight catego-

ries on following page

to assess the degree to which the resulting information will be "old" vs. "new"

"Old" vs. "New" Information: by responding to questions to
speculate upon the degree to which resulting information will be "old" vs. "new"

to refine several questions into The Hypothesis: by applying the guidelines of hypothesis

hypotheses

development to several questions of interest

to select a question or hypothe- Challenge Selection Grid: by setting and using criteria to se-

sis for further study

lect a challenge (questionlhypothesis) for further study

Samara, 1988
94

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will utilize a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Exploring Questions
-I---l._

Starting Date: -I---l._

Developing Hypotheses
-I---l._

Assessing New
Information
-I---l._

Selecting
A
Challenge
-I---l._

Stage II
Other
-I---l._

Self-Rating Activities

l=low 2

3

generate several questions in each category 1.

develop several questions into hypotheses
2.

determine the "newness" of information that will re3. suIt from the investigation

select a challenge of genuine interest for further study 4.

Student Comments: Student Signature:
Completion Date: -I---l._

Teacher Comments:

Teacher Signature:
~ Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988
95

By observing the rules of brainstorming, students will generate many, varied exploratory questions and record them in a format similar to the one below. Exploratory questions increase insight into a topic and increase the likelihood of discovering a challenge of genuine interest.

Exploratory Questions
Review the rules of brainstorming and begin to generate many, varied questions about the topic you have selected. Try to develop several questions in each category, remembering that even "silly" or "wild" questions are important during brainstorming.

Who?

What?

When?

Where?

Why?

How?

What would happen if?

In what ways might I?

Samara, 1988
96

Once students have developed several questions, they should refine select questions into hypotheses to pinpoint what they expect to find and focus their attention toward more specific findings. Students are guided by the criteria presented on Hypothesis Development below.
Hypothesis Development
Review the questions you developed in Stage II: Activity 2. Begin to adapt and refine some of them into hypotheses. Adapt each hypothesis until it responds to the guidelines presented below. If you think of new questions and/or hypotheses during this activity, be sure to list them as well. The more questions and hypotheses that you develop, the more likely you are to develop a truly interesting challenge.
A hypothesis states an expected relationship or difference between two or more variables, is grounded in theory or previous research, is a concise statement and is testable.
97

Students will use the checklist on "new" information shown below to determine the degree to which the resulting information will be considered "old" or "new." Students will find that existing information is merely a starting point for new investigations -- a major reason why research is conducted.

"New" Information
Review the questions and hypotheses you generated in Stage II: Activity 3. Select those that would really be interesting for you to explore. Use the checklist below to help you determine the degree to which each question will bring new information into your world. After all, that is a major reason why research is conducted.
The majority of my investigation time will involve:

_listing..... _ reproducing . _ collecting . _ summarizing..... _ analyzing . _ combining . _ organizing . _ classifying .
existing information

_adding to..... _ substituting for..... _varying . _refining . _judging . _ justifying . _deciding . _ verifying ..
new information

< existing information

new information

>

Samara, 1990
98

Once students have considered several questions and hypotheses, they will apply set or selected criteria to choose one challenge for further study. They will use the rating scale below to make an informed decision.

Selecting A Challenge

List questions and hypotheses that appeal to you in rows 1- 4. Then, rate each topic from 1-5 (low-high) for each criterion. Work your way down each column, rather than across each row. When you are done rating, add the totals across. Now you are ready to make an informed decision.

1. appropriate level of complexity

Selection

2. available information

T

Criteria

3. interesting for the learner

0
T

A

4. potentially useful findings

L S

I

C

H A

1.

L

L E

2.

N

G E

3.

S

4.

adapted from Isaksen and Treffinger, 1985
99

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to gain greater awareness of various research designs, select an appropriate research design for application in a research project and detennine the range of research activities that will occur in a given research project. If the research methodologies have already been learned and selected, this stage may be omitted. Sample worksheets for the activities are provided on the following pages.

Objectives

Stage III Planning
Activities

to record progress and to evalu- Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satis-

ate activities

faction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by at-

taching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a

stage of study has been completed

to increase awareness of differ- Research Descriptors: by observing research descriptors as

ent research designs

introduced and displayed in class

to select a research design that Research "Snapshot": by completing a Research "Snapshot" matches investigative pursuit planning sheet

to depict the range of research Design Selection Flow Chart: by referring to infonnation activities that will be conducted presented on Research Descriptors while responding to the
five sets of activities on the Design Selection Flow Chart

Samara, 1988
100

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will utilize a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Explore Research Designs:
Descriptors
---.1---1_

Starting Date: ---.1---1_

Select a Research Design:
Flow Chart
---.1---1_

Plan a Research Design: "Snap-
shot"
---.1---1_

Other
---.1---1_

Stage III
Other
---.1---1_

Self-Rating Activities

1=low 2

3

increase awareness of seven research designs 1.

select the component parts of a research design 2.

plan a research design using a Research "Snapshot"
3. planning sheet

other 4.

Student Comments: Student Signature:
Completion Date: ---.1---1_

Teacher Comments: Teacher Signature:
* Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988
101

By reviewing Research Descriptors (pages 103-106), students will gain familiarity with various research designs, by way of examples, which show how each design may be implemented; key phrases, which highlight what the learner is looking for; purposes, which depict a use for each design; and characteristics, which distinguish one design from another by describing various attributes. Research descriptors promote awareness of research designs and support informed decision making. They promote investigations using methods that might otherwise remain unknown.
Seven Research Designs
Review the seven types of research designs described below. Begin to consider which type of research method you might use in your investigation. You can adapt either the design or your challenge, as needed. For a more detailed description of each research design, review the seven descriptors which follow.

Historical
a written history of your fami-
1y

Descriptive
a graph on how many children have computers
at home

Qualitative
investigating! comparing lives of favorite he-
roes

Correlational
the relationship between TV view-
ing and grades

CausalComparative
the effect of junk food on cavitites

Experimental
determine if a sport drink improves athletic performance

Quasi-Experimental
determine if calculators improve
math scores

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987
102

Historical Research
Examples: Report on the history of your school. Explain why freedom of speech is in the Bill of Rights. List changes in your neighborhood. Summarize your family's background.

Key Phrase: What was?

Purpose: to determine/understand/evaluate past events objectively and accurately

Characteristics: systematic/rigorous collection of information, primary and secondary sources; verification of authenticity/accuracy; sources include original documents, diaries, journals, family records, photo albums and oral histories

adapted from Baum, Gable and List,1987, and the Dallas Independent School District,l977

Causal-Comparative Research
Example~:
Why do some students communicate well? What is the relationship between cavities and junk food? What is the cause for increased frequency of jogging?

Key Phrase: Deduce how

Purpose: to examine potential "cause-effect" relationships by observing outcomes and then searching for possible causes

Characteristics: "Ex-post-facto" research; not as powerful as experimental research for determining cause and effect; variables have already occurred and cannot be controlled; researcher selects variables "after-the-fact"; used when experimental research is not possible and/or desirable

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District,1977
103

Descriptive Research
Examples: Describe various methods by which teachers grade students. Explain which musical groups appeal to most students. Determine the percentage of students who own home computers. Assess the frequency of student responses to various learning environments.

Key Phrase: What is?

Purpose: to describe accurately the nature and degree of existing conditions

Characteristics: an important part of most research studies; supports other types of research; method in and of itself; describes particular situation; uses questionnaires and interviews; clear and accurate data summarization involving tables, graphs, charts; displays frequencies and percentages

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District, 1977

Experimental Research
Examples: Do plants respond to certain stimuli more than to others? Do math skills improve with a certain form of computer-assisted instruction? Do soccer skills improve more with classroom or field instruction?

Key Phrase: Determine how and why

Purpose: to determine cause-effect relationship between independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s)

Characteristics: establishes cause and effect; most difficult type of research; researcher must totally control! manipulate all independent variables; random samples required; experimental and control groups have only one differing variable; yields the most accurate answer regarding how and why one variable causes another

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District, 1977
104

Qualitative Research
Examples:
Analyze how students make decisions about clothing fashions. Depict family decision-making process. Determine cafeteria social groupings, noise levels and/or reasons for wasted food.

Key Phrase: What is?

Purpose: to gather multiple forms of descriptive data to test hunches or evaluate a situation

Characteristics: currently popular; same questions as descriptive research; extends descriptive research; logically tests hunches or arrives at conclusions; technique of "triangulation": (1) review relevant documents, (2) interview key people and (3) observe relevant situations; summarizes information from three different sources

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District, 1977

Quasi-Experimental Research
Examples: Can an ant distinguish between salt and sugar in a maze? Are there any variables that cause ice to melt faster? Compare math test scores with and without student use of calculators. Compare toy sales for a week, with and without Santa in front of the store.

Key Phrase: Deduce how and why

Purpose: to approximate the conditions of experimental research when you cannot control all the variables

Characteristics: used when true experimental research cannot be conducted; closest to true experimental research; used to determine what causes a certain outcome; cannot control all possible reasons (independent and dependent variables)

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District, 1977
105

Correlational Research
Examples:
Do seasons predict school attendance? Is there a relationship between arm span and height? Are school attendance and achievement test scores related? Is time of day related to the number of criminal incidents?

Key Phrase: What is the relationship?

Purpose: to determine the degree of relationship between two variables

Characteristics: allows for the prediction of future events; predictions of future variables based on past demonstration of other variables; cannot conclude cause-effect (e.g., gallons of ice cream consumed during crime waves)

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987, and the Dallas Independent School District, 1977

106

The design flow chart on the next few pages is a series of questions intended to assist students in selecting a research design. As students respond to the questions, they begin to depict the component parts of their research project, including the key phrase, the purpose of the project; the data collection method and the research design. Through this process, students must adapt and refine their projects in preparation for the investigative work that will follow.

Selecting A Research Design
Thoughout the next several activities (pages 107-111), respond to each question as completely and as accurately as possible in order to determine what your research design will entail. Feel free to adapt a design or your question/hypothesis to further refine your investigation. Below is a chart of the steps that you will follow:
I I I. My Research Question/Hypothesis

I

II. My Key Phrase

I

~

I

III. My Purpose

I

~

I

IV. My Data Collection Method

I

~,.

I

V. My Design Choice

I

Samara, 1989
107

Stage III, Activity 3 (continued)
As you begin to consider the research design you will use to investigate your topic, complete the following planning activities by responding as completely and accurately as you can. Use the Research Descriptors to help you, and follow through each step of the flow chart by staying with the same numeral all the way through.
I. My research question/hypothesis is:

ll. My key phrase is: (Select and complete one of the following statements.)

1. What was

_

--------------------_?

2. What is

_

--------------------_?

3a. What is the relationship

_

--------------------_?

3b. What will be

_

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -?

4-6. How and/or why

_

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -?

(continued)
adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987
108

Stage III: Activity 3 (Continued)
Find the verb phrase below that is labeled by the same numeral as the question you answered in the preceding activity. Complete the verb phrase as accurately as you can. Use the Research Descriptors to help you, and follow through each step of the flow chart by staying with the same numeral all the way through.

III. My purpose is: (Select the correct statement and complete it.)

1. to determine/understand/evaluate past events, such as

_

2a. to describe the nature and degree of existing conditions, such as _

2b. to gather multiple forms of descriptive data to test hunches or to evaluate a

situation, such as

_

3. to determine the degree of relationship between two variables such as

4 to determine cause-effect relationship between independent variable and

dependent variables, such as

_

5. to approximate the conditions of experimental research, such as _

6. to examine potential cause-effect relationships by observing the outcome and then searching for possible causes, for example _ _

(continued)

109

Stage III: Activity 3 (Continued)
Find the data collection method below that is labeled by the same numeral as the verb phrase you completed in the preceeding activity. Check (,/) and describe the data collection method that matches your investigation. Use the Research Descriptors to help you, and follow through each step of the flow chart by staying with the same numeral.

IV. My data collection method is: (Select the correct numeral and check (,/) the data collection method you will be using. Add details that explain your sources.)

1. primary and secondary sources, original documents, diaries, photo albums,

such as

_

2a. questionnaires, interviews, tables, graphs, charts, displays, frequencies,

percentages, such as

_

2b. triangulation: documents, interviews and observations, such as_

3. existing information, record viewing, related information, such as

4. observations, two variables, experimental and control groups, complete

control, such as

_

5. observations, two variables, experimental and control groups, partial

control, such as

_

@J data that already exists, events that have already occurred, records, such as

(continued)

110

Stage III: Activity 3 (Continued)
Match the numeral from the data collection method you selected on the previous page with the numeral on one of the research designs below. Review the Research Descriptor that corresponds to your research design, specifically the "characteristics" section, to help you plan how to proceed with your investigation.
V. My Research Design Is: 1. Historical 2a. Descriptive 2b. Qualitative 3. Correlational 4. Experimental 5. Quasi-Experimental 6. Causal-Comparative
adapted from Baum, Gable, and List. 1987
111

After students complete Stage III: Activity 2, they will transfer their findings onto a Research "Snapshot" planning sheet below. This provides students (and teachers) with an overview of the direction the investigation will take. The final two sections of the Research "Snapshot," product form and audience, may be left blank at this time or penciled-in with preliminary ideas. Students are now prepared to begin their investigations.

Research "Snapshot"
Transfer the information that you generated during Stage III: Activity 3 onto this sheet so that you are able to see, at a glance, the direction your investigation will take from this point on. You may leave "product form" and "audience" blank for now or "pencil-in" your tentative ideas in these sections.

Research Topic:

Research Question/Hypothesis:

Key Phrase:

Purpose of Investigation:

Data Collection Method:

Product Form:
Audience:
Samara, 1989 112

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to gain greater awareness of various information sources, select various sources of information, access select sources of information, and isolate and record key ideas that are relevant to the investigation. If varied, relevant information sources have already been secured, this stage may be omitted. Sample worksheets for the activities are provided on the following pages.

Objectives

Stage IV Planning
Activities

to record progress and evaluate activities

Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satisfaction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by attaching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a stage of study has been completed.

to increase awareness of sourc- Sources of Information: by considering the Sources of Infor-

es of information

mation as presented within four major categories

to select various sources of in- Resource File: by reviewing the purposes and locations of

formation

various sources of information as presented in the Resource

File

to access and record "new" in- Procedural Guidelines: by applying Procedural Guidelines to

formation

conducting an interview, observation and/or survey

to isolate and record existing Navigation of Documents: by navigating written documents information which responds to for key ideas the challenge

Samara, 1988
113

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will utilize a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Consider 4 Major Sources of Information
--.l--.l_

Select Necessary Sources of Information
--.l--.l_

Starting Date: --.l--.l_

Access Info. via Interview, Observarion or Survey
--.l--.l_

Navigate and Record from Ex-
isting Sources
--.l--.l_

Stage IV
Other
--.l--.l_

Self-Rating Activities

l=low 2

3

increase awareness of four major categories (and their 1. subcategories) of infonnation sources

select varied, useful sources of infonnation 2.

access and record "new" infonnation via interview, 3. observation and/or survey

isolate and record answers to research question and/or 4. descriptions of variables

Student Comments: Student Signature:
Completion Date: --.l--.l_

Teacher Comments:

Teacher Signature:
* Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988
114

The Information Sources chart below of four major categories of information sources and related subcategories facilitates student awareness and selection of varied sources, between or within categories.

Information Sources

Documents
almanac atlas biography book of records dictionary
general bibliographical geographical electronic media audiocassette data base filmstrip record videocassette encyclopedia general specialized guides to National Geographic to periodical literature historical book magazine scientific book scores textbook thesaurus

Interviews
within school staff students
within community agencies neighbors parents
outside community academia business government
Observations
low inference high inference
Surveys/Questionnaires
attitudes opinions perceptions preferences

Samara, 1988
115

The Resource File helps students determine which sources of information best suit a given investigation. It may be a card file or an electronic data base that students may access as they acquire information. Students using such a file system will become more efficient in determining which sources of information are most valuable.

Resource File
Use the cards in the Resource File to help you determine which types of resources will best serve your investigation and where you can find each one.

Almanac

contents

location

general statistics on a classroom bookshelf variety of topics

Atlas

contents

location

maps, time zones, flags, rivers, parks and other information about the world

school library: resource section

Biography

contents

location

history of a person's school library:

life

nonfiction section

Samara, 1989 116

Procedural guidelines are support mechanisms that assist students in arranging and conducting interviews, observations and surveys. They contain step-by-step instructions that describe each process. A sample is provided below.
Procedural Guidelines
A letter of request may be used to obtain information using the mail. To write an effective letter of request, follow the guidelines below.
Writing a Letter of Request
1. Use a sheet of school letterhead. 2. Place the date two spaces below the school name. 3. Place the inside address two spaces below the date. Include (a) name, (b)
street address and (c) city, state and zip code. 4. Place the salutation two spaces below the inside address. 5. Include three paragraphs in the body (a) the overall purpose of the letter, (b) a
specific request and (c) a brief explanation of how the requested information will be used. 6. Place the closing two spaces below the body. 7. Type your name four spaces below the closing. 8. Sign your name between the closing and your typed name. 9. Have a proficient proofreader examine your letter before mailing it.
Samara, 1989
117

In using written documents, students must be guided through the process of focusing on key concepts that are progressively less inclusive in nature. After determining several key phrases to investigate, students will progress through select documents from "big" ideas (e.g., chapter titles) to "small" ideas (e.g., key facts and phrases). The process commonly referred to as "skimming" is often interpreted by students as "reading very quickly." By refocusing their attention from speed to efficiency, the students become more effective investigators.
Navigating Documents
In "skimming" for information, begin with "big" ideas and move toward progressively "smaller" ideas. Beginning with selection of a document, progress to a chapter, major headings, subheadings, topic sentences, sentences within paragraphs, and finally to key phrases, terms and figures that respond to your research challenge.
1. Using the Resource File, select a document that responds to your challenge. 2. Review the table of contents to determine which chapters might contain answers to
your research question or describe the variables in your hypothesis. 3. Look over the major headings in a select chapter and choose any major sections of the
chapter that may contain answers to your research question or describe the variables in your hypothesis.
4. Determine which subheadings within the select major heading might contain answers to your research question or describe your variables.
5. Read the first sentence of larger paragraphs within select subheadings to determine which paragraphs may contain answers to your research question or describe your variables.
6. Carefully read those select paragraphs that show promise. 7. On separate note cards, record phrases, key terms and figures that answer your
research question or describe your variables.
Samara. 1988
118

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to select and arrange notes that have been taken from various information sources; record and organize numerical data; determine variance among data; and determine relationships between two sets of data. Organizing information prepares students to determine the significance of their investigation and to begin to consider what type of product might best communicate the findings to others. If the student has already collected and organized data, this stage may be omitted. Sample worksheets for activities are provided on the following pages.

Objectives

Stage V Planning
Activities

to record progress and evaluate activities

Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satisfaction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by attaching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a stage of study has been completed

to select and organize relevant Note Stacks: by developing stacks of notes based on mutual-

facts

ly relevant concepts

to record and organize numeri- Tally Sheets: by inserting numerical data onto Tally Sheets cal data

to consider the variances within Measures of Central Tendency: by determining the mean,

a set of data

median and mode given a set of numerical data

to determine relationships among data

Three Types of Relationships: by assessing whether a correlation is positive, negative or zero (no correlation)

Samara, 1988
119

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will utilize a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Organize Notes
Into Level I, II
and III Piles
--.1---1._

Starting Date: --.1---1._

Record Nurneri- Determine the Determine a Posi-

cal Data Using a Mean, Median tive, Negative or

Tally Sheet

and/or Mode Zero Correlation

--.1---1._ --.1---1._ --.1---1._

Stage V
Other
--.1---1._

Self-Rating Activities

1=low 2

3

organize notes effectively 1.

effectively apply tally sheet to numerical data 2.

accurately determine mean, median and mode 3.

describe a relationship as positive, negative or zero 4. correlation

Student Comments:

Student Signature:
Completion Date: --.1---1._

Teacher Comments: Teacher Signature:
* Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988 120

Students who have taken notes from various infonnation sources will need to organize notes that are relevant to the challenge and discard notes that are not. This step will assist those who have collected written data to consider the nature of their findings, before beginning to develop a product.
Note Stacks
This activity will help you to organize your notes and to detennine which notes may be discarded. Start by simply making several piles of notecards, keeping similar ideas and topics together. Next, break down your piles into level I (major topics), level II (related subtopics) and level III (supporting details) sections by grouping and indenting notecards as shown below. Feel free to make up new note cards that summarize other cards to use for major topics and subtopics.
Title l---L-e-ve-I-I--N-o-te--'I
I Level II Note I I Level II Note I
ILevel III Note
I Level III Note
ILevel III Note ILevel III Note
ILevel II Note I ILevel I Note I
ILevel II Note I ILevel III Note
ILevel III Note I
I 'Level III Note
Samara, 1988
121

Tally sheets provide students with a mechanism for organizing numerical data. Numerical data are listed from largest to smallest, or vice versa.

Tally Sheets
Numerical data can be easily organized by using a tally sheet. Tally sheets are useful in organizing data collected through observations, questionnaires and surveys.

Average Daily Hours of TV Viewing by Central H.S. Students

Hours of Viewing
0-1 hr. 1-2 hrs. 2-3 hrs. 3-4 hrs. 4-5 hrs. 5-6 hrs. 6-7 hrs. 7-8 hrs. 8-9 hrs. 9+ hrs.

Grade 9 Students

Grade 10 Students

Grade 11 Students

Grade 12 Students

Samara, 1990
122

Measures of central tendency provide a single number that represents all of the numbers within a set of data. They provide students with a method by which to consider how much variance exists within a set of data. Mean, median and mode are three measures of central tendency that may be calculated using the figure below.
Measures Of Central Tendency
Calculate the mean, median and mode by observing the following guidelines. This information will allow you to begin to consider how much variance exists within your data.
Where is the center of distribution located? 1. Median:. The Middle Score
With an odd number of scores, the median is the middle score (when arranged from lowest to highest or vice-versa). With an even number of scores, add the middle two scores and divide by two. 2. Mean: The Average Score Sum the amounts and divide by the total number of scores. 3. Mode: The Most Frequent Score Determine the mode by referring to the frequency distribution and selecting the most common amount.
adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987 123

Students conducting correlational research will organize their findings by showing relationships between two sets of data. Three types of relationships that may be demonstrated are positive correlations, negative correlations and zero correlations as depicted below.

3 Types Of Relationships
When conducting correlational research, it is important to describe the relationship between the two variables. The relationships may be described as: (1) positive; (2) negative; or (3) zero (no correlation). See the chart below for details.

Name

Situation

Variable 1

Variable 2

Positive

1

Correlation

2

Negative

3

Correlation

4

Zero

5

Correlation

6

Increase Decrease
Increase Decrease
Increase Decrease

Increase Decrease

Note: Both variables change the same

Decrease Increase

Note: Change occurs in opposite directions

Nothing Nothing

Note: Changes show no relationship to each other

adapted from Baum, Gable and List, 1987
124

This stage of independent study is appropriate for those students wishing to select an audience for research findings; select a product form with potential to communicate research findings to others; develop a product that clearly articulates research findings; and present research findings effectively to others. Stage VI brings closure to a research project and may stimulate new investigations.

Stage VI Planning

Objectives

Activities

to record progress and to evalu- Cooperative Review: by listing and rating the level of satis-

ate activities

faction in meeting objectives on a Cooperative Review, by at-

taching all work samples and by notifying the teacher that a

stage of study has been completed

to select an audience for research findings

Audience Selection: by assessing potential receptivity of various audiences using Audience Selection questions

to select a product form with the capacity to communicate research findings

Product Selection: by reviewing product lists and applying selection criteria in the decision-making process

to develop a product that clear- Product Descriptors: by synthesizing the component parts Iy articulates research findings and attributes as specified by a Product Descriptor

to present research findings ef- Presentation Guidelines: by creating an effective "link" be-

fectively to others

tween the audience and the product through the application of

the Presentation Guidelines

Samara, 1988
125

At the beginning of each stage of independent study, students will utilize a Cooperative Review. They will use it in the following manner: (1) Immediately complete the top section; (2) record the completion date as each activity is finished; (3) rate their proficiency (with regards to each objective) as each activity is finished; (4) attach all work samples upon their completion; (5) offer subjective comments as the project proceeds; and (6) approach the teacher for a review when all of the activities of the level have been completed.

Cooperative Review

Student Name:

Schedule of
Activities

Select an Audience
---l--.l._

Starting Date: ---l--.l._

Select a Product

Develop a Product

Present the Findings

---l--.l._ ---l--.l._ ---l--.l._

Stage VI
Other
---l--.l._

Self-Rating Activities
select a receptive audience 1.
select an effective product form 2.
develop a well-articulated product
3.
effectively communicate findings to others 4.

l=low 2

3

Student Comments:

Student Signature:
Completion Date: ---l--.l._

Teacher Comments:

Teacher Signature:
* Please attach all work.

4 5=high

Samara, 1988
126

Research findings may be perceived more favorably when the audience has been selected based on the findings. The quality of findings, the product and the presentation may be fully appreciated only if care has been given to selecting an audience that is likely to value the project. Therefore, students will respond to questions on the figure below and make a determination regarding to whom they will present their findings.

Receptive Audiences
Even when a project is of the highest quality, it is important to present the findings to someone or to a group of individuals who will appreciate your work. Use the questions below to begin to consider who might be receptive to your findings. List and review answers to all of the questions to help select an audience.

People (individuals, groups, organizations, etc.) who might

be curious about your research findings:

_

understand your research findings:

_

benefit from your research findings:

_

enjoy hearing about your research findings:

_

value your research findings:

_

utilize your research findings:

_

adapted from Treffinger, 1985
127

Selecting an appropriate product form involves determining which form might best communicate the findings to the selected audience. This decision-:making process is facilitated when students observe product lists and product selection criteria. (For more information on product lists or information on product selection, please review Section N of this Guide.)
Product Selection Criteria
There are hundreds of product forms that can be used to communicate concepts to others. In considering various product forms, apply the product selection criteria listed below.
-Interests the learner -Communicates the content effectively -Challenges the learner -Matches the audience -Is realistic
Samara, 1988
128

Product descriptors foster the development of effective products by depicting specifications regarding the component parts of a given product along with their related attributes. (For more information on developing effective products please review Section IV of this Guide.)

Product Descriptors
Product descriptors list the essential elements of various products and describe the attributes that lead to creative and articulate product forms. Select a product to communicate your findings byusing the product selection criteria listed in the preceding activity. Then apply or de- . velop a product descriptor for the product you plan to develop. That way. you can determine the specifications of your product before you begin developing it.

, IProduct Type:
Product Parts

IlprOduct Modality:
Attributes

Samara, 1989
129

Many times, students will directly present their research findings through interpreting their product for a selected audience. In situations such as this, there are various guidelines which foster effective presentations (see below). By incorporating various process skills of presenting, students increase the likelihood of clearly communicating their findings to others.

Presentation Guidelines
This rating scale should be reviewed before practicing your presentation. Then use the scale to rate your practice sessions so that you know which areas need work and which areas are complete. (Check from 1 to 4 for each guideline. 4 is "best.")

Presentation Guidelines Communication of Facts and Concepts Sequence of Content Use of Product(s) Inclusion of Audience Supportive Movements and Gestures Sustained Eye Contact Clear, Loud, Paced/Controlled Voice

12

34

Samara, 1987
130

Products are vehicles by which students consolidate learning and communicate ideas. When students create kinesthetic, verbal, visual or written products, information is "personalized" for the individual. When student products are presented to others, they provide a means by which ideas are shared and student progress is evaluated.
The product dimension of curriculum is significant, but often underutilized in working with-gifted learners. As students and educators become increasingly aware of the product dimension of curriculum, they are more able to adapt learning experiences to meet individual needs. Through product differentiation, educators can facilitate the acquisition of skills that are transferable across content areas, academic pursuits and personal activities. Motivated by increased product variety, particularized teaching strategies and select support materials, students are more likely to produce with creativity and enthusiasm.
Differentiating the product dimension of curriculum involves "fitting" or "matching" product instruction to the intellectual needs of the gifted learner. Because gifted students process information with greater intensity than their age-peers, product forms must be sufficiently sophisticated. Gifted students are more likely to assume the role of "intellectual leader" in areas of interest and ability as they communicate their ideas through various product forms.
The following pages provide guidelines, suggestions and materials that facilitate product development with gifted learners in secondary classrooms. Included are recommended applications, listed in terms of seven concrete teaching strategies, that are complemented by various charts, templates and other support materials. The strategies of product development respond to the intellectual traits of gifted learners, but may be used with other students, as appropriate.
132

The following guidelines provide recommended practices for establishing product differentiation within curriculum construction. Responding to intellectual characteristics that distinguish gifted learners from their age-peers, the guidelines are offered to assist educators in developing learning experiences and in implementing teaching strategies. 1. An appropriate variety of product forms is incorporated into each grade level and/or
content area. 2. Experimentation with and combinations of product forms are encouraged. 3. Product forms that are information-rich with regard to the depth and/or breadth of the
subject matter are promoted. 4. Detailed, sophisticated and/or complex product forms are integrated with core curric-
ula after being taught in isolation. 5. Self-selection of product forms is guided by applying skills of critical thinking. 6. Creativity and open-endedness are facilitated. 7. Appropriate human, material and/or technological resources are employed. 8. Detailed self-evaluation is fostered.
133

Displaying Lists Displaying product lists is one method to encourage students to consider various product possibilities. Product lists that are categorized by modality (i.e., kinesthetic, verbal, visual and written; see pages 135-139) allow students and educators to assess (and access) areas of interest and ability. As students and educators become increasingly aware of areas of interest and ability (with regards to product) they may work toward increasing expertise within selected modalities.
Branching Out Product lists may also be used to help students branch out toward other modalities by combining product forms that highlight personal strengths with complementary product forms. For example, a student interested and able in developing sophisticated charts (visual domain) may extend his or her ability to communicate effectively by combining an oral presentation (verbal modality) or text (written modality) with the chart. The student thereby increases expertise with charts while experimenting with newly selected product forms. By branching out with a focus on familiar product forms, past successes become associated with and support encounters with new product forms, success breeding success.
Dynamic Lists Product lists are dynamic, developing throughout the school year. Each time a new product form is presented to an individual or to the class it is added to the product list. As students emerge as "experts" with regard to particular product forms, they are considered resources who may assist other students (see Strategy 6: Creative Resources).
134

Product Possibilities: Kinesthetic

apparatus aquarium ballet card game cardboard relief ceramics charade clothing collage dance demonstration device diorama display dramatization equipment etching experiment field trip finger puppets food furniture gadget game gauge

hand puppet hat instruments interpretive dance invention jigsaw puzzle kite learning center machine macrame marionette mime mobile model monument movement game musical instrument observations origami papier mache' prototype puppet puppet show puzzle

quilt relief map relief rubbing role play sand casting scavenger hunt sculpture service shadowbox simulation soap sculpture stage set stick puppet stitchery terrarium tie-dye tool toy uniform vehicle weaving wire sculpture

Samara, 1990 135

Product Possibilities: Verbal

anecdote audio tape recording ballad book report campaign speech characterization choral reading/speech cinquain comedy act comparison conference presentation couplet debate description dialogue discussion documentary' dramatization explanation fairy tale free verse jingle joke

lecture lesson limerick mock interview monologue myth newscast nursery rhyme oral report quatrain radio announcement radio commentary radio commercial rap recorded dialogue rhyme riddle role-play song speech storytelling symposium discussion

Samara, 1990
136

Product Possibilities: Visual

advertisement album anagram animation annotated bibliography area graph artifact collection award banner bar chart block picture story blueprint book jacket booklet bookmark brochure bullet chart bulletin board calendar cardboard relief cartoon chart checklist collage collection column chart

comic book costume cross-section crossword puzzle design diagram diorama display double-y chart drawing editorial cartoon film . filmstrip flag flash card flip chart flow chart gallery graph graphic greeting card hieroglyphics highllow chart Icon identification chart illustration

imprint information table jigsaw puzzle layout line chart lithograph map mask meter mobile mosaIC movie mural museum newscast newspaper advertisement outline painting pamphlet pattern pennant PERT chart photo essay photograph pictograph picture dictionary pie chart

plan playing card polar chart poster puzzle scatter graph scenario scrapbook scroll sign silk screen slide show stencil television commercial timeline transparency travel advertisement travel log tree chart videotape wall hanging weather map web window shade word game word search

Samara, 1990 .
137

Product Possibilities: Written

advertisement autobiography biography book report booklet brochure business letter characterization classified advertisement comic book commercial script comparison computer program couplet creative writing critique data base description dialogue diary dictionary editorial essay fairy tale field manual free verse

friendly letter glossary guidebook handbook handout history interview script job description joke book journal article journal entry label law lesson plan letter letter of request letter to editor limerick list log lyrics magazine magazine article manual memorandum metaphor myth

new story ending newsletter newspaper newspaper article notes novel oath observation sheet outline pamphlet parody patent pen pal petition plan play poem prediction profile puppet show quatrain questionnaire questions radio script rationale recipe

reference report research report review rewritten ending riddle satire science fiction scroll short story skit slogan speech story story problems survey tall tale taxonomy telegram television script term paper test title poem travel log triplet vocabulary list yearbook

Samara, 1990
138

Product Possibilities (Cross-modalities)

Kinesthetic

Verbal

charade demonstration diorama display dramatization experiment game learning center mobile model relief map

audio tape recording ballad conference presentation debate description documentary jingle lecture mock interview radio commentary rap

Visual
brochure bullet chart cross-section filmstrip flow chart graph information table poster timeline tree chart videotape

Written
booklet critique dictionary essay journal entry magazine article manual newspaper article pamphlet profile speech
Samara, 1990
139

Due to the nature and needs of the gifted learner, self-selection of product fonn is often an appropriate method of differentiation. Self-selection is a fonn of decision making, and successful decision making is learned through instruction and experience. Decision making involves skills of critical thinking, which include setting and using criteria.
Teaching Students How to Select Setting and using product selection criteria may be taught in various degrees, including a "mixed" product, whereby several options are presented for students to decide among; and an "open" product, where students select their own options. Students must learn and practice skills of critical thinking (as they apply to product selection) before being required to choose an appropriate product. By assisting students in setting and applying selection criteria, educators are increasing the likelihood of selections that lead to successful learning activities.
Developing Criteria Product selection criteria (page 143) may be developed by the teacher, by the students or as a combined effort. Once selection criteria are developed, discussed and understood by students, they should be displayed alongside product selection lists (pages 135 through 139) so that students may review both sources simultaneously. While reviewing the product lists and the selection criteria, the student may determine which product fonn best fits the learning situation.
Applying Selection Criteria The figure on page 143 lists selection criteria that may be adapted or adopted by teachers for classroom use. The application of selection criteria should be mastered with a limited number of product choices before students are encouraged to make totally open-ended selections. On the following page, a brief explanation accompanies each criterion.
140

Strategy 2 (continued)
Product Selection Criteria
1. Interesting for the Learner Student interest, along with other considerations, is a valid selection criterion. Interest-driven decisions facilitate intense interactions with materials and subject matter. Student interest should guide, but not dominate, product selection.
2. Communicates the Content Effectively Product types must appropriately match the subject matter that the student wishes to convey. While some product types "match" certain topics, others miss the point. To make this match, the learner must understand how the nature of the topic guides the selection of products. The figure on page 144 lists various types of information with recommended sample product forms.
3. Challenging for the Learner To avoid excessive repetition, students should be encouraged to select new product forms. Sometimes this involves selecting a more sophisticated application of a product that the student has already mastered. At other times, the student may be encouraged to develop product forms that have not been previously attempted. By utilizing product lists (page 139) and management forms (Figures pages 161-162) students may selectively "branch out" toward the development of new products. (See Strategy 1, Branching Out.)
141

Strategy 2 (continued)
4. Matched to the Audience To ensure effective communication, a student must consider the audience in selecting a product. A student might consider whether the audience (1) will be able to interpret or understand this type of product, (2) will be curious about, attracted to or enjoy this type of product and (3) will be able to see, hear or touch this product type given the nature of the display or sharing situation.
5. Realistic In selecting a product type, the learner must assess available resources. Resources that affect successful completion include (1) time, with respect to scheduled work periods and due dates; (2) raw materials; (3) assistance required to perform various tasks; (4) reference materials; (5) requisite skills; and (6) background knowledge and/ or experience. By assessing requisite provisions before product development begins, the likelihood of successful student outcomes is increased.
142

Product Selection Criteria
Interests the learner Matches the content Challenges the learner Matches the audience Is realistic
Samara, 1990
143

Matching Product To Content

Type of Infonnation Global

Product Possibilities Characterization Collage Diorama Slogan

Hierarchical

Biography Bullet Chart
Debate
Mobile

Linear

Ballad Demonstration Manual Timeline

Random

Crossword Puzzle Free Verse Song Lyrics Scavenger Hunt

Samara, 1990
144

"Real-World" Products "Real-world" products are important aids in instructing gifted learners. They include products in the kinesthetic, verbal, visual and written modes that have been developed by working professionals. They provide students and educators with examples of wellaccepted models that can be used for critique, direction and inspiration. To foster balance, "real-world" products should be collected from each of the four product modes.
Gathering "Real-World" Products Gathering "real-world" products involves maintaining a scavenger-like eye for examples that occur in the media. At times, the actual product may be obtained, while at other times it will be necessary to reproduce it. In the kinesthetic domain, educators might acquire mobiles, models or relief maps, or they may record experiments or skits. In the verbal domain, an educator might use recordings of debates, interviews and speeches. In the visual domain, products such as charts, graphs and timelines might be accessed from printed media. Editorials, newsletters and research reports are examples of written products with instructional uses. "Real-world" products provide a rich source of instructional materials.
Applying "Real-World" Products One application of "real-world" products in the classroom includes group critique sessions to answer questions such as (1) what do you like about this product form? (2) what makes this product form communicate effectively? and (3) what are the deficiencies in this product form? Through critiquing "real-world" products, teachers and students develop an analytical approach to viewing products, a skill that can be transferred into an analytical and creative approach to developing new products. Principles of effective communication that are isolated when "real-world" products are critiqued can be
145

Strategy 3 (continued)
adapted, modified and applied to student work. When students view how working professionals apply insets in charts, logic in debates, sequential steps in experiments and closing statements in editorials and speeches, they are better able to visualize themselves applying these same techniques. Displaying "Real-Wodd" Products Beyond direct instruction through critique, "real-world" products should be displayed or made readily accessible to learners. This may be accomplished by dedicating a wall, file drawer, table, hallway or bulletin board for storage or display. Increased accessibility promotes individual follow-up work after whole-group instruction concludes. Some form of written critique (page 147) should accompany each product form to enable students to progress independently.
146

Product Type: Modality: Source: Special Features:

Product Critique
Chart with Pie Graph
Visual
Tone Magazine, November 1990
pie chart appears to be three- dimensional one pie section higWighted by use of color title is bold-faced & boxed; box is shaded white space is around boundary brief introductory statement appears under
title inset depicts important details and concepts narrative sections offer concise descriptions
of the major concepts narrative sections are boxed and numbered
in the order to be read brief summary capsulizes main idea

Samara, 1990
147

Product Descriptors Product descriptors may be used to explain product expectations and to promote student creativity and success. The descriptors provide students with open-ended, yet detailed specifications for each product that the teacher employs within the curriculum. A product descriptor is a tool that the teacher may use to determine the desired outcome, before the product is assigned to students. It provides students with an open-ended recipe-approach to product development.
The information about each product descriptor includes a listing of product components as well as the desired attributes of each part (pages 150 -153). To generate product descriptors, it is helpful to first have exemplary student products (and/or "real-world") products to analyze. As teachers gain expertise in developing product descriptors, students gain proficiency in developing sophisticated product forms. As students gain proficiency in developing sophisticated product forms, teachers gain expertise in generating product descriptors. Thus, teachers and students may interact as partners in the teaching-learning process.
Nonfragmented Growth Product descriptors should depict a range of expertise for anyone product form. Students should be provided with several descriptions for each product form that become increasingly complex through the addition of parts and attributes. Whereas a first-grade student's poster may have only a title, a picture and a name, a secondary level student's rendition of a poster may be significantly more complex. Well-sequenced product descriptors support continuous student growth.
148

Strategy 4 (continued)
Evaluating Outcomes Product descriptors afford students and educators with one means by which to access student competencies. By critiquing the product dimension of learning activities, teachers may begin to address the question of how to evaluate multiple product forms fairly for one learning activity. For example, when an English teacher provides three different product options for an activity that asks students to summarize Huck Finn's major learnings in the novel Huckleberry Finn, the teacher may use the attributes listed on each product descriptor as criteria for critiquing student products. Content mastery and productive thinking are also of key concern in evaluation, and rating these dimensions of student learning will be addressed within Strategy 7.
149

Parts title

Diorama/Model: Kinesthetic
Desired Features
summarized findings prominent visible from front view

objects

three-dimensional
firmly secured to model may depict action through movement proportionately sized to other objects and to the
background
realistically colored labeled (as necessary)

container/stand

visually nonobtrusive all visible surfaces support the scene with details at least one open side for viewing durable and sturdy

Samara, 1990
150

Parts
introduction
beginning

Oral Report: Verbal
Desired Features
speaker introduced topic described impetus for project explained project outline reviewed
topic described in general tenns and global concepts outline of major point/concepts a promise to reveal important infonnation

body/middle summary body language product(s)

key points addressed key points supported with facts and details
intennittent summarizations key concepts connected by transition statements
key points reviewed in global tenns call to action (or thinking/considering) requested
sustained eye contact fonnal posture natural gestures and expressions loud, clear, well-paced voice
used to support key points used to al ter pacing

Samara, 1990
151

Parts title line
units of time
labels
text illustrations background white space credits

Timeline: Visual
Desired Features
prominent summarized fmdings
ruled horizontal
arrows at ends may visually represent topic
uniform clearly visible equal intervals subunits of time for important details
depict important events uniform printed
may be used to summarize concepts of key importance
may be used to dramatize key events unobtrusive
may be used (texture, color, etc.) to depict mood or accentuate overall concept
used around boundary of product surrounded all text, labels, graphics and other
important markings
visible on front discreetly listed

Samara, 1990
152

Parts
introduction

Research Report: Written
Desired Features
describes the challenge explains why the investigation was conducted tells why the challenge is useful or significant speculates how results may be applied

body

short, simple sentences
organized by subtopics frequent subheadings subtopics linked by transition statements jargon-free
objective language

discussion

important, relevant data summarized

conclusion and recommendations

brief supported by evidence
not exaggerated/not overstated

references

complete bibliographic data consistent format
American Psychological Association (APA)
guidelines

Samara. 1990
153

Exemplary Products Well-developed student products (like "real-world" products) may be used as instructional aids to foster product expertise as they provide students with valuable models to be emulated. Exemplary products may be used for whole-group instruction to highlight the application of attributes depicted in product descriptors. Teachers may recognize student achievement by presenting students with certificates of excellence and then storing or displaying exemplary products in locations accessible to other students. If students wish to take products home, a photograph, copy or recording of the product may be maintained for classroom use. To facilitate independent work, a critique sheet that highlights areas of excellence (page 147) should accompany student work. "Real Audiences" Whenever possible and appropriate, student products should be presented to "significant" audiences within the school. This presentation may take place in the classroom, hallway and library display areas, as well as through product fairs. Professional outlets for publishing, copyrighting, patenting or promoting student work in larger arenas is another method of encouraging product expertise.
154

Resource-rich environments support complex outcomes. Resources that support creative production include materials, infonnation sources, experts, and technological tools. Examples of each follow.
Materials such as drawing/painting supplies; poster-board, cellophane and overhead transparencies; and supplies for cutting, measuring and tracing support exact and creative work.
Information sources such as product descriptors, "how-to" books and trade magazines assist students in developing new interests and in maintaining continuous progress.
Experts, both in-house and community-based mentors, provide students with guidance and expertise. As students and community members become recognized for their expertise in various areas (e.g., computer graphics, advertising, writing and interviewing), they become valuable human resources and can be made available to others via some method of cataloguing (page 156).
Technological tools include resources such as computers, scanners, printers, photocopiers, cameras, video equipment, audiocassette recorders and the like. Many secondary schools possess this equipment and simply need to make arrangements for efficient methods of access. A chart or cataloguing system explaining where and how to access technological tools makes a valuable classroom resource.
Product Centers When highlighted in one area of the classroom, the above mentioned resources make apparent to students that product differentiation is an established and accessible curricular provision.
155

Local Experts File

Area of Expertise
Computer Programming Basic Lo!!o Pascal

Expert
Susan Swan: 34 Alan Lane Westwood Hts 455-9876

Area of Expertise
Flow Charting computenzed freehand

Expert
Jake Talbot: 4th neriod home
room: Mr. Zane

Area of Expertise
GranhinlJ/ChartinlJ bar !!ranhs frequency tables timelines

Expert
Marv Prine: 1st period study
hall: Ms. Reed

Samara, 1990
156

Traditionally, content (or subject matter) is pre-eminent in the curriculum. Students spend the majority of their time in school consuming information and replicating it via product forms that are designed to assess content mastery.
The product dimension of curriculum merits equal standing to content, however, in that it can provide students with vehicles to consolidate content, communication skills that are transferable among subjects and environments and motivation to interact with various contents. Products must be emphasized as an integral part of the curriculum and receive focus within learning activities. This occurs through direct instruction, detailed evaluation, record keeping and a scope and sequence of skills.
Direct Instruction Products should first be taught as content in their own right and then integrated with other subject matter. For example, the students might be instructed in developing a research report, with the teacher highlighting the parts and attributes of a research report using a product descriptor (page 153). After explaining parts and attributes, the teacher might provide templates and/or examples of several research reports. Students might then generate a mock research report, one in which the content is fictitious, taking a secondary role to the product form itself.
Instructional strategies include teaching the product parts and their attributes, using templates and examples and providing content-free practice. These strategies allow students to focus on the final product separate from the subject matter. Once the product form is learned, students may more easily focus on the topics of their reports.
157

Strategy 7 (continued)
Detailed Evaluation Detailed evaluation of student products is essential to the self.,directed growth of students. When teachers assist students in setting and applying specific criteria to their products, skills of critical thinking are enhanced. Specific criteria may include two dimensions of curriculum: the product dimension and the content/process dimension. Criteria that will be used in rating student outcomes should be communicated to students before they begin to develop their products.
The product dimension may be assessed by rating the degree to which each student incorporates the attributes of each component into a final product. Evaluating the product dimension involves applying the attributes that are listed on a given product descriptor as rating criteria. By specifying the product-related criteria as separate from the content/ process-related criteria, the teacher promotes product expertise (in addition to content mastery).
An added benefit of applying product-related criteria is that teachers may allow for multiple product forms in a given assignment and assess various products equitably. Thus, a teacher may assign the same subject matter to all students and allow for student selection from among several different product forms. The same content/process criteria are applied to all student outcomes, while product specific criteria vary according to student selection. (See page 160, a curriculum development tool that assists teachers in evaluating multiple product forms equitably.)
Student Records A student profile (page 161) is one way in which students may record their own productrelated development. Records such as this allow students and educators to document and assess areas of
158

Strategy 7 (continued)
interest and ability and to make decisions based on this information. By viewing student profiles, product trends become apparent to students and teachers. Differentiation of product becomes documented, and decisions can be made to determine which product options should be pursued next. Product-related information is also an excellent source of information for parent-teacher conferences. Scope and Sequence of Product Development Skills Continuity is essential as students develop their product expertise. A scope and sequence of product development skills (page 162) may be used to add structure to a potentially random array of curricular options. A scope and sequence of skills provides educators with a "road map" for ensuring continuity. To achieve the level of expertise necessary to create a given product form expertly, students must work with the same product form in increasingly complex adaptations of the same product form throughout the grades. Many product forms are as appropriate in grade three as in grade 12, provided the levels of sophistication are altered. Adding on to what students already know about a given product form increases their abilities to manipulate and communicate content more effectively.
159

Critiquing Student Outcomes
Activity Students will review the novel Huckleberry Finn to detennine the five most significant lessons about life which Huck learned. They will share their findings using a (1) mobile, (2) oral report, (3) timeline or (4) essay.
Content/Process Critique Include five or more major lessons. Rank order them in terms of potential
impact on Huck's life. Justify why they were major lessons. Depict who was responsible for each
lesson.

Product Critique

Mobile

Oral Report

Timeline

Essay

balance legible from floor hierarchical organ-
ization of concepts
direction (reader is guided)

introduction beginning middle summary body language
(seepage 151 for more details)

title line units of time labels text
(see page 152 for more details)

cover page introduction body conclusion
(see product descriptor for more details)

Samara, 1990
160

Student Profile

Date

Topic

Product Type

Modality Self-Rate

Samara, 1989
161

Product Scope & Sequence
Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11

Grade 12

Language Arts

Mathematics

Science

Social Studies

Samara, 1989
162

The development of an objective is only the first step in curriculum planning. It is necessary to develop learning activities for the implementation of the objective(s). Usually, educators use "lesson plans" to organize learning experiences for a class of students. While there does not seem to be an agreed-upon best format for lesson plans, the following elements should be included.
Specification of the focus of study This focus may be a topic within a discipline, an issue, problem or theme within a discipline, or a multidiscipline title.
Objective(s) The objective provides direction for the lesson plan. Each objective should include a content element, a level of process, an enabling skill and a product form. The objective may include several elements of content, may include both basic and abstract thinking skills, may include several enabling skills and may include multiple product forms.
Activities The activities should delineate the actions that the teacher(s) and by the students will take. This may be done by using the phrases, "The teacher wilL." and "The students wilL." in listing actions.
Instructional materials Each lesson plan should include a list of the instructional materials that will be needed for the lesson. Materials may be categorized under such headings as "print," "audio-visual," "graphic" and "human" resources.
Instructional environment(s) and grouping arrangement(s) A lesson plan should specify where the lesson plan will be implemented. In some cases,
164

Planning Lessons (continued) the lesson plan may include several locations (e.g., regular classroom, library and field trip to local courthouse). A lesson plan should also specify the instructional delivery model (way{s} in which students will be grouped for the lesson). Some lessons may require several grouping arrangements (e.g., total class, small groups, dyads and individual seat work). Evaluation A lesson plan should include information on how student growth will be assessed. If possible, a target for success should be indicated. For example, educators may specify that students will be able to generate at least 20 ways in which two protagonists, shapes, phenomena or events are similar or different. Educators should n~nry to quantify all learning experiences. Many learnings are better assessed through qualitative measures.
165

Activities should be structured within the context of a lesson plan. Isolated activities tend to lead to fragmented learning experiences for students. Sample activities tend to become "filler" when not offered within the structure of cutV.culum construction. Any learning activity should include specific elements, including delineation of teacher actions and student actions. Teacher actions include instructional strategies for presenting and reinforcing information or skills, management of classroom activities and methods of nurturing, directing and encouraging students. The following are examples of teacher actions.
Review with students the information presented during previous class sessions Discuss with students the information presented through recent homework assign-
ments Invite students to share their own experiences or knowledge regarding the area of
study
Ask students questions to check for mastery, to assist students in making "connec-
tions" among pieces of information and to encourage students to apply abstract thinking skills to the area of study
166

Activities (continued)
Plan and direct learning activities designed to assist students who have not mastered ba-
sic information or skills
Modify learning experiences for students who have mastered basic information or skills Present new information and/or skills related to the area of study and assist students to
understand the connections between new and previously learned information or skills Review requisite enabling skills needed by students to access, collect, manipulate and
present information Explain expectations for student outcomes
Review information regarding the development of the required product formes)
Provide feedback to students regarding their accomplishment and needs for additional efforts
Provide appropriate audiences and "markets" for students' products Student actions include learning strategies for mastering and utilizing information, products for the demonstration of learning and peer interaction skills. The following are examples. Attend to information presented in class through lecture, media, peer interaction, read-
ing, demonstration or visual aids
167

Activities (continued) Respond to questions posed by the teacher requiring the demonstration of mastery of infor-
mation and/or skills or the manipulation of information through abstract thinking skills Utilize enabling skills to collect, organize, manipulate and present information Work with other students, mentors or aides to study and discuss class materials and develop
products Develop product forms (as required) or select and construct product forms (as appropriate) Display products to appropriate audiences Participate in the assessment of product forms These actions are embedded within a lesson plan along with the objective(s) for the learning experience.
168

The Resource Manual/or Gifted Education Programs (1988) published by the Georgia Department of Education provides specific information regtarding the evaluation of gifted education programs. The department defines evaluation as follows.
Evaluation is a form of disciplined inquiry that results in information to assist in making informed value judgments about some phenomenon. Purposes of evaluation as related to gifted programs include the following
To document the effectiveness of particular teaching strategies To document the effectiveness of particular instructional materials To document the effectiveness and efficiency of a particular instructional
delivery model To document the fact that the program is being implemented To assist in the identification of program strengths and weaknesses To generate information to assist in ongoing program revisions To document the results and impact of the program
The foreword of the Resource Manual (1988) presents an overall curricular goal for gifted programs.
"Programs for gifted students assure that the education environment provides students the opportunity to extend competencies in the areas of cognitive skills, learning skills, research and reference skills, and communication skills beyond the experiences of the regular classroom" (p.3)
This Curriculum Guide/or the Education o/Gifted Students, Grades 9-12, presents specific strategies for accomplishing the goal set by the department.
169

Evaluation Strategies (continued)
Within the Manual (1988), the Georgia Department of Education provided a sample evaluation instrument in Appendix A. Under the title of "Skill Area I: Cognitive Skills and Leadership Potential," the instrument included the following descriptors.
((Innovative Thinking - Developing and practicing the use off/uency,f/exibility, originality, elaboration."
Section II, Part One of this Guide provides specific strategies for teaching to these areas and provides sample objectives cross-referenced with the Quality Core Curriculum and the GBOE student competencies.
((Problem Solving and Decision Making - Developing and practicing the use of problem solving and rational decision making."
Section II, Part Three of this Guide provides specific strategies for teaching to these areas and provides sample objectives cross-referenced with the Quality Core Curriculum and the GBOE student competencies.
"Critical Thinking - Developing and practicing the use of inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and analytical thinking."
Section II, Part Two of this Guide provides specific strategies for teaching to these areas and provides sample objectives cross-referenced with the Quality Core Curriculum and the GBOE student competencies.
Under Skill Area III - "Research and Reference," the evaluation instrument included the following descriptors.
"Independent Investigative Skills" including planning skills, interpretive skills and research skills.
170

Evaluation Strategies (continued) Section III of this Guide includes specific strategies for teaching to these skill areas and provides worksheets for guiding the use of independent investigations by students. Under Skill Area;IV - "Communication Skills," the evaluation instrument included the following descriptors:
"interpreting and preparing visual communication,'/' "demonstrating and practicing skills in oral communication," "demonstrating and practicing skills in written communication," "presenting results ofstudent research to appropriate audiences within school setting" and "presenting results of student research to appropriate audiences outside ofschool setting." Section IV of this Guide includes specific strategies for teaching to these communication skills areas and provides worksheets for guiding students in developing multiple, diverse and appropriate communication products.
171

Adler, M.J. (1981). Six Great Ideas. New York: Collier Books.
Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The Magic Synthesis. New York: Basic.
Baum, S., Gable, R.K., & List, K. (1987). Chi Square, Pie Charts, and Me. Monroe, NY: Trillium.
Boorstin, D.l. (1983). The Discoverers. New York: Random House.
Bronowski, l. (1974). The Ascent of Man. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
Bunker, B.B., Pearlson, H.B., & Schultz, l.W. (1975). A Student's Guide to Conducting Social Science Research. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Burke, l. (1979). Connections. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
Carin, A. & Sund, R. (1978). Creative Questions and Sensitive Listening Techniques. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Clark, K.M. (1970). Civilization. New York: Harper & Row.
Curry, 1. A. (1986, September). Curriculum and Methods for Teaching the Gifted. Course presentation at the University of Southern Maine, Gorham, ME.
Dallas Independent School District, (1980). Up Periscope. Dallas: Author.
Donovan, M. (1985). Research Challenges Through the Use of the Atlas, the Almanac, and Other World Resources. Cathage, IL: Good Apple. 172

Selected References (continued)
Ennis, R.H. (1962). A critical concept of thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 32 (1): pp.81-111.
Feldhusen, J.P. & Treffinger, D.J. (1980). Creative Thinking and Problem Solving in Gifted Education. Dubuque, IA: Kendall & Hunt.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames ofMind. New York: Basic Books.
Green, H.H. & Martin, S.G. (1984). Research Workout. Carthage, IL: Good Apple.
Harnadek, A. (1976). Critical Thinking: Book One. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications.
Isaksen, S.G. & Treffinger, D.J. (1985). Creative Problem Solving: The Basic Course. Buffalo, NY: Beady Limited.
Johanson, D.C. & Maitland, A.E. (1982). Lucy: The Beginnings ofHuman Kind. New York: Warner Books.
Johnsen, S.K. & Johnson, K. (1986). Independent Study Program. Austin, TX: Old Wagon Learning Associates.
Kaplan, S.N. (1979). Inservice Training Manual: Activitiesfor Developing Curiculum for the Gifted/Talented. Ventura, CA: Ventura County Schools.
Kaplan, S. N. & Curry, J.A. (1985, July). Thematic Curricula for Gifted and Talented Learners. Course presentation at the University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.B. & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II: The Affective Domain. New York: McKay. 173

Selected References (continued)
Maker, c.J. (1981). Curriculum Development/or the Gifted. Rockland, MD: Aspen.
McCutcheon, R. (1989). Can You Find It? Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit. Meeker, M.M. (1969). The SOl: Its Interpretation and Uses. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Osborn, A.F. (1963). Applied Imagination. New York: Scribner's. Parnes, S.J., Noller, R.B. & Biondi, A.M. (1977). Guide to Creative Action.
New York: Scribner's. Pirie, J. & Pirie, A. (1976). Thirty Lessons in Note Taking. North Billerica,
MA: Curriculum Associates. Palette, N. (1986). The Research Almanac. O'Fallon, MO: Book Lures. Polette, N. (1984). The Research Book o/the Fifty States. O'Fallon, MO: Book Lures. Polette, N. (1984). The Research Book/or Gifted Programs. O'Fallon, MO: Book Lures. Polette, N. (1984). Research Without Copying. O'Fallon, MO: Book Lures. Reis, S.M. & Renzulli, J.S. (1985). The Secondary Triad Model: A Practical Plan/or
Implementing Gifted Programs at the Junior and Senior High School-levels. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
174

Selected References (continued)
Samara, J. (1988, October). Differentiating the Product Dimension o/Curriculum. Presentation at the University of Southern Maine, Gorham, ME.
Samara, J. (1988, November). Developing Independent Study Programs. Presentation at the University of Southerrn Maine, Gorham, ME.
Samara, J. (1989, March). Creative Outcomes. Presentation at the Massachusetts Council of Teachers of English, Braintree, MA.
Samara, J. (1989, November). Independent Study Skills: Developing and Implementing Programs. Presentation at the Annual Convention of the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), Cincinnati, OH.
Samara, J. (1990, November). Creative Outcomes: Products Are Important. Presentation at the Annual Convention for the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), Little Rock, AR.
Samara, J. & Curry, J.A. (1990)., Writing Units that Challenge: A Guidebook/or & by Educators. Portland, ME: Maine Educators of The Gifted And Talented.
Sato, 1.S. (ed.). (1981). Secondary Programs/or the Gifted/Talented. Ventura, CA: Ventura County Schools.
Sato, 1.S. (ed.). (1982). Curricula/or the Gifted. Ventura, CA: Ventura County Schools.
Tannenbaum, A.I. (1983). Gifted children: Psychology and Educational Perspectives. New York: MacMillan.
Torrance, E.P. (1979). The Search/or Satori and Creativity. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation.
175

Selected References (continued) Torrance, E.P. & Myers, R.E. (1970). Creative Learning and Teaching. New York:
Dodd & Mead. Torrance, E.P. & Safter, H.T. (1990). The Incubation Model a/Teaching. Buffalo,
NY: Beady Limited.
Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic Principles 0/ Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago. VanTassel-Baska, J., Feldhusen, J. Seeley, K., Wheatley, G., Silverman, L. &
Foster, W. (1988). Comprehensive Curriculum/or Gifted Learners. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. VanTassel-Baska, J. & Passow, A.H. (eds.). (1986). Curriculum [Special issue]. Gifted Child Quarterly, 30 (4). Ward, V.S. (1980). Differential Education/or the Gifted. Ventura, CA: Ventura County Schools. Zimmerman, W. (1982). How to Tape Instant Oral Biographies. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
176

Federal law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color or national origin (Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964): sex (Title of the Educational Amendments of 1972 and Title II of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984); or handicap (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973) in education programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance.
Employees, students and the general public are hereby notified that the Georgia Department of Education does not discriminate in an) educational programs or activities or in employment policies.
The following individuals have been designated as the employees responsible for coordinating the department's effort to implement th nondiscriminatory policy.
Title II-Billy Tidwell, Vocational E,quity Coordinator Title VI-Bill Gambit, Associate State Superintendent of Schools Title IX-Ishmael Childs, Coordinator Section 504-Wesley Boyd, Coordinator
Inquiries concerning the application of Title II, Title VI, Title IX or Section 504 to the policies and practices of the department may b( addressed to the persons listed above at the Georgia Department of Education, Twin Towers East, Atlanta 30334; to the Regional Offi for Civil Rights, Atlanta 30323; or to the Director, Office for Civil Rights, Education Department, Washington, D.C. 20201.

Office of Instructional Services Division of Curriculum and Instruction
Gifted Education Unit 2054 Twin Towers East Georgia Department of Education Atlanta, Georgia 30334-5040
(404) 656-5969 1991