Social studies for Georgia schools, secondary program [1983]

Social Studies for
Georgia Schools
Secondary Program
Georgia Department of Education

Georgia Department of Education, 1983

Foreword
Social Studies for Georgia Schools: Secondary Program has been published by the Georgia Department of Education to assist local curriculum developers as they plan secondary social studies programs. Social studies programs should help students acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes they will need to participate and function effectively as citizens in a democratic society. This guide is designed to assist local systems to develop programs that will meet the broad goals of an effective social studies program and also the requirements of the state's competency education program. The Georgia Department of Education thanks the many individuals throughout the state who assisted in writing, reviewing and refining this document. We hope it will be a useful and valuable tool to administrators and teachers as they plan quality programs for Georgia students.
Charles McDaniel State Superintendent of Schools
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Acknowledgments
The office of Instructional Services is grateful for the time, effort and expertise of all the many people who assisted in developing this guide. These people represent all areas of the state and include classroom teachers and social studies specialists, a curriculum director, a principal and university personnel. To the educators who were involved in this process the Georgia Department of Education extends its appreciation. Advisory Committee Earl Bagley, Columbus College, Columbus Sylvia Gay, Wayne County Schools, Waynesboro Mary Nell Hiers, Harris County Schools, Pine Mountain Fannie P. Jenkins, Chatham County Schools, Savannah Jeanette Kirby, Muscogee County Schools, Columbus La Doris Leavell, Muscogee County Schools, Columbus Blanche J. Lindsay, Elbert County Schools, Elberton Jeannette B. Moon, Atlanta City Schools, Atlanta Helen W. Richardson, Fulton County Schools, Altanta Donald O. Schneider, University of Georgia, Athens Alfredo Stokes, Dougherty County Schools, Albany Lennie Wardlow, Chattahoochee-Flint Education Services Agency, Americus Betty Whisnant, Harris County Schools, Hamilton Harry D. Woodson, Stephens County Schools, Toccoa
Writers Beverly Armento, Georgia State University, Atlanta Suzanne Eddinger, Gwinnett County Schools, Snellville Ralph Hogan, Upson County Schools, Thomaston Jeannette B. Moon, Altanta City Schools, Atlanta Helen W. Richardson, Fulton County Schools, Atlanta Marsha Scheppler, Graduate Student, University of Georgia, Athens Donald O. Schneider, University of Georiga, Athens William Tinkler, Graduate Student, University of Georgia, Athens
Contributors Mary Hepburn, University of Georgia, Athens Phil Holland, Dekalb County Schools, Decatur Quida Dickey, Berry College, Mt. Berry Charles Boardman, Georgia State University, Atlanta Bill Rushing, Georgia State University Wanda Daniel, Fulton County Schools, Atlanta
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Georgia Department of Education Staff Elizabeth B. Creech, Consultant, Student Assessment Gwendolyn N. Hutcheson, Coordinator, Secondary Education (Social Studies) Nannette N. McGee, Consultant, Elementary Education (Social Studies) A large number of educators reviewed and gave feedback to the writers throughout this development process. We are also grateful to this group for their contributions.
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Introduction
Social Studies for Georgia Schools: Secondary Program is intended to assist local school systems in developing their instructional programs in social studies and insure that students will have the opportunity to acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to assume the responsibilities and rights of citizenship. The Georgia curriculum is based on the concepts and methodologies of the social sciences. The following elements are addressed in this guide. Components and goal objectives which local school systems can use to develop a planned program for social studies. These are based on the concepts and methodologies of the social sciences. A comprehensive skills program is included and related to the Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. Exemplary units written by teachers are included to show how all these components can be brought together in the classroom. Emphasis is on involving students in many activities using a variety of resources. Course examples are related to the concepts of the disciplines, performance objectives, indicators and activities, and to Georgia Board of Education High School Graduation Policy IHF and to BST (Basic Skills Tests Objectives for the 10th grade testing program). The program expands and enriches the knowledge of and appreciation for one's own heritage and the social, political, cultural and economic structures of other nations so that students may understand and more readily accept responsibilities in their own society and in the community of nations.
Lucille G. Jordan Associate State Superintendent Office of Instructional Services R. Scott Bradshaw, Director Division of Curriculum Services
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Contents

Social Studies Program I. The Social Studies - A Definition II. Curriculum Components for Social Studies Education
III. Secondary Program: Social Studies Strands IV. Sample Course Guides
A. Economics/Business/Free Enterprise B. United States History and Government C. Citizenship Education

7 9 25 27 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 51

Social Studies Instruction

V. Planning for Secondary Curriculum Development

81

VI. Suggested Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning

85

VII. Measuring Student Performance

88

Appendices 1. General Objectives for Social Studies 2. General Objectives for Social Studies Skills 3. Checklists A. Sample Program Evaluation Forms B. Textbook Evaluation Criteria C. Supplementary Materials Evaluation 4. Bibliography

97 103
III 1I5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1I7 1I9

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The Social Studies - A Definition

Social Studies is the study of the variety of human relationships - social, political, economic, cultural and environmental, both in the past and the present. It therefore is concerned with instructional programs that are designed to assist learners to understand, analyze, evaluate and act upon
relationships of human beings to the world in which they live,
relationships of human beings to other human beings and
relationships of human beings to themselves.
The social studies classroom should provide an environment in which learners can inquire into questions dealing with social behavior. An atmo-

sphere should prevail in which the search for truth assumes primary importance. In the social studies classroom, learners and teachers are concerned with ideas, skills, values and action.
A sound social studies program should include the development of meaningful, objective knowledge and useful skills. A commitment to the value of human dignity unites the study of the social world. This value implies that students and teachers alike develop a positive sense of worth for themselves and for others who are different.
A democratic society depends upon an informed and active citizenry sensitive to social issues and willing and able to engage in reflective decisionmaking. To these ends, social education strives.

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Curriculum Components for Social Studies Education

The social studies curriculum in Georgia's schools assumes that all students should be fully educated to help them function effectively in a democratic society. An effective citizen in democracy is a thinking individual who understands democratic ideas. and has knowledge. attitudes and skills necessary to assume responsibilities and rights of citizenship.
The social studies curriculum should enrich and expand students' conceptual patterns about the world and provide continuity for the development of these concepts. A curriculum plan should be developed which deals with situations from life and

draws on the appropriate knowledge of the social sciences to provide the needed understandings. Georgia's social studies curriculum is based on the concepts and methodologies of history. geography. political science, economics and behavioral sciences (anthropology. sociology and psychology). In addition. knowledge from the natural sciences and humanities is used when it bears on social problems.
Below are given short definitions of the four major curriculum components of social studies followed by a breakdown of the goals teachers should work toward while involved in these components.

Knowledge The knowledge component will enable students to have at their command selected basic concepts, facts and generalizations from the different social sciences.
Values and Attitudes The values component will help students develop constructive values and attitudes about people. situations, ideas. institutions and other phenomena. In addition the development of valuing processes and skills useful for analyzing personal and social value is a part of this component.

Skills
This component will help students gain basic skills for obtaining and processing knowledge. for working with others. interpreting maps and globes and understanding time and chronology. A major part of this component is the development of higher level thought processes such as analysis. application. synthesis and evaluation.
Social Participation
The social participation component will help students gain the desire, confidence and skills necessary for participation in socio-civic affairs. Such participation should be based upon reasoned commitments to fundamental values such as justice. dignity and worth for all individuals.

Goals

Knowledge
The social studies curriculum should draw from and emphasize current value concepts, principles and themes representative of peoples' knowledge, experiences, culture and benefits. This program should include the following.
Draw upon all the social sciences as history, geography, political science, economics and the behavioral sciences
Develop an understanding of the interaction and relationships among the individuals, ideas, societies and nations, past and present
Represent some balance between the immediate social environment of students and the larger social world; among local, national and world affairs; among past, present and possible future directions; and among Western and non-Western cultures
Use knowledge from the natural sciences and humanities, as needed, to aid in the full analysis of topics

Values and Attitudes
People having like values are the foundations of social institutions, since their values have consequences for action. Since all social issues involve choices, students must have a full knowledge of issues and must also be equipped with valuing skills to understand, analyze and evaluate these social issues and to engage in social action. The program experiences should include the following.
Foster a reasoned commitment to the values that sustain a democratic society
Develop an understanding that there are many alternative sets of values rooted in experience and legitimate in terms of culture
Aid the growth of positive self-concepts and self-direction skills
Develop respect for and appreciation of the worth and dignity of each individual
Encourage a commitment to the process of learning as a lifelong activity and to the value of reflective thinking
Enhance the development of valuing skills and processes

Skills
A social studies curriculum should provide a graduated vertical sequence of experiences in skills areas and a horizontal component providing for effective integration of the learner's experiences in the practice of these skills. The program should include the following.
Provide for the development and application of problem-solving skills
Provide for the consistent application of a full range of thinking and value skills
Provide for the consistent development and practice of communicative arts skills pertinent to researching, organizing and processing data from a variety of sources and depicted in a variety of forms
Provide for the development and refinement of effective reading and writing skills in the Social Studies content area
Provide for development of map, globe, chart and graph skills in the context of all social science disciplines

Social Participation
Social participation in a democracy calls for individual behavior guided by human dignity and rationality. In addition, this behavior is based on a commitment to making choices in the context of concern for the society as a whole. The program experiences should include the following.
Develop understanding of the roles of individuals in the decision-making processes
Develop knowledge of current public issues and skills for the full analysis of such issues
Develop effective use of techniques of social action (e.g., how to influence political leaders, generate community interest in crucial social problems and marshal support for desirable social objectives)
Develop a sense of community and seek to maintain and improve the community in all of its ramifications (social, cultural, political, economic and psychological) and at all levels (informal groupings, neighborhoods, local communities, regions, nations and global areas).

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Knowledge

The importance of knowledge acquisition as one of the four broad goals of social studies instruction is apparent in the majority of daily classroom activities. The broad function of knowledge is to provide the reservoir of data, ideas, concepts, generalizations and explanations which in combination with thinking, valuing and social participation can be used by the student to function rationally and humanely in our society.
A need for students to understand themselves and the world around them has increased tremendously during the past 25 years as a knowledge explosion has increased the complexities of life and brought new challenges. This new knowledge discovered by scholars during the past 25 years exceeds all discoveries made previously. Many of the new discoveries give students a broader knowledge of the world than before. Television, for instance, exposes students to violence, crime and war in a more forceful

and intensive way than any other communication medium in history. Atomic energy has become a reality and the possibilities for effective use of other forms of energy are now being explored. Humans have been able to leave earth and set foot on the moon. Sophisticated equipment has given us new knowledge of the distant planets of Mars and Venus. Machines which were once operated by human hands are now run by other machines. Helping students to gain the knowledge, skills and attitudes for coping with their complex world is one of the nation's most urgent priorities.
This section will focus upon those major components of knowledge around which social studies instruction should be organized. Components are facts. concepts. generalizations and explanations. An understanding of each of these components is necessary if students are to have an effective knowledge base for functioning in our society.

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Facts
There can be no education without facts. Facts are important, for they provide the evidence on which to build concepts and to support generalizations, and they promote precision in thinking. However, facts are not improtant just for the sake of learning facts.
With the movement away from survey courses and less emphasis on coverage of facts, the educator is

faced with an additional responsibility. The teacher must choose which facts will be taught. The need to make a selection of facts requires that an educator have a criteria for selection which is related to a specific objective. If the objective is to build a certain concept or generalization, only those facts relative to both the concept and the readiness of the pupil should be used.

Facts are testable claims. The location of places, dates and events, activities of people, artifacts of past human activities, statements of rules, a physical description of something are facts or the bases for factual claims.

Examples of Fact Statements Atlanta is the capital of Georgia.
The United States produces less oil than it needs to meet domestic demand. (1970)
Fewer than five percent of the people in the United States are engaged in farming as their major occupation.

Facts need to be distinguished from opinion or statements involving value claims in which judgments of worth, right, wrong or aesthetic quality are expressed.
Specific facts may be combined to form fact summaries that enable students to move toward conceptualizing, generalizing and explaining.

Examples of Opinion Statements
The Ford is a good automobile. Junk foods are bad for your health.
The island inhabitants are a handsome people.
Example of a Fact Summary
Fact Statement In 1970 Georgia farmers produced approximately $2 million worth of products. Fact Statement During the same year manufacturing accounted for $20 million worth of goods. Fact Summary In 1970 manufacturing accounted for 10 times as much income to Georgia as did farming.

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Concepts
A concept is an idea represented by a word or term that stands for a class or group of things. It includes all the characteristics associated with that class or group of things. For example, the concept family includes all the characteristics that families have in common. A person's concept of something is built up from a variety of experiences. A young child's concept of family may be limited to the immediate group of people in the home. As the child grows older, the concept of family becomes more sophisticated as there is exposure to other family groups, pictures and stories of families until family includes the notion of a wide variety of units in terms of ethnic background, size and function.
Concepts are the basic building blocks of all knowledge. Concept development is a fundamental part of the learning process. Students need a variety of experiences - both inside and outside of the classroom - that will help them develop such concepts as democracy. private enterprise. interdependence. citizenship. culture. scar

city and rule. As a type of knowledge, concepts are powerful learning tools. If one knows a conceptual idea, one knows the concept's definition as well as many concept examples. One is able to distinguish examples from nonexamples of the concept. Thus, when one encounters a new example of the concept, one should be able to apply the conceptual idea and thus comprehend the new example. No other kind of learning is so freeing as is concept learning; knowing a concept enables the learner to go beyond the immediate.
A concept may be a simple idea such as river or house, for which these are concrete referents. These are relatively easy to teach and for students to learn. Direct or vicarious experiences with the object associated with word labels are frequently sufficient. But many of the most significant concepts used in social studies are more abstract, complicated notions. Figure 1 illustrates a complexity-abstraction continuum of concept understanding.

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Figure I. Levels of Abstraction of Concepts
Big, general ideas, very abstract
General ideas, somewhat abstract May combine smaller ideas
General ideas about concrete things

Conflict Culture Institutions Interdependence Scarcity
Barter Group Law Nation Role
Food Mountain River Shelter

Middle and high abstraction level concepts are more difficult to learn because they usually consist of two or more subcomponents that may be essential for complete understanding of the concept. In addition the higher level concepts are vague and often difficult to comprehend in and of themselves. Thus, the more general the idea, the more time and examples are usually needed before a learner is

able to comprehend this abstract idea enough to use it.
A concept of middle-level abstraction is money. This concept serves three functions, and has three major subcomponents. One way to visualize this is to develop a diagram.

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Figure 2. Categorization of Concept, Money

FUNCTIONS FORMS

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Initially elementary school might be introduced only to the subcomponent, medium of exchange. Later in their social studies program the other two purposes, measure of value and store of value, might be introduced. Thus students may develop

more complete understanding of the roles money plays in modern economic systems. Eventually the concept becomes more useful to them in dealing with other economic concepts such as market, price, cost and inflation.

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Concepts may be drawn from many disciplines, and many concepts are interdisciplinary. Following are listings of concepts categorized in two different

ways that have been suggested as a basis for curriculum organizations.

Examples of Social Science Concepts

History
Note: History does not have a special set of concepts that distinguish it from other social science disciplines. This historian forms concepts and generalizations using the terminology of the other social sciences.

Geography
Areal association Areal distribution Boundary Climate Culture Landscape Link Node Region Resource Scale Season Site Situation Spatial interaction Vegetation
Anthropology
Acculturation Artifacts Culture Diffusion Enculturation Evolution Innovation Language Role Tradition

Economics
Allocation Capital Consumer Cost Division of labor Economic systems Goods Market Money Price Producer Production Profit Scarcity Services
Psychology
Behavior Conflict Coping Frustration Language Motivation Socialization

Political Science
Authority Citizenship Decision making Executive Institutions Judicial Law Leadership Legislative Political systems Power Sanctions State
Sociology
Culture Groups Interaction Norms Roles Rules Sanctions Socialization Society Values

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Examples of Interdisciplinary Concepts

Substantive Concepts*
sovereignty conflict its origin. expression and resolution the industrialization/urbanization syndrome secularization compromise and adjustment comparative advantage power morality/choice scarcity input/output saving the modified market economy habitat culture institution social control social change interaction

Value Concepts
human dignity empathy loyalty government by consent of the governed freedom and equality
Aspects of Method
historical method and point of view the geographical approach causation observation. classification and measurement analysis and sythesis question/answer objectivity skepticism interpretation evaluation evidence

*Adapted from Roy A. Price et. 01.. Major Concepts for Social Studies. (Syracuse: Social Studies Curriculum Center. 1965).

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Generalizations
Generalizations are statements or propositions that relate two or more concepts or ideas. Generalizations have wider applicability than factual claims because they can be applied to a variety of situations or give meaning to a set of factual claims. They may vary, however, in their breadth or universality. Note the variations in applicability of the following.
Farming in the United States has changed greatly since colonial days.
In a market economic system the demands of consumers primarily determine what things will be produced.
Land and climate, in part, affect the way people earn their living.

The first two generalizations are restricted either to a particular place and time or to a particular set of conditions. The latter generalization is universal in that it makes a claim purportedly true for all times, places and people. In selecting generalizations as a basis for organizing the social studies curriculum, it is usually more desirable to use those with the broadest applicability. It is those generalizations which enable the learner to explain the most examples. Examples of generalizations selected from various disciplines and their relationships to concepts and facts may be used as a basis for organizing social studies curriculum and classroom instruction are shown in the following table.

Examples of the Relationship Among Generalizations, Concepts and Facts From Social Science Disciplines

History and the Social Science Disciplines

Complex Ideas (Generalizations) Concepts

Specific Concepts

Anthropology

The life style of a culture is Culture
shaped by the contribution
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Specific Judgments of Fact --
Orthodox Hindus do not eat beef.

Economics

Every society faces a con- Scarcity flict between unlimited wants and limited resources.

Factory

The per capita income of the United States in 1965 was roughly twice that of Great Britain and four times that of India.

Geography

Every geographic area is Climate affected by physical, biotic and societal forces.

Seaport

Latosolic soils develop in the humid low latitudes where temperatures are high and rainfall heavy.

History

Historical events can rarely, Casualty if ever, be explained in terms of a single cause.

Historical document

The Quebec Act was passed in 1774.

Political Science

All societies establish auth Political oritative institutions that System can make decisions that are binding on the members of the society.

Citizen

The Federal Government of the United States has three main branches.

Psychology Sociology

The social groups to which Personality Person an individual belongs help shape his behavior.

All social systems are im- Social portant and meaningful to System those individuals who are their members.

Family

The higher an animal is in the ontogenetic scale, the more complex is the organization of its nervous system.
Some Pakistani families make their living by raising sheep on the plains of central Asia.

~rom Jack R. Fraenkel. Helping Students Think and Value: Strategies for Teaching these Social Studies. Englewood Cliffs, New
ersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973, p. 109.
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In addition to their restrictiveness or universality, generalizations may vary in a number of other qualities. It is important for students to understand some of these qualities in order to learn efficiently and think effectively. Some generalizations are definitional in nature. That is, they describe how terms of concepts are to be used or related.
Example
All bachelors are unmarried males.
Some generalizations are empirically testable. These are of three basic types. First are those that make specific claims such as stating that a specific occurrence took place at a particular time and location.
Example
In the mid 1970s the United States' birth rate declined to the point where the population growth rate was nearly zero.
A second type of generalization is a general claim that relates types of occurrences.
Example
Blue collar workers tend to vote for Democratic Party candidates.
A third type of generalization includes those that state a theory or theory-like pattern of interdependent ideas. Social scientists, unlike their colleagues in the natural and physical sciences, have relatively few theories and few if any laws. But in disciplines such as economics and political science scholars have constructed well-known models or theories of human interaction that describe and relate phenomena and behavior. These models may also serve as guides to action. Models of our economic system, for example, enable economists to advise (though frequently they offer conflicting advice) on policies government leaders should pursue to maintain prosperity and stability.
Example
Increasing the money supply during a period of declining prices and rising unemployment will tend to stimulate economic recovery.
As guides to action, these generalizations are testable claims and enable us to inquire further and to

refine our understanding of various occurences and interrelationships.
Some generalizations express conditional claims and in so doing they often express a casual relationship.
Example
If taxes are increased, then the party in power will tend to loose voting support in the next election.
Notice that this generalization is stated in "if ... then" form. By stating it in this way, it becomes a testable hypothesis and is easily usable for classroom instructional purposes. Teachers may help students refine their thinking if they encourage students to state generalizations in this manner as tentative propositions to serve as further guides to inquiry.
When teachers organize their instruction around generalization, they must face the inevitable problem of selection. Since some generalizations are more powerful than others, teachers should choose those that offer the greatest utility or broadest application.
As a guide to selecting the most comprehensive generalizations, teachers may find useful the following criteria stated in question form.
To how many varied areas, events, people, ideas, objects, etc., does the generalization apply? (applicability)
How likely is that the relationship which the generalization suggests does not indeed exist? (accuracy)
To what degree does the generalization as stated lead to other insights? (depths)
To what extend does the generalization suggest important aspects of human behavior and explain important segments of today's world? (significance)
How much information does the generalization encompass? (breadth)
How many complex concepts does it include? (conceptual strengths)*

*From Jack R. Fraenkel. Helping Students Think and Value: Strategies for Teaching these Social Studies. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey. Prentice-Hall. Inc.. 1973. p. 109.
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Explanations
Teaching students to generate and use facts, concepts and generalizations in the social studies is obviously important. These are a means to an end. The important aim is for students to come to grips with explanations of phenomona, which is the work of social scientists and other scholars. Since the social studies draws its content from many disciplines, students will deal with several types of explanations. Briefly, explanations are a series of generalizations linking together concepts and factual claims to impart meaning to a series of occurrences or to behavior.
Explanations follow different patterns. Some may be deductive; others may be based upon statistical

probabilities; still others may be based upon a narrative reconstruction of a sequence of events or a description of ideas, interests and desires that motivate individual behavior. Explanations are answers to questions posed by the inquirer. Why did the French Revolution occur? Why does a relatively large percentage of Americans own automobiles? How was Jimmy Carter able to win election as president? What caused the Civil War?
In response to the last question, a typical question dealt with in the study of U.S history, many explanations have been given. Sometimes historians cite multiple causes, sometimes they cite a single cause. For example, compare these two explanations.

And of the American Civil War, it may safely be asserted that there was a single cause, slavery ... When events are reduced to their last elements, it plainly appears that the doctrine of states' rights and secession was invoked by the South to save slavery, and by a natural antagonism, the North upheld the Union because the fight for its preservation was the first step toward the abolition of Negro servitude ... Ifthe Negro had never been brought to America, our Civil War could not have occurred.
Historian James F. Rhodes

Slavery was the surface issue; the real conflict went deeper. Twice before in our history nullification had been attempted with veiled threats of secession, by New England during the second war with England, and by South Carolina in 1832. In neither case was slavery an issue; rather, it was the belief that local economic interests had been unjustly injured. In short, secession would have been quite possible if Negro slavery had never existed.
Historian Harold U. Falkner

It is important that students become aware of explanations when they come across them in their reading, viewing or listening. Students should understand that these explanations are a particular way of organizing factual claims and ideas, and that alternative explanations of the same phenomenon are possible, indeed even desirable, until the great weight of evidence clearly indicates the likely validity of one explanation over competing explanations.
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Skills
Skill development is an essential part of the social studies program. As soon as children can talk, they begin to acquire information by asking questions. Sooner or later parents and teachers are unable to provide the information. Long before that. children begin developing the skills needed to answer their own questions and to solve their own problems.
To achieve the success as a student and an adult, each student must become proficient in finding, analyzing, evaluating and applying information. Skills should be developed that will facilitate satisfying relationships with other people. Because these skills are vital to successful living, their development has become an important goal of education and a key part of the social studies curriculum.
Skills are means to an end, not an end in themselves. Skill development must start very eary in life be-

cause skills are acquired, retained and refined through practice. The more complex the skill, the more practice it takes to acquire and master its use.
A skill indicates a specific proficiency which in combination with other interrelated skills enables one to become competent.
A compentency indicates a broad statement that encompasses a combination of skills.
Success in school and in many other settings is related to skills mastery. Being able to comprehend and communicate ideas, to find needed information, to work with other persons on a task, are essential life skills. The social studies program aims to develop these skills in students and to provide opportunities .for skills to be used.

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Characteristics of Social Studies Skills

As frequently as possible, skills should be taulht in situations that require their use. If the students see that the development of a certain skill will help them gain success in school or in life outside the classroom, they are usually much more eager to develop it than they would be if they had to learn the skill for use in an isolated situation. Students learn more successfully if they feel a real need for developing the skill.
Social studies skills are highly interrelated. The student seldom uses anyone of the social studies skills without using others. For example, in order to communicate effectively in a report, a student might have to
find materials in a library;
read to find answers to questions;
interpret maps, globes, graphs and charts;
take notes;
make a bibliography;
write with clarity and accuracy.
A skills program must provide for individual differences. In planning a skills program, the teacher must consider the different needs, interests, experiences and abilities of individual students. To achieve optimum student growth, classroom goals and teaching strategies must provide for these differences.
Students must read social studies materials creatively and with comprehension. The inability of students to read social studies materials is one of the greatest problems that teachers face. The social studies teacher should be a teacher of reading who can help students read and comprehend social studies materials.

Students should learn to read social studies materials creatively, i.e., they should learn to communicate with the author by adding ideas to those presented by the author and talking back to the author, agreeing or disagreeing with the ideas presented. Reading creatively involves the use of many of the thought processes.
To comprehend written social studies materials, the student must be able to visualize what the author had in mind. "Picture-reading" is an effective way of achieving this goal.
Social studies skills require students to think. All social studies skills call for thinking skills. A student cannot develop proficiency in any of these skills without developing though processes. For example, a student making a map comparing the main types of farming and industry in two states must learn map and globe skills. But just as important, the student should practice skills of comparing and contrasting, analyzing similarities and differences, inferring reasons and predicting future trends.
To develop a skill, the student must practice it correctly. A student cannot gain a skill merely through observation or by reading about it. The student must practice the skill correctly with a desire to improve performance; mastery is attained with considerable practice.
The student improves the ability to perform a skill over a period of time. The student develops skills gradually as the result of a succession of appropriate learning e'\(Jeriences. A skill is not mastered all at one time. Instead, the student begins by first learning the skill on a low level of performance. Then, gradually, progress is made to more advanced levels.

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Values and Attitudes

As people grow and learn through experience, they develop general guides to thinking about the world their behavior in it. These guides give meaning and direction to life and are called values. In essence, values are standards and principles for judging things, ideas, people, actions and situations. People build their own value systems through a multitude of experiences related to other people, ideas and events. Values are the things in life that are considered worthwhile or desirable.
In addition to values, individuals develop attitudes to respond to particular people, objects, situations or actions in consistently specific ways. Attitudes may be defined as behavioral expressions of developing values. Attitudes are acquired tendencies to respond positively or negatively, favorably or unfavorably to persons, groups, objects, situations, ideas or events. Values, however, are more basic elements in one's way of looking at the world; they underlie attitudes. Whereas people may have a great many attitudes, they generally have far fewer values.
The process by which people come to hold certain values and exhibit particular attitudes is referred to as socialization. Family, church, school, recreation, government and other institutions, as well as the society at large, serve as agents of socialization. Although many scholars have noted the special relationships among learning, personality and values, educators have been divided by several major questions.
Should schools undertake a conscious, active role in values education?
If so, should they attempt to teach specific values or be neutral?
If schools attempt to teach acceptance or commitment to specific values, which value should be selected?
How should instruction be organized and what teaching methods employed to deal with values?
Certainly these are delicate issues and there are many interpretations of the statement that the school has definite responsibilities in helping young people develop values necessary for preserving and strengthening the principles of a free society. Educators should be concerned with helping students identify and analyze values from the substance of the social studies and helping them develop priorities of social, political and economic values that advance the cause of responsible civic behavior.

Some of these values are
the dignity and worth of the individual;
democracy as a way of life and government;
enrichment of society through cultural diversity;
acceptance of rights and responsibilities to one's nation;
a free and open market in the exchange of goods and services;
respect for those who are different in terms of appearance, race, creed or national origin;
the peaceful interdependence of nations;
education as a vehicle in the pursuit of human and social happiness.
There are many other important values, but certainly these rank high on the scale of values which the social studies can convey to students.
If schools have responsibility for openly dealing with values and attitudes, then what values should be dealt with? How do schools deal with them? Value phenomena may be studied, examined, compared and evaluated much like any other kind of social science data. Students must first understand what it is their society stands for before they are able to develop an appreciation or commitment to it.
What are the specific implications for those who teach social studies? In addition to studying about values as content, students should also be provided with opportunities to analyze value issues. The selection of learning experiences should be guided by the cognitive and emotional maturity of the student. As students gain in logical, analytical skills, they can apply these skills to dilemmas occurring in personal, community, national or global situations.
Certainly the values component of the social studies program is complex and often controversial. Local school systems and communities must address this area carefully and make appropriate curricular choices. A value-free classroom is neither possible nor desirable. Public school educators and social studies teachers in particular have definite responsibilities to help young people develop those values and attitudes necessary for preserving and strengthening a free, humane and just society. Essential to this society is the development of citizens who are able to exercise reasoned, critical thinking and who have developed a commitment to democratic ideals and way of life.

22

Social Participation Roles, Skills and Experiences

The acquistion of knowledge, the learning of fundamental cognitive skills, the development of attitudes and values and the ability to engage in value analysis and moral reasoning are but prerequisites for students' social participation. A curriculum that does not have as a fundamental goal the development of students' willingness and abilities to participate effectively in a society's political economic, social and cultural affairs is incomplete. Good citizenship has consequently been a longtime goal of social studies instruction.
Too often the goal has not been translated into specific meaningful experiences that provided opportunities for students to develop a willingness to participate, a sense of belonging, a sense of community, a feeling of power to influence people and institutions. Specific skills and abilities are needed to translate personal and group goals into effective action in civic affairs. When a student completes a high school program, he or she should be able to say, "I know what's going on, I'm part of it and I'm doing something about it."}
Such a sense of community involves multiple levels; it begins with the family and expands outward as children mature-to involve peer groups, neighborhoods and the school's larger community. Eventually, this sense of community extends beyond to a region, the nation and perhaps in some respects to all humanity. In its basic form, however, a community may be viewed as a group "(1) in which membership is valued as an end in itself, not merely as a means to other ends; (2) that concerns itself with many and significant aspects of the lives of members; (3) that allows competing factions; (4) whose members share commitment to common purposes and to procedures for handling conflict within the group; (5) whose members share responsibility for the actions of the group; and (6) whose members have enduring and extensive personal contact with each other.,,2 The development of a sense of community, argued to be the single most important goal for

education in the decades ahead, requires a useful fund of knowledge, clarity of attitudes and values, cognitive and human relations skills and responsible social participation.3
In a democracy social participation should be based upon a reasoned commitment to fundamental values such as justice, dignity and worth of individuals and rationality. Such participation should be encouraged from the primary grades through senior high school. Students should participate in both in-school and out-of-school activities. Some activities may fall more into the categories of observation and data collection. Others may involve more active categories of organizational and leadership roles.
Not all social action involves direct or actual participation in school or community affairs, although that may be an ultimate goal. Some activities may also be categorized as readiness activities. These include role playing, simulation games and other devices assigned to develop readiness for handling actual experiences that can be provided later or for which suitable direct activities cannot be provided.
Finally, although social participation activities may focus on the resolution of issues or problems or attempts to bring about change, they also may involve activities supportive of institutions, organizations, group or socially accepted patterns of civic behavior. Some participation may include voluntary efforts in community agencies that provide services to citizens such as day care centers or scouting groups. What is important is for the individual to develop a sense of community, that is, a feeling of belonging, of shared goals, responsibilities and rights and a sense of personal worth and power to contribute usefully.
In planning school programs to provide opportunities for achieving social participation goals, the following descriptions of roles, skills and experiences may serve as a useful guide.

lNational Council for the Social Studies. Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines. Washington. D.C.. NCSS 1971. p.15. 2Fred M. Newmann and Donald Oliver, Clarifying Public Controversy: an Approach to Teaching Social Studies, Boston; Little, Brown 3and Company 1970. pp. 329-30. R. Freeman Butts, "The Search for Purpose in American Education," Today's Education, March/April, 1976,65:84.
23

Socio-Civic Participation Roles and Related Skills*

Role

Skills

Participation Experiences

Observing and reporting

listens and observes

Attends group meetings

Records main ideas or other Interviews individuals

information

Prepares and distributes question-

naires

Gives reports by

written or oral account,

media presentations or

panel discussions.

Supporting and helping

Performs tasks as directed Works well with others Treats others with respect
and fairness

Tutors others Supervises activities or tends younger
children
Shares experiences with older persons Assists teachers. public officials or
volunteers in service-related tasks Works for the election of political
candidates Participates in a community interest
group

Soliciting and advocating

Obtains the views of others States position clearly Provides reasons for advo-
cated position Knows how to influence
others through appeals to their interests

Engages others in discussion of selected issues or problems
Establishes positions based on logic and evidence
Brings problems and potential solutions to the attention of leaders and others in school. community or organizations
Mobilizes support for course of action

Organizing and leading

Identifies goals and

Implements plans of action

priorities

Establishes a special interest group for

Plans and coorcUnates

the purpose of meeting a special need

group activities

in school or community

Matches roles and tasks

Volunteers to chair action or task

with individuals according

committees in school, church or civic

to their interest and

organization

skills

Seeks elective office in a group or

Creates a favorable working

organization

climate

*Adapted from Judith Gilliespie and Stuart lazarus, "Teaching Political Participation Skills," Social Education, October, 1976, 40:373-78.
24

Secondary Program

Social Studies Strands
A social studies program for grades 9-12 should enable students to meet minimum Georgia Board of Education graduation requirements. The program should be developed on the basis of the following three considerations. First, it should be a systematic extension of the K-8 curriculum in the areas of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values and social participation. Second, the program should be compatible with local needs and resources. Finally, students should be provided with a choice of alternatives to meet state and local requirements.
The social studies curriculum of the secondary schools should be designed around three strands, Global Studies, United States Studies and Behavioral Studies. No single pattern of courses and grade-level program recommendations is suggested. Some courses may be designed basically for ninth and 10th graders, others may be more appropriate for 11th and 12th graders. The grade-level placement of such content is not crucial, but the inclusion of program options for students is important.
World Studies. This includes emphasis on world history, world geography, cross-cultural studies (anthropological, historical, geographic) and comparative institutional studies (economic, political, social). It also deals with contemporary world problems and issues, current affairs and future studies.

The problems of population, pollution, resource and energy management and food availability require an increasing awareness of the interdependence of people in producing solutions both from the historical perspective and in a contemporary context. An effective world studies program must emphasize relationships among people and cultures.
United States Studies. This includes emphasis on U.S. history, constitutional development, foundation of government, citizenship, social and economic development and domestic or foreign issues confronting the United States. The schools must teach a firm understanding of the basic principles of our democratic heritage, the nature of selfgovernment and the responsibilty of each citizen. A U.S. Studies program should provide students with opportunities to examine complex political, social and economic issues and to develop decision-making skills necessary for effective citizenship.
Behavioral Studies. The fields of psychology, sociology and anthropology are the major areas in this strand. Focus is upon concepts and principles that help students understand individual human behavior, behavior toward others and group behavior. Students should be given opportunities to deal with both research and practical applications that illustrate the validity of basic principles of behavior which tend to strengthen the individual and society.

Requirements and Recommendations For Georgia High School Social Studies Programs

U.S. Studies .U.S. History and Government .Citizenship (functions of government,
political processes and law-related studies) .Economics/Business/Free Enterprise
World Studies
Behavioral Studies
Electives

Required

QU.

Sem.

3

2

1

1

1

1

3

2

0

0

1

0

Minimum

Recommended

QU.

Sem.

3

2

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

1

0

0

Desirable

QU.

Sem.

3

2

1

1

1

1

3

2

1

1

3

1

Total

9

6

9

7

12

8

25

High School Social Studies Program

The social studies program in Georgia schools for students in grades 9-12 should provide opportunities in the following areas of study. These topics can be organized in a number of patterns; these are not suggested as discrete courses.

UNITED STATES STUDIES
United States History/Government
* American Culture * American People * An Expanding America * Reform Movements * American Government * American Economic Life * United States in World Affiars
Principles of Economics/Business/Free
Enterprise
* Economic Concepts * Private Enterprise * Product and Resource Markets * Function of Government * Economic Systems
Citizenship Education
* Structure of American Government * Branches of Government * Political Process * Foundation of Law * Citizen Participation * Principles of Constitutional Govern-
ment
* Principles of Democracy * Decision Making Skills

WORLD STUDIES
World History
* Early Civilizations * Development of Western Civilization * Development of Eastern Civilization * Development of Latin American
History
* Modern World History * Cultural Expressions of Various
Civilizations (art. music. literature.
etc.)
* Economic Issues * Political Issues * Interdependence
World Geography
* The Nature of Geography * Cultural Area Studies
Latin America
Middle East
North America
Europe
AJrica Asia Australia
* World Geographic Patterns
* Urban Analysis * Interdependence

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Anthropology
* Nature of Anthropology * Anthropological Theories of Cul-
tures
* Social Groups. Organizations and
Institutions
* Linguistic Patterns as Reflections
of a Culture
Psychology
* Nature of Psychology * Stages of Human Growth and
Development
* Creative Thinking Process
Learning and Language Development Personality Theories
* Individual Development
Development oj Self-concept Understanding RelationshipsIndividual and Group
Sociology
* Nature of Sociology * Culture. Socialization. Groups and
Institutions
* Communication * Cultural and Social Change * Cultural Contact and Diffusion

* If advanced placement credit is to be awarded for World History or American History, content and specific
objectives developed by the College Board should be used.

26

Sample Course Guides

This section includes three examples from the U.S. Studies Strand (see page 25). Each example incorporates elements of a curriculum guide (see page 27) illustrating different degrees of detail. The content areas are Economic/Business/Free Enterprise, United States History and Government and Citizenship Education. Each of these samples illustrates essential elements of curriculum design discussed in this guide.
The outline of a course guide uses the economics content to highlight elements of a guide. The concept scarcity is used to relate examples of content to elements of a guide.

The sample course outline uses the history content to show two ways a course can be outlined. This sample outline, using the thematic approach and the unit topic of American Culture, illustrates how course elements can be developed.
The sample lesson plan uses content from Citizenship Education to chart exemplar lessons in detail. The lessons are matched with corresponding concepts. performance objectives, indicators, activities and resources and are keyed to Georgia Board of Education high school graduation requirements (Georgia Board of Education Policy IHF) and to Basic Skills Tests objectives used for tenth grade testing program.

Elements of a Guide
Course Description

Objectives

Content Outline

Activities

Resources

Evaluation

27

Sample Course Outline

Economics/Business/Free Enterprise

Definition
Because economic problems in our society have become increasingly serious and because solutions require a basic knowledge of economic principles. greater emphasis on economics is needed from kindergarten through high school.
As citizens mature they face increasingly complex economic problems. An understanding of basic principles and a grasp of the workings of the American economic system are essential. To function effectively as a citizen one must not only

understand our economic system but also relate this knowledge to our political system. Only then can citizens totally fulfill their responsibilities as part of an informed electorate. The process of economic analysis can increase the ability of the student to reason rationally and objectively, and thus can contribute to mental growth. The rationale for the course EconomicslBusiness/Free Enterprise is found in the commitment of the schools to contribute to the educational growth of students while enabling them to become more useful and economically literate citizens.

General Objectives
1. Explain the basic economic problem facing all societies.
2. Identify the three questions facing every economic system and analyze how our society has organized to answer these questions.
3. Explain the interrelationships among natural, human and capital resources and human needs and wants.
4. Describe how specialization permits scarce resources to be more efficiently used and assess why it is important for both domestic and international economic activity.
5. Describe how supply and demand determine prices for each good. service or factor of production.
6. Complete a decision-making exercise using a method of problem solving designed for making economic choices.
7. Describe the characteristics of the private enterprise system.
8. Describe and analyze how the profit motive helps to determine resource allocation and distribution of income.
9. Describe and analyze the relationship between profit motive and rewards for risk-taking.

10. List a variety of sources of funds for financing business enterprise.
11. Identify and discuss the various forms of business organization and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
12. Explain the role of competition in the private enterprise system and list its benefits to consumers.
13. Describe the role of savings and investment in capital formation and relate its significance to levels of production.
14. Explain how the advancement of technology increases productivity, benefits the consumer and stimulates the growth of the economy.
15. Describe the various types of market structures with regard to number of firms, level of competition. type of products and determination of prices by competitive or noncompetitive processes.
16. Describe the role of prices in allocation of resources and goods and services.
17. Explain the relation between price and quantity of goods demanded and supplied.
18. Discuss how the productivity of labor. capital, land and entrepreneurship helps to determine

28

the incomes to each of the factors of production.
19. DiscusS the effects of unionization on income distribution and resource allocation.
20. Describe the role of money and the effects of increasing or decreasing the quantity of money in a private enterprise economy.
21. Investigate career opportunities by studying the current and future availability of jobs in various industries. professions and the public sector.
22. Analyze the skill requirements for various job choices and assess the personal qualifications. education and training necessary to acquire and retain these jobs.
23. Analyze distribution of income among various skill levels and relate how changes have occmed over a specific period of time.
24. Compare and contrast the principles, purposes, characteristics and effects of various kinds of taxation.
25. Discuss several effects of government regulation on consumers and producers in the American economy.

26. Looking at the history of American economic development, tell why the federal government assumes a role in helping stabilize the economy.
27. Explain how economic specialization promotes foreign trade and world interdependence.
28. Differentiate among traditional, command, market and mixed economic systems with regard to
a. ownership of property, b. distribution of income, c. role of government, d. economic incentives.
29. Describe the structure organization of the FederaI Reserve System and list its main monetary policy functions.
30. State what Gross National Product measures.
31. Analyze the role of savings and investment in capital formation and growth.
32. Describe the impact of inflation on the economic decisions of business and households.
33. Explain how the federal government's taxation and expenditures policies affect inflation and employment.

29

Principles of Economics/Business/Free Enterprise
Modified Structural Content Diagram

Function of Government
Services Regulations Redistribution of income
(taxes and transfer payment) Stabilization

What? Economic concepts
Wants and needs Scarcity/choices Resources Opportunity cost Supply and demand Specialization. division of
labor. interdependence

How? Private enterprise
Forms of organization Competition Risk Profit Values and goals Economic incentives Financing private
Enterprise Functions of business
(production. etc.)

Growth and Stabilization Policies
Monetary policies Fiscal policies Inflation policies Employment Saving and investment Measuring the performance of
economy (GNP. etc.)
Decision Making
Values Goals Goal conflicvtrade offs Resource constraints'limitations Utility Optimization Demand Advertising Lifestyles Decision-making Consumer surplus

For Whom? Product and Resource Markets
Markets for goods and services Price mechanism Types of competition
(monopoly. etc.) Factors of Production - land.
labor. capital, entrepreneurship Circular Flow of Money Income Distribution

Foreign Trade
Balance of payments Balance of trade Comparative advantage

Economic Systems
Traditional Command Market Mixed

30

Sample Performance Objectives and Indicators
Concepts - scarcity, unlimited wants, limited sources, opportunity costs, specialization, interdependence.

Performance Objectives The student will be able to 1. demonstrate an understanding of the basic economic problem facing all societies.
2. describe how the American society deals with the problem of scarcity.
Sample Course Content
Unit Theme-Scarcity Economic Concepts
Wants and needs Scarcity and choices Resources Opportunity cost Supply and demand

Indicators/Tasks
The student will be able to
*1A. list the three questions facing every economic system; *18. label correctly each ofthe economic systems, given the definitions; *IC. list four basic kinds of economic systems; *ID. match five key concepts from the lesson with their respective definitions;
IE. describe and distinguish in writing among the command, market, traditional and mixed economic systems;
I-F. chart on a poster or the chalkboard the key principles of socialism, communism and capitalism;
IG. identify the economic system in U.S., England, Soviet Union, Japan, China and selected other countries;
*2A. define the concept scarcity; *28. list the basic elements of a market economy; *2C. explain orally or in writing how specialization permits scarce resources to be used more efficiently;
20. trace the process of utilizing resources to meet demands in the private enterprise system; 2E. list examples of human and capital resources; 2F. distinguish between examples and nonexamples of renewable natural resources;
2G. chart the process of using resources to meet consumer demand when given a simple model of scarce resource allocation; 2H. contribute to a class discussion on the ways the American society determines how a given economic good (such as cars) will be produced;
21 determine the opportunity cost of certain choices from a list of personal wants; 2J suggest solutions to the problem of the gap between unlimited wants and limited resources.
*minimum competencies
II. Economic Systems Traditional Command Market Mixed

31

mixed market traditional command

redistribution of income regulations services stabilization taxation
business cycle inflation recession unemployment

What? supply and demand equilibrium price resources opportunity costs interdependence specialization division of labor

How? factors of production forms of organization competition economic incentives risk profit values and goals enterprise functions of business

For whom? circular flow of money income distribution career choices

32

GNP

monetary policy fiscal policy labor unions unemployment insurance

Sample Activities
1. Introduce the three basic questions facing every economic system. What? How? For Whom?
a. Have a class discussion in which the students derive the three questions themselves. Ask students to brainstorm as many questions as they can. Record them on the chalkboard. Lead them to condense their questions into the three basic ones. The advantage here is that they are thinking of the questions themselves and are involved.
b. Have students read a section in the textbook or relevant pamphlets or other reference material. Guided reading techniques enhance learning.

Which system would you prefer if you were
a. an average hard-working citizen who just wanted a job so you could take care of your family?
b. the leader of a country rich in coal who wanted industry to get away from using imported foreign oil?
c. the head of the agriculture department who needed to plan for enough food to feed the people of the nation?
d. a market analyst or business executive who had money and support enough to manufacturer a new product?

2. Data retrieval chart

Economic systems

Ownership of property

traditional

command

market

mixed

Distribution of income

Role of government

Economic incentives

3. Mapping
Use a desk-size outline map of the world. Have enough colored pencils or pens for each student or small group of students to have at least four different colors. Help students identify the top 10 or 15 major economic powers in the world. Help students identify each of those countries by its economic system (traditional, command, market or mixed). Have students fill in their maps with an appropriate title, relevant information in the key or legend and data displayed in an attractive manner. Then ask students to generalize and evaluate what they found out.
4. Musical Chairs
In order to illustrate scarcity, have students playa short game of musical chairs. In the game, the chairs represent the limited supply of resources. label each chair Goods and Services. The students represent the unlimited material wants of people. and each student carries a sign labeled Unlimited Wants. The music starts and stops as in the traditional game of musical chairs. The game begins with 10 chairs and 10 students. When the music

stops, each student will find a chair. This illustrates that all needs for goods and services are fulfilled. To adjust the situation to represent increased population, add one more student (increased needs). The game begins again. When the music stops. one student will be left standing (that is, a need is unsatisfied). Continue the game, adding one more student each time. Two wants will be uns~tisfied, then three and so forth.
After the second round ask the students what should be done with the student left standing. One of his or her wants was unsatisfied because there were not enough resources to go around. (The response will usually be to share.) Keep repeating this question in rounds 3, 4, etc. As more people are left with unsatisfied wants and needs. the remaining students become less willing to share and often refuse.
At this point, discuss the following.
1. Why did the desire for goods and services increase? (population increase)
2. Why weren't there enough goods to go around to everyone? (Not enough resources)

33

3. How can the gap between unlimited needs and limited resources be resolved? (Cut back on population, learn how to produce the same with less resources, get along with less or learn how to produce more with existing resources)
4. Why didn't the sharing the resources work as more people were added to the game?
5. Are there other ways to allocate resources? Discuss some ofthese (command, traditional. market, mixed economies). (Taken from AMERICAN ENTERPRISE, TEACHING NOTES; see Sample Resources list.)
5. Define resource
Define resource as anything that people can use to satisfy wants. Ask students to list some unusual things that would fit that definition.
Ideas
a mind is a terrible thing to waste buffalo chips for housing handle from worn out broom for window guard body heat in office building aspirin from coal laser beams
6. Choices
It is essential to apply economic understandings to the students' personal situations. This can be done with sarcity and opportunity cost simply by asking students to compile a list of everything they want. The lists will be endless. After the lists are completed, discuss the following.
a. Are you able to satisfy all these wants? Why not? (impossible due to more wants relative to available resources)
b. Announce that each student has just received a gift of $100 to satisfy personal wants. Since $100 will not cover the cost of all the wants on their lists, choices must be made. Ask them to fill out a chart placing their choices in the lefthand column and all the unsatisfied wants under costs in the righthand column.

Choices

Costs

1_----->--_1

c. Why are the items in the righthand column costs? (By satisfying the wants in the choice column, they had to forego the opportunity to buy the remaining items. This is opportunity cost.)

d. Is scarcity a problem experienced only by students? Give an example of a scarcity problem faced by your family, community, state, nation or the world.
e. Ask the students to keep a log of economic decisions they make during a week. Have them analyze their log entries in terms of how scarcity affected their decision. What was the opportunity cost of each decision (what was given up?).
Now that the students have an understanding of scarcity and opportunity cost, ask them to discuss other situations. Scarcity is a relative concept. For example, in the southern colonies labor was scarce relative to the large amount of land available for farming.
(Taken from AMERICAN ENTERPRISE: TEACHING NOTES; see Sample Resources list.)
7. A Model - By Bread and Cheese Alone
Imagine a market economy somewhere in the world which produces and consumes only two products. The people in the economy live entirely on bread and cheese. Study the model carefully, and consider how this economy decides what to produce, how to produce it and for whom to produce it.
First, much of the what question is answered by the fact that these people just happen to like bread and cheese, and only bread and cheese. But how much of each? Since these people live in a free market economy, they are not told which to buy. They will divide their spending between bread and cheese in whatever way appeals to their tastes. Assume that they have been spending half of their income on bread and half on cheese. Now suppose these people decide, of their own free will, that they want more cheese and less bread. What happens?
First, the bakers and the cheesemakers learn of the change in taste not from a king or commissar, but from simple observation. The bakers find themselves with bread unsold at the end of the day. That is a signal to them to cut back production. The cheesemakers, on the other hand, find that they have sold all their cheese before the end of the day. That is their signal to try to expand production.
But the chain of events has just begun. The cheesemakers cannot simply make more cheese immediately. First, they will have to get more milk, more labor and more equipment. If any of these ingredients is in short supply, the cheesemakers may change the way in which they make cheese as well as the amount. If skilled labor is hard to come by, the cheesemakers may train more people, work their present staff overtime, cut corners in the

34

cheesemaking process or try to devise new machinery to do part of the work that has been done by labor. From any of these changes, a new how answer would result.
At the same time bakers will find that they must lay off some of their skilled workers as production is cut back. These workers may be lucky enough to find jobs in the expanding cheese industry. However, their new jobs will probably neither pay as well nor be at as high a skill level as their old jobs in the bread industry. Farmers with land that is fine for raising wheat but not so good for raising dairy cattle will also feel the squeeze (at least until they can shift to another crop that is just as profitable). Their friends with good dairy lands will prosper. Thus, there will be a redistribution of income as a result of the shift in tastes from bread to cheese. The for whom question is answered not by law but by impersonal market forces. Those who gain from the shift in taste get more income with which they can buy more of the economy's bread and cheese than before. Those who lost from the shift in taste end up with less money to buy bread and cheese.
The real world, however, is more complicated than this imaginary economy of bread eaters and cheese eaters. In the real world, thousands of products exist. But the same basic process is still at work. In a market economy, free market forces, responding to the demand of consumers alone, make the major decisions about what goods are to be produced, how they are to be produced, and for whom they are to be produced.
(Taken from STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING ECONOMICS; see Sample Resources list.)

8. Federal Budget Exercise*
Suppose the U.S. Congress was faced with the decision to allocate $100,000,000 for new programs. How would you recommend the money be spent?
I. food for poor Americans
2. research on cure for cancer
3. food for poor in India or Africa
4. development of nuclear power by federal government
5. research and development of mass transit
6. housing for low income families
7. low or no cost loans for college students
8. grants to local governments for education needs
9. subsidies to U.S. farmers to encourage production of food
Rank the above nine items in order according to your priorities, i.e., which program would you give the highest, which the lowest priority, etc.?

Highest priority Lowest priority

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Program No.

"Focus for Discussion," By S. Stowell Symmes, Director of Curriculum, Joint Council on Economic Education, 1212 Avenue of the Americas, New York. N.Y. 10036
35

Sample Resources
Resources should be drawn from a variety of sources. The following are examples of some of the many materials available. Teacher Materials
American Enterprise Teaching Notes. New York: Playback Associates. Aspects of Economic Education in the Classroom. Washington, D.C.: Securities Industry Foundation for Economic Education, 1979. Brown, M.J., Improving Comprehension and Vocabulary Development in Economics, Athens, GA: Center for Economic Education, Univ. of Ga. Calderwood, J.D.. and G.L. Fersh. Economics for Decision Making, New York: Macmillian, 1974. Campbell, S.R. ed., Our Economic System: Essays and Teachers' Guides. Chicago: Sears, Roebuck, and Co., 1976. Coleman, Comparative Economic Systems. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968. Hansen, W.L. and others, A Framework for Teaching Economics: Basic Concepts, New York: Joint Council on Economic Education, 1977. Patton, Improving the Use of Social Studies Textbooks, Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1980. Prehn, E.C., Teaching High School Economics. New York: New York City Council on Economic Education, 1976. Strategies for Teaching Economics. New York: Joint Council on Economic Education, 180. Warmke, R.F., and others, The Study and Teaching of Economics. Columbus. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1980. Catalog (1980) for consumer education and economics:
Social Studies School Services 10,000 Culver Blvd., Dept. D Box 802 Culver City, Calif. 90230
Textbooks A wide selection can be found in The Georgia Textbook List.
Student Materials
About the American Economy, Channing L. Bete Co.. Inc. Greenfield, Mass. #01301. cost: $1, grade level: 9-12.
The American Economic System . .. and Your Part in It, Economics. Pueblo, Colorado, 81009. Single Copy, free; grade level, 10-12.
The Market System: Does It Work? Educational Service Bureau. Dow Jones and Co., Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, New Jersey, 08540. cost: free catalog of materials available, grade level: 1-12.
U. S. Economic Growth, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Supt. of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Wasington, D.C., 20402. cost: write for free catalog, grade level 10-12.
Films 16 mm American Enterprise Series, Phillips Petroleum. order through Modern Talking Pictures Service, 4705-F
Baker's Ferry Rd., Atlanta, Ga., 30336. Color, 30 min., with William Shatner. cost: free loan as a series or individually. grade level: 7-12. Series: Innovation. Organization, Government, Land People
36

Free Enterprise, Fisher Barfoot, Piggly-Wiggly Southern, P.O. Box 569, Vidalia, Ga., 30474. Color, 14 min., 1975, with Efrem Zimbalist Jr., cost: free loan. grade level: middle-secondary
The Kingdom of Mocha, Standard Oil, order through Modern Talking Picture Service, File Scheduling Center, 2323 New Hyde Park Rd., New Hyde Park, New York, 11040. Color, 26 min., animation. cost: free loan, grades: 7-12.
The National Economy Quiz, Film Librarian, Public Relations and Advertising, Aetna Life and Casualty, Hartford, Conn., 06156. Color, 28 min., 1976. cost: free loan. grade level: 10-12. Film Strips
Economics of the Energy Problem, Public Affairs Dept., Exxon Co., USA, P.O. Box 2180, Houston, TX, 77001. Color, animation, cassette included, cost: one set free per school. grade level: 9-12.
The Family Economic System, J.e. Penney Co., available through any retail store. Color, 13 min., cost:
free loan. grade level: 7-12. Film Loops
Chain of Experts: Division of Labor, Ealing Corp., Cambridge, Mass., 02140. Color, 3 min., 1969. grade level: elem. - secondary. Games and Simulations
Enterprise, Interact Co., P.O. Box 262, Lakeside, Calif., 92040. grades 7-12. New City Telephone Company, Southern Bell Telephone Co., Hurt Bldg., Atlanta, Ga., 30303. cost: free for school resource center, grades 9-14. Programmed Instruction The American Economic Series, Behavioral Research Laboratories, Box 577, Palo Alto, Calif., grades 8-11. Seven books-The Free Enterprise System; The Gross National Product; Problems of Economic Stability and Growth; The Federal Reserve System; Taxes and Government Spending; International Trade; Capitalism, Communism and Socialism. Community Resources Such a list should reflect what each community offers. Consider the following. State Consumer Affairs Office State Capitol Atlanta, Ga. 30334 Public relations officer of local industry American Association of Retired Persons Officials of local banks and loan companies Local, state and federal agencies Parent with a particular expertise Better Business Bureau Chamber of Commerce
37

Sample Evaluation
Varied instructional assessment strategies recommended for use in economics. A. Teacher-made test B. Commercial examination C. Teacher observation D. Student self-evaluation E. Peer evaluation F. Student contracts G. Independent study

H. Participation in simulation and role playing I. Effective use of computer-assisted instruction J. Research economic issues and problems K. Student conference L Classroom questions
The measurement of the behavior to be demonstrated or performed should be keyed to performance objectives and indicators.

38

Sample Course Outline
United States History and Government

Introduction
The first law which required students graduating from high schools in Georgia to complete a full year in the study of United States history and government was passed in 1923 and updated in 1953. When APEG (Ga. Code 32-657a) was passed in 1974, this requirement was retained. The High School Graduation Requirements Policy (IHF) passed by the Georgia Board of Education in March 1980 reinforces this requirement. The course must be equivalent to one Carnegie unit - one year, two semesters or three quarters depending on the organizational pattern of the school.
Rationale
The study of history and government should help students become knowledgeable in the heritage of

our nation. They need knowledge of our country, its peoples and its institutions. Through the study of historical development students gain an understanding of the lessons of the past and an appreciation of the struggles and contributions of the men and women who made America what it is today. This study should include an understanding of the problems confronting our political leaders and the role of our country in the modern world.
Fundamental beliefs are drawn from the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution with its Bill of Rights. Our country is the oldest large-scale democracy and maintains its growth under the oldest of written constitutions. To be a functioning citizen in a democratic society, the student must develop an understanding of and commitment to democratic principles and their applications.

General Objectives
The student will be able to
1. Analyze the factors that led to the colonization of the North American continent.
2. Distinguish between various state and local governmental patterns which developed during the Colonial Period.
3. Analyze social and economic patterns which developed in the American colonies.
4. Analyze the Declaration of Independence and give examples of the hardships faced by the colonists, the loss of personal freedoms, the economic restrictions and governmental regulations that led to the American Revolution.
5. Compare and contrast the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States.
6. Analyze the Bill of Rights in the Constitution as it applies to the citizens of America today.
7. Analyze the meaning of constitutionalism and limited government.
8. Trace the growth of the party system in the American Political System.
9. Interpret "Manifest Destiny" and expansion of the West.
10. Identify the causes and events leading to the Civil War.

ll. Analyze the results of the Civil War and the effect on Reconstruction.
12. Trace the development ofthe Industrial Revolution in America.
13. Demonstrate an understanding of the changes in American lifestyles and though as industrial-
14. Trace the developments which led to America emerging as a world power.
15. Analyze the Progressive Movement as a political force in American politics.
16. Analyze the causes and effects of World War I on the American public.
17. Analyze social changes in America from 1902-1937.
18. Illustrate the Crash of 1929 through understanding of the American economy.
19. Explain the causes and effects ofthe New Deal policy from 1932 to 1940.
20. Analyze causes and effects of World War II.
21. Give causes and effects of the Cold War period.
22. Evaluate the Voices of Protest and the demand for reforms in the 1960s.
23. Analyze the role assumed by the American government after World War II in foreign relations.

39

24. Demonstrate how Americans attempt to solve domestic problems.
25. Analyze the social and economic conflicts throughout the world as related to our own government.

26. Analyze how conflicting philosophies of private enterprise and socialized control affect the American government's role in solving domestic economic problems.

History is

Elements Common to Historical Development

Chronology Time Record of past
facts patterns interpretations Systematic narrative Restrospection Chronicle

Types of History

::::.-::::::.._ _-

Political Economic Cultural Geographic Social Military Technological Intellectual Biographical

40

Thematic Approach United States History and Government

United States History and Government Themes

- American
government

EThe Constitution - background and development The role of government The living Constitution - challenges and changes

American economic life

Background of our economic system

American colonies - mercantile capitalism

New nation - industrial capitalism

-f Era of finance capitalism

business farmers workers

- - Regulated capitalism - role of government

~ United States
in world affairs

Background to U.S. policy The young ~ation The expanding ~ation. . . A powerful nation - IsolatiOniSm A powerful nation - leadership and involvement

~ American -------1 culture

American ideals and values Changing lifestyles Infulences of science and technology Literature and the arts - reflections

Changing culture - influences and issues

American people

Earliest americans

Nation of immigrants

---

Melting pot theory

- - { Population patterns

Minorities in the United States

E An expanding
America

-------'

Eupopeans come to America Westward to the Pacific Beyond the nation's boundaries

Reform movements

Education
EPhy,;~lIy h."d;~_ Labor Mental health Women's movements Prison reform

41

Chronological Approach United States History and Government
Three Quarter Plan
First Quarter

Colonial Period to 1875

-----Ie The colonial period

Europe makes use of the New World

English colonists develop a new way of life

- - - - - t r - New nation arises

Causes and effects of the American Revolution

L- An experimental period

Democracy flourishes--r- The Constitution is adopted
L - Functions and services of local government

The republic is launched

E - - - - - - I

Domestic policy emerges Development of political parties Jacksonian Era

~ Social reforms
and the American civilization

TeChnOIOgy and industry emerge A nation of immigrants Reform movements Influences in American culture

From compromise to conflict

- t From compromise
to conflict

Manifest Destiny and westward expansion From compromise to conflict The Civil War

Reconstruction

42

Post Reconstruction to the New Deal (1932)

Second Quarter

Expansion and

.

development -------1

R~i1~oad building
Mmmg Cattle

Farming

~ The triumph
of the machine

wagons to railroads Steel Coal Oil

Inventions stimulate growth

Urban growth -----..,r- Labor movement
L- Slums and palaces - sharp contrast

Agricultural - - - - - - ! r - - Major changes in farming methods

revolution Minority

L-- Commercial agriculture emerges
EThe fate of the Indian

explOri'''"c'':-------- Black experience

Oriental immigrant

~ Growth of business

Laissez faire Free enterprise Government control

Changing culture

r - New ideas challenge older beliefs

influences and issu""eO":s,----IL....- Major advances in American culture

The United States

r--International influences and responsibilities

emerges as a world-p-o-w-e-r---tL- Reforms of the Progressive Era

Crusade and disillusion--.r- New attitudes in world affairs -~The First World War
Return to isolation ----Ir- The Roaring Twenties
L-The Depression begins

- The great change
19021937

Autos Ad men Aviation

The Jazz Age

43

Third Quarter

New Deal (1932) to Present

_____r - The New Deal

The Roosevelt years

L-.. The New Deal evaluated

The world at the crossroads

~r- War comes to Europe L - The nation fights in greatest war

E The U.S. emerges

as a

-------1.

world leader

Toward collective security The Marshall Plan The Truman Doctrine

The Cold War - - - - - - ! r _ Atomic and nuclear power L-.. Creation of the United Nations

The Korean Conflict

Problems of loyalty and internal security

~

- E The Cold War thaws

Eisenhower - Dulles foreign policy The New Frontier The Great Society

The Vietnam experience -r-- The Nixon Years
L- The national trauma

Social changes accelerate

- i Modern U.S. emerges

Protests of the 19605 Reform movements (post WW II) Mass culture as influence Science technology

- t America's future

Environmental demands Economic issues Role in world affairs __ Role of government

New American ideas and ideals

44

Two Approaches: Chronological and Thematic

This section attempts to identify basic ideas which might be used in developing the course of study. Two approaches are suggested. One is chronological and simply studies the ideas in each time period as one event folIows another. The second approach

is thematic. A theme is chosen and an in-depth study of that theme is developed. Whichever approach is used, the goal is to help students gain a basic understanding and appreciation of United States history and government.

Thematic Approach
United States History and Government can be arranged around various themes or general topics. This approach allows for the chronological development of an idea or theme as it recurs throughout history. Some suggested topics have been outlined on page 41-44. The following outline illustrates the steps to consider when planning a course, minicourse or unit of instruction.

Course Title - United States History and Government
Course Description - This course will provide students with opportunities to explore national and personal ideals and values, to trace changing lifestyles throughout history, to analyze the influence of science and technology, to study American literature and the arts as reflections of American history, and to identify, analyze and evaluate the issues and influences on the changing American Culture.

Sample Performance Objectives and Indicators
Performance Objectives American Culture-Ideals and Values
The student will be able to 1. identify some basic American ideals
and values.

Indicators/Task
The student will be able to
la. distinguish among the definitions of various concepts dealing with ideals and values by matching terms with appropriate definitions; lb. list at least five basic ideals and values; lc. discuss relationship between national and personal values; Id. identify basic American ideals and values from literature; Ie. prepare a time line showing the historical development of basic American ideals and values; If. use both primary and secondary sources while preparing an outline for an essay.

45

American Culture-Changing Lifestyles The student will be able to 2. identify and analyze the changes in American values and attitudes through lifestyles.
Sample Course Content Unit Theme - American Culture I. Ideals and Values
A. Identification of ideals and values 1. Individualism 2. Protestant work ethic 3. Religious tolerance 4. Mobility
B. Historical perspective 1. Origin 2. Development 3. Changes

The student will be able to
2a. place on a map the major population and trade centers during the colonial period of 17001750; 2b. describe the influence of the 'frontier' on the American way of life - past and present; 2c. trace population shifts using historical geography; 2d. construct a bar graph illustrating population growth from 1790-1970; 2e. identify the major manufacturing (and farming) regions of the U.S.; 2f. analyze differences between generations in values, attitudes and lifestyles of people in the community.
II. Changing Lifestyles
A. Colonial experiences B. Frontier influences C. Family roles D. Transportation E. Rural to urban migration

-- -------.
46

Sample Instructional Activities
la. Use the dictionary and thesaurus to find definitions and synonyms for the following terms.
ideals values principles beliefs goals attitudes symbolism assimilation acculturation conflict compromise lb. Brainstorm answers to the question, What would the Man On The Moon see and say about Americans if he looked down and observed people in the United States? List the student answers. Responses into basic ideals, values and beliefs.
lb. Read aloud to the class portions of the article
Miner, Horace. "Body Ritual Among the Nacirema." American Anthropologist, Vol. 58, 1956, pp. 503-507.
Identify several key aspects of the American culture highlighted in the article. Encourage students to observe their surrondings and try writing a similar article about some feature of our American culture.
Ie. Have students number down their papers from 1 to 15. Ask students to write down a list of at least 10 to 15 answers as quickly as they can to the question, Who Am I?
Catalog the first three answers. Then catalog their last three answers. Categorize and analyze the responses. Do they relate just to the individual or do they relate to others. (One survey showed that American answers revolve around I, while German answers relate to others around the individual.)
If. Have students systematically prepare an essay. Given a list of possible essay topics, the students should conduct research to make an outline of points to be made in an essay. Have students use at least one primary and two secondary sources in their research. Suggested topics include
Who comes to America and why? Why intergration was (is) bad (good). Why segregation was (is) bad (good).

Who were the immigrants? Who are the immigrants? Have the students actually write an essay from their prepared outlines. To further develop their ideas, have them share and discuss what they wrote with others. 2b. Read the following discussion of the Frontier Myth. Have students write an answer to the question. Is there a Frontier Myth?
Frontier Myth The development of movies, pulp magazines and television created a tremendous demand for stories that would be simple to comprehend, spiced with interesting characters and full of action and excitement-a surefire recipe for success. Writers created stories embodying the frontier mytha. that frontier people were sharply delineated into good and bad, such as the settlers against the Indians, the homesteaders against the cattle ranchers, the honest sheriff against the rustlers; b. that the frontier contained interesting, sometimes eccentric people such as the town drunk, the gambling casino woman with the heart of gold, the Indian giving his or her life for a settler friend; c. that frontier life was exciting, filled with escapes from jail, long chases, fisticuffs and gun battles. In other words...did you ever see the good characters losing? or the white hat cowboys not doing the honorable thing? Recently, writers have created Westerns poking fun in a goodnatUied way at the frontier myth. Movies such as Support Your Local Sheriff, and television shows such as F Troop are examples. Debunking the frontier myth through satire is now a popular art among writers. Denying the frontier myth by realism was paramount in the film High Noon, which, although fanciful in the ending, was realistic in portraying the motives of the townspeople for refusing to assist the sheriff. A Swedish production, The Immigrants, showed settlers facing everyday problems as they sought to secure the necessities of life and build homes in the American West. Is there a frontier myth?

47

Growth Game - Population Explosion
2d. Draw a circle on the floor or playground or place a string in a circle approximately 10 feet in diameter.
Ask two students to come forward and get inside the circle. Ask them to move around to see how much space they have in the circle.
Add two more students to the circle, Ask them to move around.
Keep adding two students to the circle...each time asking them to move around.
The students will find it more difficult to move and problem of space will be emphasized.
2f. Have students construct an interview schedule to determine the lifestyles of older people in the community. Encourage them to try to interview two people (one with a rural background and one who grew up in an urban setting). The follOWing questions could be used to help students compose the questions they want to ask.

1. What games did you play in your preteen years?
2. What kinds of foods did you eat? 3. How did you spend your leisure time? 4. Describe a typical school day? 5. Outline a typical day during the winter months of your teens? 6. How would you and your family celebrate the Fourth of July? 7. Who were some of your heroes or heroines? 8. What was you relationship with your family members? 9. What did you like most (least) about your environment in your early years? 10. What do you think about America today?
Have students conduct an interview with older members of their community. Record the responses to find changes in values and attitudes which may explain changes in lifestyles.
Analyze the results of the interviews. Evaluate the interview questions and technique for effectiveness. Devise visual displays to present the data collected.

THE WORLD'S POPULATION GROWTH:

BILLION PERSONS

YEARS

PAST AND PROJECTED
.25O?

I
1998 I
1987 I
1975
1960 1930 EARLY 1800's

6.2

6.0

~ 11
5.0'

~ 12

4.0

~ 15

3.0

~ 30

2.0

~ 100

1.0

0

~ FROM THE BEGINNING

AD 100

500

1000

1600 1800 2000

1500 1700 1900

U.N. MEDIUM PROJECTION VARIANT

48

Sample Resources Activities
Grobe, E.P., 500 Essay Projects For American History Classes. J. Weston Walch, 1976. Atlas
Atlas of U.S. History. Hammond, 1977. Sale, R.D. and Karn, E.D. American Expansion: A Book of Maps. Bison Books, 1979. Catalog Social Studies School Service Catalog, 10,000 Culver Blvd., Dept. 10, P.O. Box 802, Culver City, Calif. 90230 Films A wide selection of films may be borrowed from the Georgia State Film Library. Filmstrips American West: Myth and Reality. EAV, 1976. American History on Stamps. Kevin Donovan Films, 1976. Exploring American Values. Sunburst Communications, 1975. General References Armour, Richard, It All Started with Columbus: A Merry Mangling of American History from Columbus to Nixon. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1961. Finch, C. Norman Rockwell's America. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1975. Fine, S. and Brown, G.S., The American Past: Conflicting Interpretations of Great Issues. Vol. I & II, New York: Wm. Morrow and Co., 1965. Morris, Richard B., 400 Notable Americans. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Photo Aids Teaching U.S. History: 50 Political Cartoons. J. Weston Walch, 1975. Simulation Disunia: A Simulation of the 21st Century Paralleling the Problems of Sovereignty in 1781-1789. Interact, 1976. Teacher Materials Freidel, F. ed., Harvard Guide to American History, Boston: Harvard University Press, 1974. King, D.C. and Long, c.J., Themes for Teaching U.S. History: Conflict and Change. Global Perspectives in Education, 1979. Textbooks
A wide selection can be found in the Georgia State Textbook List. Transparencies
Transparency and Duplicating Master Book (eight sets of12 lessons). AEVAC, 1976.
49

Sample Evaluation
The measurement of behavior should be keyed to performance objectives and indicators. Evaluation should not only be used to assess student performance but also to determine the effectiveness of the class work toward meeting stated objectives. The following instructional assessment strategies are recommended.
Teacher-made test Commercial testing program Teacher observations and anecdotal records Participation in simulation and role-playing
activities Classroom questions and discussions Student conference Student self-evaluation Student contract agreements Independent study Research projects, reports and presentations peer evaluation
Evaluation of student progress and teaching effectiveness should be diversified and systematic. Some strategies are more reliable than others for assessing the variety of student behavior. It is important for the teacher to develop a conscious plan of evaluation that goes beyond final exams and report card grades. Summative evaluations should be combined with formative assessments done continuously throughout instruction. The following proposal is one example of how a teacher designed a grading system which provided alternatives to teacher-made tests and homework questions.

Remaking the Grade*
To achieve an A in the course, the student needs 12 points; a B.
10-11 points; a C. 8-9 points; and a D. 6-7 points. Points can be
earned in a combination of options from the following list.
Tests. Two tests per grading period. An A grade is worth 4
points; a B. 3 points; a C. 2 points; and a D. 1 point.
Book Review. Either a standard book review of a chapter-bychapter reaction paper. Pass/Fail; 3 points for Pass. Debate. Arrange details as to time, format and organization of the group. Pass/Fail; 2 points for Pass. Art. A collage. painting or sculpture depicting a social problem or current event is acceptable. Prior approval of theme is necessary. Pass/Fail; 2 points for Pass. Oral. One point given at the teacher's discretion to those who make an unusually good comment or point in class discussion. Research Paper. Topics can be anything covered in class or in a related field. Prior approval of topic and format of paper is necessary. Papers will be graded: Honors, 4 points; Pass. 3 points; Fail. O. TV and Movie Reviews. Specific shows mentioned in class will be suitable for 300-500 word reaction paper. Pass/Fail; 2 points for Pass. Civic. Community volunteer work requiring a minimum of 6 hours per grading period plus a 300-500 word reaction paper on the work done for the organization; 5 points for Pass.
All assignments are due the Monday of last week of the grading period. Students can bring failed assignments up to passing standards. Except for the tests category. students are to select only one assignment in each of the above categories.
This scheme could be adapted or adopted by teachers to fit their particular environment of local community resources. student abilities and interests. and administrative requirements for grading.
"Henderson. J. M.. "Remaking the Grade" Today's Education. March 1973. p. 15.

50

Sample Course Outline
Citizenship Education

Citizenship education should provide students an opportunity to acquire the basic competencies for understanding and participating in the political world. Knowledge of political concepts enables students to gain a clear and useful picture of political relationships. Students also need the skills to acquire information, to analyze critically and to make decisions about public issues. Citizenship Education encourages commitment to democratic
General Objectives
The student will be ahle to
1. Support the basic principles of individual rights and freedoms, making choices within the framework of concern for the general welfare;
2. Respect and appreciate the worth and dignity of the individual;
3. Explain the techniques of social action (e.g., how to win support for desirable change) and how to cooperate with others in achieving goals;
4. Make reasoned decisions based on the skills of gathering, interpreting, analyzing and evaluating data;
5. Demonstrate a knowledge of the structure and function of local, state and national governments;
6. Demonstrate knowledge of constitutionalism and federalism as the framework within which our government is organized and operates at national, state and local levels;
7. Illustrate governmental operations and how policies are formed and executed;
8. AcqUire a knowledge of the role and responsibilities of the individual in promoting effective government;
9. Exercise the citizen's roll in the decision-making process of government and policies;
10. Demonstrate a commitment to the idea that a public office is a public trust;

values, participation in the democratic process and a reasoned review of the political system.
The school, from primary grades to secondary level, serves as a laboratory for participatory citizenship. The knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired by students at school influence their views of their roles in the democratic process.
11. Accept civic responsibilities and discharge them faithfully;
12. Recognize the importance of skills and knowledge needed for responsible citizenship participation;
13. Illustrate the importance of the citizen exercising the rights and privileges in the democratic process;
14. Demonstrate a commit to law and understand the structure, purpose and processes of the American legal system;
15. Identify the basic goals of United States foreign policy in order to make rational judgments about foreign policy decisions;
16. Demonstrate knowledge of our relations with other nations and the manner in which these relations are conducted;
17. Demonstrate knowledge of human interdependence and the need for cooperation among people of the world in the interest of peace and human welfare;
18. Recognize contributions to the development of country and culture by people from many nationalities and ethnic groups;
19. Identify basic beliefs and values of the democratic heritage;
20. Develop a positive attitude toward the idea of democracy and the method by which Americans have solved their problems;
21. Develop a positive attitude toward democratic values and their contributions to human welfare and happiness.

51

Conceptual Framework for Citizenship Education

Principles of Dentocracy
Majority rule Minority rights Individual rights Popular sovereignty Dignity of the individual Compromise Education Globalism Compact Change

G l o b . U s. . Trade Communications Interdependence Resource allocation International organization International alliances Connict resolution Foreign policy
I

Governntental Structure Branches of Government
Judicial Executive legislative Federal system State government local government Representation Civil Service Bureaucracy leadership

Republic Federalism Bill of Rights Separation of powers limitations of power Representative democracy Checks and balances General welfare legitimacy Rule of law

Positive Disposition Toward Democratic Values Equality liberty Humanitarianism Justice Freedom

Citizenship Participation
Voting Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities Citizen influence Decision making Public opinion Mass media

Political Process
Politics law making Policy making Election process Political ethics Political parties Political leadership Implementation of laws Electoral college Interest groups Caucus Power
Foundations of Law
law Fair trail Due process Judicical system legal responsibilities Rights of the accused Judicial review Penal system Appeal

52

Structure of American Government

Foundations of American Government

~ poPular sovereignty Government Representative democracy
Federalism Separation of powers Checks and balances

~ The Presidency - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Formal and informal rules on presidential recruitment Constitutional guidelines for the presidential role Roles of the president Presidential decision making

Agencies of the executive branch

~.
The Congress ---------------1

Formal and informal rules on congressional recruitment Organization of Congress Roles of the congressional representatives The influence of informal rules on legislative role

Congressional decision making

The Courts

purpose of the federal courts

1

Organization of our federal court system

Selection of tenure of judges

Interpretation of individual rights

State and Local. Governments

EOrganization of state and local governments

~

Services provided by state and local governments

Major problems of state and local governments

Relations between local, state and national governments

Role of the Citizen in the American Political Process

E To Be An

-------------

American Citizen

People of the United States-a nation of immigrants Who is a citizen? Rights and responsibilities for American citizenship

E - - c ________________--1
Politics in Action

What is politics? Political parties and government

Political parties and politicians

Elections

Campaigning for office

Electing our leaders

E Politics and -----------------1.
the Citizen

What is political behavior? Political participants

Voter behavior patterns

~ Citizenship ________________
in Action

What kind of citizen are you? Individual political actions
Pressure groups

How the citizen keeps informed

The Citizen in - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the World Community

Forces of change in world affairs Preserving freedom in a divided world Alliances with other countries The individual in world affairs

The United States and the United Nations

53

The Citizen and the Law

Foundation

r - Origin of our legal system

of Law ----------------1L.......- Functions of law

Federal Court System

E - - - - - - - -

General organization The Supreme Court

Judicial review

~ First Amendment_____________
Freedoms

ReligiOn
Expression Assembly Petition

~ Rights of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the Accused

search and seizure Right to a speedy trial Right to counsel Right to an impartial judge and jury Right to confront and cross-examine witnesses Right to be able to call witnesses on one's behalf

Right against self-incrimination

Concepts for Three Components of Citizenship Education

The Citizen and The Law
law due process rights responsibilities judicial review Bill of Rights courts appeal trial amendment plaintiff prosecution defendant jurisdiction opinion

Structure of American Government
democracy republic constitution federalism compromise executive legislative judicial President Congress courts state county city governor mayor council separation of powers Bill of Rights checks and balances jurisdiction bureaucracy rules agency commission law decision making

The Role of the Citizen in the American Political Process
immigrants citizen citizenship responsibilities politics vote parties politicians election government decision making groups primary system Electoral College

54

Sample Lesson Plans Citizenship in Action

The following lessons were designed for a teaching unit on Citizenship in Action. The Sample Lesson Plan uses the same elements of curriculum found in the Outline of a Course Guide and the Sample Course Outline. This section goes into more detail about planning for classroom instruction.
The sample lesson plans coordinate performance objectives, indicators, concepts and activities for use in an instructional unit in citizenship education. The curriculum components of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes and social participation are

addressed in the sample unit plan, Citizenship in Action. Four performance objectives have been used to illustrate the four components. Performance objective one deals with knowledge, two with skills, three with values and attitudes and four with social participation. Teachers and instructional planners should feel free to use, delete or substitute their own activities or indicators for those included in this guide. The purpose of this section is to show examples of lesson plans, not a completed guide.

55

Concepts

Performance Objectives

Indicators

Lesson Plan I Citizenship in Action
Activities

Resource Materials

Evaluation

CBE

BST

1.
government federalism checks and
balances division of
powers lobbying value conflict public regulation compromise zoning taxation
t.n 0'

The student will be able to
illustrate governmental operations and how policies are formed and executed.

The student will be able to

la. Chain of command charts. interviewing

*a. trace the chain of command in a

lb. How a bill becomes

governmental structure.

law--charts. sequencing

*b. given the steps necessary for a bill to

become a federal law. list them in sequence.

*c. identify different types of taxes and relate

the to different levels of government.

Ie. Property taxes-

d. describe specific problems and

computations. surveys.

advantages to various governments

reading pie charts

working together.

e. compile and rank by relative importance.

a list of city (or county) services.

f. describe and analyze the problem of

Id. Levels of government-

representing multiple interests in providing using newspaper. group

a public service.

discussion

g. apply procedures of public regulation of

land (open space) to a hypothetical

Ie. Government services--

situation.

ranking. rating system.

(*Minimum competencies)

value judgments. data retrieval chart

If. Representing multiple interests-role play. research. using newspapers

Ig. City council meetingsimulation

Georgia Government Organization Chart

1. Teacher-made texts

"How a Bill Becomes Law in Georgia" pamphlet from Secretary of State. 1974 The Law Chart Set
Comparison of the Georgia and U.S. budgets "Major State and Local Taxes in Georgia" from Improving Citizenship Education. 1980
Hepburn. 1980 Atlanta and/or local newspapers

2. Self-evaluation
3. Peer-evaluation
4. Observation instruments
5. Assessment of student research
6. Group interaction checklist

Functions of federal, state and local government chart

Hepburn. 1976 Shields. "Great Park Debate." Atlanta Constitutions. June 8. 1980 Berryman. 1973
Hepburn. 1980 Tretten. 1977

Learner A. B. D. E.
Citizen 1. 2. 3.

Reading 1.3. 4.6. 7.8 9.10. 11.12. 13
Math 6.7. 9.11. 15
Problemsolving
1, 2. 3.4. 6.8. 10.11 12

Concepts

Performance Objectives

Indicators

Activities

Resource Materials

Evaluation

CBE

BST

2.
fiscal policy budget politician frame of
reference bureaucracy mayor-council commission council-manager
Cit ...:J

The student will be able to
make reasoned decisions based on skills of gathering. inter preting. analyzing and evaluating data.

The student will be able to

*a. graph a breakdown of the state budget for the most recent fiscal year.
*b. analyze a news story as reported in at least two different publications to identify exam pies of bias or misleading use of facts.
c. analyze the accuracy and discuss the appropriateness of technical data.
d. describe advantages and disadvantages of various forms of city governmental organization.
e. project some effects which changes in population will have on government regulation of limited resources.
(* minimum competencies)

2a. Budgets-interpreting data. graphs
2c. Data analysis-use and misuse
2d. City Governmentcharts. interviews. writing reports
2e. Population changeshypothesize. plan a new city

Jackson. 1979 Office of Planning and Budget. 270 Washington St. Atlanta. Ga. 30334
Jackson. 1979 GiIliom.1977
Hepburn. 1980 Local city officials
Dept. of Natural Resources Pound. 1975 Regional planning commission

I. Assessing student written reports
2. Observation of student partici pation
3. Student checklist of concepts and related activities
4. Student completion of charts or diagrams
5. Teacher check list of decisionmaking skills

Learner A. B. C. D. E.
Citizen I. 2. 3.

6. Classroom questions and discussions

Reading 1.3.4. 7,8,9, 10, II, I 2, 13
Math 17, 10, 12-15
Problemsolving 1-6.8-9. 10. 11

Concepts

Performance Objectives

Indicators

Activities

Resource Materials

Evaluation

CBE

BST

3.

The student will

be able to

o courts o jurisdiction o due process o rules of
evidence o burden of proof o plea bargaining o verdict o precedent o sentencing

demonstrate a commitment to law and underthe structure, purposes, and processes of the American legal system. system.

'-11 00

The student will be able to
*a. define legal terms dealing with rights of the accused and due process of law.
*b. describe the governor's powers and the Constitutional limitations on the governor's authority.
c. describe the consequences of alternatives for resolving a political value conflict.
d. match different types of courts with their jurisdictions and level of government.
e. defend in writing whether our criminal justice system does an adequate job of protecting society.
f. write a paper analyzing the contributions of Roman law, Greek democracy and Judeo-Christian ethics to the American legal system.
(*Minimum competencies)

3b. Responsibilities of Governor-research and report 3c. Nuclear power plant dilemma-value conflict and resolution
3d. Courts and their jurisdiction-using telephone book for data, group interaction and consensus
3e. Criminal justice system-field trip. write position paper

Office of the Governor Pound, 1975.
Nuclear Power Plant Dilemma-handouts Municipal Electric Authority-handbook of Georgia state agencies Telephone books
Courts and their Jurisdiction. Georgia Court System-chart and fact sheet. U.S. Court Systemchart and fact sheet. Situations: Which Court?handouts
Gifis, 1975 Kids In Crisis Local Bar association

1. Teacher evaluation and observation of student participation and group interaction
2. Assessment of student research paper
3. Teacher-made tests of basic concepts
4. Student oral presentations to class
5. Attitude assessment scales
6. Questionnaires for students, parents or community

Learner A. B. D. E.
Citizen 1. 2. 3.

Reading 1,3, 4.6. 7.8, 9,10. 11. 12, 13
Math 7.10, 12,15
Problem solving 1, 2, 3,4, 6,8, 11

Concept.

Performance Objectives

Indicators

Activities

.
Resource
Materials

Evaluation

CBE

BST

4.

The student will

The student will be able to

4a. Lobbying-data from

be able to

ETV and newspaper

decision making powers
voting rights responsibilities ordinances charter groups demonstration

exercise the citizen's role in decision-making process of government and politics.

*a. describe two cases in which lobbying or mass demonstrations were used to influence the decision of legislators.
*b. describe the process for chartering municipalities in Georgia.
c. develop and defend positions on one or more local issues involving governmental action.
d. draw up, discuss and vote on mock city council proposals.
(* minimum competencies)

4c. Decision-making powers debate, pointcounterpoint
4d. Mock city council meeting--rules of procedure and debate

The Newspaper and Your 1. Student partici-

Quest for Truth

pation and group

" L a w m a k e r s " -WGTV

interaction

League of Women Voters

National Organization for 2. Teacher made

Women

tests of basic

National Rifle Association

concepts

Operation PUSH

3. Peer evaluation

local newspapers Georgia County Government

of group activities

Magazine

4. Evaluation of

Hepburn, 1980 Local city council members

student written reports, of student oral

presentation

Learner A.
B.
D. E.
Citizen 1. 2. 3.

Reading 1,3, 4,6, 7,8, 9,10, 11,12, 13
Math 7,10, 12, 15
Problemsolving 1, 2, 3, 4,6,8, 11

CJ1 \C

Sample Lesson Plan 2 Citizenship Education
I. Citizenship Education A. The role of the citizen in the American political process 1. Citizenship in action a. How the citizen keeps informed

Sample Performance Objectives and Indicators Tasks

Performance objectives The student will be able to 1. demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the form and function of governmental structure.
2. make reasoned decisions based on skills of gathering, interpreting, analyzing and evaluating data.
3. demonstrate knowledge of the structure and processes of the American legal system.

Indicators/Tasks
The student will be able to
*a. trace the chain of command in a governmental structure;
*b. given the steps necessary for a bill to become a federal law, list them in sequence;
*c. identify different types of taxes and relate them to different levels of government;
d. describe specific problems and advantages to various governments working together;
e. compile and rank by relative importance a list of city (or county) services;
f. describe and analyze the problem of representing multiple interests in providing a public service;
g. apply procedures of public regulation of land (open space) to a hypothetical situation;
*a. graph a breakdown of the FY (Fiscal Year) 1982 state budget;
*b. analyze a news story as reported in at least two different publications to identify examples of bias or misleading use of facts;
c. analyze the accuracy and discuss the appropriateness of technical data;
d. describe advantages and disadvantages of various forms of city governmental organizations;
e. project some effects which changes in population will have on government regulation of limited resources;
*a. define legal terms dealing with rights of the accused and due process of law;
*b. describe the governor's powers and the Constitutionallimitations on the governor's authority;
c. describe the consequences of alternatives for resolving a political value conflict;
d. match different types of courts with their jurisdictions and level of government;
*Minimum Competencies

60

Performance Objectives
The student will be able to
4. exercise the citizen's role in the decisionmaking process of government and politics.

Indicatorsrrasks
The student will be able to
e. defend in writing an opinion on whether our criminal justice system does an adequate job of protecting society;
f. write a paper analyzing the contributions of Roman law, Greek democracy and JudeoChristian ethics to the American legal system;
*a. describe two cases in which lobbying or mass demonstrations were used to influence the decision of legislators;
*b. describe the process for chartering municipalities in Georgia;
c. develop and defend positions on one or more local issues involving governmental actions;
d. draw-up, discuss and vote on mock city council proposals.
*minimum competencies

Sample Lesson Concepts

1. government

3. courts

federalism

jurisdiction

checks and balances due process

division of powers rules of evidence

lobbying

burden of proof

value conflict

plea bargaining

public regulation

verdict

compromise

precedent

zoning

sentencing

taxation

2. fiscal policy budget politician frame of reference bureaucracy mayor-council commission council-manager

4. decision-making powers voting rights responsibilities ordinances charter groups demonstration

Sample Activities
For the purpose of this guide the following activities have been keyed to particular indicators and not all indicators are represented by specific activities.

1.a. Chain of Command concepts - division ofpowers, organizational structure, government
Working with Charts
Show students an organizational chart of state government and explain that it is used to illustrate how groups of persons, in business as well as government, are organized to get a job done. Charts can show the rankings of personnel, different levels of the organization and lines of authority - sometimes called the chain of command.
How is your school organized? Help students draw up an organizational chart showing how all school personnel are organized to carry out the job of educating students. Charts should include not only teachers and principals, but also counselors, librarians, custodians, lunchroom workers, school nurses and other personnel.
Small Group Interviewing
Divide the students into research groups of four or five and ask different groups to interview the principal, counselor, superintendent, etc., as to how they view the organizational structure of the school. Have them find out the difference between line and staff authority. Each group then should make out an organization chart.

61

GEORGIA STATE GOVERNMENT
GEORGIA ELECTORATE

0'\ N

I I I I I
I
I
I

,.----------T----~~----T----I-~: -i----,-----,-,--------1J

i

:

ii

EXAMINING AND

LICENSING

BOARDS

GEORGIA GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION CHART
PREPARED BY THE INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA 1983
=0 ELECTED
c=J = APPOINTED

l.c. Property Taxes concepts taxation. zoning
Tax Computations
Briefly outline the different types of taxes and levels of government which collect them (see Department of Revenue: Statistical Reports; Improving Citizenship Education: Secondary Handbook. 1980; Tretten, 1977). The teacher should review the tax rates for the local governmental districts with the students. The following taxes should be described in detail.
ad valorem taxes on tangible property (ex. houses). intangible property (ex. stocks) and motor vehicles
taxes on business activities sales (and local option) taxes income tax gasoline tax
A brief example of how property tax is figured follows.

A county board tax assessor determines the real market value of Peter Barn's property in Floyd County to be $40.000 in 1976. Because Barn lives on his land, he is entitled to a homestead exemption of $2,000 ($40,000 ~ $2.000 = $38.000). The assessed valuation (40 percent of 38,000) was $15.200. The tax rate was 30.00 mills which is $30.00 for every $1,000 (or three percent. So the tax on that property is $456.00 ($15,000 x 3 percent).
Conducting a Survey
Have students compose a survey questionnaire for their community and collect samples of peoples' opinions about whether or not they think property taxes are good or bad and why. What other ways of collecting revenue can people suggest. Some students may also want to interview a county tax assessor to get his or her opinions on the matter. Discuss as a group the problems in collecting a sample of opinions which accurately reflects that of the community.

Comparison of the Georgia and United States Budgets: FY 1979

Georgia

United States Excise Taxe-s>r-.....- - . /

Where it comes from ...

ldllC<lti(lIl 55(;

HUlllilll
Services

Where it goes . ..

I)irpct Benefit PaVllwnts
to Indi\:idllills
J7(

Source: Georgia Office of Planning and Bud~wt Budget Keport: Fi..,Cill Year 19S0.
63

Source: Office of Management ilnd Blldg(t The I Juiled Stall'S Budget ill Briel

1.d. Levels of Government concepts-federalism. taxation. com promise
Using the Newspaper
Select articles from local newspapers which discuss problems of intergovernmental cooperation. Have students report on and list these examples on the board. Then have them speculate on types of servics which might involve cooperation among two or more levels of government. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this cooperation?
You may contact a county commissioner who has information about a revenue sharing plan in your community.
Background material can be found in Hepburn. 1980. pp. 14-15.
Group Discussion
In large group discussion have students comment on how their research (Le., revenue sharing) relates to the concept of federalism and what considerations are important for intergovernmental cooperation.
1.e. Government Services concepts-public regulation. value con flict
Ranking
Have students fill out a chart distinguishing functions and/or services of federal, state and local governments. Have them choose five services provided by the government which they think are most important. After students have completed the chart, their answers can be checked by consulting a telephone directory under the respective governmental listing. Compile a list of the services they ranked. Pull out only those services performed either by the city or county.
Break the class into groups of six to decide on the priority of these particular services. Then ask each group to decide which two services they would eliminate from the budget if it were necessary. Have the various groups discuss their reasoning for their decisions.
1.e. The "Good" Community
Rating System
After discussing the various services provided by the city or county governments, students should try to determine standards for a good community. Then

they could evaluate their own community along those standards. One example of a rating system would be to assign a number from 1 to 5 for the following features in the community.
transportation/streets sewerage police protection traffic control fire protection community appearance commercial development/zoning schools/libraries recreation/civic clubs housing charter, codes, ordinances
1.f. Representing Multiple Interests concepts-lobbying. compromise
Role Play
Divide class into different civic groups attending a mock City Parks and Recreation Department meeting to submit recommendations for the design of a new recreational facility (park). For background and related materials see Hepburn, 1980, p. 125; Shields, 1980; local Planning Commission or Parks Department.
Try to reach a consensus about the procedures and design of this park in light of the different interests. Use a map of the community or city and have the different civic groups each come up with a propsed site for the park.
1.g. Zoning concepts-public regulations. com promise. value conflict
Simulation Activity
Provide students with background material on zoning and subdivision regulations in the local community through lectures and/or reading assignments (e.g. Hepburn, 1980; local newspaper, copies of zoning codes). Review city council meeting procedures. Write a local planning department or County Planning Commission to obtain maps showing zoning codes and areas.
Pick out a target area near a metro center but still zoned residential. It should also be near a major thoroughfare. Assign roles to students ahead of time and read them the situation. Students should be given enough time to prepare. The students may need assistance reading the symbols on the maps.

64

Functions of Federal, State and Local Governments

Instructions. For each service or function listed in the left column, check the level or levels of government responsible for providing that service.

Service
Sheriff Water Sewer Sanitation garbage collection Army and Navy Fire Department Post Office Highways Traffic lights Schools Airport Parks and Recreation Library Hospital Voter registration Police Courts Marriage licenses Prisons and Jails Hunting and fishing regulation Health and welfare Zoning Buses and rapid transit Social Security Zoo

United States

State

I

County

City

I

!

I

I
I

i I
!

1.g. Simulation Activity
Situation
A developer has applied for a rezoning of an old residential section to become commercial on the outskirts of a city. The residential section has become somewhat rundown in recent years and the developer wants to build a shopping center near a main road which backs up to many of the older

homes. However, there have been newer residents who have moved in and are remodeling their houses and sprucing up the neighborhood. The area is convenient for commuting downtown, and they want it to remain residential. They oppose the rezoning and do not want the shopping center built near their homes. They have hired a lawyer to represent them at a city council meeting.

65

The following role~ should be assigned to students.
1 planning department member 6 city council members 6 old residents 2 new residents 4 retail business executives 1 developer
Students assigned to these roles should spend some time finding out what responsibilities or tasks they are to perform and what their goals are.
For example, the developer should have a building plan submitted to and approved by the planning department, which should in turn submit a recommendation to the city council. (This group may want to contact a developer or construction company to inquire into the mechanics of drawing up such a plan.) Meanwhile, residents who oppose the shopping center should compose plausible arguments why the rezoning should not be granted.
2.a. Working with graphs and charts
Budgets concepts - fiscal policy, budgeting
Have students construct a visual breakdown of the state's fiscal budget. Students should be instructed in the types and uses of graphs (line, bar, pie, picture, etc.), and how to interpret and draw them.
Data should be collected and the data sources evaluated. (See Jackson, 1979; Office of Planning and Budget.) The teacher may also discuss with the class the process of state and federal budgeting.
Students should combine their understandings of making a graph with their data on the state budget.
2.c. Data Analysis
Interpreting and evaluating graphs and charts
Show students different ways of graphing the same information. (See Jackson, 1979.) Have students collect from newspapers and magazines or provide them with different graphs taken from various sources. Have students critique the accuracy and appropriateness of the graph information.
2.d. Interview and reports
City Government concepts-mayor-council, commission, councilmanager

Outline different forms of city governmental organization. (See Hepburn, 1980.) Have students investigate the type of government structure in a number of nearby municipalities, both large and small.
Try to set up an interview or conference-call conversation between the mayor and the students to discuss the organization of government. Consider these questions.
Does the city have a city manager? If there is a mayor, is the position a full-time
one? What are the most demanding tasks as mayor? What personal qualities are important for a per-
son to successfully act as mayor? Who is responsible for preparing the budget and
seeing that it is carried out? Who hires and fires department heads?
Hold a class discussion and solicit student comments about the advantages and disadvantages of having a particular type of government organization. In a one page report have students distinguish between the type of city government organizations they would expect to find in a large city such as Atlanta and in a small town such as Watkinsville.
2.e. Researching growth trends
Population changes
Have students look over and compare population maps of Georgia for 1820, 1960 and 1970. Ask them to identify any trends they see.
Have students research the development and availability of natural resources in the state. (See County Extension Service.)
Based on these data, students should be encouraged to hypothesize about what changes in city, county and state government would need to take place in the next 10 years to accomodate the population and subsequent resource usage. Students should address such problems as water usage, waste disposal, recreation, transportation, business regulation and the care for the poor and the sick and the aged. The teacher may wish to bring out sections of the state Constitution which apply to resource management.

66

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GEORGIA

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POPULATION
1820
EACH DOT REPRESENTS 200 INHABITANTS
COUNTY BOUNDARY
PRESENT --------- STATE
BOUNDARY

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GEORGIA
POPULATION 1960

EACH DOT REPRESENTS 200 RURAL INHABITANTS

URBAN PLACES OF 2500 OR MORE

SHOWN BY GRADUATED CIRCLES

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2500 5000 10.000 25.000 50,000
100.000

500,000

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MILES

68

GEORGIA
POPULATION
1970

EACH DOT REPRESENTS 200 RURAL INHABITANTS
URBAN PLACES OF 2500 OR MORE SHOWN BY GRADUATED CIRCLES

2500

5000

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75.000



150,000

500,000

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CARTOGRAPHIC SERVIC~5 LA80RATORY AND OEPARTM[NT OF GEOGRAPHY UNIVERSITV Of-

69

2.e. Population Changes
Plan a new city
Some students might verify some of their hypotheses by contacting various angencies dealing with census, resources and government services. They could also try to illustrate their findings by planning a new city somewhere in the state and discussing some of the problems of setting up a government and providing community services.
3.b. Research and report
Responsibilities of Governor
Assume you are the governor's press secretary. The governor has received a letter from an eighth grader (in a Georgia history and government class) who asks, "What kinds of things can the governor order people to do? What kinds of things must the governor persuade people to do?" After discussing the answers with you, the governor asks you to draft a reply to the eighth grader. Write the letter. Be sure to include what you feel are the most important of the governor's powers.
Students should consult the Georgia Constitution, textbooks and the Governor's Office for factual details. Use the chart, "Responsibilities of Governor" as a guide. The issue of ordering or persuading is exemplified in the governor's role in preparing and cutting the state budget.
Responsibilities of Governor
1. Director of the budget. Has great control of state finances
2. Signs or vetoes bills passed by the General Assembly 3. Appoints 1.000 state officials and members of boards
and commissions-most with approval of state senate 4. May call out national guard and state patrol for emer-
gencies 5. Recommends programs and legislation to the General
Assembly 6. May grant 90-day stay of execution 7. Fills judicial vacancies 8. Returns out-of-state fugitives back to state they escape
from for justice there 9. Represents the state at all important functions around
the United States and the world-our state ambassador. Seeks international trade for Georgia products. as well as attempts to get foreign companies to invest in Georgia

3.c. Value conflict and resolution
Nuclear Power Plant Dilemma
Provide students with a copy of "The Nuclear Power Plant Dilemma" and ask them to read it. The teacher may want to introduce other background information about nuclear power plants in Georgia and about the Public Service Commission.
After the students read about the dilemma have them write down what they think Billy should do. They should also write out one reason supporting his decision. In a large group discussion ask a couple of students to summarize the problem in their own words and to clarify the value conflict. Then ask several students to share what they think Billy should do and why.
Divide students into groups of five or six, based on their decisions, and have each group come up with the two most important considerations supporting Billy's decision. After about 10 minutes bring students back together in a large circle to discuss their reasoning. The teacher should serve as a moderator encouraging students to listen to and respond to each other's comments and reasonings. Challenges to student reasoning should involve appeals to the higher standards of fairness, liberty and the universal value of human life.
Instructions for Using the Nuclear Power Plant Dilemma
Ever since the incident at Three-Mile Island Power Plant, Americans have become more suspicious of the use of nuclear power to produce electricity. The problem is that while there is a tremendous need for inexpensive electricity, there are certain risks with splitting atoms to obtain it. Three-Mile Island presented the very real danger of a "meltdown accident," though some would have us believe the danger is small.
There is also the problem of what to do with the nuclear fuel which is no longer useable in the reactor but which is still lethal. Some of this waste fuel remains radioactive for hundreds and even thousands of years. The dilemma which follows is meant to help students become more aware oftheir decisionmaking responsibility in this area. Although the case is hypothetical, the information about plants Hatch and Vogtle is not.
The teacher should help students understand, the ethical considerations in the public service commissioner's decision whether to allow the plant to begin its operation in 1984. It might be wise to make sure all students understand basically what

70

Nuclear Power Plant
A power company in Georgia has been building a nuclear power plant just outside of Waynesboro. It is expected to be completed by 1984. Citizens in the county had approved ofthe plant's construction, as had the Nuclear Regulating Commission (NRC) back in 1974. However, there is going to be a problem of where to dispose of the spent nuclear fuel from this plant in the year 2001 and from another nuclear plant as early as 1986.
Many of the younger residents in this area are not sure now that they want a nuclear power plant near where they live. They have become afraid of what happened at Three-Mile Island. They have contacted the public service commissioner to prevent the nuclear plant from starting up. The public service commission, among other things, decides whether a power plant in the state can begin to operate.
The power company has replied that this new plant will be safe. It is also vital to the future power needs in the state. It will help our country become independent of foreign oil. Millions of dollars will go down the drain if it does not open. Yet some citizens think that the danger of another accident such as a leak from radioactive waste being stored is just too great.
One commissioner has recently voted against a power company request to increase the price of electricity. He wonders now whether he should vote against this nuclear power plant too. What considerations should he think about before deciding how to vote? How would you advise him and why?

occurred at Three-Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant. In addition, there are supplementary materials from the Municipal Electric Authority of Georgia and the Handbook of Georgia State Agencies. This information should be used to explain vocabulary and the dilemma's setting. However, it should not take the place of a discussion of the ethical considerations in the commissioner's decision.

3.d. Finding information in the telephone book

Courts and Their Jurisdiction

concepts - courts, jurisdiction, due process,

precedent

As a preparation for and introduction to this activity,

have students do the following homework assignment.

Using your telephone book, list on handout "Courts

and Their Jurisdiction" all of the courts available to

a

County resident in the Georgia

court system and in the U.S. court system. Based

only on the information found in the telephone

directory, have students include what they think is

the jurisdiction of each court (the kinds of cases the

court has the power to deal with).

In class using the completed handout "Courts and their Jurisdiction," students should be asked for the names of courts found by looking in the telephone book. On the chalkboard, the teachers should write Georgia court system and U.S. court system. For each court the student should indicate which system it should be listed under and what types of cases are dealt with in this court (jurisdiction); this should be written on the chalkboard. When this has been completed, show transparency (or chart) of "The Georgia Court System." After students have looked at the diagram noting where each court is located, discuss (starting at the lower levels working up) each court using the information on handout "Courts and their Jurisdiction." The same should be done with transparency "The U.S. Court System." Be sure students understand the difference between original and appellate jurisdiction. Students should understand that most judicial opinions in appellate cases are based on prior court dicisions. At the conclusion to this part of the lesson, the teacher could distribute handouts, "Fact Sheet-Georgia Court System," "Fact Sheet-U.S. Court System" to be reviewed for homework that night.

71

The Georgia Court System

,.------Appeal
'is
OJ Q.. Q.
<t:
t------ Appeal
Juvenile Courts
I
Probate Courts

Supreme Court
I
Certiorari or Certified Questions
I
Court of Appeals
I
Appeal
I
Superior Courts
Appeal or
Writ of Certiorari
I
Justice of Peace

Appeal ------.,
Appeal ------~
State Courts
I
Municipal Courts

72

3.d. Fact Sheet-Georgia Court System
Supreme Court
a. Court of last resort (highest court in the state)
b. Has only appellate jurisdiction
c. Jurisdiction encompasses the review and correction of error of law from specified trial courts in cases that involve the meaning of the Georgia or U.S. Constitutions or treaties between the U.S. and foreign governments, questions dealing with the constitutionality of any Georgia or U.S. statute, cases involving title to land, equity cases, validity of or construction of wills, cases of capital felony convictions, habeas corpus cases, cases involving extraordianry remedies, divorce and alimony cases and all cases certified to it from the Court of Appeals for review and determination.
d. Seven justices who elect one member as chief justice and one as presiding justice (serves as chief justice when the chief justice is absent or disqualified).
Court of Appeals a. Jurisdiction for the review and correction of errors of law in all cases in which jurisdiction has not been conferred by the Constitution or the Supreme Court.
b. Has greater work load than Supreme Court
c. Nine judges who elect one member as chief judge
d. Usually sit in three divisions of three members each; if there is a disagreement on a discision, then the opinion of the full nine judges is required.
Superior Court
a. Highest ranking courts in the state with original and general jurisdiction
b. Has exclusive jurisdiction in cases of divorce, felonies, cases respecting title to land, equity cases and adoption cases except when such authority is granted to juvenile courts
c. Has appellate jurisdiction from certain inferior tribunals, e.g.. probate courts and justice of peace courts
State Court
a. Sometimes called civil and criminal courts; have countywide jurisdiction
b. Jurisdiction over misdemeanor criminal cases and concurrent jurisdiction with superior courts in civil cases of unlimited amounts

c. Uses a six person jury
d. Examples of cases-simple assault, traffic offenses in unincorporated part of county, prostitution
Juvenile Court
a. Exclusive original jurisdiction over juvenile matters except where the act alleged is a capital offense
b. Special handling of delinquent (criminal cases), deprived (being mistreated or deprived by parents) or unruly children (parents cannot control) below the age of 17
c. Rules are generally more relaxed; the assumption is that juveniles do not have the mature judgment of adults and therefore should be given special consideration
Probate Court
a. Original and exclusive jurisdiction of probate of wills, administration of estates, appointment of guardians, issue of marriage licenses and pistol permits
b. Maintains records and vital statistics
c. Conducts elections in counties with no election board
Justice of the Peace Court
a. Jurisdiction in civil cases where the sum does not exceed $200 and in criminal cases the power to issue warrants and sit as a court of inquiry binding the accused over to a higher court or discharging him or her.
b. Administers oaths, takes affidavits and performs marriage ceremonies
c. Must attend a training seminar each year to be eligible to collect fees for warrants, etc.
Municipal Court
a. Power to try offenses against the ordinances of the municipality in which it is located and to impose fines or sentences
b. Atlanta Municipal Court has a separate court to deal with traffic cases
c. Judges conduct probable cause hearings for misdemeanors and felonies that take place in the municipality
d. No jury trial
e. Examples of Atlanta ordinances-disorderly conduct, loud noise at night, public drunkenness

73

The United States Court System
Supreme Court of the U.S.

Courts of Claims

Courts of Appeals

Courts of Customs and Parent Appeals

I
Tax Court

District Courts

I
Territorial Courts

Customs Court

In addition. appeals can be taken to the Supreme Court of the U.S. from the highest courts on the 50 states.

3.d. Fact Sheet-United States Court System
Supreme Court of the United States
a. Highest court in the land
b. Nine justices appointed for life by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate
c. One of the justices is designated the chief justice; when there is a vacancy in this position the president can fill it with either one of the eight associate justices or a person who is not a member of the court
d. The court meets on the first Monday of October and continues until June
e. Corrects errors which have been made in decisions in trial courts
f. Can bring uniformity when two or more lower courts have reached different results
g. Usually has appellate jurisdication; has original jurisdiction in cases affecting diplomatic representatives of other nations. suits between states and cases involving a state and the federal government.

U.S. Courts of Appeals
a. Eleven intermediate appellate court circuits
b. The Fifth circuit includes Alabama. Florida. Georgia. Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas and the CanalZone
c. The Fifth Circuit court is 26 judges sit in New Orleans
d. Judges usually sit in panels of three; only a few times a year for very important issues will the whole court meet to review a case (en banc)
e. Hears cases from district courts in the circuit where parties seek review of legal decisions they thought were erroneous
f. Most judicial opinions are based on prior court decisions
g. Hears appeals from the U.S. Tax Court as well as government agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission. etc.

74

U.S. District Courts a. Federal cases are originally tried and decided here b. Each state has at least one court; Georgia has three districts (Atlanta is in the Northern District of Georgia); a district can be divided into divisions with several locations where cases can be heard c. Has jurisdiction is disputes involving the Constitution, federal laws and treaties, controversies where the U.S. is a party, between citizens of different states (in civil cases greater than $10,000), between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, between a state or the citizens of a state and foreign states or its citizens and admiralty and maritime cases.
Courts of Claims
a. Has nationwide jurisdiction b. Citizen or corporation may sue the federal government for money damages where the sovereign immunity of the U.S. has been waived by Congress c. Claim must be made within six years
U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals a. Hears appeals from Customs Court, the Tariff Commission and the Patent Office b. Usually meets in Washington, D.C., with all six judges hearing each case
Customs Court a. Determines controversies concerning the classification and valuation of imported merchandise (customs taxes or tariffs) b. Sits at New York City and from time to time at other major port cities
U.S. Tax Court a. Decides controversies between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue Service involving the underpayment of federal income, gift and estate taxes b. Conducts trials in numerous cities
Territorial Courts a. In Guam, the Virgin Islands, the Panama Canal Zone and Puerto Rico these courts serve the same function as U.S. District Courts b. Except in Puerto Rico, these courts also handle local matters
3.d. Courts and Their Jurisdiction
Group interaction and reaching consensus

The next day students should complete the exercise, Situation-Which Court? Have students divide into groups of two or three. Pass out Situation-Which Court? Be sure it is turned down so students cannot read it. Instruct the students that only one handout must be turned in per group. For each situation on the sheet, the students should write the name of the court to which the individual would go. Notes may not be used. When an appropriate amount of time is up, all sheets must be turned in. After sheets have been collected, go over the situations and have students discuss their answers.
3.e. Criminal Justice System concepts-rules of evidence, burden of proof, verdict, sentencing
Field trip
A field trip to a state court or superior court could be arranged quite easily when those courts are in session. The teacher should make arrangements with the judge or clerk at least two weeks in advance.
As an alternative or supplement to the field trip, arrange for students to view a number of films, film strips, and videotapes which deal with arrest and trial procedures. (e.g., "State v. Colster: Judicial Procedure in Georgia" -a videotape of a shoplifting case developed for the Fulton County School System. Contact Helen Richardson, Social Studies Coordinator, Fulton County Schools, 786 Cleveland Ave., Atlanta, Ga. 30315.)
There are also law enforcement and legal personnel who are willing to speak to classes in the community. Teachers should consult their local bar association, police public relations department or the clerk of the Superior Court in their counties.
Writing a position paper
As students watch a real case or a video representation of trial procedures, they should write down any examples which reflect due process of law. They should discuss the reasons behind such procedures as
voir dire, sequestration, burden of proof, rules of evidence presentation, cross examination.
The teacher could have students watch or read a case study and then decide on the verdict. Then have the students write a position paper explaining the question, Does our criminal justice system do an adequate job of protecting society?

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3.e. Situation-Which Court? (Answer Sheet)
Instructions: For each situation described below. write the name of the most logical court in the Georgia court system to which the individual would go. Choices include supreme court. court of appeals. superior court. state court. juvenile court. probate court. justice of the peace. municipal court.

Juvenile
Supreme
State Superior Probate State Juvenile State
Municipal Justice of the Peace Supreme
Superior Courts of Appeals Superior
Courts of Appeals Supreme
Probate Probate Juvenile State Municipal
Justice of the Peace Superior Superior Municipal

1. Sue. age 14, is described by her parents as totally unmanageable. She has been habitually disobedient of reasonable and lawful commands of her parents. 2. Bob was found guilty of murder and given a sentence of death by the trial court. He felt that the judge admitted evidence in the trial that should have been ruled inadmissable. 3. Sue's father was caught shoplifting a $150 item. 4. Phyllis sued Sarah Jones, M.D., for malpractice. 5. Jane and Paul went to get a marriage license. 6. Celina pleaded not guilty of the offense of prostitution. 7. The middle school filed a complaint for truancy on Linda. 8. Kelly accused Kim of abandoning her and leaving her and their five-month-old baby with no financial support. 9. David is picked up in downtown Atlanta for disorderly conduct.
10. Julie and Marvin get married. 11. Sandra and John went to settle their divorce. Sandra felt that the judge had not ruled fairly. 12. Julie and Peter wanted to get a divorce.
13. Adam felt that he was improperly declared a delinquent by the juvenile court. 14. Sylvia sued John for $15,000 for physical problems resulting from their automobile accident.
15. Joe was found guilty of burglary. The judge owned the store that Joe broke into. 16. The court ruled that the property at the corner of Elm Street and Market Street belonged to Jim rather than Paul. Paul knew he had legal grounds to appeal the decision. 17. Rex died leaving a will. 18. Sally wanted to become the guardian for little Katie. 19. Jane. 15 years old, was picked up by the police for shoplifting. 20. Stan hits Bill with his fist causing him to fall to the floor in great pain. 21. A group of friends celebrating their college graduation are picked up by the police at 2 a.m. for violating the city noise ordinance.
22. It is 3:30 a.m. and the police need to get a warrant for Paul's arrest. 23. Jason killed Bob as he had planned to do. 24. Pam was charged with selling arid possession of large quantities of illegal drugs. 25. Jennifer was picked up by the police in Central City Park for public drunkenness.

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Juvenile Courts of Appeals Juvenile
State
Municipal

26. Susan, in the eighth grade, breaks into a neighbor's house and steals jewelry.
27. Barbara was involved in an automobile accident. Her attorney felt that the judge made erroneous legal decisions in her trial.
28. David's parents were killed in a car accident, and David has no relatives. He is in the third grade.
29. In an unincorporated part of the county, Gerald commits four traffic offenses while a police officer waits on a side street watching him.
30. Lance, standing in front of the Omni, carries a knife with a four inch blade.

4.a. Gathering data from ETV Using newspapers
Lobbying concepts-rights, groups, demonstration, decisionmaking powers
Have students trace the historical background of a controversial issue being debated in the Georgia General Assembly. (See "Lawmakers," WGTV Channel 8 for summary updates while the General Assembly is in session.)
Check the current status of that issue by calling the state capitol, reading newspaper reports, contacting state legislators or watching Channel 8.
Write to partisan organizations for information on the issue. Check the material for bias and accuracy.
Develop a questionnaire to determine attitudes of members of the local community.
Invite a great speaker or state legislator to discuss the issue with the class.
Issues might include Equal Rights Amendment gun control raising or lowering the legal drinking age.
4.c. Debate
Decision-making Powers concepts-groups, responsibilities
Students should form teams to debate (pro and con) various issues involving local government. Many of these issues can be selected from newspapers or periodicals. Students should take one week to prepare for the debate.
The teacher should allow each side an opening statement. Then the format should alternate between affirmative and negative sides before allowing each team to give closing remarks.
The rest of the class should score the debate on

persuasiveness and clarity to determine the winner. The debaters should also compose pertinent objective questions for the class which the teacher can use on a unit test.
Some examples of debatable issues are the following.
Should public employees be allowed to strike? Are property taxes equitable? Should citizens have the right to use or rent property in any manner that does not break criminallaws?
Point-counterpoint tag team debate
This debate could be conducted as a pointcounterpoint session. One student for each side of the debate sits facing the other (and the class) and presents a position statement on the issue. Then the other student presents an opposing position. As they finish their arguments other students walk up. exchange places with them in the chairs, and present another point to support that position. The teacher can summarize the activity by listing the main points on the board or assigning a written paper for all students.
4.d. Rules of procedure
Mock City Council Meeting
Have students read about examples of city council ordinances and resolutions by a city council. (See Hepburn, 1980. pp. 34-36. for example of the format for an ordinance.) Hold a mock Class Council meeting during which members of the class draw up, discuss and vote on proposed ordinances." These ordinances may concern classroom rules such as chewing gum, seating arrangements. test review procedures or make-up work deadlines, or they may address some specific problems in the local community. Students should also discuss proposals for enforcement of their ordinances.

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Sample Resources
Charts The Law Chart Set (5), Justice Publications, 1976.
Films A wide variety of films are available from the Georgia State Film Library. Film Strips
Making Democracy Work, Current Affairs, 1977. The Newspaper and Your Questfor Truth, Current Affairs, n.d. We The People: Aspects of American Government, Guidance Associates, 1975. Periodicals Atlanta Magazine Brown's Guide to Georgia Georgia County Government Magazine Urban Georgia Photo Aids Lawfulness and Lawlessness, Documentary Photo Aids, n.d. Readings Crime and Justice, Congressional Quarterly, 1978. References Gifis, S. H., Law Dictionary, Barron's Educational Series, 1975. Hepburn, M. A., County Government in Georgia, Athens, Ga.: Institute of Government, University of Georgia, 1976. Hepburn, M. A., Karwoski, G. and Blum, A. eds., City Government in Georgia, Athens, Ga.: Institute of Government, University of Georgia, 1980. Pound, M. B., Handbook of the Constitutions of the United States and Georgia, Athens, Ga., University of Georgia Press, 1975. Saye, A. 8., Georgia History and Government, Austin, Texas: Steck-Vaughn, 1973. Tretten, R. W., State and Local Government: Growth or Decline? Atlanta: Allyn and Bacon, lW7. Simulations Kids in Crisis. The Constitutional Rights Foundation, n.d. Pressure: A Simulation of Decision Making in Local Government, Interact, 1975. Sources for Materials Institute of Government, Terrell Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. 30602. Secretary of State, State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Student Materials Switzer, E., How Laws Are Really Made and How They Work, McDougal Press, 1974. Teacher Materials
Berryman, c., Improving Reading Skills, Atlanta: The Atlanta Journal and Constitu-tion, 1973.
Crackers and Red Suspenders: Studying Local History and Government in Georgia, Athens, Ga.: Georgia Council for the Social Sciences, 1976.
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Improving Citizenship Education: Secondary Handbook. I.C.E. Project, Fulton County (Georgia), 1980.
Jackson. E. ed.. Teaching Georgia Government. Athens. Ga.: Institute of Government. University of Georgia. 1979.
Shaver. J. ed.. Building Rationales for Citizenship Education, Washington. D.C.: National Council for Social Studies. 1977.
Simon, A. and Boyer, E. G. eds. Mirrors for Behavior III: An Anthology of Observation Instruments, Eyncote. Pa.: Communication Materials .Center, 1974.

Sample Evaluation
Forms of evaluation have been listed and discussed in other sections of this guide. (See Evaluation, page 88; Economics, page 38; U.S. History and Government, page 50.) However. this section dealing with Citizenship in Action, social participation, role playing and simulation activities lends itself to exploring other forms of evaluation.
Simple survey instruments include the following.
Checklists Program evaluation Textbook evaluation criteria Student course evaluation Self-esteem inventory
Questionnaires Open ended Forced response Written Tape recorded
Rating scales Parent evaluation of pupil Teacher evaluation of pupil Pupil self-evaluation
Sociometric forms
Individual or small group project contracts
Observation Instruments
Class activities Interaction analysis Group process skills
These survey instruments should be selected judiciously and employed for formative evaluation. An accumulation of data over a period of time and from a variety of sources can be valuable in assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of instructional planning and implementation. The following ideas are offered for consideration.

1. Have the teacher. selected students and a supervisor-observer each fill out a pie-chart after a period of class time and compare interpretations and perceptions.
Approximate Time Spent 1. Individual student work
assigned reading work on projects exercises. tests. etc. II. Teacher explanations III. Exchange of ideas recitation inquiry discussion IV. Social or recreational V. Administrative matters
2. The class activities questionnaire (CAQ) * as-
sess five major dimensions of instructional c1imatelower thought processes. higher thought processes. classroom focus. classroom climate and student opinions. The 20 factors listed below are represented on a 30-item questionnaire developed by J. M. Steele (1969).
Steele. Joe M. Dimensions of the Class Activities Question naire. Urbana, III.: Center for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, University of Illinois, 1969.

79

Memory Translation Interpretation
Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Discussions Test/grade stress Lecture

Qualities Deficiencies
Enthusiasm Independence Divergence Humor Ideas valued Ideas employed Teacher talk Homework

3. The following elements of group interaction should be considered when judging the effectiveness of group work.
Goal clarification Two-way communication Leadership Followership Participation Shared power Decision making Conflict resolution Interpersonal and intergroup behavior Problem solving Evaluation of effectiveness by members

4. Consider the following references.
Amidon, E. J. and N. A. Flanders. The Role of the Teacher in the Classroom: A Manual for Understanding and Improving Teacher Classroom Behavior. Minneapolis: Association for Productive Teaching, 1971.
A "how-to-do-it" guide for the Flanders Interaction Analysis System.
Gearing, F. and W. Hughes., On Observing Well. Amherst, N.Y.: Center for Studies of Cultural Transmission, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1975.
This manual offers self-instruction in ethnographic observation for teachers, principals, and supervisors.
Nielsen, H. D. and Kirk, D. H., "Classroom Climates." In H. J. Walberg, ed., Evaluating Educational Performance. Berkley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Co., 1974.
This article describes six classroom climate questionnaires and gives a summary of research on relating classroom climate to student outcomes.
Simon, A. and E. G. Boyer., Mirrorsfor Behavior 1Il: An Anthology of Observation Instruments. Wyncote Pa.: Communication Materials Center, 1974.
This book provides descriptive information on 99 systems for observing, recording and analyzing teacher and learner behavior.

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Planning for Secondary Curriculum Development

Curriculum development may range from a classroom lesson plan to planning a system wide social studies program. The essential elements for planning are basically the same. This may involve designing a new unit of concept lessons and activities for an existing course; developing a new course offering which fulfills state or local requirements; planning the social studies program for a new school; or revising some portion of the extant social studies curriculum. The following steps can be applied for each of these situations.
Assess the needs of the students and their immediate environment. What should be done and what alternatives and resources are available to accomplish it?
Decide on a plan of action and assign responsi-

bilities. How will the plan be implemented. and who can contribute what resources toward that end?
Design and implement a curriculum package that will address the needs of the students. fulfill requirements. improve the teaching environment and provide for on-going evaluation and revision. Does the package provide what was needed and wanted? How can that be determined?
Compile a record of what was accomplished. How can the developed curriculum be continuously updated. improved and revised without having to start from scratch every five or 10 years?
The following procedure is suggested for continued progress with development and reorganization.

Curriculum Development

Needs Assessment

Implement
Continuous Review & Revision
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Needs Assessment
To determine the needs of the students. assess their capabilities. deficiencies and interests. Compile a list of goals of the community. trends in social studies education and objectives for the curriculum. Review the existing program objectively and realistically. A Checklist for Evaluating a Social Studies Program is included in the appendix.
Major emphasis of the social studies curriculum is on the concepts. generalizations and methodology of the social science disciplines. Some of the current trends include the following.
An emphasis on establishing a conceptual framework for total social studies program and for each year's work in social studies.
Conscious planning for development of concepts and skills throughout the entire program.

Breaking away from the traditional dominance of history. civics and geography in the curriculum to b~ing in pertinent materials from other social sciences.
An emphasis on experimentation and using interdisciplinary approaches to create an integrated program.
Experimentation with new patterns of grade placement of content.
An emphasis on the research methods of the social sciences.
A conscious effort to help students develop a global frame of reference through their social studies work.
Multimedia approaches in the selection and use of learning materials.

Consideration of Alternatives
Review stated goals and objectives or decide on the extent of revisiQn. The following alternatives are suggested.
Keep the same sequence of courses but update those considered weak. irrelevant or outdated.
Shift courses around to achieve better continuity or eliminate repetition.
Eliminate courses. add new ones or restructure existing ones.
Institute a complete revision.
Regardless of the extent of curriculum development or revision. many questions should be explored by local curriculum planners and teachers. The following questions address some of the issues of making changes.
How can the 9-12 curriculum be organized to allow students to study in the three content strands?
How can the curriculum be organized around concepts, generalizations or themes?
What emphasis should be placed on values, atittudes, skills, knowledge and social participation?
To what extent should different instructional strategies that assist student learning and application be identified?

What role can resources play in curriculum changes?
How can the findings of recent research on cognitive learning and the affective domain be used?
How can individual differences of pupils and teachers be provided for?
How is student progress assessed in the areas of knowledge. skills. values. attitudes and participation?
Gather the relevant resources from the community. the staff and students. textbook companies and reference materials. Consider the following points.
All social studies teachers should be kept informed and have opportunities to participate at each step. since this will give them a vested interest in the end product and help assure their cooperation.
Use outside consultants in social studies education if this is practical.
Arrange visits to other districts which have worked on program development or revision to learn their experiences firsthand.
Staff competencies in curriculum development and revision may be upgraded through workshops. seminars or professional organizations.

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Curriculum Development

Contln.o Revi d Rm.loB

Curriculum Design
III. Curriculum Design
Elements of a curriculum guide
1. course description 2. general objectives
a. performance objectives b. indicators/tasks 3. content outline 4. strategies and methods 5. resources 6. evaluation
Curriculum development involves many stages. Systematic and continuous planning is essential for effective implementation of instruction. The following stages are offered to instructional planners for consideration.
Stage I. Before considering what will be taught, it is necessary to consider who will be taught. Who are the students and what is their environment? Knowledge about developmental psychology and information about learning and teaching effectiveness are important for teachers to have. The society's general concerns, local community needs and available resources have implications for instruction. The curriculum developer or instructional planner should consider these factors when identifying goals and objectives for students.
Stage II. Within this framework of broad community goals and general curricular objectives. another question should be asked. Which curricular approach or combination of approaches will be followed? The units of instruction chosen should be based on the selected approaches. For example. the United States History and Government courses could be arranged along a chronological approach,

a thematic approach, a conceptual approach or a methodological approach. General concept and process objectives should be selected which are appropriate for the particular units of study being developed. These may be chosen from the chart of Exemplar General Objectives: Conceptual on pages 97 -102 and the chart of Exemplar General Objectives: Skills on pages 106-109 or developed by the planners.
Stage III. The general objectives should be more specifically defined and stated as performance objectives. Performance objectives specify in more concrete and observable terms exactly what the student will be able to do following instruction. A further step is to state the indicators which will identify the tasks to be performed by the students to show that the objectives have been accomplished.
Stage IV. What materials and instructional strategies are available to the teacher. the school. the community and the student which could be used in unit lessons? To match instruction to the particular skill levels, needs and interests, student abilities should be assessed and diagnosed.
Once their abilities have been determined, developmentally appropriate instructional procedures for the classroom can be implemented. A variety of procedures (grouping, team-teaching, independent study, etc.) should be used. Teaching methods should be varied to meet the needs of the students. Teaching strategies and approaches are described on pages 83-87.
Stage V. Formative and summative methods of evaluation should be an integral part of the unit. Particular measures of evaluation should clearly relate to unit and performance objectives. Feedback to and from students will aid in instructional planning and curriculum revision. A detailed discussion of evaluation can be found on pages 88-96.

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Revision and Improvement
Curriculum revision involves translating cognitive and affective objectives into desired student behavior and organizing this into a curriculum pattern. A precise statement of objectives relating daily activities to expected behavior will permit evaluation of the success of the instructional program.
The following may be considered for constructing an organizational framework.
A committee should be established headed by a coordinating or planning committee with representatives from the administration and instructional staff. This group will direct the revision process and its members might serve as chairmen of subcommittees charged with specific assignments toward implementing the total revision effort.
The work of subcommittees should be copied

and distributed after review and approval by the coordinating committee.
The entire staff should be involved in periodic meetings for reaction and evaluation of these progress reports.
As the working groups identify areas in which advice is needed. consultants from college or the Georgia Department of Education should be used.
Experimental units can be developed in summer workshops for pilot testing and revision. The objectives. content and learning experiences of each unit should support overall program objectives.
There should be continuous evaluation starting with the teachers who are using the developed materials. This should lead to further revision and future evaluation.

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Suggested Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning

In devising teaching and learning strategies. curriculum developers should refer frequently to course objectives to make certain that methods are chosen which contribute to reaching the goals. Characteristics of the learning task. the learner. the situation and the teacher must be considered when teaching strategies are selected. The proper combination enhances learning as well as motivation.
Students tend to be curious. interested in a range of topics, and generally able to explore ideas in depth. Teaching strategies should be selected which enhance these tendencies. Students should be encouraged to explore new and old topics. to investigate ideas using data from many sources and to continue to refine skills necessary for effective problemsolving.
Many of the books listed in the appendix provide detailed accounts of the factors to consider when developing teaching plans. as well as the methods themselves. Listed below are selected teaching strategies and techniques which may be adapted to many situations. These ideas are listed in summary form and are intended to suggest a range of strategies.
1. Community studies and surveys use the community as a laboratory and help to make learning relevant. These studies may take many forms, such as surveys of social services. the community's economy. political structure. voting records, local history, etc. The tape recorder is a useful tool in conducting these studies.
2. Games may be used in many ways and for many purposes. A game may be a particularly useful way for a student to practice and review facts, definitions or skills introduced in another setting. Game formats may be patterned after T.V. shows or simple commercial board games.
3. Debates, panel discussions and symposia are useful for bringing out many sides of controversial issues. The student learns to defend a specific viewpoint with facts and experiences the challenge of hearing opposing viewpoints and different perspectives on that issue.
4. Discussion can be an effective teaching tool if handled correctly. It is a good feedback technique to assess what students are learning. Productive discussion allows students to test their ideas before others

and to learn the positions of others. The teacher must guard against this useful technique becoming an exchange of ignorance, being dominated by talkative students or developing into a session of short student answers to teacher questions.
5. Exchange projects are an effective means for learning about other people, regions, nations and cultures. Correspondence with schools in other parts of the country or the world can be started by joining organizations which provide rosters of interested schools. One of the best known is World Tapes For Education, Box 15703, Dallas, Texas 74215.
6. Field Trips are effective for learning about a community first hand. They require advance planning and administrative cooperation. Background lessons prior to the trip help to structure the trip and give students an idea about what to expect and to observe.
7. Films serve as an effective means of illustrating concepts or documenting a study. Involvement of students in film-viewing may be enhanced by such techniques as having students narrate a film shown without sound, or by stopping the film for discussion purposes at strategic points.
8. Group work is effective for promoting the exchange of ideas. peer teaching and social skills. Group members can evaluate each other's work. question ideas and contribute to a group presentation.
9. Interviews and questionnaires are challenging methods of gathering information, which reinforce skills. Analyzing. categorizing and synthesizing the data to be reported can provide frustrating but valuable learning experiences as the student's product takes form.
10. Oral history projects, using a tape recorder to interview senior residents, are excellent ways to preserve local history. They also make history come alive for students.
11. Oral reports can be used purposefully to bring information to the class, to present a point of view about an issue and to give students practice speaking and listening. Oral reports can become interesting student lectures and may be made more effective by the use of transparencies. charts. pictures or other media.

85

12. Peer tutors can serve as teacher aides by helping fellow classmates with new. difficult or review information. This technique is based on the idea that the best way to learn something is to try to teach it to someone else.
13. Resource speakers bring the community into the classroom. They can give an added personal dimension to learning and perhaps substitute for field trips. Every community has experts. government officials. travelers. service personnel. Peace Corps returnees. missionaries. company executives. etc. Some communities have compiled directories of available speakers.
14. Role playing places students in a staged situation where they must defend a viewpoint often different from their own by projecting themselves into the role of another. Allowing students to assume roles helps to bring out their ideas. values and prejudices. It is also useful for analyzing the complexity of a situation by experiencing it and then talking about what feelings arise afterwards.
15. Simulation games are operating models of physical or social situations. They have proven to be prime motivational devices. Students learn concepts. skills. critical thinking and much more in this format. Teachers should observe or take part in a simulation game before assigning it to students.
16. Slideffape presentations help to get the term paper out of the written format. Students present the results of research in pictorial and audio form with slides and taped narration. The technical aspects of planning this type of presentation illustrate that how something is said is often as important as what is said. These presentations can be saved and used with other classes.
17. Sociodrama is a type of role playing which deals with a social problem. The general setting of a sociodrama may be planned. but that is all. The students make up the plot as they go along. In this situation. students bring past experiences to a new problem and use productive thinking to solve problems. The sociodrama differs from a dramatiza-

tion in which the students walk and talk through a structured script.
18. Student conferences provide numerous opportunities for students to learn in an out-of-c1assroom atmosphere through the medium of assemblies and conferences. Model United Nations. state legislatures. youth forums. international days. etc. have built-in motivational and teaching opportunities.
19. Student exhibitions such as social science fairs. historamas. and other exhibits of student projects are excellent motivators for both academic and nonacademic students. Regional exhibits can be arranged with neighboring schools.
20. Student intern programs provide a practical plan for getting students into the community to perform useful work and to learn about the community. Arrangements can be made with social agencies. municipal offices. etc. for students to work on a regular basis on projects with regular staff.
21. Telelectures and speakerphones are low cost ways to give students verbal contact with state and national leaders and experts. The plan consists of an amplified telephone setup through which resource people talk from their homes of offices with one or more classes. Contact your telephone company for details.
22. Television provides many excellent programs nationally and regionally. The increasing use of videotaping eliminates the scheduling problems which have severely limited educational television. Some schools are investing in cameras and producing their own programs for closed circuit use.
23. Written reports allow students to do indepth research on a specific subject of interest to them. Many important research skills such as locating pertinent information. summarizing ideas and writing notes. outlining and developing a sequence of ideas. and many other skills may be developed and practiced as students write reports.

86

Approaches to Organizing Instruction
Specific teaching techniques are selected and used by teachers to help students attain a set of competencies. Teachers usually employ a specific approach or a more general way of attacking a topic or unit. Listed below are several possible approaches the middle grade teacher might use.
1. Case study approach is also known as in-depth studies or postholing. This approach involves the study of a limited situation or a relatively small class of phenomena or a moment in time rather than a broad survey of a movement or era. Comparison across cases allows the learner to derive useful generalizations.
2. Comparative studies approach does not restrict comparisons to describing static structures or studying issues in parallel. Events. ideas. etc. are compared through the use of models and concepts that permit the examination of similarities and differences in groups of structures and patterns. Systematic comparative analysis can be incorporated into crosscultural, -spatial, -chronological and interdisciplinary studies. Comparative studies allow students to build from familiar material and knowledge and to expand to less familiar information to increase understanding of both.
3. Descriptiveexpository approach involves the use of narrative or a description of events as they have been recorded. This approach can be particularly valuable when new information is to be presented as the data upon which other activities are based.
4. Discovery approach is also known as inductive or indirect learning or inquiry. In this approach. students are encouraged to investigate on their own to discover the concepts. principles and generalizations inherent in the subject matter.
Two kinds of discovery may be designed. In the open-ended approach. the teacher has not previously decided exactly what knowledge or conclusions the students are supposed to reach during the lessons. The teacher is willing to accept whatever issues the students suggest so long as they seem to be serious and the topics relevant.

In the more directive approach. the teacher knows what results are expected. Through the use of teacher questions. students compare examples and derive conclusions.
Although the amount of direction from the teacher varies in these two kinds of discovery. the student is challenged. nevertheless. to conduct the inquiry and to become involved in assembling the information and deriving the generalizations.
5. Historical.chronological approach is the most commonly used method for teaching history. The events are studied in the context of what happened before. during and after an incident. This approach helps students gain a sense of chronology.
6. Multimedia approach uses a variety of teaching media to present information and to help students learn. This approach is limited only by funds for some of the expensive equipment and by the creativity and flexibility of the teacher or student planning the presentation. Media include crayons and construction paper. records and song lyrics. transparencies and overhead projectors. cassette players and slides. recipes and cooking utensils. posters and bulletin boards. video tape machines. creative dance classes. etc.
7. Problem-solving approach presents a series of issues or dilemmas to be investigated and alternative solutions to be sought and considered. The approach generally centers around conflicting situations or opposing viewpoints. such as the priority of personal liberty vs. public welfare. Students apply problem-solving skills to the analysis of social. economic. political and personal issues.
8. Topical or thematic approach centers upon a single topic or theme. such as revolutions. organized labor. immigration. civil rights. etc. This type of in-depth study investigates one concept or topic through time or space. The general theme is investigated through a collection of relevant incidents or examples.

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Measurin. Student Performance

Frequently educators have interchangeably used the terms evaluation and measurement. Evaluation is a process in which information is utilized in order to arrive at some judgement. Measurement is the process of obtaining information about the presence of absence of particular knowledge. attitudes or behavior. For educators in the field of social studies. measurement is often a difficult task because of the nature of social studies goals and objectives. Social studies. after all. deal with attitudes. values and processes about which there is ire-

quently controversy and lack of agreement on definitions.
The next few pages will deal with a few of the educational measurement concepts the social studies teacher needs to consider to obtain dependable information for making informed judgements about students. We will begin with a brief self-quiz in which you are to match statements of instructional intent and types of measurement techniques.

Measurement Quiz

Match the measurement on the right with the statements of instructional intent on the left by selecting the techniques which would be most appropriate for assessing each outcome.

Outcome Statement

Techniques

1. Given pictures of plants. the student will identify the type of evergreen or deciduous plant.
2. Given sentences. the student will select the correct verb for subject-verb agreement.
3. The student will describe the role of savings in capital formation.

A. observation B. short answer essay C. multiple choice D. rating scale E. checklist F. completion

4. The student will determine the speed of a falling body when given the number of seconds the body has fallen and the law of falling bodies.

5. The student will state a rationale for the federal government's assuming a role in helping to stabilize the economy.

6. The student will correctly carry out the actions for making a left-hand turn.

7. The student will complete two laps around a track area in three minutes time.

8. The student can name and describe three career fields in which employment opportunities are highly affected by technological change.

9. The student demonstrates appropriate behaviors in a simulated job interview.

10. The student can name the economic systems. given the definitions.

88

Answers
1. C, multiple choice was selected because knowledge is being measured and it would be efficient to provide options for the student for each picture. A completion format would also be appropriate here.
2. C, again selecting the correct answer seems most appropriate for this knowledge outcome. 3. B, since description is required, the short answer essay seems best. 4. F, this is a higher level of knowledge requiring careful analysis and a constructed response. 5. B, the rationale is a knowledge outcome, best presented in a short answer essay.
6. E, implicit here is that a sequence of actions must occur and must be performed correctly in order for the action to be correctly carried out.
7. A, this is a simple observation; the teacher is interested in a psychomotor outcome. 8. B, a measurement of knowledge which is most appropriately expressed in a short answer essay. 9. D, a performance-oriented outcome, asking for a rating of the student on previously specified
behaviors (e.g., dress, speech, information imparted). 10. F, completion seems appropriate since only one correct name for each definition is possible. Multiple
choice format is also possible.

Specifying Objectives
The first step in planning instruction in any subject or program is formulating objectives for that course or program. Objectives are statements of student behavior that should take place if learning occurs. Such objectives are the basis of curriculum and teaching methods but also are the basis for educational measurement strategies. Objectives may be classified into specific levels and into different domains, with Bloom's Taxonomy being perhaps the most commonly used classification scheme in recent years. Objectives so classified provide the framework and scope for planning teaching and devising measurement procedures.
There are at least three main levels of objectives. The first level is exemplified by fairly abstract and long-term goal statements. The second level is represented by such things as end-of-course objectives, while the third level is much more specific and is the level which provides the content for both instruction and measurement. Objectives from this third level specify behavior students are to exhibit, describe the conditions under which the behavior should occur and the criteria of acceptable performance.
Once objectives are specified it will be useful to have some scheme for organizing them. This will assist the teacher in making decisions about the relative importance of various topics, both for purposes of instruction and for planning measurement exercises. A table of specifications can be developed,

or the classification may take the form of a structural diagram.
A table of specifications is a useful tool in planning curriculum objectives. A table of specifications is a grouping or organizing of objectives according to some scheme which will assist the teacher in looking at subject matter (content) and behavioral skill changes together. The table may be as simple as a two-way table or may take the form of a structural diagram. Besides presenting a convenient classification scheme, building a table of specifications assists a teacher in making decisions about the relative importance of various topics. This can be represented in the table in the form of percentage or weights, which later can be translated into types and numbers of measurement exercises or test questions. The ratings may change, of course, as the teacher plans lessons and builds tests. Like the effort of specifying objectives, the time invested in building such a table of specifications is well-spent. It will enable a teacher to build better achievement measures and can even be the basis for a system of diagnosing student weaknesses.
The diagram below illustrating the content for Principles of Economics/Business/Free Enterprise is a modified form of a structural diagram. The teacher may assign weights or ratings to topics shown, but these may change somewhat as lessons are planned and student needs are assessed. In addition, resources such as books or films could be keyed to this diagram if a coding scheme is devised.

lSloom, B.S. (ed.) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay, 1956.
89

Principles of Economics/Business/Free Enterprise
Modified Structural Content Diagram

Function of Government
Services Regulations Redistribution of income
(taxes and transfer payment) Stabilization

What? Economic concepts
Wants and needs Scarcity/choices Resources Opportunity cost Supply and demand Specialization. division of
labor. interdependence

How? Private enterprise
Forms of organization Competition Risk Profit Values and goals Economic incentives Financing private
Enterprise Functions of business
(production. etc.)

Growth and Stabilization Policies
~-----------I
Monetary policies Fiscal policies Inflation policies Employment Saving and investment Measuring the performance of
economy (GNP. etc.)

Decision Making

For Whom? Product and Resource Markets

Values Goals Goal conflict/trade offs Resource constraints limitations Utility Optimization Demand Advertising Lifestyles Decision-making Consumer surplus

Markets for goods and services Price mechanism Types of competition
(monopoly, etc.) Factors of Production - land.
labor. capital, entrepreneurship Circular Flow of Money Income Distribution

Foreign Trade
Balance of payments Balance of trade Comparative advantage

Economic Systems
Traditional Command Market Mixed

90

Alternatives to Tests
The full extent of student achievement in social studies is usually predicted on the basis of indirect and incomplete measures, typically paper-and-pencil tests. While tests are not wrong, in social studies it is frustrating for teachers to only partially find whether a student has acquired certain skills and concepts or understands a particular process well enough to apply it. Because of this the social studies educator is expected to be innovative in the measurement of actual student performance.
Procedure and Process Measurement
Although it is not impossible to produce paper-andpencil test items which can measure student understanding of a particular kind of knowledge, process or procedure, the best way to measure their skills is to observe them as they engage in research problems, simulations or group participations. Consider the following examples.
Student information-gathering skills. To assess skills in information gathering, the teacher can keep informal records in a notebook, noting when students are performing a desired activity. The teacher may also devise a checklist of desired behavior and set up a schedule of specific times to observe students for the presence or absence of the behavior. A less direct assessment could be used by assigning students a topic to research and having them describe orally or in writing what steps they follow. These descriptions are indirect measures of students' knowledge of resources and thoroughness and accuracy.
Interview skills. Often social studies classes are where career skills are taught. These include cognitive, social, attitudinal and affective variables. Skills for an employment-seeking interview are one example. Assessing student knowledge could occur on the cognitive level - a multiple-choice test in which the student answers questions about appropriate dress, attitudes, etc. However, this leaves the teacher with only an indirect assessment. More desirable would be a simulated or even an actual employment interview. Using a rating scale or checklist with previously determined criteria for desirable behavior, the student can be rated by the teacher, an outside observer or even the interviewer.

In both examples above teachers attempt to measure complex behavior. Often the desired behavior is even more complex and the most important aspects defy measurement. (A student's knowledge of community resources can be measured, but the ability to get help in an actual emergency situation can only be inferred, for example.) However, generally teachers will be seeking to measure amount of participation and effectiveness. Standards or characteristics of these qualities must be specified so that observations of the students will be systematic, reliable and fair.
Observations of students should be made using a rating procedure or checklists. These instruments and their limitations are described in most basic texts2 on tests and measurements. All involve making decisions about which elements of a situation should be measured, what materials are needed, what conditions must exist, how much time is required and what instructions to give.
One other procedure is important. Teachers should analyze student thought processes besides those obtained on written examination. Class discussions are primary times to elicit such examples Recording of discussions for later content analysis can be helpful and not terribly difficult once a simple content analysis scheme is devised. For example, if the objective for students is interpreting data and generalizing new situations, examples of reasoning and generalizations on the tape can be tallied and rated.
Attitudes and Interests
Social studies teachers often may want to assess whether students have acquired particular attitudes and have adopted inquiry as a mode of thinking or approach to problem-solving. The acceptance or acquisition of various attitudes may be one of the most important measures of growth in social studies, and a number of instruments is available for these purposes. A teacher interested in constructing instruments of this type will find a helpful discussion in an old but still useful publication by Furst. 3
The most common attitude measures are Likert and Thurstone-type instruments. Likert items usually contain a statement, with a scale of at least five

2Chase. c.1. Measurement for Educational Evaluation. Chapter 8. Reading. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 1978.
3Furst. E.J. Constructing Evaluation Instruments. New York: McKay. 1958.

91

=----==
---- --- -- -- ~ ====-=-=-====

points which enables students to show how strongly they agree or disagree with the statement. Thurstone items allow the checking of statements with which one agrees or disagrees. Statements are generated to represent degrees of favorableness on a subject, and values are assigned accordingly.
Another attitude or interest measure which students enjoy is the semantic differential, a type of inventory in which pairs of descriptive words are used to rate characteristics of a concept or content area. For example, students could rate a particular concept or idea related to economic systems (see lesson on Scarcity for ideas) along various dimensions. Attitudes toward private enterprise, foreign trade, labor unions, government incentives and the like could easily be examined in this fashion.
Building a Better Test
Since it is generally accepted that the primary tool of educational measurement is the classroom test, the teacher of social studies will want to produce tests which will not only test student knowledge of facts but also the meaning of the material. A test for facts is relatively easy to construct, but a test for comprehension or meaning of concepts is more difficult to produce. Consequently, many tests (including well-known standardized ones) are overly weighted with recall of facts. Students learn this and tailor their own study accordingly, resulting in a loss of the very things most needed - the ability to see meaning in new situations and to solve the problems these situations present.
However, knowledge of facts is important, for facts are the basis of more complex understanding. The most common measurement is by means of objective test items, or items which can be scored with a

minimum of subjective judgment. The most common objective items are the supply type and selection type. Regardless of item type, however, there are advantages and limitations associated with each which can only briefly be discussed.
Completion Items
In completion (often called supply or short answer) items, the student generally has to supply one or two words at most, either to answer a question or complete a sentence. These are relatively easy items to construct and do not encourage guessing. However, they may be difficult to score because students may give partial answers or correct alternatives, and they are limited in usefulness except for testing factual details.
Completion items can be designed to minimize their limitations. Statements should be written so that only one answer is correct. Enough information must be given to eliminate ambiguity but not so much information that the item becomes too easy. Extraneous hints should be avoided, such as giving the first letter of the correct answer. Statements from texts should not be copied verbatim since they may make very poor test items out of context. Blanks should be near the ends of statements, and there should be plenty of space for answers.
Selection Items
The most common of these test items are truefalse, multiple choice and matching items. The true-false and matching types are widely used in elementary classrooms. The true-false type, in particular, has limitations, in that they are particularly subject to guessing and usually deal with very trivial facts. Matching items can cover a great deal of factual information in a short time, but they are not easy to build and all types of material cannot be

92

put into this format.
Matching and true-false items can be improved by observing some of the following rules.
Try to make true-false items as absolutely true or false as possible by specifying conditions and by eliminating specific determiners such as "all," "never," "only," etc.
True-false items should be short and should contain only one central idea (this helps to avoid partially true or partially false combinations).
For younger students and poorer readers, matching items should also be kept short, with lists of responses not exceeding five. Older students may be able to handle up to 10 items in one list.
Matching items should not balance perfectly. The list of responses should contain some which match more than one thing or do not match anything. With perfectly matched lists, students obtain some answers merely by the process of elimination.
Matching items must have very clear instructions for the matching basis. This may mean long instructions which would need to be read aloud to young students or poor readers.
Lists of premises and responses in matching items should be as homogenous as possible. Mixing geographic names, government leaders and natural resources in a list of premises, for example, makes the elimination process too easy.
Multiple-choice test items are the most widely used on standardized achievement tests but are among the most difficult for classroom teachers to construct. However, this method is adaptable to testing application of knowledge as well as recall of information, which gives it an advantage over other methods. The following are a few suggestions for constructing these test items.
Avoid irrelevant difficulty in the items. This means avoiding ambiguity, trivial item stems or response choices and inappropriate vocabulary or reading level.
Provide a right answer which competent critics can agree on as the best.
Provide plausible distractors (the undesired or incorrect choices), similar in length to the right answer. This latter is easier if the item stem contains as much of the item material as possible. Responses should have parallel grammatical construction.

Avoid negatives insofar as possible, especially for classes of poor readers (examples: Which is not true? All of the following except ... , etc.). Also, avoid all of the above as an option; use none of the above sparingly and only in items to which an absolutely correct answer can be given.
Finally, observe some cardinal rules for all good test items. Review items for clarity and relevance to the objective for which they are written. Ask the question, "Does this clearly test the skills outlined in the intended objective?" And, "Will this item be answered correctly by those who have mastered the objective and answered incorrectly by those who have not mastered the objective?"
Testing for Complex Achievement
When a teacher wishes to test for knowledge beyond facts, that is, to test for associated meanings, it is useful to introduce an element of novelty into testing. It also becomes critical for a teacher to have previously identified objectives and built a table of specifications, since identifying types of behavior to be assessed is essential to assessing learning beyond factual knowledge.
Generally the teacher constructs a new situation in which previously learned facts or rules can be applied. In a multiple-choice test this can be accomplished by presenting a passage or an exercise and asking a series of questions about it. This should not be merely an exercise in reading comprehension and materials should be realistic and relatively commonplace.
Another good technique is to have students look for examples or illustrations of concepts, rules or principles in material outside their texts. For example, current events may relate directly or indirectly to subjects covered in classes (e.g. policies on refugees entering the U.S. are often in the news and relate directly to the unit on ethnic groups). Stories in books, television or movies may also present opportunities for outside work and discussion.
In social studies use of tables, graphs, maps and pictures can be useful in assessing student levels of comprehension, analysis and application as well as facts learned. However, materials should be kept clear and simple. Pictures can be used to simulate a situation or an imaginary event to elict attitudes or process skills. Tables and graphs are widely used in social studies assessment, since they help measure comprehension and analysis skills. (See use of data retrieval charts constructed by students themselves in the ethnic groups lessons in this guide and also

93

the interpretation of the opinion chart in the exercise relating to prejudice and discrimination.)
Essay exercises or test items provide a frequently used approach to measuring more complex achievement. Such exercises are deceptively easy to construct. but often difficult to score. As with objective items. essay items should bear a dir~ct relationship to the table of specifications developed earlier. This is particularly true with essay items because they must be constructed to elicit specific behavior (analysis. application. etc.). Evidence ofthis behavior is necessary in the scoring criteria as weIl.
In constructing essay items. once decisions are made as to behavior and content to be measured and questions determined. the teacher must compose the correct response. Too often this is not done. and the result is haphazard scoring of student responses based on inconsistent criteria.
Breadth of coverage is difficult to obtain with essay-type items, since only a few such items can usually be given at one time. Concentrating on items which allow for shorter responses (a few sentences. a paragraph) helps but will not alleviate the problem. Giving students options or choices is not really a solution either. since it means that great care must be taken to produce choices which are of equal difficulty.
One decision which will affect the administration time and scoring time for essay items is how much factual knowledge must be displayed in the final response. Must the student define all terms used and provide much supporting detail? A related decision concerns the amount of freedom in response a student has. The teacher must make clear in the directions if only one point of view is intended or if only certain areas should be covered. The best items require a student to have prior knowledge of key concepts and at the same time to use higher level thought processes.
In the Scarcity unit a tempting essay topic would be. describe the government's role in our economy. How? One paragraph? One page? Will the essay have to cover services, regulations. taxes. redistribution of income? How much detail? A more realis-

tic approach (unless the student is going to write a term paper on this topic) would be to ask the student to list at least four functions of the government affecting economic problems and choose one to discuss in some detail. The directions should provide guidelines as to length what to include (without giving away the answer). e.g.. should specific examples be given? Should sources be cited? The student should be able to cite some facts (prior knowledge requried) and. at the same time, relate some consequences of these facts (a higher level process).
Improving Classroom Assessment
In addition to generating the best possible items. teachers should analyze student tests to see whether items yield the desired information and whether the tests discriminate among good and poor learners. Teachers can be use responses of students to revise and build new items for future tests. For example. common incorrect responses on a short-answer item could become distracters if the question in put into multiple-choice format later. Analyzing student test performance may lead to revision in tables of specifications and even in course objectives.
Methods of item analysis are discussed in most tests and measurements texts. The easiest to compute and one of the most meaningful is item difficulty. computed in terms of the percentage of students who answer an item correctly. Teachers may also want to look at how well an item discriminates between high and low achievers. Most certainly they will want to examine the pattern of responses students make. How many answer incorrectly? Which incorrect response do most select for any given item? Are incorrect items clustered in certain content areas? Response patterns may reveal weaknesses in the test, of course. but they can also reveal weaknesses in instruction.
Analyzing tests is tedious and time-consuming. Formal techniques are limited in their usefulness. especially with essay items. However. the information obtained is rich in implications, and some short-cuts are available. See, for example, a publication by Diederich.4

4Diederich, P. B. Short-cut Statistics for Teacher-made Tests. (3rd ed.) Princeton. N.J.: Educational Testing Service. 1973.
94

Using Evaluation in Instruction
The reader may have felt that the foregoing discussion of measurement applied largely to evaluating student learning following instruction (summative evaluation). However, the same general principles of measurement apply to the area of formative evaluation, or that evaluation which occurs at several points within the learning process. In both types of evaluation, but especially in formative evaluation, a diagnosis of the assessment should be used to guide the student's learning process.
Diagnosis of difficulties, of course, implies more than simply identifying areas of weakness. Probable causes of weaknesses also need to be found, and teachers should learn as much as they can about

their students. In particular they should be interested in knowing how students learn, what is motivating to them, what problems they have, and how are they performing in areas other than social studies. Formative evaluation implies that teachers know something of the learning process itself, particularly in relation to their subject matter. In social studies, concept formation and critical thinking skills are crucial. Teachers must have a grasp of the sequence of the learning task as well as the need to specify objectives in some systematic fashion (see concepts listing by developmental level, elsewhere in this guide).
Formative evaluation can be carried out in such a way that materials and strategies are specifically keyed to sections of a test or other assessment

Example of a class analysis chart

z
E STUDENT ~1

STEREOTYPING

5

6

10 17

sallie B.

1

1

1

1

1

JoeB.

1

1

Sherry C. 1

1

1

MlkeC.

1

1

1

1

Joe D.

1

1

KlIren D.

1

1

1

1

Carole F. 1

1

1

1

1

Kevin G.

1

ChrisG.

1

1

1

1

Allen H.

1

1

1

1

KlIren K.

1

1

1

1

1

Ed. J.

1

Tommy K.

1

1

1

Felicia L.

1

1

1

1

1

Steve M.

1

1

1

1

1

Bryan N.

1

1

1

1

1

PatP.

1

Cory S. Alva S. BobW.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

- - .J... 14 16 13 10
80% 70010 80~'o 65~io 50'0

CONTRIBUTIONS OF ETHNIC GROUPS

2

3

7

8

13 14 18 20

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

-16 - 12

9

7

9

8

6

8

80'0 60'0 45l.'/O 35/0 45% 40% 3010 40%

DEFINITIONS, HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS,GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

4

9

11

12

15 16 19

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

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1

1

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- 14 15 ...!2. 11 ..E... ...12... ..R
70% 75'0 65% 55% 65% 75/0 60% 't
Avere % correct = 66%

95

procedure. The structural diagram presented earlier in this section not only can be keyed to specific test items but to instructional materials as well. When students are evaluated they can easily be referred to appropriate materials for remedial instruction if this type of keying has been done. This type of diagnosis-feedback-instruction cycle is the basis of individualizing instruction.
As was pointed out earlier in the discussion on improving test instruments, an analysis of test items and class performance is a useful class diagnostic technique. A simple computation of the percent of students achieving certain items or tasks can quickly reveal gaps in achievement for small groups of students or for a class. If these gaps are

consistently appearing from year to year, teachers in a school or district should analyze their curriculum and recommend changes that will better meet the needs of the students.
In Conclusion
Meaningful instructional decisions in social studies (or any other content area) require the evaluation of learning. Learning must be observed as it is taking place to make needed changes in instruction for individual students. If the feedback-teachinglearning loop is altered as student needs are determined, then the immediate and ultimate quality of learning will improve.

96

General Objectives for Social Studies

The four goal areas of the Social Studies may also be thought of as process-knowledge components. Knowing, thinking, valuing and social participation abilities are made possible by knowledge plus skills. In this section general objectives are presented for the knowledge and skills components of social studies. These lists are not all-inclusive; rather.

they represent only a range of general objectives presented in broad terms. Several more speci6c levels would be necessary before they would be come useful for a particular unit of instruction. In the exemplar units of instruction, general objectives from this section of the guide are more speci6c and useful for instructional purposes.

Organizing Concepts

Objectives

Grade Levels
K4 58 912

A.
Adaptation
Causation

The students will be able to
l. recognize, describe and compare how they. other people. societies. cultures and physical phenomena change over time.

DR

Change Chronology

2. recognize, describe. and compare and contrast how people and animals adapt to physical and social environments.

D,R R

Continuity Multiple causation

3. identify. describe and analyze adaptive patterns (personal social. economic, political) which emerge as groups adapt to physical and social environments.

D D,R

Subconcepts
technology industrialization cause/effect environment invention borrowing personal change social change cultural change planned change unplanned change

4. identify, explain and evaluate causes and effects of particular changes (physical. social. political, cultural. economic).
5. apply problem-solving techniques and guidelines to determine and evaluate what particular changes might occur in particular situations.
6. recognize and cite examples to illustrate that people invent. learn. borrow and transmit ideas and events.
7. recognize and cite examples to illustrate that change
and continuity are historical constants.
8. recognize and cite examples to illustrate that cultures borrow from one another but are selective in the traits which are borrowed (societies adapt borrowed cultural elements to their own particular life style).

I.D D,R
I,D D.R DR I,D D.R

9. explain. analyze and evaluate how one's comprehension of the present may be influenced by one's understanding of the past and one's ability to organize relevant information to assist in description and explanation.

I,D D,R

10. explain. analyze and evalute how one's view of the past is influenced by the availability of evidence. one's own personal and cultural biases. and the society and times in which one lives.

I,D D,H

"'The code. I. 0, R, is intended to indicate at which grade level some aspect of the general objective is introduced. developed and reinforced.

97

Organizins Concepts
B.
Beliefs
Culture
Self-concept
Values
Subconcepts
adaptation biological needs human
similarities human
differences human behavior tools/
technology cultural
universals communication interdependence acculturation enculturation ethnocentrism ethnicity customs heritage identity tradition traits norms rules/laws descriptive be-
liefs moral beliefs democratic
values individual rights individual re-
sponsibilities group rights group responsi-
bilities equity equality of
opportunity human dignity

Objectives

Grade Levels
K4 58 912

The students will be able to
1. recognize that all human beings are of one species; although differences exist among groups of humans. these differences are not necessarily inequalities.
2. recognize and illustrate the idea that all human beings have basic physical and psychological needs.
3. recognize and illustrate that all human beings experience the same cycle of life and that human beings continually seek to explain that life cycle.
4. recognize and illustrate that throughout history people have worked to meet common human needs and to satisfy human desires and aspirations.
5. recognize and illustrate that whenever and wherever people have lived. they have developed artifacts. beliefs and culture. which have enabled them to satisfy their social and physical needs.
6. recognize. explain and evaluate how culture and social patterns affect thinking. feeling. acting and perceiving throughout life.
7. recognize and illustrate that the basic substance of any culture is in its values.
8. explain and evaluate how decisions on all aspects of life are influenced by the value systems of group members.
9. identify and compare examples which illustrate how
cultures use a diversity of means to obtain similar ends and to satisfy common human needs.
10. explain and contrast relationships between the quantity of cultural inventions in any society and the degree to which the society is specialized.
11. recognize. apply. analyze and evaluate the relationship between personal value systems and individual decisions.
12. recognize and evaluate how a person's development of human traits and self-concept derive in part from group associations.
13. recognize that each person has a unique personality and that personality is shaped in part by interaction with others.
14. recognize that people are mammalian. social and cultural animals. living in cultural and natural environments.

DR

D

R

D

R

DR

DR I.D D.R I.D R I.D D.R DR I.D R DR DR DR DR

98

Organizing Concepts
C. Compromise Conflict Conflict
resolutions Cooperation Power Social control

Objectives

Grade Levels
K4 58 912

15. recognize and identify examples to illustrate that making and using symbols is an essential component of every culture.
16. recognize and illustrate that people of all races. religions. cultures and regions have contributed to a common cultural heritage. and that modern society owes a debt to cultural inventors of other times and places.
17. recognize and explain how cultures are comprised of traditions. which are the result of accumulated knowledge. artifacts and customs.
18. give examples of how cultural exchange and borrowing occur when groups with diverse cultures come into prolonged contact.
19. compare and analyze how cultural patterns are related to other phenomena. such as geographic location and general historical period of a people.
20. analyze and evaluate how stereotyping a class of people or a place or philosophy may lead to false statements and dangerous beliefs.
21. illustrate and evaluate how culture affects two person's thinking about values.
The students will be able to
1. recognize. analyze and evaluate how. throughout history. conflict has developed between groups of persons having philosophical differences in goals and means.
2. identify and evaluate examples which show that much of group behavior is guided by shared values that people voluntarily follow or by norms and beliefs that they follow under the threat of punishment or the promise of reward.
3. identify. CQmpare and evaluate examples which illustrate that in every society and institution. regulations and laws emerge to govern behavior of individuals.
4. identify. analyze and evaluate how rules and laws reflect the basic values of the society or institution.
5. explain. compare and evaluate how many different types of political systems are used in different societies to determine public policy and to regulate behavior.

0

R

0

R

0

R

0

R

1,0 R

0

R

I,D R

1.0 O.R

0

R

1.0 R

0

R

1.0 O.H

99

Organizing Concepts

Objectives

Grade Levels
K4 58 912

Subconcepts

6. illustrate. apply and evaluate the idea that individuals are

interaction customs

more likely to influence public policy when working in groups than when working alone.

civil rights stability discrimination sanctions government by law

7. illustrate, analyze and evaluate how individuals and groups have always attempted to achieve a sense Qf justice and reason in their human interactions and in the establishment. operation and evaluation of their institutions.

rules law social norms

8. illustrate, analyze and evaluate why conflicts between individuals. groups and nations have arisen.

civil war

leadership

9. illustrate and evaluate how individuals and groups may

minority rights

resort to extreme methods to change public policy when they

roles

feel that authorities are unresponsive to their needs or that

sovereignty

more traditional channels for alleviating grievances have

federalism

been ineffective.

mores

political organi-

10. explain, illustrate. analyze and evaluate examples of how

zation

leaders emerge. gain power and influence, and lose power

norms

and influence.

11. analyze why there are continuous struggles between different groups for power and influence.

I,D R

D

R

I,D R tD R I,D R

D.

The students will be able to

Decision-making Environment

1. give examples. analyze and evaluate how all nations are interdependent economically. socially. politically and culturally.

Habitat
Interaction
Interdependence
Scarcity
Subconcepts
resources resource use
and conservation universe earth living organisms spatial distribution settlement patterns land use patterns areal association

2. give examples and evaluate how the natural environment
may set the broad limits of economic possibilities in an area but that the people determine the specific character of life within the limits of their culture.
3. give. analyze and evaluate examples of how the level of technology and the socio-political-economic-religiousaesthetic values of a cultural group influence the ways in which people use their natural resources.
4. illustrate, explain and assess why groups at different times have reacted differently to similar environments.
5. illustrate. analyze and evaluate how regional specialization implies interaction with other areas for the exchange of goods and services.
6. explain how and why production. exchange. distribution and consumption of goods tend to have a geographic orientation.

D

R

D

R

I.D R I.D R

D

R

D

R

100

Orsanidns Concepts

Objectives

Grade Levels K-4 58 9-12

Subconcepts
pollution ecology region specialization values resource allocation opportunity cost

7. explain, compare, illustrate and evaluate how natural
environments influence modes of life and population patterns.
8. illustrate and evaluate how cultural environments represent social systems designed to carry out the basic tasks of the society.
9. illustrate and evaluate how geographic areas are affected by biotic and societal forces.
10. illustrate, compare, analyze and evaluate how people's social and economic relationships and behavior are affected by their geographic distribution.
11. illustrate, apply and evaluate various techniques used to influence various levels of decision-making.

DR DR
D,R DR

E.

The student will be able to

Decision-making
Goals
Institutions
Systems
Values
Subconcepts education government religion family economic organi-
zational patterns rules/laws futurism change invention/
adaptation rights/responsi-
bilities

1. identify examples to illustrate that all societies develop social institutions integrated around the major needs of the society.
2. compare and analyze how every society has developed complex processes to perform the basic functions of socialization and acculturation.
3. describe, analyze, compare and evaluate the many different
types of political systems which are used in societies to determine public policy and regulate behavior.
4. describe, analyze, compare and evaluate the many different
types of economic and social systems which have evolved to deal with the basic economic and social functions of the society.
5. illustrate, analyze and evaluate how the basic substance of
a society is rooted in its values. Explain and evaluate how basic economic, social, political, environmental decisions are influenced by values.
6. illustrate how societies exhibit patterned social behavior
which can be described and explained.
7. explain, analyze and evaluate how some of the wants and needs of members of any society are satisfied through the economic, family, educational, political and religious systems.
8. explain how and why some individuals and groups within every society are authorized to make binding decisions.

DR DR I,D D,R
I,D D,R
I,D D,R D,R
DR DR

101

Or.anbin. Concept.

Objecth,e.

Grade Level. K4 58 912

9. explain and illustrate how persons and groups influence

change in societal institutions.

I

10. explain, compare, analyze and evaluate how all societies

develop social institutions or complex sets of values, mores,

laws and procedures integrated around the major functions

or needs of the society.

I

11. illustrate how institutions are characterized in various

societies and explain the role of the individual in institu-

tions in comparative societies.

I

12. illustrate and evaluate how in all societies people have sought better economic, political and social opportunities. I

D

R

D

R

D

R

D

R

102

General Objectives for Social Studies Skills*

A comprehensive program for skill development must provide both a graduated vertical sequence of experiences in skills in grades K12 as well as a horizontal component providing for practice of these skills.
Students deficient in skills cannot excel in social studies. A planned sequence of graduated learning activities related to the students' accumulating background of experience allows them to build on experiences that have meaning because they are able to interpret them. Students learn from classroom activities only when they can relate a new idea, fact or activity to something they understand.
A planned program for the teaching of skills helps students make optimum transfer of skill learnings so that the skills become a part of their customary behavior. Learning experiences should result in many immediate and varied applications of the skill. Research skills which are adequate for a middle school student would be considered inadequate for a high school student. Students should have horizontal and vertical coordination at all levels.
Helping students develop and use skills effectively is one of the central purposes of social studies instruction. Without an adequate command of skills, it is doubtful that students can gain the insights concerning their society or develop the habits of intellectual and social behavior .t...hat constitute the ultimate goals of the social studies program. Skills are tools for learning both in and out of school. Students who develop a command of social studies skills during their school years and carry these skills into the adult years have laid a firm basis for continued learning throughout their lives.
Some skills are a definite but shared responsibility of the social studies. These include
locating information,
organizing information,

evaluating information, acquiring information through reading, acquiring information through listening and ob
serving, communicating orally and in writing, interpreting pictures, charts, graphs, tables, working with others.
The following skills are a major responsibility of social studies.
Reading social studies materials Applying problem-solving and critical-thinking
skills to social issues Interpreting maps and globes Understanding time and chronology Developing value analysis skills Developing social participation skills
The following principles of learning and teaching should be emphasized as a basis for the social studies skills program.
The skill should be taught functionally - in the context of a topic of study rather than as a separate program.
Students should understand the meaning and purpose of the skill and have motivation for developing and using the skill.
Students should be carefully supervised in their first attempts to apply the skill so that they will form correct habits from the beginning.
Students need repeated opportunities to practice the skill with immediate evaluation so that they know where they have succeeded or failed in their performance.
Students should have individual help through

*Adapted from John. Eunice and Dorothy M. Fraser. "Social Studies Skills; A Guide to Analysis and Grade Placement," Skill Development in Social Studies. Helen McCracken Carpenter. Editor. Thirty-Third Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies. 1963. Pages 296. 310312.
Social Science Skills. Atlanta Board of Education. 1975.
Sequence Chart of Map and Globe Skills and Understandings. K6. Los Angeles City Schools.
Social Studies Skills Sequence. Anne Arundel County, Maryland.

103

diagnostic measures and follow-up exercises since not all members of any group learn at exactly the same rate or retain equal amounts of what they have learned.
Skill instruction should be presented at increasing levels of difficulty, moving from the simple to the more complex; the resulting growth in skills should be cumulative as students move through school, with each level of instruction building on and reinforcing what has been taught previously.
Students should be helped at each stage to generalize the skills. by applying them in many and varied situations: in this way. maximum transfer of learing can be achieved.
The program of instruction should be sufficiently flexible to allow skills to be taught as they are needed by the student: many skills should be developed concurrently.
Reading Skills
Although students gather information from many sources - films. filmstrips, tapes. radio, television - reading is the single most important informationgathering skill a student can possess. The development of this skill is a continuing process throughout the students' education. One ofthe most effective ways to develop reading skills is to teach reading in the content areas. Teaching a social studies lesson as a directed reading lesson is one way of effectively using social studies time to improve reading skills. Normally. the directed reading lesson consists of four parts.
Preparation for reading providing necessary background presenting new vocabulary establishing purposes for reading
Directed reading and discussion
Extending skills and abilities
Enrichment and follow-up activities
Each phase of the directed reading lesson can be related to a social studies lesson. making it possible to teach social studies content and improve reading skills simultaneously. A convenient guide to the social studies lesson as a directed reading lesson is given in A Reading Program for the 70s: Social Studies/Reading. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education. 1975.
Thinking Skills
One of the main goals of social studies is to help students develop their ability to think which in-

volves acquiring and processing information. Students who are able to U5C their higher thought processes (rather than simply repeat information they have memorized) should succeed in school and in life. The ability to fulfill obligations as a citizen depends largely on how well one has learned to think.
Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy identifies seven thought processes - recall. translation. interpretation. application. analysis. synthesis and evaluation.
Recall is the lowest level of thinking. This thought process includes the recall or recognition of information previously encountered. such as facts, concepts or generalizations. Although knowledge is used in the exercise of all the higher thought processes, questions designed to test only the student's knowledge do not require any thinking ability beyond the level of remembering, recalling or recognizing.
Examples of remembering
Recalling information. such as the names of the state capitols.
Identifying the source of written materials, such as a quotation.
The next level of thinking is translation. or changing information from one form into another. For example. in reading a map a student must change the lines. colors and symbols on the map into vivid mental images of boundaries. rivers, elevation and number of people living in the cities shown on the map. These mental images can be expressed in words that provide almost the same information as the map does.
Examples of translation
Explaining in one's own words the meaning of something read.
Drawing a picture to explain the meaning of a concept such as cooperation.
Interpretation is the thought process used in discovering relationships between two or more facts, concepts or generalizations. It is the kind of thinking students use when they make comparisons or draw conclusions.
Examples of interpretation
Comparing two or more pictures to decide whether they are similar or different.
Discovering a cause-and-effect relationship between two phenomena.

104

Finding facts to support a generalization. Drawing a conclusion from statistics or other
information.
The thought process called application is the kind of thinking that is done when knowledge is applied to life outside school. Application requires the person to recognize similarities in the new problem to problems previously encountered and to select the method and the information that are most suitable for finding a solution.
Examples of application
Using a variety of social studies skills to prepare a good research paper or oral report.
Using social studies skills in working with others. Voting on issues or candidates, either in school
elections or in elections outside the classroom.
Analysis is the thought process a person uses in determining how something is organized. For example, in analyzing complicated information, a student must separate it into its basic parts to see how they were put together and how they are related to each other. Analysis is much like interpretation, but the pupil is more aware of steps that must be followed to reach a solution to a problem. Analysis is used in all kinds of critical thinking and problem-solving.
Examples of analysis
Separating main ideas from supporting facts. Separating statements of fact from hypotheses
and conclusions. Detecting unsupported assumptions, faulty logic,
prejudice or propaganda.
Distinguishing statements that have no bearing on the situation, question or problem under consideration.
Synthesis is the thought process a person uses when thinking imaginatively or creatively. It is the process of putting ideas or materials together to create a meaningful pattern or structure that did not previously exist.

Examples of synthesis
Writing something original, which might be a paragraph or an entire poem, story, or play.
Writing a report that looks at something in a new and different way.
Planning a public opinion poll that will provide information on a public issue.
Evaluation of ideas. events or material objects calls for a person to have in mind standards against which judgments can be made. The standards may have been established by someone else or one may have set up one's own standards for judging. If a person uses faulty standards or misunderstands the nature of the standards, the evaluation is likely to be faulty also. For example, if students did not use the thought processes of translation and interpretation, they may have a false impression of the standards they are using. As a result. the judgment may be incorrect. Helping students improve their ability to make responsible judgments is a major goal of education.
Examples of evaluation
Judging the accuracy, logic and clarity of a written communication.
Judging the success of a class discussion.
Deciding whether people are being treated equitably.
Deciding which of several conflicting sources of information is the most reliable.
Even though the skills should be taught in order from the least to the most difficult, teachers should not assume that some students cannot be involved in developing skills at every level. Young students or less able students engage in thought processes at all levels. but they do so in terms of their own experiences. Therefore, teachers should provide opportunities for all students to develop thinking skills at all levels.
No skill or set of skills is learned in one experience, in one year or in one division of the school system. Skills should be introduced and understood at the students' current level of maturity, used repeatedly in different situations and used at subsequent levels of maturity in increasingly complex situations.

105

General Objectives for Social Studies Skills

Skill.

I. Loce Alo

..

E"aJd Oat.

A. Organizing pictures. facts. events

B. Working "'lth reference materials (books. atlases. periodicals. newspapers. other media)
C. Sequencing and arranging in chronological order
D. Acquiring Information by listening. observing and surveying
E. Constructing and interpreting graphs
F. Evaluating subjective and objective material

o....ectlv

The student should be able to interpret pictures. graphs and
tables. make an outline. relate an artifact to the subject
content.

The student should be able to categorize sources of information as primary or secondary. biographical or autobiographical. fictional or
nonfictional. use an outline as a tool for study. use footnotes. o relate an artifact to subject
content using classification.

'12
The student should be able to
classify ideas according to the points of view. Ideology or bias of different writers or speakers.
make a table of contents. make a bibliography. compare. evaluate and analyze artifacts In relation to. subject content.

locate Information In muhiple references.
use an appendix.

locate and interpret suitable data from references (media. almanacs. Who's Who. readers' guides. etc.)
locate news sources on the same topiC from different sources.

locate and Interpret suitable data from references (media. cIIetlonaries of biographies). critically analyze Interpretations of same event from different news media.

sequence terms which denote time. relate events of own life "'lth
those of a greater span of time using same scale on time line.

collect and arrange bibliographies. arrange series of events In
chronological order. use time line to explain social
studies programs to others

determine the sequence of events which precedes a given concluston. formulate generalizations and condu sions about social studies problems. analyze cause-effeet relationships.

recall major ideas following a listening activity.
tell about something that recently occurred. o prepare a group or dass list of questions to seek ans",ers from people at school or home.

acqUire information about a topic by listening to more than one source.
develop and use guidelines designed to aid in impartial observation. o build survev InstrlJments designed to gather specific data.

o acquire Information from a formal. extended lecture. dra", expository Inferences about a situation by conducting Impartial observations. conduct a scientific random sample survey and analyze the data obtained.

o explain the message of simple pictorial or bar graphs of data.

make a line or bar graph and chart plotting social studies data. o ask pertinent questions related to the data analyzed on charts and graphs.

plot muhillne graphs to be used. in support of a hypothesis.
formulate logical hypotheses based on data presented In graph form.

distinguish bet",een fiction and nonfiction.

distinguish between fictional and nonfictional articles in newspapers. magazines. etc.
tell ",hen a statement is a fact. an opinion. a value judgment or an inference.

distinguish between objective and subjective primary source material.
Justify a declsion as to why It has been evaluated as a statement of fact. an opinion. a value judgment or an inference.

106

Skll1s II. Proble...olvlnl A. Recognizing and
stating problem
B. Formulating hypotheses
C. Planning for research and gathering data
D. Preparing and analyzing alternatives
E. Formulating and acting on conclusions

Objectives
K4
The student should be able to - identify and state a problem
related to personal experience.
. suggest alternative solutions when given a group problem. real or hypothetical.
. decide which data would be necessary to support or disprove hypotheses.
- sequence a plan for collecting data.
- support a decision to accept or reject the hypotheses based on the evidence that has been given.
- choose a solution to the problem after applying the evidence.

58
The student should be able to - identify and clearly define
a problem.
state an acceptable hypothesis to be researched.
develop operating procedures for completing the sequences in a research plan.
- use accumulated evidence to accept or reject hypothesis. examine consequences of ahernatives.
choose a reasonable solution to the problem after applying the evidence. recognize areas for further study.

'.12
The student should be able to - define a problem concisely for
use in the problem-solving process.
- formulate hypotheses and apply a sequential evaluation process.
identify criteria to evaluate the design of a proposed investigation.
accept or reject hypotheses on the basis of collected evidence. state in a conclusion the acceptance or rejection of hypotheses. - cite short and long range conse quences of alternatives.
choose a reasonable solution to various alternatives. change the solution If the new data warrant it. - observe interrelationships between two problems and between solutions to each.

Skll1s 01. 80cW Putldpa..... A. Supporting. organizing
and working with others
B. Gathering and reporting Information
C. Soliciting and communicating Ideas

K-4
The student should be able to assume different roles in
a group. - identify tasks to be completed. - perform tasks as directed. - participate In activities by
following rules. show respect and fairness
for others.
listen and obtain information. - remember or record main ideas. obtain Information from different
souren.
- listen and respect views of others.
give reasons for position. - engage In discussion with
others.

The student should be able to - identify goals and tasks. - work with group as etther leader
or follower until task is completed. - participate In a group acttvlty while observing set rules of procedure. - organize and complete a group activity. - treat others with respect and fairness.
- identify and acquire information from public and prtvate sources. Interview Individuals. - prepare and give reports.
- listen and obtain the views of others.
- state position clearly. - provide reasons for personal
viewpoint. present viewpoint to others. - work through organized
groups to support a view point.

'12
The ltudent should be able to - Identify goals and prtorttles. - take various roles In a group and clearly deftne the tasks to be completed. - conduct a group acttvlty observing set rules of procedure. - plan. organize and complete group acttvlty. - work with others using cIemocratk: prtnclples. - Identify and use alternative meth.... of mlIf111g1ng conItct.
- use many sources to obtllln current Information and opinions.
obtain Information by ......ng appropriate q_1ons in Interviews.
- evaluate the reliability of Information gathered.
- obtatn the vtews of others. _ e reasons for advocated poeItIons. present viewpoint to other citizens.
leaders and ofIlc:IaJs. - organize and partk:Iptlte In activities for efrectlve action to support your views.

107

Sldll.
IV. n.. ... C......I...
A. U.. the time _ _ and the calendar
B. DeveJop aequencIng and chronology

04

..

9-11

The Itudent wiD be able to tell time by the clock.
_ the daYI 01 the ...... In order.

mont'" The Itudent wiD be able to
.1dentIfy ........ with particular

The Itudent will be abII to tranIIate data Into ~

dac:rlbe the Il/Item 01 time _ .. Iorm. . gneraltzattonl and

n _ the montha In order.

related to the rotation 01 the earth.

CIlftCIuIIonI about pnhIItorIc: and

.... calendar to find dateD 0I1pec:iaJ dac:rlbe the relation between the

geoi0gicai time.

_II.

earth'l revolution around the lUll and a Iorm" generallzadonl and

dac:rlbe the relation between rotation 01 calendar year.

condUIIonI about time In IIucIytng

the earth and day and night.

.... detlntte time concepti .. cIecade. the cIevelopment of hum-. .......

.... detlntte time conc:epIIlUch ..

century.

MCOnd. minute. yelterday.

.... Indetlntte time concepti .. pall,

.... Indetlntte time conceptllUCh ..

future, meanwhile.

long ago. before~aeer.

The Itudent wID be able to relate aequence and chronology In penonaI experienceI. cIeveJop IIlIrMric:aI chronology. make IlmpIe time Ilna related to penonaI aperIence.

The Itudent wiD be able to arrange penonaI experienceIln aequetlCe. place related ewnll In chronological order. relate ca.... and elect relatillftlhipa among _ and data.
figure the length of time between two given data. make time Ilna aequenclng evenII. tlgure dIIIerenca In duration of vartoul hiltorlcal perIoda. dilcull the ChrlItIan Il/Item of chronology. B.C. and A.D.

The Itudent will be able to c:hMter cIate--.ta to _bIiIh time reIationIhIpIlIIIIOng hIItortc eventI. relate the put to the pr-.t In the
ItucIy ofchange and contInutty In " ' aIain.

Early Exploration

How Perceptions Change Over Time

Western Hemisphere

View of Earth From Space

108

Skills

O b j e c t i v

K"

A. Characteristics of the Earth - Size, Shape. Motion

The student should be able to identify the nature of a sphere. compare maps to the globe. dillerentiate between natural and
cultural features on earth's surface. identify simple land and water forms - continents. islands. oceans, rivers. lakes. understand the axis of the earth and meaning of rotation as related to day and night. Indicate how the earth's revolution around the sun causes the seasons to change.

B. Direction

indicate how cardinal directions are determined by the poles. use of parallels and meridians as direction lines. - use the intermediate directions. identify the earth's four major hemispheres.

5-8

'.12

The student should be able to use circle measurements in degrees.
minutes. seconds. measure great circles in miles. - compare areas and distances. identify natural and cultural
boundaries. identify map projections, different
ways of showing curved surface on Hatmap. explain the use of International Date Line. demonstrate the relationship of rotation of the earth and time. explain seasonal changes in terms of the earth's revolution and axis tilt. describe satellite orbits.

The student should be able to use globe studies for correct Ideas
of area. identify some problems of cartography
In projecting the globe to a Hat surface by such methods as cylindrical. conical and equalarea projections. review rotation, revolution and parallelism and their ellects. deftne and IIlustrat. orbits.

demonstrate the relationship between meridians and time.
- compare time in various parts of earth. plot great circle routes on cylindrical
projections. use grid coordinates of longitude and
latitude to locate places on a map or globe.

orient any map to the north using given clues. determine true direction hom study of the globe. o read direction by use of parallels and meridians of any map. o discuss direction in space and direction on earth

C. location D. Symbols E. Interpretation

- locate places in relation to continents and bodies of water.
o use the grid system to aid in locating plac.s on a map. o demonstrate the need for reference points on a globe or map (North Pole. South Pole, Equator) to describe locations exactly.
identify specific landmarks, such as unusual coastline or other natural feature and use the information to locate places on a map or globe.

o use the grid system to find exact locations.
o locate and use the International Date Line to interpret time zones. explain the division of the globe into 360 degrees.
trace and compare trade and travel routes on air. land and water.

o collect Information about global patterns of land forms. climate. natural vegetatton. transportation.
o locate political divisions. locate air and ocean currents which
allected exploratton and the development of countries.

o relate photographs to map symbols. o identify map symbols for physical features. Identify map symbols for cultural features. cities. boundaries. o identtfy use of color or shading to show
relief.

o describe how relief is shown by contours on topographic maps.
explain what the various kinds of symbols (dots, colors, lines) are used to show (food production, languages, population).
devise map symbols and legends for outline maps.

o Interpret the key or legend for map reading.
analyze historical maps. interpret physical and political maps
by using colon and symbols.

o use dillerent maps to find places of interest in the community. city, state and nation. - use inset maps.
compare maps and make inferences hom them.
o use maps and globes &equently as sources of information.

use both physical and political maps to clarify concepts. consult variety of maps for Information about an area.
compare old and new maps to learn about changes people have effected.
use maps and globes (political, physical, economic. others) for information.
o translate information derived from maps and globes Into line and circle graphs.

use maps and globes to explain geographical settings of historical and cunent events.
infer human activities and ways of life from data found on a map or combination 01 maps.
transpose statistical data to map form with legends.

F. Scale

relate known distances to familiar places with those shown on maps.
use scale on map to find the distance from one place to another. make large maps of familiar areas drawn to a predetermined scale.

demonstrate how scale can be expressed In different ways - graphically, in words or as a representative &actlon.
discuss relation of scale to selection of data to be mapped.
compare maps of Identical areas drawn to different scales.

draw map to scale. correlate maps of dlflerent ocaIes. explain use of graduated ocaIes that
are Important for polar or air age
maps.

109

Checklists
Sample Program Evaluation Forms

Knowledlle
The program emphasizes currently valid concepts, principles and theories in the social sciences.
The program draws upon all of the social sciences such as anthropology, economics, geography, political science. history, psychology and sociology.
The program draws from other related fields such as law, the humanities, natural and applied sciences and religion.
The program represents a balance between the immediate social environment of students and the larger social world.
The program provides some balance among local, national and global affairs.
The program provides the opportunity for students to examine potential problems and future conditions.
The program includes the study of Western and nonWestern cultures.
The program includes the study of both economically developed and developing nations.
The program helps students develop a sense of cultural identity through emphasis on group, national and global heritage so that they see themselves as part of a continuing community, national and human developmental process.
The program expands and enriches the knowledge and appreciation of students' heritage so that they may understand and readily accept responsibilities in their own society.

To little or To some To peat

no extent extent

extent

111

Co_nitive Skin.
The program provides for the consistent development and practice of skills pertinent to researching, organizing and processing data from a wide variety of sources.
The program provides for development of map, globe, chart and graph skills in the context of all social science disciplines.
The program provides for the teaching of consistent application of the full range of thinking skills.
The program provides for application and analysis of problem-solving and decision-making skills.
The program provides for the development of effective reading comprehension in social studies.
The program organizes learning experiences so that students will learn how to continue to learn.
The program enables students to relate their experiences in social studies to other experiences.
The program helps students develop proficiency in selected methods of inquiry in the social sciences and in techniques for processing social data appropriate to student maturity level and citizen concerns.

To little or To .ome To peat

no extent extent

extent

Value. and Attitude.
The program fosters a reasoned commitment to the values that sustain a free society.
The program helps students develop an understanding that there are many sets of values rooted in experience and legitimate in terms of different cultures.
The program facilitates the growth of an adequate selfconcept.
The program encourages the development of each student's respect for and appreciation of the worth and dignity of every individual.
The program encourages a commitment to the process of learning as a lifetime activity.
The program includes activities which lead students to examine rationally values, attitudes and beliefs in an environment that respects each student's rights to privacy, yet encourages critical analysis of issues.
The program encourages the rational analysis of social issues.

To little or To .ome To peat

no extent extent

extent

112

Social Participation
The program develops understanding of the roles of individuals in decision-making processes.
The program develops knowledge of current public issues and skills for evaluating alternative choices in regard to these issues.
The program develops effective use of techniques of social action (e.g., how to influence political leaders, to generate community interest in crucial social problems, and to marshal support for desirable social objectives).
The program develops a sense of community and seeks to maintain and improve the community in all of its ramifications (social, cultural, political, economic and psychological) and at all levels (informal groupings, neighborhoods, local communities, regions, national and international).
Participation in the social world both in school and out is considered a part of the social studies program.

To little or To so.e To peat

no extent extent

extent

Resources
Printed materials accommodate a wide range of reading abilities and interests, meet the requirements of learning activities and include many kinds of material from primary as well as secondary sources, from social science and history as well as the humanities and related fields, from other nations and cultures as well as our own, from current as well as basic sources.
The social studies program provides many kinds of work spaces for variety in tasks, group size and the use of media.
Appropriate instructional materials, time and facilities are provided for social studies education.
Social studies instruction draws upon the potential contributions of many kinds of resource persons and organizations representing many points of view, a variety of abilities and a mix of cultures and nationalities.
A variety of media is available for learning through seeing, hearing, touching and acting.

To little or To so.e To peat

no extent extent

extent

113

Acdvitie.
Classroom activities use the school and community as a learning laboratory for gathering social data and for confronting knowledge and commitments in dealing with social problems.
Teachers are encouraged to try out and adapt promising innovations in instructional materials and procedures for their students.
Students have a wide and rich range of learning activities appropriate to the objectives of their social studies program.
Learning activities are sufficiently varied and flexible to appeal to many kinds of students.
Activities are carried on in a climate which supports students' self-respect and opens opportunities to all.
Activities include using knowledge, examining values, communicating with others and making decisions about social and civic affairs.
Students are encouraged to become participants in activities within their own communities.
Activities include formulating hypotheses and testing them by gathering and analyzing data.
Teachers participate regularly in activities which foster their professional competence in social studies education - in workshops and conferences, in-service classes, community affairs, reading, studying and travel.

To little or To .ome To peat no extent extent extent

114

Textbook Evaluation Criteria

Subject Title of Book Authors or Editors Copyright Date Single Text Designed for Advanced Evaluator

_ Publishers or

_

_

_

_

#inseries

....J/Regular _ _-,/Slow

_

_

Objectives
Are the objectives and competencies stated clearly? Do the objectives require students to use higher cognitive skills (analysis, synthesis, evaluation, etc.)? Do the objectives of the text compliment the goals and objectives of your course?

Check One

Poor -----.----------- Excellent

o1

2

3

4

5

Content
Is the subject matter geared to the needs, interests and abilities of the students using the material?
Does the pictorial and written content reflect the pluralistic, multiethnic nature of our society, past and present?
Are valid concepts and generalizations developed?
Are the historical, social, scientific or other events based on the latest knowledge and social data?
Can the material be used in conjunction with supplementary instructional media (films, simulations/games, filmstrips, tapes, etc.)?

o

1

2

3

4

5

o

1

2

3

4

5

115

SkID Develop.ent
Does the material encourage the use of skills such as problem-solving and decision-making? Does the material encourage the use of skills such as higher level thinking? Does the material emphasize fundamental skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening, computation, interpreting maps and globes)?
o.-.anization
Are the illustrations clear, accurate and appropriate? Will the glossary, footnotes, charts, maps, pictures and tests aid students and teachers in using the book effectively? To what extent can the teacher depart from the sequence of material without impairing its effectiveness?
Teacher R.-oarc..
Is a teacher's guide for text available? Is it practical? Are practical teaching suggestions and suitable social science background provided? Are suggestions for additional activities, large and small group and individual experiments provided? Are supplementary materials for rapid learners as well as for those with reading deficiencies included? Are diagnostic tests to discover specific weaknesses provided? Does the text have accompanying audiovisual aids such as records, filmstrips, films, tapes and overhead transparencies?
OweraU RatinB
How would you rank this textbook among those reviewed?

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Supplementary Materials Evaluation Checklist

Title Author or Developer Publisher and Address Date of Publication

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_ Cost

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Material Description

Subject area

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Type of media (Audiovisual aids, including tapes, films, pictures, records, filmstrips)

Supplementary reading materials

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Reading level (based on readability test or your judgment)

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Number of pages, time required to watch or listen

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Material Goals

What are the goals or objectives of the product?

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Does the material meet these goals?

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Material Evaluation Organization Clarity
Student motivation Ease of Use

Rate from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) Logical sequence Is scope sufficiently broad to justify time needed to use it well? Usefulness of teacher's guide

Recommendations

Should these materials be used in the social studies curriculum?

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In what social studies classes could it best be used?

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How much class time should be spent with this material?

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How would you grade this material's overall quality and usefulness in your class? (circle one)

EXCELLENT GOOD AVERAGE POOR NO GOOD

Please use this space for any further comments.

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Bibliography

Cuniculum Development
Barth, Robert D. andJamesL., and S. Shermis. Defining the Social Studies (NCSS Bulletin 51). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1977.
A bulletin tracing the current discussion of what social studies is, why it is in the schools and why effective social studies instruction has never been more important.
Becker, J.M., ed. Schooling for a Global Age. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1978.
Presents a rationale and recommendations for global education and includes chapters on elementary and secondary programs and curriculum planning.
Fraser, Dorothy M., ed. Social Studies Curriculum Development: Prospects and Problems (39th yearbook). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1969.
Emphasizes the inductive approach in an effort to aid teachers and curriculum builders using this approach.
Goalsfor the Social Studies: Towardthe Twenty-First Century. Journal of Research and Development, Volume 13. Athens: University of Georgia. (Write to College of Education, Dudley Hall, Athens 30602.)
Contains 12 articles tracing the changes in social studies curriculum and outlining goals for elementary and secondary social studies programs. Specific articles give attention to global perspective, values, decision-making, social participation, cross-cultural competency and the role of the social science disciplines.
Massialas, Byron G., and Zevin, Jack. Creative Encounters in the Classroom: Teaching Learning Through Discovery. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967.
A study in this book seeks to explore ways in which secondary students may be stimulated to plan their own learning and to conduct inquiries into crucial problems of society and the world.

McNeil, John D. Designing Curriculum: Self Instruction modules. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1976.
Containsfour modules written for teachers interested in what should be taught particular learners; it draws from a number of sources and is aimed at brevity and simplicity of teaching.
Morrissett, Irving. Concepts andStructure in theNew Social Science Curricula. Atlanta: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.
Offers materials and designs to make current and developing resources of social sciences available to elementary and secondary curricula. It fosters mutual understanding and collaboration between social scientists and educational specialists.
Muessig, Raymond H., ed.SocialStudiesCurriculum Improvement: A Guide for Local Committees, (Ness Bulletin 36). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1965.
Emphasizes improvement rather than the product; the role of the teacher is stressed, and the role and uses of external consultants are examined.
Muessig, R., ed. TheStudy and Teaching ofSocialScience Series. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill,
1980.
Each volume in this series consistsoftwo parts. The first describes the discipline, key ideas, principles, concepts and methodologies. The second is a discussion which provides illustrations for adapting these ideas and methodsto elementaryand secondary social studies.
Commager, H.S., and R.H. Muessig. The Study and Teaching of History.
Broek, J.O.M., and others. The Study and Teaching of Geography.
Warmke, R.F., and others. The Study and Teaching of Economics.
Straayer, J.A., and R.H. Muessig. The Study and Teaching of Political Science.
Kitchens, J.A., and R.H. Muessig. The Study and Teaching of Sociology.
Pelto, P., and R.H. Muessig. The Study and Teaching of Anthropology.

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National Council fortheSocial Studies Task Force on Curriculum GUidelines. Social Studies Curriculum GUidelines. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1971.
Contains recent developments in social studies, which NCSS says need to be carefully considered in building a social studies program. (Revision of the NCSS 1979 guidelines).
Remy, R.C. Handbook ojBasic Citizenship Competencies. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1980.
Presents guidelines for comparing materials, assessing instruction and setting curriculum goals for citizenship competencies. Specific suggestions are grouped by grades K-3, 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12. A good reference inthe early stages ofcurriculum assessment, development or revision.
Shaver,James P., ed.BuildingRationalesJorCitizenship Education (Ness Bulletin 52). Washington: National Council for the SOCial Studies, 1977.
Focuses on the search for an appropriate rationale for citizenship education and seeks to reexamine the assumptions underlying curricular and teaching decisions about citizenship education.
Social Studies Curriculum Materials Data Book. Boulder, Colo.: Social Science Education Consortium, Inc. (The Data Book is kept current bysupplements published twice a year.)
Provides analyses of curriculum materials to aid teachers, administrators, curriculumcoordinators and college methodsteachersto selectappropriate materials.
Objectives
Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy ojEducational Objectives: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1956.
Provides for classification of educational goals. Through reference to the taxonomy as a set of standard classifications, teachers and educational leaders should be able to discuss problems of curriculum and evaluation with great precision.
Burns, Richard W. New Approach to Behavioral Objectives. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, 1972.
Designed to assist teachers, schooi adminis-

trators and educators at all levels in acquiring skills needed in writing and evaluating objectives.
Flanagan, John c., Shanner, William H. and Mager,
Robert E. Social Studies Behavioral Objectives. Palo Alto, Calif.: Westinghouse Learning Press, 1971. Presents a-list of instructional objectives written in behavioral terms. They are suggested as a basis lfor school systems to evaluate, revise or modify a set of educational outcomes for students.
Krathwohl, David R.; Bloom, Benjamin S.; and Masia, Bertram B. Taxonomy oj Educational Objectives: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Company, 1964.
Represents an advance in this field and calls attention to the problem of affective terminology. It should facilitate research and thinking on these problems.
Mager, Robert F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Belmont, Calif.: Pearson Publishing Company, 1962.
Designed to help teachers and others learn to state instructional objectives in behavioral terms.
Popham, W. James, and Baker, Eva L. Establishing Instructional Goals: Planning an Instructional Sequence. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1970.
A collection of five self-instruction programs designed to be completed by the reader. It deals with various aspects of instruction and provides a set of tangible competencies that can be used by teachers making instructional decisions.
Vargas, Julie S. Writing Worthwhile Behavioral Objectives. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1972.
Designed to help teachers write behaviorallystated teaching objectives that will increase the value ofcourses and their relevance to everyday life.
Learning Objectives Jor Individualized Instruction. New York: Westinghouse Learning Press, 1975.
A collection of objectives drawn from each of the social sciences. Objectives are keyed to the levels oflearning objectives defined by Bloom in Taxonomy ojEducation Objectives: CognitIve Domain.

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Skills
Carpenter, Helen McCracken, ed. Skill Development in Social Studies (33rd NCSS yearbook). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1963.
A thorough treatment of the development of social studies skills. This is a highly practical book which offers usable guidelines and suggestions to aid the teacher.
Chapin. June R.. and Gross. Richard E. Teaching Social Studies Skills. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 1973.
Focuses on a critical evaluation of learning skills and competencies. It provides an approach to social studies education applicable to all models. designs and programs.
Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education.
Helps curriculum developers design effective instructional programs to insure that students demonstrate skills in subject areas.
Fair, Jean and Shaftel. Fannie R. Effective Thinking. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies. 1967.
Introduces teachers to ideas and models for effective thinking and learning.
Harris, Ruby M. The Rand McNally Handbook of Map and Globe Usage. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1967.
Indicates the kind of maps and globes appropriate for each level. establishes goals for learning and suggest techniques that may be used with standard maps and globes.
How To Do It Series. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies.
Provides a practical and useful source of classroom methods and techniques for elementary and secondary social studies teachers.
Kranyik, Robert and Shankman, Florence V. How to Teach Study Skills. Englewood Cliffs: N.J.: Teachers Practical Press (A Division of PrenticeHall, Inc.). 1963.
Contains a comprehensive study skills program spanning both the elementary and secondary schools. Show how to practice skills with mate-

rials of increasing difficulty.
Kurfman. Dana G., ed. Developing DecisionMaking Skills (tflth NCSS Yearbook). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies. 1977.
Shows how decision making incorporates thinking. information gathering, group process and social action skills. and examines some of the curricular and instructional implications of the process.
Larkin. Myrtle S. How to Use Oral Reports (How To Do It Series No. 10). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies.
Litchen. Ruth E. How to Use Group Discussion (How To Do It Series No.6). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies.
Raths. L. E.. S. Wassermann. A. Jonas. and A. Rathstein. Teaching for Thinking: Theory and Application. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Co. 1967.
Presents theoretical information about thinking operations along with specific applications for developing thinking skills in students, both poor and proficient in reading.
Sund, R. B., and Carin. A. Creative Questioning and Sensitive Listening Techniques. Columbus. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Co., 1978.
Focuses on better communication through the development of listening and questioning skills.
Attitudes and Values
Barr, Robert D., ed. Values and Youth. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1971.
This book focuses on the value dilemmas that clog our life and society; but, more to the point, it confronts the problem of what to do about value conflicts in the social studies classroom.
Fraenkel. J. R. How to Teach About Values: An Analytic Approach. Englewood Cliffs: N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.
The explanations in this book are based on the belief that being able to identify. analyze and as-

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sess alternative policies and procedures along with their consequences. intelligently. is an important ability for all people to possess. The ideas and strategies presented. therefore. are based on the assumption that a continuing analysis and assessment of alternatives in schools can help to develop this ability.
Galbraith. Ronald E.. and Jones. Thomas M. Moral Reasoning: A Teaching Handbook for Adapting Kohlberg to the Classroom. Minneapolis: Greenhaven Press. 1976.
Introduces the Kohlberg theory. provides samples of student curriculum materials and presents a specific teaching process for those who wish to consider social and moral issues in a school setting.
Hawley. R. c.. and Hawley. I. L. Human Values in
the Classroom: A Handbook for Teachers. New York: Hart Publishing Co., 1975.
The emphasis is on teaching concerns. These include achievement. motivation. community building, fostering open communication and information seeking. gathering and sharing.
Mattox. B. A. Getting It Together: Dilemmas for the Classroom Based on Kohlberg's Approach. San Diego: Pennant Press. 1975.
The author explains Kohlberg's approach to moral development and presents actual dilemmas which may be used in the classroom.
Metcalf, Lawrence E., ed. Values Education. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1971.
This NCSS yearbook attempts to help teachers with their problems in values education - elementary, junior high, high school and college teachers. This book attempts to develop a rationale. and illustrate strategies and procedures for teaching values.
Raths, Louis E. Harmin, Merrill and Simon. Sidney B. Values and Teaching. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1978.
The authors describe a theory of values clarification and provide detailed processes of classroom implementation and management. Many classroom strategies applicable across grade levels are included.

Scherer, D. Personal Values and Environmental Issues: A Handbook of Strategies Related to Issues of Pollution, Energy, Food, Population, and Land Use. New York: Hart Publishing Co. 1978.
This handbook includes many valuing activities along with the environmental issues identified in the title.
Shaver, J. P., and Strong, W. Facing Value Decisions: Rationale-Building for Teachers. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1976.
The authors show how we cannot escape teaching values in schools. and then they challenge educators to rationally develop their positions on the matter. They layout their approach to dealing with values in a democratic context and critique two other popular approaches - values clarification and the "moral stages" approach.
Simon, Sidney B., Howe, Leland W. and Kirschenbaum, Howard. Values Clarification. New York: Hart Publishing Company. 1972.
This book is designed to engage students and teachers in the active formulation and examination of values. The goal is to involve students in practical experiences, making them aware of their own feelings, their own ideas, their own beliefs, so that the choices and decisions they make are conscious and deliberate, based on their own value systems.
Social Participation
Gerlach. Ronald A. and Lamprecht, Lynnette W. Teaching About the Law. Cincinnati: W. H. Anderson. 1975.
This book states that law studies instruction should be used as a means to teach children about their society and its values; to encourage students to think critically and rationally about societal problems and conflicts; to break down popular misconceptions and stereotypes, and encourage students to participate in, and contribute to their society. Massialas. B. G., Sprague, N. F., and Hurst, J. B. Social Issues Through Inquiry: Coping in an Age of Crisis. Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
This book explains the whys and hows of social inquiry. Sections on evaluating social inquiry in the classroom are included.

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NASSPBulletin, Volume 58, #385. Reston, Virginia: National Association of Secondary School Principals. November, 1974.
This bulletin features primarily a number of major documents about action-learning elements in the secondary school program. The documents stress some of the major problems in the field of action-learning and propose leadership strategies that would give action-learning a place in the instructional program.
Forty Projects by Groups oj Kids. New York: National Commission on Resources for Youth.
New RolesJor Youth in the School and Communinity. !'Jew York: National Commission on Resources for Youth. Citation Press, 1974.
Resources for Youth (newsletter). National Commission on Resources for Youth.
Youth Into Adult (Nine Selected Youth Participation Programs). New York: National Commission on Resources for Youth.
How to Utilize Community Resources (How To Do It Series No. 13). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies.
Many programs currently emphasize social participation for students. Several such as the following are supporting social participation programs, sometimes called Action-Learning.
National Commission on Resources for Youth 36 West 44th Street New York: 10036
National Association of Secondary School Principals
1904 Association Drive Reston, Va.: 22091
Center for Youth Development and Research 301 Walter Library Minneapolis, Minn.: 55455
Community Resources, Limited P. O. Box 174 Ann Arbor, Mich.: 48108
ACTION 906 Connecticut Avenue NW Washington, D.C. 20525

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
1701 K Street NW Washington, D.C. 20006
National Council for the Social Studies 1201 Sixteenth Street NW Washington, D.C. 20036
Evaluation
Anderson, Howard R., and Lindquist, E.F. Selected Test Items in American History (NCSS Bulletin 6). Revised by Harriet Stull, Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1964.
Provides carefully prepared test materials which measure how much students understand history subject matter.
Anderson, Howard R., and Linquist, E.F. Selected Test Items in World History (NCSS Bulletin 9). Revised by David K. Heenan. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1960.
Supplies prepared test materials which may be used in directing study efforts, conducting class discussion and testing the student understanding. The bulletin is also designed to help develop effective informal drill and test exercises.
Beatty, Walcott, ed. Improving Educational Assessment: An Inventory oj Measures oj Affective Behavior. Washington: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1969.
Includes assessment ideas, explores the theory of educational assessment, discusses problems and means for coping with problems of assessment and reviews existing instruments in the area of self concept.
Berg, Harry D. Evaluation in Social Studies (35th NCSS yearbook). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1965.
A helpful approach to the improvement of the evaluation process. It includes units on objective and essay tests as well as philosophical problems of evaluation.

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Bloom, Benjamin S., Hastings, J. Thomas, and Madaus, George F. Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1971.
Includes the best general evaluation techniques as well as specific techniques for the major disciplines and levels of education.
Kurfman, Dana, ed. Teacher-Made Test Items In American History: Emphasis Junior High School (NCSS Bulletin 40). Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1968.
Provide a basis for grading students, diagnosing student strengths and weaknesses and evaluating the effectiveness of instructional procedures and materials. Testitems measure substantive understandings as well as interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and application.
Green, John A. Teacher-Made Tests. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1963.

Presents newer concepts with reference to such terms as summative and formative evaluation, criterion-referenced grading, etc.
Gronlund, Norman E. Determining Accountability for Classroom Instruction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1974.
A practical guide to help teachers understand accountability, more effectively participate in shaping its policies and procedures and fulfill their responsibilities in an accountability program.
Morse, Horace T., and McCune, George H. Selected Items for the Testing of Study Skills and Critical Thinking. (NCSS Bulletin 15). Revised by Lester E. Brown and Ellen Cook. Washington: National Council for the Social Studies, 1971.
Correlates critical thinking and study skills to immediate classroom situations. Gives practical suggestions and sample materials to help teachers translate these goals into actual operation.

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Teaching Strategies
(Secondary)
Association of Teachers of Social Studies in the City of New York. A Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1977.
Contains standard updated suggestions on planning and organizing instruction. It includes chapters on questioning. independent study. simulation activities. reading skills. and testing.
Banks. J.A. Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1975.
The author presents background information about practically every ethnic group in America along with learning activities and suggested readings for teachers and students at all grade levels.
Banks. James and Gregg. Ambrose. Teaching Strategies for the Social Studies. Reading. Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.. 1977.
Expounds the theory that decision-making consists of a set of interrelated skills that can be identified and systematically taught. It also assumes that people can both identify and clarify their values. and that they can be trained to reflect on problems before taking action to resolve them.
Beyer. Barry K. Inquiry in the Social Studies. Columbus. Ohio. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. 1971.
Beyer. B. Teaching Thinking in Social Studies (revised edition) Columbus. Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1979.
A revised and expanded edition of Inquiry in the Social Studies. It discusses the nature of inquiry. proposes a strategy for inquiry teaching. provides illustrations for teaching concepts. thinking skills. values and reading and writing through inquiry approaches. It also includes a section on developing curriculum using inquiry approaches.
Cartwright. William H. and Watson. Richard L.. Jr.. ed. The Reinterpretation of American History and Culture. Washington. D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies. 1973.
Any teacher of social studies should find the content extensive bibliographies in this book extremely useful. It is designed as a resource for teachers as they struggle with the task of making every person his own historian.

Ehman. Lee. Mehlinger. Howard and Patrick, John. Toward Effective Instruction in Secondary Social Studies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1974.
Designed to help social studies teachers develop a competency-based approach to instruction. Attention is given to development of clear. measurable statements of instructional objectives and to the development of a valid and reliable system of evaluation of these objectives. It outlines systematic instructional procedures which use the inquiry approach.
Fenton. Edwin. Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1966.
This text serves as a model of inductive teaching. It is concerned with the why. the how and the what of teaching social studies and contains articles by outstanding educators.
Fraenkel, Jack R. Helping Students Think and Values: Strategies for Teaching the Social Studies. Englewood Cliffs. N.J.. Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Written for prospective social studies teachers and for inservice with practicing social studies teachers. It deals with a number of questions important to social studies education. such as What are students to learn? What kinds of information should students study? What kinds of activities can help students learn?
Gilliom. M. Eugene and others. Practical Methods for the Social Studies. Belmont. Calif: Woodsworth Publishing Company. 1977.
An excellent book that describes and illustrates how teachers can use inquiry methodology on a day to day basis. Chapters are devoted to case studies. simulations. local community studies. using quantitative data. values. media and resources.
Herlihy. John G. and Herlihy. Myra. Main-streaming in the Social Studies. Washington. DC.: National Council for the Social Studies. 1980.
This bulletin is intended to give social studies teachers practical help. but even with this book mainstreaming will not be easy. However. the advice it gives is sound.
How to Do It Notebook Series 2. Arlington. Va.: National Council for the Social Studies. 1977.
Designed for a loose-leaf binder. this material provides a practical and useful source of classroom techniques for elementary and secondary

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teachers. Titles available in Series 2 include: "Improving Reading Skills in Social Studies." "Effective Use of Films in Social Studies" and "Reach for a Picture."
Kownslar, Allan O. Teaching American History: The Questfor Relevancy, 44th Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1974.
This yearbook is a practical guide to inquiry teaching of American history with sample lessons and student materials on big ideas, developing empathy, dealing with myths and coping with issues.
Lee, John R., Ellenwood, Stephen E., and Little, Timothy H. Teaching Social Studies in the Secondary School. New York: Collier MacMillan Publishers, 1973.
Reflects the authors' beliefs about the need for variety and depth in the uses of theory, practices and materials in secondary social studies. It offers a set of examples of ideas and methods used in the classroom. It suggests activities and materials.
Leinward, Gerald. Teaching of World History. Bulletin No. 54. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1978.
This bulletin provides an overview of how to organize and teach world history. It includes useful sections on aims and objectives, curriculum patterns, Socratic method, use of resources, skills development, reading, writing and discussing and a suggested outline for a one year course.
Martorella, Peter H. Concept Learning in the Social Studies. Scranton, Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company, 1971.
This book assumes that efficient methods for teaching concepts should be different from those used for teaching other things. The author discusses the nature of concepts, clarification, some implications of the assumption, including research findings and alternative m'odels of instruction, and some conclusions concerning the process of organizing instruction.
c., Merwin, William Schneider, Donald O. and
Stephens, Lester C. Developing Competency in Teaching Secondary School Social Studies. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1974.
A series of five self-instruction modules dealing with cognitive learning objectives, questioning

and discussion, affective learning - approaches to and procedures for values instruction, planning, and evaluating student achievement.
Newmann, Fred M. and Oliver, Donald W. Clarifying Public Controversy: an Approcah to Teaching Social Studies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970.
Presents an approach to teaching social controversies through case studies. The authors' purpose is to explain how to stimulate rational discussion of public controversies in the classroom.
Patton, William E. Improving the Use of the Social Studies' Textbooks. Washington D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1980.
Designed to show how to update the dated textbook, strengthen reading comprehension, study pictures, correct ethnic and sex stereotypes and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of today's textbooks. A special bibliography is provided to encourage additional study and research.
Ryan, F.L., and A.K. Ellis. Instructional Implications of InqUiry. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1974.
Gives step-by-step analysis of an inquiry approach to instruction along with many practical ideas for developing the skills and attitudes within each phase of inquiry.
Sanders, Norris M. Classroom Questions: What Kinds? New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
This book should be of great assistance to those who make and ask classroom questions. Even more important, it should help students develop more effective and diversified thinking.
Stephens, Lester. Probing the Past: A Guide to the Study and Teaching of History. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1974.
Provides a broad selection of suggested instructional plans, materials and group discussion ideas as well as procedures and suggestions for grading, testing and evaluating student performance. Emphasis is on student thinking and interpretation of data.
Ubblohde, Carl and Fraenkel, Jack R., ed. Values of the American Heritage: Challenges, Case Studies and Teaching Strategies. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1976.
This Bicentennial Book includes ways to teach about American society by exploring the con-

126

cepts and assumptions of the Revolutionary generations. Case studies show how the values of the era fared in the real world.
Weigand, James E., ed. Developing Teacher Competencies. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Offers practical classroom strategies for the prospective or in-service teacher. The clear samples and illustrative exercises make it possible to evaluate abilities and progress.
Wisniewski, Richard, ed. Teaching About Life in the City. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1972.
This yearbook furthers understanding of the present difficulties and the possibilities for a better future in the cities. It offers concrete ways in which teaching about life in the city can be strengthened.
Instructional Television Schedule for Georgia Educational Television Network, Except WVAN-TV, Channel 9. An update is mailed monthly to school systems in the reception area for distribution to media specialists. Instructional Resources Unit, Georgia Department of Education, 1540 Stewart Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30310.
Instructional Television Schedule for WVAN-TV, Channel 9. An update is mailed monthly to school systems in the reception area for distribution to media specialists. Instructional Resources Unit, Georgia Department of Education, 1540 Stewart Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30310.
Resources from Instructional Media Services
Catalogs and broadcast schedules of resources distributed by Instructional Media Services of the Georgia Department of Education can be obtained from school media centers or through System Media Contact Persons.
Catalog of Classroom Teaching Films for Georgia Schools and supplements. Available through a subscription service. Audiovisual Services, Georgia Department of Education, 1066 Sylvan Road SW, Atlanta 30310.
Catalog of Classroom Teaching Tapes for Georgia Schools and supplements. Available through registration. Audiovisual Services, Georgia De-

partment of Education, 1066 Sylvan Road SW, Atlanta 30310.
Instructional Television Schedule for Georgia Educational Television Network, Except WVAN-N, Channel 9. An update is mailed monthly to school systems in the reception area for distribution to media specialists. Instructional Resources Unit, Georgia Department of Education, 1540 Stewart Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30310.
Instructional Television Schedule for WVAN-N, Channel 9. An update is mailed monthly to school systems in the reception area for distribution to media specialists. Instructional Resources Unit, Georgia Department of Education, 1540 Stewart Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30310.
Free and Inexpensive Materials
Aubrey, Rich H. Selected Free Materials for Classroom Teachers. Palo Alto, Calif.: Fearson Publications.
A carefully screened, annotated listing of the best free materials offered, organized by curriculum topics.
Catalog of Free Teaching Materials P. O. Box 1075 Ventura, Calif.: 93003
Educators Guide to Free Films. Randolph, Wise.: Educators Progress Service.
Gives titles, description, size, sound or silent, date of release, running time, if cleared for 1V and distributor. Indexed by title, subject, source and availability.
Educators Guide to Free Filmstrips. Randolph, Wise.: Educators Progress Service, 1974.
Silent filmstrips, sound filmstrips and set of slides and transparencies arranged alphabetically under broad subjects. Annotation, form and source are given. Title, subject and source indexes are included.
Educators Guide to Free Tapes, Script, Transcriptions. Randolph, Wise.: Educators Progress Service.

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Includes 15 broad areas from aerospace to social studies and annotations for each title. Indexed by titles, subject, source and availability.
Elementary Teachers Guide to Free Curriculum Materials, edited by Patricia Suttles. Randolph, Wise.: Educators Progress Service.
Contains maps, bulletins, pamphlets, exhibits, charts, magazines and books selected on the basis of educational appropriateness, timeliness, arrangement, style and suitability. Indexed by title, subject and source.
Free and Inexpensive Learning Materials, Nashville, Tenn.: Division of Surveys and Field Services, Peabody College, 1976.
Maps, posters, pictures, charts, pamphlets and other educational aids listed alphabetically under subject headings. Each entry cites title, source and address, price and order information plus a brief description. An index to specific topics is also included.
Free Learning Materials for Classroom Use State College Extension Service Cedar Falls, Iowa 50613
Where To Find It Guide. New York: Scholastic Magazines, Inc. (Guide appears annually in the autumn issue of Scholastic Magazine.)
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. (Many GPO publications pertain to social studies. Request to be put on the mailing list to receive notice of their new publications.)
Organizations and Publications
African-American Institute (AAI). Teaching African Geography from a Global Perspective and minimodules for teaching about Africa.
Resource packets, case studies, bibliographies, lesson plans and many other materials are available. African-American Institute (AAI), Social Services Division, 833 United Nations Plaza, New York 10017.

Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. ADL Bulletin.
Operates through a national office in New York City and 28 regional offices. Publishes the ADL Bulletin and many works on contemporary problems. Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 315 Lexington Avenue, New York 10016.
American Field Service. School Advisor's Handbook (Free) and Global Village Conversation (50 cents).
Information about international student exchanges for educational improvement. American Field Service, International Scholarships, 313 East 43rd Street, New York 10017.
The Asia Society, Educational Resources/Asian Literature Programs, 112 East 64th Street, New York 10021.
Focuses on the improvement of instruction about Asia. Publications include bibliographic essays and translations of Asian literature.
American Universities Field Staff. (AUFS). 535 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. and 3 Lebanon Street, Hanover, N. Y. 03755.
AUFS, a nonprofit, membership corporation of a group of American educational institutions, employs a full-time staff of foreign area specialists. A list of its publications includes field staff reports, collections of readings, research studies, bibliographies.
Center for Global Perspectives, Intercom, 218 East 18th Street, New York 10003.
Makes available information on materials dealing with international war, peace, conflict and change. Intercom is published three to five times each year to introduce global problems into the classroom. Each issue can be used for up to 10 classroom periods.
Center for International Programs and Comparative Studies, New York Education Department, 99 Washington Avenue, Albany, N.Y. 12230.
A service for teachers in New York; however, its publications are generally available, including publications in foreign studies, South Asian Studies and war-peace studies.
Foreign Policy Association, 345 East 46th Street, New York 10017.

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Offers teacher resources and suggestions for classroom activities on major foreign policy issues. The materials (grade levels 9-12) are open-ended and can be used in a flexible manner.
Georgia Council for the Social Studies. Dudley Hall. University of Georgia. Athens 30602. Georgia Social Science Journal.
The journal is published three times a year. The Council also publishes the News and Notes newsletter and holds a statewide annual conference.
Georgia Council of Economic Education. 30 Pryor Street, Suite 940, Atlanta 30303.
Holds inservice workshops for teachers on economic education. The Council operates 10 regional centers across the state and has a library of economic materials including audiovisuals on all levels.
Georgia Department of Archives and History, 330 Capitol Avenue SE, Atlanta 30334.
A public agency housing an extensive collection of records documenting Georgia's history. All teachers of Georgia history should inquire about the list of publications, tours and the Discovery Program available to students and teachers.
Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 270 Washington Street SW, Atlanta 30334.
The best source of information about state parks. memorials and historic sites.
Georgia Department of Transportation, 2 Capitol Square, Atlanta 30334.
A good source for detailed county and state maps of Georgia.
Institute of Government, 203 Terrell Hall. University of Georgia, Athens 30602. A research and service organization of the University studying Georgia's state and local government. Publications include a handbook, textbooks, audiovisual and other materials. A free newsletter on Georgia Government is available to teachers. The Institute also works with local school systems in conducting staff development workshops and other curriculum areas.
Institute for World Order. 1140 Avenue ofthe Americas, New York 10036.

Develops curriculum materials on human rights. especially problems of ethnic minorities.
Checklist. The Joint Council on Economic Education, 1212 Avenue of the Americas, New York 10036.
An organization formed to encourage, improve. coordinate and serve economic education. Checklist contains a list of council publications. Materials include resource units. student activity books and teacher's guides that are social studies supplements.
League of Women Voters of the United States, 1703 M Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20036.
The League of Women Voters promotes active participation of citizens in government. Publications are available at a nominal cost.
National Council for Geographic Education, Journal of Geography, 115 North Marion Street. Oak Park, Ill. 60301.
Published seven times a year for teachers of elementary, secondary and college geography.
National Council for the Social Studies, Social Education. 3615 Wisconsin Avenue NW. Washington, D.C. 20016.
This major professional organization for social studies educators holds an annual meeting as well as regional meetings for social studies teachers. Social Education is its major publication. Also it publishes curriculum guidelines, position statements and bulletins on timely topics in the field.
National Education Association, Customer Service Section, 1201 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, D.C.
Many materials are published applicable to the social studies.
National Geographic Education Services, National Geographic School Bulletin, National Geographic Society, Post Office Box 1640. Washington, D.C. 20013.
Catalog includes listing of films, filmstrips, books, maps and records. The bulletin is written for students 8 through 14 years of age.

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Population Institute, Population Issues, Population and Human Development: A Course Curriculum Including Lesson Plans, Activities and Bibliography, 110 Maryland Avenue NE, Washington, D.C. 20036.
Population Institute, State Capitol, Atlanta 30334.
A curriculum packet on history and Georgia's government is available.
Simulation Gaming News, Box 8899, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif. 94305.
Bi-monthly newspaper on the latest ideas in simulation gaming, includes several complete games in every issue.
Social Issues Resources Series, Inc. (SIRS), P.O. Box 2507, Boca Raton, Fla. 33432.
A research agency for educators and students on vital problems of our society. They research articles from newspapers, magazines, government publications and journals which are well suited for classroom and library use.
Social Science Education Consortium Publications, Data Book, 855 Broadway, Boulder, Colo. 80302.

Provides assistance in the identification and selection of new materials for all phases of curriculum development. SSEC also publishes a newsletter and a catalog.
Social Studies School Service, Catalog, 10,000 Culver Boulevard, Culver City, Calif. 90230.
Catalog lists maps, games, posters, records, cassettes, photo aids, visual aids, paperbacks, simulations, transparencies, duplicating books and multimedia programs drawn from many publishers.
State Chamber of Commerce, 1200 Commerce Building, Atlanta 30335.
The publication, Georgia An Educational Presentation, is a good source of information on current trends in Georgia; dealing with such factors as population, trade and industry and resources. Check the yellow pages of local phone directories for city or regional Chamber of Commerce.
U.S. Committee for UNICEF, 331 East 38th Street, New York 10016.
Supplies brochures and booklets which focus on the lives of children in faraway lands.

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Federal law prohibits discrimination on the basis ofrace, color or national origin (Title VI ofthe Civil Rights Acts 011964); sex (Title IX 01 the Educational Amendments of 1972 and Title II 01 the Vocational Education Amendments 011976); or handicap (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act 011973) In educational programs or activities receiving lederallinanclal assistance.
Employees, students and the general public are hereby notilied that the Georgia Department 01 Education does not discriminate In any educational programs or activities or in employment policies.
The lollowing Individuals have been designated as the employees responsible lor coordinating the department's eUort to Implement this nondiscriminatory policy.
Title II-Ann Lary, Vocational Equity Coordinator Title VI-Peyton Williams Jr., Associate Superintendent 01 State Schools and Special Services Title IX-Myra Tolbert, Coordinator Section 504-Jane Lee, Coordinator 01 Special Education
Inquiries concerning the application of Title II, Title VI, Title IX or Section 504 to the policies and practices 01 the department may be addressed to the persons listed above at the Georgia Department 01Education, Atlanta 30334; to the Regional Office lor Civil Rights, Atlanta 30323; or to the Director, OUlce lor Civil Rights, Education Department, Washington, D.C. 20201.

Division of Curriculum Services Office of Instructional Services Georgia Department of Education Adanta, Georgia 30334 Charles 'McDaniel State Superintendent of Schools 1983