Teaching science in elementary schools: an in-service ETV series for teachers, with Dr. W. B. Baker [1965]

TEACHING SCIENCE IN
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
An In-service ElV Series For Teachers with Dr. W. B. Baker

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presented by: Ga. State Dept. of Education

produced by: Ga. Educational Television Network

FOREWORD
It is with a great deal of pride that we are able to bring to you by means of television this very comprehensive series on TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL taught by an outstanding personality in the field of science, Dr. W. B. Baker of Emory University. Dr. Baker is recognized and respected as one of the best teachers in his field. He has been associated with Emory University for many years in the Biology Department. He taught one of the first science series ever produced for educational television. We feel that teachers of Georgia are very fortunate in having this series made available over the Georgia Educational Television Network as one of the in-service programs.
We hope that you will find these programs helpful in providing for a better instructional program in science for your pupils. Please let us know if you have any suggestions for improving our ETV services. We will be glad to arrange for our consultants to visit your school and work with teacher groups in any of the ETV subject matter areas.
Claude Purcell State Superintendent of Schools

HANDBOOK FOR 1'EACHERS
ETV In-Service Program for Elementary Science
Prepared by W. B. Baker - Emory University
I. To the Teacher
Our experiences for several years in the use of television as a means of giving in-service training to teachers of science has demonstrated that this medium of communication is one of the best at our disposal, provided certain basic facts are kept in mind regarding the use of the programs.
1. They are not designed to supplant the direct teaching in your classes.
2. They cannot be expected to give you a complete coverage of all science. They do, however, attempt to show the relationspip between the different scientific disciplines.
3. They should be used in connection with the classroom lessons presented by the ETV teachers.
4. You must consider yourself the key member of a team--the in-service teachers, the television classroom teachers, and the visiting consultants--whose combined effort is to enrich your direct teaching, to provide supplementary material for classroom experiences, and to make science a challenging and exciting adventure for the student.
In no case should the programs diminish your initiative and creativity. The course guides should be used to complement your own program. The suggestions made are not to be followed slavishly but rather to serve as guides in developing your own teaching plans.
Since the entire science program in the state is based on the science guides (l957--revised in 1964) it is necessary for you to have copies available as you view each telecast.
The environment chart as published in the revised guides is an attempt to show the interrelationship between the different scientific disciplines as well as how they can be brought together in a meaningful synthesis.
It should be noted that the broad generalizations on the environment chart form the basis for the development of the Scope and Sequence Chart. Each principle as listed on the Scope and Sequence Chart is essentially the outcome desired for specific activities on the part of the pupils. careful attention should be given to the instructions for the use of the chart as given on page 4 of the guides.
At the end of this teaching manual, you will find some self-evaluation sheets. They are designed to give you an outline of the procedures used
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in effective science teaching. Critically analyze your own procedures and give yourself an evaluation measured by the criteria suggested.
A brief outline for the content of each telecast is included under the topic listed. Appendix III (pages 123-141, Vol. I) of the Revised Science Guide gives an outline of the subject matter for the different areas of science. These should be read carefully in connection with the telecasts as the different subjects are discussed on the programs.
II. The Television Program as Related to the Georgia Science Curriculum
1. The curriculum for elementary science as developed for Georgia schools is based on the assumption that a child views his environment as an entity and not in terms of the different disciplines. The principles of science presented in the Scope and Sequence Chart are grade placed by experienced teachers and are listed under nine categories. A principle selected for detailed study within any category can be related horizontally to principles in each of the other categories at the particular grade level.
The telecast programs are designed to show the teachers specifically how this interrelationship can be demonstrated. In order to show synthesis between the principles in the different disciplines, the program for the year is designed to cover basic subject matter of the physical and biological sciences and also emphasize man's use and control of the basic facts as they relate to conservation, health, safety, and technological advances.
Five broad objectives are set for the series of telecasts:
1) To present the meaning of science, the methods of science, the relation of science to the curriculum as a whole, the part science is playing in modern life and how the Georgia science curriculum guides are to be used.
2) To present subject matter in the various disciplines of science in order to give the elementary teacher greater competence.
3) To demonstrate the presentation of specific materials for teaching elementary science in order to give the teacher skills in their use in the classroom.
4) To show that science experiences can be found in the immediate environment of the child, and that his native curiosity about things around him will stimulate a spirit of inquiry.
5) To provide material and suggestions which can form the background for local and regional in-service workshops.
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The telecasts will be distributed approximately as follows:

1) Perspective and methods of science

5

2) Earth science and astronomy

6

3) Physical sciences

6

4) Biological sciences

6

5) Conservation, Health, and Safety

2

25

III. Suggested Activities for Planning a Science Program in Your Local Environment
1. Prepare a map of your campus or sane readily accessible area, locating all objects and areas which are usually noticed by children: treesshrubs - eroded banks - piles of rocks - bird baths - feeding station, etc.
2. Select from the area with which the children are familiar some objects or phenomena around which a science unit may be developed.
3. Using the outline of the problem-solving technic as found in your guides, prepare a teaching unit for your classroom.
4. Discuss superstitions with your students and prepare lists of specific ones which they have heard. On what evidence is each superstition based? Could you test the evidence scientifically?
5. Make a scrapbook of current ads in magazines, newspapers, on radio and television--critically examine the claims made for the products and analyze the validity of the evidence on which the claims are based.
6. Use Appendix III of the Science Guides as an outline of the subject matter in the different areas of science.
7. Make use of as many competent resource people in your community as possible.
8. Be alert to use local activities which are dependent upon the principles of science, such as construction work, road building, agriculture, mining, lumbering, etc.
9. Consult standard texts on both physical and biological sciences which you will find in your library. Make full use of your encyclopedias for background material. Make sure the children learn how to consult reference materials in doing their science work.

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10. Consult the current periodicals available in your library, with particular emphasis on those listed and starred in Appendix I of the Science Guides.
11. Encourage the children to utilize a bulletin board for recording current scientific events.
12. Encourage the children to consult different references on any subject rather than confine themselves to one text or one reference source.
IV. This series of telecasts is designed to help you in making your teaching of science more interesting and stimulating for the students and more rewarding for you. As a part of the overall program, special guides have been written by the television teachers whose programs are presented to the classrooms: Science and You - Annie Frances Flanagan How Do We Know? - Don Singletary Speaking of Science - Clara Howell and Max Wilson These volumes are available to all elementary school teachers and are referred to as a means of implementing the material presented in this series of telecasts for teachers. Be sure to have the guides available so that effective correlation can be made.
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WHY TEACH SCIENCE?
(From Progress Report of Science-Mathematics Committee of Georgia Teacher Education Council, 1951)
1. All the people of a democracy need to study science.
They have certain needs which science alone can fill. A free people can remain free if, and only if, they are self-disciplined, moral citizens. Those who believe in superstitions, astrology, and unfounded opinions cannot be free. Those who have warped, twisted, inaccurate concepts cannot be self-disciplined ethical citizens. To be free means to be free of prejudice.
2. Science may be utilized to develop more desirable social attitudes.
The person who has the scientific attitude and uses the method of science in self-controlled objective study of the world about him is rarely prejudiced against others. True scientists have no prejudice in studying other races, minority groups, labor, capital, or any of man's living, sacial or economic problems. Science is international in scope. Physical and biological forces do not recognize national borders. The winds that blow through Georgia's pines may be due to atmospheric conditions in Canada. A disease in one country may become the concern of all peoples.
3. Subject matter mastery in science cannot be justified as the aim of science education.
Man's behavior is not directed by knowledge alone. His attitudes, habits of thinking, and his goals direct his behavior. The facts discovered by scientists concerning the nature of the universe and of man are the bases for many fundamental concepts. These concepts have made it possible for man to gain increasing control of his environment. They have also altered man's thinking about religion, education, economics, government, and more recently, his basic philosophy.
4. The concept of time of primitive man is totally inadequate for understanding the universe and this world in which we live.
It is important for man to believe that the conditions necessary to life can continue for many ages to come rather than to anticipate its destruction by some great catastrophe within his lifetime. It is important from the standpoints of individual happiness and all social planning.
5. The building of concepts is never completed quickly.
Memorization of definitions does not give one meaningful concepts.
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Why Teach Science? Concepts grow with experience. For this reason the concepts of time, of change, of space, of the great variety of animate and inanimate things, of heredity and adaptation, and of the interrelationships of the materials and forces of nature need to be enlarged and enriched through many experiences over many years. 6. Schools should take advantage of the young child's desire to explore, to investigate, to find out about his world, to help him build valid and growing concepts. For example, the child's interest in collecting rocks can be the beginning of his concept of the great age of the universe, and this concept can grow in meaning each school year and in life after formal education ends. Schools cannot escape the responsibility of helping all students get more content and deeper meaning in all the basic concepts which science gives us. It is not memorization of facts of science that is needed, but experiences through laboratory experiments, excursions into fields and factories, discussions, and readings that will produce the attitudes and provide the meanings.
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TOPICS FOR TELECASTS In-Service Program for Elementary Science Teachers
W. B. Baker, Teacher and Coordinator
I. The Revised Georgia Science Guides and Their Use.

Page 9

II. Science and Technology in Modern Education.

15

III. Basic Concepts of Matter, Energy, and Change.

19

IV. The Earth, Our Platform in Space

24

V. Inquiry, Problem Finding, and Problem Solving.

28

VI. Synthesis in Science. The Environment Chart.

32

VII. Resource Units, Teaching Units, and Lesson Plans for Teaching

Science.

36

VIII. The Nature, Behavior, and Importance of Water.

40

IX. Soils, Their Formation, Nature, and Significance.

43

X. Living Organisms, Their Origin, Characteristics, and Distribution. 48

XI. Communities of Organisms - Ecosystems.

50

XII. Basic Concepts of Atomic Structure, Atomic Change, and Atomic

Energy.

52

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XIII. Radiant Energy and The Environment of the Earth. The Atmosphere and Weather.

Page 56

XIV. Basic Concepts of Chemical Reactions.

61

XV. Energy Release and Use in Organisms.

64

XVI. Reproduction in Organisms.

68

XVII. Kinds of Organisms and Their Identification - Taxonomy.

73

XVIII. Man's Use and Improvement of plants and Animals.

77

XIX. The Solar System in Space and Time.

81

XX. The Story of the Earth as Told in the Rocks.

83

XXI. Relation Between Atomic Behavior and Electricity, Light and Heat,

the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

86

XXII. Machines as Means of Harnessing Energy.

89

XIII. Science Teaching for the Space Age.

91

XXIV. Science and Human Welfare.

93

XXV. Science as Preparation for the Future.

94

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TELECAST NO. I Topic: The Georgia Science Curriculum Guides and Their Use References: Science Guides, pp. 1-16 Blough, et al., Elementary School Science, pp. 3-85 Colonial Science Film Strips and Teachers' Guides Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 481-535 1. History of the development of the science program. 2. Basic philosophy of the science curriculum. 3. Relation of science to the entire curriculum. 4. Suggested preparation for science experiences in the local environment. 5. Science in the atomic and space age. 6. Details of the Scope and Sequence Chart. Note: It is very important that the teacher keep a copy of the Revised Science Guides (l964) for reference before the telecasts and as a follow up after viewing them. It is not necessary to follow the sequences of experiences as given in the guides, but you should study the principles as given for your grade for the Scope and Sequence Chart in planning your lessons.
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Telecast No. I
Background Material
1. Introduction
In this series of telecasts, I want each of you to feel that you are an important part of the program. What we are able to give you from week to week by way of telecasts and from occasional workships will be reflected in your increased enthusiasm and improved competence for the teaching of science.
We are concerned not only with presenting the subject matter of the broad field of science, but also with the methods of developing a habit of critical thinking in the discovery and testing of the facts and principles which govern the environment and the use we make of them.
This project is not a crash program but rather one of the results of a long series of studies and activities of many persons interested in strengthening our educational program in Georgia. Telecast No. I is devoted to a discussion with you of the curriculum as adopted for your use.
2. Brief History of the Georgia Science Curriculum
General Science for Elementary Teachers:
a. This program is one of the outgrowths of a series of studies and programs set up and sponsored by the Georgia State Department of Education and cooperating institutions to strengthen the teaching of science in Georgia schools.
b. The studies began with the work of a committee on science and mathematics appointed by the State Department in 1950 to investigate the status of the curricular areas in the elementary and secondary schools and to make recommendations for improvement.
Members of the committee were selected from the State Department, colleges, schools of education, and classroom teachers and administrators.
The committee concerned itself with:
(1) The type of science and mathematics being offered.
(2) The number of pupils enrolled in the different disciplines in high schooL
(3) The training of the teachers giving instruction in these fields.
(4) Determining whether the concepts of science were begun in the lower grades and progressively developed and expanded from 1-12 on into college.
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Telecast No. I
(5) Whether there was any degree of uniformity of programs in science throughout the state.
d. A preliminary report was made by the committee in 1951 and showed:
(1) There was very little science being given in the elementary school.
(2) There was no uniformity of pattern throughout the state and, where science was given, there was much unnecessary repetition of the experiences of the students.
(3) The first and somewhat uniform introduction to science was a required course in general science in the 9th grade. In most cases this course seemed to be too elementary to be challenging to the majority of students.
(4) Many of the teachers of science were poorly prepared.
(5) Elementary teachers as a group were prone to avoid science because they felt inadequately trained to teach it.
(6) Many pupils in Georgia do not enter high school. If they enter, many drop out before graduation.
(7) The majority of children show great interest in all phases of their environment. They are constantly raising questions about what they see and are eager to participate in experiences in order to secure answers for their questions.
e. In the preliminary and subsequent reports, the committee suggested a program which would extend the offerings and Unprove the quality of instruction in science in Georgia school K-12.
Among the specific recommendations made by the committee, the following were carried out:
(1) A governor's conference of professional educators, college and secondary teachers, laymen, industrialists, business men, and parents was convened for the presentation of the existing conditions, the need for a broad program in science and methods of putting it into effect.
(2) A curriculum in science, which was progressively developed and expanded from K-12, was written by experienced teachers especially selected.
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Telecast No. I
(3) The tentative curriculum was given critical trial runs in selected pilot schools and, on the basis of suggestions and criticisms from experienced classroom teachers, it was edited, revised, and put into use in the schools throughout the state. The 1957 guides were revised in 1964 by a special writing committee.
(4) A science consultant was added to the staff of the State Department to give his entire time to the implementation and strengthening of the program.
(5) Scholarships were provided by the state for science teachers, both elementary and high school, so as to stimulate a desire to increase their competence.
(6) Traveling science laboratories were developed to visit the schools and give in-service training to teachers. There should be ten of these, one for each congressional district, but only five have been provided and are in operation at the present. Each laboratory is under the direction of specially trained teachers.
(7) Trial runs of television programs were made to determine the adequacy and extent of coverage over Station WLW-TV, Channel 11, as well as over the state owned stations.
(8) The television broadcasts proved satisfactory, and a state-wide program was developed primarily for elementary teachers, based on the science curriculum.
3. Teaching by Television
Television is undoubtedly the most significant medium of communication yet devised by man. As in the case of other means of communication, there are many problems regarding its use as a teaching medium that must be solved.
When one thinks that within the last ten years there have been more television sets placed in homes than the total number of bathtubs, one begins to realize the potential coverage possible for a television program. It is estimated that in 1958 there were more than 50 million television sets in the United States. Since that time thousands more have been added.
The possible impact of this means of communication upon the thinking and practices of the American people is stupendous. When we realize the number of programs projected for the juvenile audience which do not measure up to high standards of educational procedures, we begin to realize how important it is for educators to begin to take part in the over-all picture of television.
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Telecast No. I
Plans for state-wide coverage of educational television are being implemented by the State Department of Education. Three state-owned broadcasting stations are now in operation and construction of additional ones is planned.
It is realized that television can in no sense take the place of a teacher in a classroom. Television, however, can multiply UDmeasurably the effectiveness of good teaching. To be sure, it can also multiply poor and mediocre teaching. As someone said, "Television provides every student a seat on the front row of the classroom."
Television is a Cooperative Process
At best it is a limited medium. It can only stimulate interest, give mere glances of the show windows of knowledge and present a challenge to assume more responsibility for deeper penetration into the vistas opened up.
4. The Basic Philosophy for the Curriculum
a. The elementary school child is peculiarly interested in and appreciative of the many problems relating to his environment and close to the day-to-day experiences. He does not, however, view his environment in terms of biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and so forth, but as an entity.
b. Pupils in the elementary grades are capable of handling materials and concepts ordinarily thought to be above their capacity.
c. Learning by children (ages 6-14) is more effective when based on direct experiences with actual objects and phenomena.
d. The principles and methods of science should be presented informally and in relation to all other subjects in the curriculum as well as in a sequential and expanding manner from grades 1-8.
e. By developing the program in science vertically and expanding it horizontally through the elementary grades, unnecessary duplication is avoided, interest is sustained, content is enlarged, and adequate background is provided for greater enrichment of the various scientific disciplines in high school and college.
f. The problem solving technique of teaching science appeals to children and develops habits of accurate observations, laboratory skills, and methods of critical evaluation of evidence on which conclusions can be based.
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Telecast No. I g. Pupils who drop out of school before entering high school should have training in science which will prepare them for living in the world of the present and future conditioned by the age of science. h. The curriculum must be flexible; that is, applicable in all environments. It should also be geared to the future so that it will be suitable for situations which arise as new advances are made in science.
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TELECAST No. II

Topic: Science and TechnologY in Modern Education

References:

Bloomfield, L. P. - Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 331, Public Affairs Committee, Inc., 22 East 38th Street, New York 16
Craig, G. S. - Science for Elementary School Teachers, pp. 45-78, 19-58.
Environment Chart, Column 4 - Man's Use and Control Guide to career in Aero-Space Technology. Civil Service
Commission Announcement No. 347B-1965 Impact of Progress in Space on Science, Dryden, Hugh L.,
NASA Publication, 1962 - 0-646587 Singer Series, Basic Physical Science, pp. 1-15 The New Force of Atomic Energy - Its Development and Use.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, P. O. Box A, Aiken, S.C. The Peaceful Uses of Space - U. S. Government Printing Office,
1962

1. Education must prepare citizens for meeting conditions we do not know.

2. Education should be a continuing and open-end experience.

3. The spirit of inquiry and exploration which marks the scientist leads from one conceptual scheme to another.

4. Basic science is a world of ideas and is ''modern man's Aladdin's Lamp. II

5. A good science training develops habits of critical thinking and sound, unbiased judgment forming.

6. Science produces nothing, but intelligent man using the methods of scientific thinking develops understanding of, makes interpr~tation of, and brings under control for use, the discoveries he makes of his environment.

7. Science is an endless frontier reaching to the stars and beyond.

8. Science is a voyage of discovery. Education is a journey--not a destination.

9. Technology is the application of basic principles for the development of useful products.

10. Invention and technology preceded pure science in man's experiences.

11. Scientists and technicians working together produce the many gadgets, implements and cbvices which surround modern man.

12. Undue emphasis on the technological applications of science instead of on the basic methods of discovery of principles defeats the objectives of good science teaching.

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Telecast No. II 13. Education in science should not be limited to acquisition of encyclopedic
facts to be memorized.
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Telecast No. II
Background Material
1. Understanding Science
a. What Science Is
Science is a pattern of human behavior by which man discovers through inquiry tests, accumulates, systematizes, interprets, and learns to understand and control the principles which govern himself and his environment and his relation to it as part of an ecosystem.
Initial discoveries are made through the sense organs, the reason and "hunches," and the validity of each discovery is tested by controlled experimentation.
Science then becomes a world of ideas, formulated through critical, logical, and sequential thinking, with judgments withheld until adequate evidence is secured.
James B. Conant has defined science as "a series of concepts or conceptual schemes (theories) arising out of experiment or observation and leading to new experiments and observations."
b. What Science is Not
(1) A mass of accumulated facts.
(2) Classified knowledge.
(3) An activity for "High Brows" only.
(4) A final, unchangeable and static body of knowledge.
(5) Not to be confused with technology.
2. Science as a Part of Modern Education
a. This is an age of the unpredictable, and we must educate for meeting changes.
b. The pupils we are now teaching will live as adults in the 21st Century.
c. It is not sufficient to educate a child for the world as we know it. He will face an entirely different world.
d. Science properly taught appeals to a wide range of pupils, of diverse native ability, social background, and individual interests.
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Telecast No. II e. Although we are living in an age of science we are on the whole scientifically illiterate. f. The atomic age, ushered in with the explosion of the atomic bomb in 1943, has completely changed many previous concepts of the nature of our environment. In 1958 the age of space began bringing even greater challenges. g. In education we are prone to over-emphasize the learning of matters of the moment, rather than technics of discovering broad generalizations which will aid in meeting changes in the future. h. We cannot educate specifically for the world of the future, since we cannot anticipate what kind of world it will be. We cannot educate for what has not yet been. Saneone has said, "The future is not what it used to be." i. There are certain constants, however, that do not change. These give us a guide for building and implementing an adequate curriculum in science. (1) Matter - What Things are Made of - Properties of - Principles Governing. (2) Energy - The Force That Acts on Matter - Types of - Conversion of - Relation to Matter. E = Mc2 (3) Change - Cause and Effect. (4) Man's Awareness of Himself - In His Environment - How to Use It. (5) Ways in Which We Learn - From Concrete to the Abstract.
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TELECAST NO. III

Topic: Basic Concepts of Matter, Energy, and Change

References:

Brandwein, Pau1,et a1. Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 196-209.
Brandwein, et a1. The World of Matter - Energy, pp. 2-52, 1964. Blough, Glenn, et a1. Elementary School Science, 1958, Part 4,
Matter and Energy, pp. 365-443. Environment Chart - Science Guide, 1964.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 1, 2, 13, 14,
15, 16, 17, 18, 19. Gamow, George. Matter, Earth and Sky, 1958. Scope and Sequence Chart - Category B

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.

Energy is the power to do work.

Energy acting upon matter produces change.

Science is concerned with the discovery of the principles which relate to matter and energy and the changes produced in matter when energy is applied.

2. All substances in our environment are forms of matter.

3. Matter possesses certain general properties.

a. Matter occurs in three forms:

(1) Liquids; (2) Solids; (3) Gases.

4. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures.
5. Matter and Energy essentially the same - E = mc2

6. Periodic Table of Elements - Atomic Numbers and Weights.

7. Theory of Atomic Structure:

Nucleus; Proton; Neutron; Electron; Energy Levels.

8. The Atom of Hydrogen has the simplest structure, one proton and one electron.

9. Number of protons in the nucleus of the atom determines the atomic number of the atom. Elements are arranged in order of the atomic numbers.

10. The number of protons plus the number of neutrons is approximately the atomic weight of the atom.

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Telecast No. III

Background Material

1. Basic Concepts of Matter

a. All substances in our environment are forms of matter and all matter occupies space and has weight.

b. Matter occurs as solids, liquids, and gases, the three forms being functions of temperature.

c. Whether matter is a liquid, solid, or gas depends on the distance between the molecules and the rapidity of their movement.

d. Solids have a volume and shape, each of its molecules being confined to a small definite space between neighboring molecules. The molecules of a solid are arranged either in the crystalline form with atoms in a geometric pattern or in the amorphOUS ~ with atoms arranged in no definite pattern. Examples:

Crystalline Iron Table salt Copper sulfate

Amorphous Glass "Silicone Rubber"

e. Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of the containing vessel. Their molecules move more rapidly and are usually farther apart than in a solid.

f. A gas has neither a fixed volume nor shape and the molecules are farther apart and move in every direction more rapidly than in a liquid.

g. The smallest particle of a substance showing properties of the substance is a molecule. Atoms combine to form molecules.

h. A substance which cannot be broken down chemically into other substances is an element.

i. The atoms of an element are all of one kind chemically, but there may be slight differences in their weight. These are isotopes of the element.

j. When two or more elements are combined chemically a compound is formed.

2. The Atomic Theory of Structure of Matter

a. All matter is made up of small particles called atoms.

b. There are as many chemically different kinds of atoms as there are kinds of elements.

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Telecast No. III
c. The atoms of a given element have a definite average weight.
d. The atoms of different elements have different average weights.
e. Atoms are not subdivided in chemical reactions.
Each atom has a relative weight on a scale of atomic weight units (a.w.u.) based on carbon as a standard of 12. On this scale hydrogen has a weight of 1 and oxygen a weight of 16. Both these elements have been used as standards. The weights are many times only approximate, but are determined accurately for chemical manipulations and analyses.
Atoms are composed of small particles, the most important being electrons (-), protons (+), and neutrons, electrically neutral.
Electrons are 1/1837 the weight of hydrogen. Their weight is negligible in determining the total weight of an atom. The chemical properties of the atom are due to the electrons.
Protons weigh 1836/1837 as much as the H atom. A proton carries one + charge of electricity.
Neutrons have about the same weight as a proton, and are electrically neutral.
Arrangement of Particles in an Atom
An atom consists of a central part, the nucleus, which is very small and dense and an outer part of orbits, or shells, which are regions of energy levels. The orbits are designated from the one nearest the nucleus outward as K, L, M. N, 0, P, Q.
Electrons rotate around the nucleus somewhat like the planets rotate around the sun. The orbits of electrons are not as regular as the orbits of the planets. They are more like the bees that swarm around a hive. In this haphazard motion, they occupy the relatively vast empty space around the nucleus.
"If the nucleus of the H atom were the size of a pin head, the electron would revolve about 150 feet away."
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of that atom. This positively identifies the element. The total nuclear mass is the sum of the protons and the neutrons.
Elements are arranged in order of atomic numbers. The numbers run from 1 - 101. 92 of these are naturally occurring.
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Telecast No. III
The Structure of Atoms The energy level nearest the nucleus may contain 2 electrons (2 x 12 = 2). When additional electrons are added, they go to a second zone or energy level ~round the first. The second energy level (L) can contain 8 electrons (2 x 2 = 8). When this is filled, additional electrons start a 3rd
= energy level outside the other two. The 3rd energy level (1M) may hold
18 electrons (2 x 32 18), except when it is the outermost shell it can contain no more than eight e1~ctrons. The 4th energy level may hold
(2 x 42 = 32), the 5th (2 x 5 = 50), and the 6th may hold (2 x 62 = 72).
However, some of the more complex atoms may start filling outer energy levels before the inner ones are filled. The regularity of energy level filling changes at atom No. 18. An element with an atomic number greater than two never has more than eight electrons in its outermost shells (the octet rule).
The electrons in the outermost energy levels or layers are the most easily removed from an atom. These are also the ones involved in the combination of atoms to make compounds. The nucleus of an atom is the most difficult part to dislodge and when exploded, a great quantity of energy is released.
The electrons in the zone closest to the nucleus are the most difficult to remove. When they are disturbed, electromagnetic waves of high speed and short length are obtained. X rays are examples of these.
Bombardment of elements in the order of their atomic weights produces an orderly increase in the frequencies of the X rays.
Most of the volume of an atom is due to empty space between the energy levels and the nucleus. If the nucleus of an atom were magnified to a 2inch sphere, the nearest electron would be 2,000 feet away.
Electrons revolve at great velocities in their orbits. Sane move in circular orbits, and sane move in elliptical ones around the nucleus.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which is made of a single proton and a single electron. Hydrogen has 2 isotopes, deuterium with one proton and one neutron, and tritium with 2 neutrons.
The most complex atan is uranium with 92 electrons, 92 protons, and 146 neutrons.
Practically all the weight or mass of an element is concentrated in the nucleus, which is a minute fraction of the volume of the entire atom. The mass of the electron is negligible.
The atoms are given numbers depending on the number of protons in the nucleus. There may be an additional number of neutrons present. The
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Telecast No. III
outer energy level of many atoms contains from 1 to 8 electrons. There are seven orbits, K-Q. 3. Basic Concepts of Energy a. Energy manifests itself in different forms that have been given
special names, such as potential, heat, kinetic, chemical, electrical, and atomic energy. b. Potential energy is stored energy--energy waiting to be used. Water stored in lakes, tanks, reservoirs at high altitudes--all these possess potential energy which is released as kinetic energy when the water fa 11s. c. A boulder on top of a mountain has potential energy. When released, the potential energy is transformed into energy of movement or kinetic energy. d. The nucleus of every atom has stored potential energy. The molecules of every compound have potential energy. Atomic energy holds the nucleus of the atom together. Kinds of Energy a. Potential energy - stored energy. b. Kinetic energy - energy of motion. c. Heat energy - movement of atoms and molecules. d. Chemical energy - depends on electrons. e. Electrical energy - flow of electrons. . Atomic energy - depends on protons and neutrons. g. Light energy - arises from disturbances of the outermost electrons. Energy can be transformed from one form to another.
-23-

TELECAST NO. IV

Topic: The Earth, Our Platform in Space

References:

Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Chaps. 8 and 9, 1958
ETV - Flanigan - Science and You, Lessons 1-8. ETV - Howell and Wilson - Speaking of Science, Lessons 4, 6, 7,
10, 12 Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 112-195 Life's, The World We Live In. TUne, Inc., 1955 Science Guides, Appendix III, Section III Spar, Earth, Sea and Air, 1962

1. The earth is one of the nine planets in the solar system.

a. Fifth in size among the planets - 7,927 miles in diameter at equator; 7,900 miles at the poles; about 25,000 miles in circumference.

b. Travels around sun at average speed of 18.52 miles per second. The period of one revolution around its orbit is the basis for our year.

c. Rotates on its axis, causing the stars and the sun to appear to move across the sky. The length of one rotation is the basis for our day.

2. The earth is divided into lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

a. 99% of the atmosphere lies below 20 miles and all but one millionth
lies below 60 miles.

b. For practical consideration "spacell begins--as far as the earth is concerned--60 miles above the earth's surface.

3. The matter of the earth is made of elements.

a. 92 natural elements found in the earth's crust, with eight of the 92 being the most common.

b. Nearly 50% of crust consists of oxygen (46.60); 27.72% silicon; 8.13% aluminum; 5% iron; 3.63% calcium; 2.83% sodium; 2.59% potassium; 2.09% magnesium, and 1.41% of all others.

4. The International Geophysical Year (IGY) began in 1957, designed for detailed study of the earth.

5. Project Mohole is a project to study the composition of the crust and mantle of the earth.

6. The energy for the earth comes from the sun, around which the planets revolve.

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Telecast No. IV
7. The rotation of the earth can be demonstrated with a Foucault pendulum. 8. The Van Allen Belt surrounds the earth and traps radiant energy of the
solar plasma clouds, consisting largely of positively and negatively charged particles. These and associated regions of the very high atmosphere are known collectively as the ''magnetosphere.'' The inner region of the belt begins about 200 miles above the equator and extends about 2,400 miles. The outer region ranges from about 6,000 miles to 36,000 miles above the equator. 9. Forces acting on the surface of the earth today are essentially the same as have acted throughout its history. 10. A study of the changes going on today gives us an indication of the past geological history of the earth. 11. Making a rock collection is an excellent way of introducing the study of the earth and its resources. 12. A study of the atmosphere and the water cycle gives a background for the study of matter. 13. The atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. OUr weather originates in the troposphere. 14. Space vehicles have verified the existence of a "swift wind" carrying energetic particles emanating from the sun as an electrically conductive gas (plasma) and blowing continuously throughout the solar system. 15. This solar "wind" or solar plasma brings toward the earth an accumulation of "atomic debris" swept from space which may have long range effect on our own atmosphere. 16. The Van Allen Belt and the magnetic field of the earth seem to protect the earth from what might be dangerous bombardment from outer space.
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Telecast No. IV

Background Material

Making a Rock Collection

1. Collect as many different kinds of rocks as possible, keeping accurate records of locality where found.

a. In cultivated field b. In wooded areas c. On hillsides - mountain sides d. In rapidly flowing streams e. Around building sites f. Date collected and by whom g. Received by exchange - source and locality

2. Describe each specimen, telling color, shape (round, irregular, crystalline), size, specific gravity, and hardness.

3. Arrange as to origin

a. Igneous b. Metamorphic c. Sedimentary

4. Arrange as to locality

a. School yard, or section of town b. In your county c. In your state d. By section of the state e. By other states

5. Arrange according to hardness

Minerals compared as to hardness (Moh's scale)

1. Talc

= Hydrous magnesium silicate

2. GypSlDll = calcium sulfate (hydrous)

3. Calcite ca1cilDll carbonate

4. Fluorite = CalcilDll fluoride

5. Anatite = ca1cilDll fluoride and phosphate

6. Feldspar = Potassium aluminum silicate

7. Quartz = Silicon dioxide

8. Topaz

= Aluminum fluosilicate

9. Corundum = Aluminum oxide

10. Diamond = carbon

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Telecast No. IV
6. Arrange according to use
a. Building material b. Source of useful minerals c. Source of gems d. Locate types used in different buildings, pavements, monuments, etc.
7. Name and label each specimen
a. By consulting a geologist b. By comparing with museum specimen c. By comparing with color film strips or color pictures in guide
to minerals (Georgia Science Guide)
Order of recognition tests for rocks for identification
a. Physical properties
(1) Color, shape, crystalline, specific gravity, etc. (2) Hardness - on scale 1-10 (3) Cleavage - fracture regular or irregular (4) Minerals present - (See guide)
b, Acid test - (dilute muriatic acid (HCl)
c. Radioactivity - Test with Geiger counter
8. Different methods of displaying the collection
a. Place each specimen in a small pasteboard box with label.
b. Make small plaster of paris blocks and while still soft, cover base of the specimen with aluminum foil pressed until it conforms to the shape of the end to be embedded. Press the specimen into the soft plaster and allow to stand until hardened. Remove the aluminum cover and replace the rock in the molded base.
c. Glass covered exhibit boxes may be used, but should be well lighted.
Note: The Georgia State Department of Geology should be consulted for help in identification of specimens and for sample collections of rocks and minerals of Georgia.
-27-

TELECAST NO. V

Topic: Inquiry, Problem Finding, and Problem Solving

References:

Brandwein et al., A Book of Methods, pp. 1-56
Navarra & Zafforin, Today's Basic Science, Book 5, pp. 1-16
Richardson, Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, pp. 107-141 State Science Guides (1964), pp. 8-16

1. Inquiry follows natural curiosity and precedes the recognition of a problem of significance in the mind of the scientist.

2. Problem finding is the result of inquiry; problem solving is a creative activity designed to get reliable answers to questions.

3. Problems selected for study should be from the local environment as far as possible.

4. Hypotheses (intelligent guesses) and theories (partially proven hypotheses) are steps in the search for explanations, understanding, and interpretation of observed phenomena.

5. Emphasis should be placed on the "what" and "how" questions in stating problems. The "why" questions too frequently lead into aimless philosophical explanations not based on scientific evidence.

6. Each problem selected for study should be oriented to a broad category as seen on the Environment Chart and related to specific principles as listed on the Scope and Sequence Chart.

-28-

Telecast No. V
Background Material
References: State Science Guides, pp. 8-16
A. Outline of steps in solving problems (See page 8 of Guide).
This is essentially the procedure by which scientists have always worked to discover, test, understand, and interpret the principles governing themselves and their environment. As a child observes the phenomena shm~ by animate and inanimate matter and the changes produced when energy is exerted, he becomes curious and attempts to explain what he sees. The alert teacher can make the questions raised by the child the starting point for general experiences in science. The natural curiosity of an intelligent child leads to a spirit of inquiry which is the beginning of all science.
The steps outlined in the Guide need not be followed in every case, in the sequence as given. However, the relation between the steps taken should be clearly shown and the entire sequence of experiences should lead definitely and clearly to the principle being taught.
Successful science teaching depends upon experiences dealing with materials which we can see, hear, feel, taste, and smell. It is not possible, however, to give direct contact with all areas we wish to study. Hence devised substitutions must be made.
Since science is concerned with a study of real things from the environment, we should emphasize experiences with real objects. Too much of our science teaching has been limited to the use of printed and spoken words--a "talk-about, read-about, write-about" pattern. There is very little training in critical thinking provided by this method. The average child is constantly finding problems which he would like to solve.
B. Types of experiences to be used in teaching science and in learning principles.
1. Observation--Shou1d begin where the child lives and about things in which he is interested. This is a commonplace activity in everyday living. The senses are used to gather information about our environment. It is also the first step used by the scientist in discovering principles.
There are many sources of error, however, in making observations.
a. Error in human judgment. Example: Hands in water of different temperatures.
b. Faulty sense organs. Examp1~: Color blindness.
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Telecast No. V
c. Limitations of sense organs. Example: A flat earth; a rising sun.
2. Recording observations--accurately--excellent training in writing and spelling.
3. Comparison and correlation of observations--how do observations relate to previous ones? Repeat observations to insure correctness.
4. Explaining and interpreting observations. This is essentially the formulation of intelligent guesses as explanation of happenings in the world around us. They are the hypotheses of the scientist. These are tools to be used in finding better explanations.
Man has progressed as he has been able to properly formulate his explanations, test their validity, understand the phenomena underlying these and proceed to interpret them as they affect him and his welfare.
Example: Earthquakes; changes in weather; volcanoes; electrical storms; floods; droughts; changes in seasons; causes of disease; origin of life, of the earth, of man himself.
Many myths, legends, superstitions, and practices of 'lmagic" have been developed.
5. Recognition and statement of a problem.
a. Should relate to observations and hypotheses.
b. Should be clearly and concisely stated.
c. Should be of significance in the mind of the child.
d. Children should participate in formulation of the problem.
e. Problem should be resolved into simplest elements which can be subjected to critical experimentation.
f. Lead children to suggest methods of solving the problem or its component parts.
g. Free and open discussion of the observations made by different individuals should be encouraged. This tends to clarify the problem.
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Telecast No. V 6. Experimentation--Experiments represent the principal experiences of modern science. In fact, it may be said that modern science began when Roger Bacon (1214-1280) introduced the experimental method as a means of discovering and testing truth. Roger Bacon stated what he considered to be the chief causes of human error. Undue regard to authority; habit; prejudices; false concept of knowledge. He then proposed certain rules of procedure: Accept nothing on hearsay; accept nothing that results from inductive reasoning alone; prove everything; experiment followed by deduction is the only guide to truth. Bacon's neighbors thought he was in league with evil spirits and dealt with black magic. He predicted horseless carriages, airplanes, and ships driven by mechanical means. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) re-emphasized and used essentially these same procedures. Be sure to distinguish between "science experiences" and "science experiments." All experiments are experiences in science but many experiences such as observation, library reading, consulting experts, logical and sequential thinking are not "experiments."
An experiment is essentially the act of making something happen
under conditions controlled by the observer. A specific question is raised about observations. Conditions are set up where all factors except one relative to the question are controlled. This variable is then tested.
Examples: Redi - origin of maggots; Jenner - cowpox and smallpox; Pasteur - germ theory of disease.
-31-

TELECAST NO. VI Topic: Synthesis in Science. The Environment Chart
References: Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp. 1-32, 85-101
Georgia Sciences Guides, p. 7
1. Science deals with the total environment and is not restricted to the isolated areas usually considered as covered by the separate disciplines such as Astronomy, Geology, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.
2. The child views his environment as a whole and relates himself to it through his direct experiences.
3. The rapid development of science has brought about separation, and to some extent isolation, of the separate disciplines, resulting in a narrow concept of the breadth and meaning of science.
4. The basic principles pertaining to matter, energy, and change are of universal application in all disciplines of science.
5. Accurate observations, concise and correct description, both oral and written, intelligent application of principles discovered to betterment of man, and the implication of advances in science to solution of social problems should be emphasized.
6. Each category on the Scope and Sequence Chart selected for detailed study of principles listed, should be related to other categories on the chart for your particular grade, reading horizontally. In this way a study of living matter (first grade) for example can be related to certain principles in categories Rock, Soil and Minerals (6); Air and Water (1); the Earth in Space (5); Electricity and Magnetism (4); and Heat (1, 5, 7).
7. A careful study of the Environment Chart as printed in the Science Guides shows the synthesis of the physical and biological sciences as their principles operate in the total environment or ecosystem.
-32-

Telecast No. VI

Background Material

This capsule sample of the wa~ different scientific disciplines may be synth~ sized is taken from a booklet prepared as a cooperative effort on the part of teachers and others to educate our students for understanding the significance and implications of the space age.
By using these suggestions and your own initiative and imagination, you can develop lesson plans which will cut across all areas of science, as well as relate science experiences to other areas of the curriculum.

The Spearheads to Space
Predicting Weather
'Too often the weatherman has been blamed for his poor weather predictions, but regular weather observations cover only about one-fifth of the earth's surface, and the forecaster may be unaware of changing conditions on the other parts of the earth's surface which might completely alter his prediction.
An earth satellite equipped with television can provide a precise picture of cloud and storm patterns around the entire globe. Tiros, a NASA weather satellite, can circle the earth every ninety minutes and transmit tmages of cloud formations. These the forecasters can analyze and interpret, thus giving us more accurate weather predictions.
Think of the advantages precise weather information gives to those people who engage in air transportation or agriculture, to those who participate in outdoor events, and to those who live in the paths of destructive storms. Among the present and projected weather satellites are Tiros I, II, III,IV, V, VI, VII and VIII, Nimbus, and synchronous metero1ogica1 satellites.
(Activities to help children develop better skills and understandings of aerospace facts.)
To provide the class with experimental motivation, have children listen to the radio for daily weather reports and keep a record of the number of times the prediction bas been accurate.

*Teaching to Meet the Challenges of the Space Age, by Florence V. Oths, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1963

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Telecast No. VI

LANGUAGE
ARTS ORAL
LANGUAGE
ARTS
WRITl'EN
SOCIAL STUDIES

Observing Listening Speaking
Functional writing Creative expression
Word study
Punctuation
Library skills
Literature
Concept development Map or globe skills

-To encourage keenness of observation, have class report on cloud formations on a clear and on a cloudy day. Note weather vanes in the neighborhood. Observe how they move. To cultivate listening skills, have class listen to weather broadcasts and note how they are presented. To enhance conversational ability, have class discuss records they have kept in support of their observations.

-To develop skill in compiling data, keep a record

of daily weather predictions, including temperature,

barometer reading, wind direction, and visibility.

-To cultivate skills in interpreting data, have

class write about how people in different occupa-

tions would react to different weather reports. "If

I were a

and the forecaster pre-

dicted

, I would

"

-To reinforce skills in syllabication and the use of

the accent mark, have the class prepare a weather

vocabulary, syllabifying such words as forecaster,

predict, hurricane, precise, instrument.

-To increase skill in the use of the interrogation

point, have each member of the class write a series

of ten questions about the weather.

-To encourage the use of reference materials, use

periodical indexes and local newspapers to obtain

information about the weather. Note newspaper

pages that give weather information and cut out

and collect weather maps for a limited period.

-To stimulate breadth of reading interest, read The

Wizard of Oz. Have class read widely for infor;a: tion about~urricanes, cyclones, gales, tornadoes,

and other weather Ehenomena.

-To develop the concept of the role of weather in man's life, explore man's need for improved weather
forecasting. What success has Tiros had in predicting weather? -To develop skill in reading weather maps, have class learn symbols for rain, snow, clouds, thunderstorms. Construct individual weather MaESe

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Telecast No. VI

SCIENCE
MATHEMATICS
HEALTH
EDUCATION
ART
MUSIC

Activity
Observation Concept Follow-up Concept

-Fill a bottle with hot water. Pour out most of the water, leaving a depth of only about one inch in the bottom of the bottle. Support an ice cube at the mouth of the bottle. -What happens to the warm air as it rises to the top of the bottle? -When warm air rises and cools quickly, fog occurs. -Read about the dangers of fog to transportation. Make a study of cloud tyPes.
-To develop measurement concepts relating to weather, learn and compare Fahrenheit and centigrade scales and tell why each is used. To practice skill in using graphic methods, prepare graphs showing high and low temperatures in your city for a 30-day period. Prepare problems for children to solve by employing graphs.
-To enhance understanding of the relation of weather to health, consider proper clothing, shelter, and food for various kinds of weather.
-To explore various media of creative expression, prepare a display of original sky and space pictures.
-To build a large rote song repertoire, select songs about clouds, weather, sky, rain, and storms, the words of which will lend themselves to further vocabulary study.

ACTIVITIES FOR REINFORCING LEARNINGS FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION

Form camnittees and make reports on

How can a satellite travel at enormous

the weather satellites.

speeds?

Take a trip to the local weather station.

Make graphs of weather fluctuations. How can we get weather information

Make a dictionary of weather terms.

from satellites?

Why is reception on radio and TV

(ADD OTHERS)

poor during storms?

What are isotherms, isograms, and

isobars? "

(ADD OTHERS)

-35-

TELECAST NO. VII

Topic: Resource Units, Teaching Units, and Lesson Plans for Teaching Science

References:

Blough, et al., Elementary Science and How to Teach It, pp. 42-85 Brandwein, et al., A Book of Methods, pp. 221-235 Georgia Science Guides, pp. 10-11; 68-117 Hone, Joseph and Victor, Sourcebook for Elementary Science--
capsule lessons at end of chapters Richardson, Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, pp. 65-103

1. Effective science teaching requires careful preliminary planning.
2. The implementing of lesson plans should allow for sufficient flexibility to arouse the interests of a heterogeneous group of children as well as to take advantage of relevant incidents in the classroom.
3. A well executed teaching plan should be characterized by what might be called planned spontaneity.
4. A teaching plan becomes more meaningful to the children if they have participated in its development.
5. By using the outlines of sample teaching units given in the Georgia Science Guides, the teacher can plan a broad and comprehensive series of science experiences.
6. The rapid advances of science which have brought on the "atomic and space age" makes it imperative that science teaching should stimulate the imagination, arouse curiosity, and show the relationship between basic facts and principles discovered in the past to the possible advances in the future.
7. Teaching units based on man's adventures into space are excellent means of giving better understanding of the laws of motion, the relation of matter to energy, and the influence of environmental factors on the existence of life.

-36-

Telecast No. VII

Background Material

Suggestions for Building a Teaching Unit in Science
1. Select a broad area or category in which you wish to develop your unit.
2. Fran the Scope and Sequence Chart or from your own experiences select the specific principles which relate to the category or broad area.
3. Discuss with the children same of the aspects of the broad category and lead them to ask questions relative to the broad area.
4. If the questions are pertinent and meaningful, develop suggestions as to how answers might be found to the questions or how the problems might be solved. (Consult Outlines for Problem Solving found in your Guides.)
s. Select those principles from the Scope and Sequence Chart which you
wish to emphasize--not by writing the principles on the board, but by leading the pupils, through their own efforts, to an understanding of the principles.
6. Select significant experiences which will bear directly on the specific principles you wish the pupils to learn.
NOTE: Be sure to distinguish between "science experiences" and Ilscience experiments." All experiments are science experiences but all experiences are not necessarily experiments. For example, consulting authorities, reading reference books, visiting industrial plants, taking field trips, or only listening to a lecture by the teacher are all science experiences but none are science experiments.
7. If experiments are selected to lead the children to the expression of a principle, be sure that they are set up with adequate controls, perf~ed with care and accuracy, and written up clearly and concisely.
8. After all experiences have been presented, lead the children in a discussion of the answers they have discovered to their questions and the solutions they have found to the problems which have been set up.
9. Through discussion with the children and with the background of your own experiences, show as many applications as possible of the principles learned to the everyday life of the children.

-37-

Telecast No. VII
10. It is suggested that the teaching units should be developed along the general lines laid out in the Science Guides.
NOTE: Although science should be presented to the elementary children in a "spontaneous and unrehearsed" manner, there should be careful planning before each presentation or experience. These suggestions for building a teaching unit provide "planned spontaneity."
A Comparison or Differentiation Between Resource Units and Teaching Units
1. a. A teaching unit is developed in detail and should include sufficient material to occupy one or two periods of instruction leading specifically to one or a few principles.
b. A resource unit should be built on the assumption that several class periods might be devoted to its implementation.
2. a. A teaching unit indicates plans for definite and specific science experiences which can be completed within one or two class periods. Such experiences, such as a field trip, an experiment, demonstration or other individual or group activities, should be directed toward a limited number of principles you wish to teach.
b. A resource unit on the other hand should list several pertinent experiences to illustrate a broad area or category fran which a selection can be made in developing the teaching unit.
3. a. A teaching unit should be oriented toward the experiences which the child has had in his immediate environment and should be adjusted to fit his individual classroom situation and the time schedule permitted.
b. A resource unit should provide materials, outlines for experiences, references and names of competent authorities for consultation which might be applicable in any situation.
4. a. A teaching unit should be developed through teacher-pupil participation and so planned as to relate the experiences to other areas of the curriculum in a specific school and classroom.
b. A resource unit is much broader in content and the suggested experiences should illustrate a greater number of principles. The resource unit should likewise include suggestions for a much broader application to other science areas, as well as to other subjects in the curriculum.
-38-

Telecast No. VII 5. a. A teaching unit is thus restricted to a rather limited experience,
both as to content and t~e allotment. It should of course be flexible enough to meet unexpected situations. b. A resource unit, because of the broad coverage, allows for a great deal of flexibility but within a longer period of t~e. 6. a. A teaching unit should be prepared in such a way as to give continuity to related experiences in separate class periods as the competence of the child develops. b. A resource unit should be developed around a given broad area or category but does not necessarily prescribe a sequence of experiences. It should rather provide sufficient background material to enable the teacher to build sequential teaching units.
-39-

TELECAST NO. VIII

Topic: The Nature. Behavior. and Importance of Water

References:

Agricultural Yearbook. 1955 - Water. Blough, et a1., Elementary School Science, Chaps. lOA and lOB.
Davis, K.S. and J.A. Day - water--The Mirror of Science, 1961. ETV. Flanigan, Science and You. Lesson 2. ETV, Howell & Wilson. Speaking of Science. Lessons 7, 8, 9. Georgia Water Report. Georgia Department of Health. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science. Chap. 11. Scope and Sequence Chart--Air and Water. Teaching Unit on Water in Georgia Science Guides.

1. Water, one of the most important and remarkable chemical compounds on earth. Three-fourths of surface is water.

2. Many basic processes depend upon water.

a. Physical processes. b. Biological processes.

3. Physical properties of water.

a. b.

Occurs as liquid, Becomes most dense

solid at 4

b

or C.

gas.

c. Expands from 40 C to 00 C.

d. A poor conductor of heat.

e. Bas high surface tension.

f. Bas high heat of vaporization.

4. Chemical properties of water.

a. Water the most camnon solvent. b. Water as an ionizing agent. c. Canposed of hydrogen and oxygen, H20. d. Decomposed by electrolysis. e. Enters into crystal formation in many substances. f. Molecules have dipolar character.

5. water as related to environment for living organisms.

a. Vernal and autumnal turnover. b. Essential minerals in soil solution.

6. Water pollution a pressing problem.

a. Chemical. b. Physical. c. Radioactive wastes. d. Biological.

7. Water conservation and purification.

-40-

540 CALORIES

I gram of steam (wafer vapor)
at
100 Centigrade
(760 mm pressure)

total heat absorbed 720 calories
540 CALORIES

540 calories of heat released as I gram of
steam condens s
to one gram of water at 100C.
100 CALORIES

540 calories d heat requiredto convert I gram of of water at 1000 to water vapor at 100 C. (heat of vaporizati )

100calories of heat released

100calories of heat required to raise temperature of I gram of water at
OC. to 100C.

80 CALORIES 80 calories of heat released
total heat released 720 calories

I gram of ice at 0 C.

80 CALORIES
80calories of heat
required to convert
Igram of ice to I gram of water at
OC. ,( heat of fusion
of ice)

HEAT CHANGES IN WATER

Reference Articles Dealing with Water
Listed from Cumulative Index Scientific American 1948-1957
Ground water. 1950 Nov. 14*; 1951 Feb. 34; 1951 Apr. 20; 1951 May 58; 1951
Nov. 50-1; 1955 Apr. 86; 1955 Sept. 78; 1956 May 59-60.
Ocean, composition and temperature. 1949 Oct. 17-9; 1950 Aug. 43-4; 1950 Nov. 26; 1950 Dec. 55; 1951 Jan. 29; 1951 June 60; 1952 Feb. 31; 1952 May 38; 1953 Mar. 74; 1953 June 32-5; 1954 Mar. 67-8; 70; 1954 Apr. 39-41; 1954 May 68; 1955 Jan. 30*; 1956 Jan. 99, 102, 104; 1956 Oct. 118-9; 1956 Dec. 86; 1957 Mar. 37-8, 42; 1957 Apr. 98, 104; 1957 July 122; 1957 Nov. 50, 53-56. (See also Seawater).
Reactors, heavy water. 1949 Jan. 28; 1949 July 32, 35-6; 1951 Jan. 27; 1951 Mar. 28; 1951 Apr. 43-45, 47; 1951 Nov. 32-3; 1951 Dec. 30*; 1953 July 40; 1954 Dec. 34-7; 1955 Apr. 33; 1955 Oct. 30, 34, 44, 57, 61-2; 1956 Apr. 78; 1956 May 55-6; 1956 Dec. 53-4.
Seawater, demineralization. 1953 Apr. 40; 1952 Aug. 16; 1956 July 104; 1956 Oct. 126; 1957 Mar. 37*; 1957 June 87 (See also Ocean, composition.)
Seawater, drinking of. 1956 Jan. 75-6.
Water, physical chemistry. 1948 Sept. 18; 1950 Sept. 33; 1951 Feb. 34; 1951 Apr. 33; 19i1 Dec. 23-5; 1953 Nov. 82; 1954 July 51; 1954 Aug. 51; 1956 Apr. 76 ; 1956 May 85-7; 1956 Aug. 110; 1957 Apr. 74. (See also Deuterium (for heavy water); Ocean, composition; Reactors, heavy water.)
Water, pollution. 1948 Sept. 29; 1951 Jan. 52*; 1951 Feb. 34; 1951 April 34; 1952 Mar. 17*; 1955 May 106; 1955 Aug. 75; 1957 Mar. 37.
* Water, resources. 1950 Nov. 14 ; 1951 Feb. 32; 1952 Apr. 40; 1952 June 80; 1952 Sept. 69-70; 1956 May 59-60; 1956 Oct. 68; 1957 Mar. 37*; (See also Ground water; Seawater, demineralization.)
Water, solar heat collector. 1956 July 104.
*Longer or more comprehensive articles.
-42-

TELECAST NO. IX

Topic: Soils, Their Formation, Nature, and Significance

References:

!TV, Flanigan, Science and You, Lesson 33.
ETV, Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 10, 11.
Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 111-129.
UNESCO, Sourcebook for Science Teaching, pp. 60-62.

1. Composition of soil by volume. 2. How soils are formed. 3. Adaptation of plants to soil. 4. Texture and structure of soils. 5. Water holding capacity of soils. 6. Legumes and soil building. 7. Conservation of soil. 8. Soil conditioners, e.g., Kri11ium. 9. pH and its significance in soils. 10. Nitrogen cycle in the soil. 11. Air in soil necessary for plant growth. 12. Study of soils as related to history. 13. Soil forming agents. 14. Some definitions of soil.

-43-

Telecast No. IX

Background Material

The following principles taken from the Scope and Sequence Chart, category C, should be taught the children through carefully selected experiences at different grade levels. Suggested experiences are given under each principle but the teacher should not necessarily confine herself to these. The broader the range of experiences, the more definite learning results. Refer to UNESCO Sourcebook for Science Teaching, pages 60-63.

Grade I.

Principle (2) Some rocks are harder than others.

Experience: Collect rocks and test their hardness.

Grade II.

Principle (7) When plants die and decay, minerals may return to the soil.

Experience:

Discuss the carbon cycle. Discuss the nitrogen cycle. Discuss the water cycle. Discuss the mineral cycle.

Grade III.

Principle (1) There are different kinds of soil.

Experience:

Children should collect different samples of soil and try to arrange them according to texture: (a) sandy; (2) clay; (3) muck or peat. A proper mixture is called a loam.

Principle (2) Soil is made of disintegrating rocks and decaying organisms.

Experience:

Examine a sample of leaf mold to see how the particles have disintegrated. Crush some decayed rock and show how it breaks into small particles. Drop some dilute hydrochloric acid on a piece of marble and observe the bubbles of CO2 produced.

Principle (3) Soils are younger than rocks.

Experience:

Discuss the changes through which a rock goes as it weathers into soil.

-44-

Telecast No. IX

Principle (4) Disintegration of rocks forming soil is caused by wind, weather, chemical reactions, temperature changes, and friction.

Experience:

Heat a piece of glass and dip it quickly into cold water. Observe how it shatters.

Principle (5) Many small animals and plants live in the soil and help to make it fertile.

Experience:

Find an ant hill, a chipmunk's burrow, sane earthworm hills, crayfish chimneys and, if possible, a mole run.

Principle (6) Soil is one of the most important of our natural resources.

Experience:

Discuss the relation of good, fertile soil to the growth of food for man and his animals.

Principle (7) Man's welfare depends upon how well he builds and cares for good soil.

Experience:

Collect pictures of well cultivated fields as well as deserted farms in the dust bowl region.

Grade IV.

Principle (3) Pourous soil absorbs water better than non-porous and, therefore, slows down erosion.

Experience:

Set up experiments with different soils and observe the rates at which water passes through.

Principle (5) Rocks and soils are moved fran one place to another by streams and glaciers, and are deposited by slowing up of the streams and melting of glaciers.

Experience:

Examine a small creek or stream after a heavy rain. Observe the deposits of debris as the water begins to flow slowly. Prepare artificial clay hills and allow water to trickle down to a flat surface. Show how the eroded clay is deposited.

Grade V.

Principle (1) Rocks are classified as sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.

Experience: Collect and identify these types.

-45-

Telecast No. IX

Grade VI.

Principle (1) The kind of soil in any place depends upon the nature of the rocks fran which it is made and on the amount of humus added.

Experience:

Study a soil map of the United States and discuss the relation to the kind of rocks which have weathered. Allow sane good garden soil to settle out from a jar of water. Observe relative amounts of sand, clay, and humus.

Principle (2) Soils vary greatly in chemical composition and in physical properties.

Experience:

With soil kit allow students to make tests for the pH, and the presence of mineral elements. To determine the amount of water in s01l, weigh a measured quantity, then dry the measured amount in an oven and weigh again. The difference in weights will indicate the amount of water lost.

Principle (3) Living organisms in the soil play an important part in making it fertile.

Experience:

Observe earthworm heaps in a well fertilized lawn. These represent material the worm has brought up from the earth.

Principle (4) Bacteria on the roots of legumes are important in replenishing the supply of nitrogen in the soil.

Experience:

Dig some clover plants, wash off the soil and examin~ the nodules of bacteria. Review the nitrogen cycle.

Principle (5) Special cover crops will protect the soil fran erosion and will provide humus which improves the texture of the soil.

Experience:

Compare a slope covered with kudzu, grass, or honeysuckle, and a bare bank on a highway cut. Keep records of repeated observations of a bare soil surface and record the plants that appear.

-46-

Telecast No. IX

The pH of Soil

When soil solutions contain more H than OH ions, they are acid. When there are more OH than H ions, the soils are alkaline or basic. If the ions are present in equal concel~rations, the soil reaction is neutral.

The total number of H plus OH ions always remains constant in a solution, the concentration of one increasing as the other decreases. If the number of H ions is determined, the number of OH is the reciprocal.

pH is determined on a scale of values fran 1 to 14. The lower the number, the more acid the soil; the higher the number, the more alkaline the soil. Seven is the neutral point; therefore, any number above seven is alkaline, and any number below seven is acid.

Most plants thrive best in a neutral or slightly acid or slightly alkaline soil. Sane plants, however, thrive only in a distinctly acid soil. Acids may be formed in soils in many ways.

1. Most igneous rocks, such as granite, usually decanpose into acid soils.

2. Decaying organisms and products of metabolism usually produce acid soils.

the

w3a.terT. heTlhiebereraatcitoionnoifsCOre2vbeyrseadquiant

ic plants at night lowers the the presence of light, when

pH C02

of

produced is manufactured into foods by photosynthesis, and oxygen is released.

4. Smoke and fumes fran industrial plants frequently lower the pH in soil solutions.

Basic soils result fran decomposition of limestones and other mineral containing rocks which form salts that hydrolyze to yield strong bases.

Soils in cool, moist climates tend to becane acid while those in arid regions tend to be alkaline.

Acidity of soils may be decreased by use of limestone, or dolanite lime.

Alkaline soils may be made neutral or acid by addition of sulfur, sulfates, peat moss, leaves fran oak, pine, spruce, fir trees, etc.

-47-

TELECAST NO. X

Topic: Living Organisms, Their Origin, Characteristics, and Distribution

References:

Blough, et a1., Elementary School Science, pp. 231-307. Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Chap. 13. ETV, Flanigan, Science and You, Lessons 1, 9, and 10.
ETV, Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 5, 8, 9, 11.
Hone, et a1., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 2, 3, 5, and 6.
Scope and Sequence Chart--Living Matter.

1. Living matter differs from non-living chiefly because of the organization of constituent elements.

2. The carbon atom may hold the secret of the organization of living matter.

3. Constituent organic molecules may be illustrated by models.

4. Possible conditions on earth when life originated.

5. Water solutions of chemical elements essential for life collected in depressions on the cooling earth.

6. Groups of atoms in the "chemical soup" aggregated to form coacervates.

7. Chemical nature of living matter.

a. Water makes 75% of the mass of living matter.

b. Proteins--"Keystones in the Arch of Life"--make up 7%-10% of the mass of living matter.

c. Fatty substances make 1%-2% of the mass.

d. Mineral salts make small % but are necessary for proper functioning.

e. Carbohydrates are the chief source of energy.

8. Unique behavior of living matter.

a. Adaptation.

b. Self-replication.

c. Organization.

9. Distribution of life over the earth.

10. Cycles in nature significant for life.

-48-

CYCLES IN NATURE

A-T-M- -O-SP-H- -ER- E-

QSed /.-v -'9.
;Y"~-9/

y some ~ lighffiixneg~ "f '/0/"., -9 ,;,-t,; nI rqJe

8

~fNll)f(.,e:V/)~4iJt~vefell.ill
N'ifll"llt~S ~

~M....T....-. J(1'f~)i'ef4.' ~--

-

-

au(mNremHao3ni).a

8~

S-O--IL-

> ROCK8,MINERALS AIR YtATER HUMUS

40%

25% 25% 10%

TELECAST NO. XI Topic: Communities of Organisms--Ecosystems References: Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Lessons 8, 9, 12. ETV, Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 8, 9, 12. Scope and Sequence Chart--Living Matter. 1. Conditions under which life may exist. 2. Compounds necessary for living matter. 3. Physical factors which affect life. 4. The biotic environment. 5. Definition of communities of organisms. 6. Types of communities of organisms. 7. Producers versus consumers. 8. Food chains and their meaning. 9. Stable compared with unstable communities. 10. Suggestions for studying communities in a local environment. 11. Some suggested problems in ecology.
-50-

LIFE IN A FRESH WAfER POMJ
an eoosystem

CARNIVORES (SECONDARY
CONSUMERS)

TADPOLES
CRUSTACEA Some PROTOZ

ZOOPLAM<TON
HERBIVORES (PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)

~
/
/
/ / /

BACTERIAL ACTION ON ORGANIC MAltlGlW
a BACTERIA FUNGI
(REDUCERS)

HERBIVORES
BOTTOM \WRMS (PRIMARY CONSUMERS)

TELECAST NO. XII

Topic: Basic Concepts of Atomic Structure, Atomic Change, and Atomic Energy

References:

Bond, A. D., et al., Looking Ahead With Science, Teacher's Edition, pp. 15-43.
Brandwein, et al., The World of Matter--Energy, pp. 2-15, 264-280.
ETV, Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 2, 3, 14,
15. Haber, Heinz, OUr Friend the Atom, 1956. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chap. 24 MacCracken, et al., Singer Science Series--Basic Physical
Science, Chaps. 15, 16. The New Force of Atomic Energy. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.

1. Discoveries regarding the nature, structure, and behavior of atans permeates all phases of science in the present atomic age.

2. The structure of atans: (1) nucleus-protons-neutrons; (2) energy levels ("orbits," "shells") K--Q, containing rapidly moving electrons. There are as many electrons in the shells as there are protons in the nucleus.

3. Hydrogen is the lightest atan--one proton, one electron, and no neutrons. Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. All atoms are given an atomic number which indicates the number of protons in the nucleus.

4. The periodic chart of elements summarizes basic information of atomic structure and behavior. The chemical behavior of atoms is due to the electrons in their outer "shells."

5. Some heavy atoms, e.g. uranium and radium, disintegrate spontaneously, giving off alpha, beta, and gamma radiations. This phenomenon is known as radioactivity. The rate of decay is measured in terms of "half-life. II

6. If protons are added to or taken fran an atom its chemical properties are changed, and a new element is formed. If neutrons are added to or taken from an atom its chemical properties remain the same but its atomic weight is changed and an isotope of the element is formed.

7. A few natural isotopes are radioactive.

8. Scientists have produced radioactive isotopes by bombarding atoms of both light and heavy elements with high-speed alpha particles, protons, or neutrons.

9. The splitting of atoms, known as fission, produces atoms of a different element and releases tremendous energy.

-52-

Telecast No. XII 10. Atoms of the lighter elements, e.g. hydrogen and helium, may fuse under
certain conditions, producing a different element and releasing large quantities of energy. This is known as atomic fusion. 11. Atomic fusion in the sun produces the radiant energy which lights and heats the earth. 12. Radiant energy travels as waves of different length. These radiations form the electro-magnetic spectrum of which visible light is a small section. 13. Radioactive fallout is a product of atomic explosions. 14. Atoms have been called "the power packs" of the universe. 15. The peaceful use of atomic energy is one of man's most challenging problems.
-53-

Telecast No. XII

Background Material

1. Although the "Atomic Age" was ushered in by the explosion of the first atomic bomb in August, 1945, the concept that atoms are the basic structural units of matter interested scientists and philosophers for more than 2,000 years.

2. Each element is given an atomic number, which indicates the number of protons in its nucleus, and an atomic mass in round numbers, which is the sum of the protons and the neutronS:--The number of electrons moving around the nucleus is the same as the number of protons, Symbols of elements are written to indicate the structure, e.g., S016, lHl , 7N14 (Subscripts are numbers of protons, superscripts atomic mass.)

3. The energy levels ("shells") in atoms are lettered from the nucleus outward as K, L, M, N, 0, P, and Q. Each level has a certain number of electrons. The first or K level may contain only two electrons
(12 x 2 = 2), the second or L level can contain S (22 x 2 = S), the third or M level can contain IS (32 x 2 = IS), etc. After level two,
however, no outer level can contain more than S electrons (the principle of the octet). As more electrons are added, any above S begin filling the next level as well as the preceding level until its limit is
reached.

4. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a given element and the number of electrons in the "shells" or "orbits" remain constant. The number of neutrons may vary, making isotopes of the atom, but its chemical properties remain the same.

5. The discovery of radioactivity of uranium by Becquerel and the isolation of radium by the Curies indicated that something was being discharged from the material with the release of heat. This was the first suggestion of the possibility of atomic energy.

6. Becquerel placed uranium in a hole in a lead block so that the radiation would pass through a magnetic field. Some rays (negative electrons) were bent toward the positive pole; others (positive nuclei of helium) toward the negative pole, and some were not bent toward either pole. The positive were called alpha particles, the negative beta rays and the neutral, gamma rays.

7. The spontaneous emissions of radiation from radioactive elements (e.g. uranium, radium) is independent of physical or chemical conditions.

S. By bombardment of nuclei of light elements such as nitrogen (7N14) with

high-energy al~ha particles from a heavy radioactive element such as radium (SSRa13 ), Rutherford produced an isotope of oxygen (S017). This

showed that a stable element might be transformed into another element

Of by changing the number protons of its nucleus. The c~nge may be

> written 7N14 + 2He

S017 + 1H + Q

nitrogen alpha particle

oxygen isotope proton energy

-54-

Telecast No. XII
9. Alpha particles (helium nuclei) being positively charged are repelled by the positively charged nuclei of an atom being bombarded. The heavier the atom the greater its repulsion of the alpha particle bullets. This repulsion can be overcome by increasing the speed of the particles. Cyclotrons ("atom smashers") were developed to accelerate the alpha particles.
10. Bethe (1930), Chadwick (1932) discovered fast moving particles, having the same mass as protons but carrying no charge, and with great penetrating power, driven out from bombarded atoms. These were called neutrons and having no charge are not repelled by the positive nuclei of atoms being bombarded. These became the ''bullets'' for changing atoms.
11. Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman (1939) bombarded uranium atoms with neutrons, expecting to make isotopes with added neutrons and increased atomic weights. Instead, they found lighter radioactive elements, mixed with the remaining uranium. This was the first case of nuclear fission. Tremendous energy was released, including gamma radiation and heat.
12. With "critical masses" of uranium bombarded by neutrons it was found that not only were lighter elements formed but additional neutrons were liberated to serve as ''bullets'' for splitting additional uranium atoms. This is known as a "chain reaction."
13. Fermi developed an "atomic pile" which could partially control the "chain reactions" initiated. Steady progress has been made in developing the "atomic pile" and scientists now have "nuclear reactors" which are being used to furnish atomic energy for many purposes.
14. Under conditions of extremely high temperature (millions of degrees) such as generated in the A-bomb explosion hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium with the release of tremendous quantities of energy, as heat and radiation. An H-bomb is much more powerful than the A-bomb. It is estimated that there is in each gallon of water an amount of heavy hydrogen (deuterium) equivalent to 350 gallons of gasoline.
15. Einstein summarized the relation between energy and matter with the formula E = mc2 . This means that energy and matter are essentially the same and that there is a tremendous amount of energy in a small
bit of matter. (E in the formula = ergs; m = mass in grams; and c2 =
speed of light in centimeters.)
-55-

TELECAST NO. XIII

Topic: Radiant Energy and the Environment of the Earth--

The Atmosphere and Weather

References:

Barnard, J.D., et ale - Macmillan - $ciences Life Series. Blough, et al., Elementary School Science, pp. 187-228.
Craig, Science for Elementary School Teachers, Chap. 12.
ETV, Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 4, 6, 14,
17,18. Hone, et al., A Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 7,
9, 10. Jacobson, et al., Adventures in Science, Teacher's Edition,
Chap. 8. Life Magazine - New Portrait of our Planet, Nov. 28, 1960. NASA Facts - E-10-62. Bull. of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration. Newell, R. E. - The Circulation of the Upper Atmosphere.
Scientific American, March 1964, pp. 62-74. Parker, E. N. - The Solar Wind - Scientific American, April,
1964, pp. 66-76.

1. The sun is the principal source of energy for the earth.

2. General features of the sun: ~,photosphere, chromosphere, and corona.

3. Energy of the sun results from thermonuclear reactions--atomic fusion-hydrogen to helium--at high temperatures and pressure.

4. Radiations from the sun form a continuous electromagnetic spectrum, beginning as long radio waves and continuing to very short ones such as gamma rays and cosmic rays.

5. Energy from solar flares passes into space as strong "solar winds" propelling clouds of low-energy plasma and some of the sun's magnetic field.

6. The Van Allen Belt or Zone is a part of the larger magnetic field of the earth.

7. The earth lies on the outer fringes of the solar atmosphere and particles of its corona mingle with the upper atmosphere of the earth.

8. The atmosphere of the earth forms an ocean of gaseous material in which we live.

9. An atmosphere is heated by reflected heat radiation from the earth which absorbs the solar radiations.

10. Heated air expands and forms regions of "low" pressure. Cooler air forms

regions of "high" pressure.

-

-56-

Telecast No. XIII 11. Unequal heating of the atmosphere next to the earth (the tropospn~LC,
produces the turbulence giving rise to breezes, winds, and storms of varying intensity. 12. Rockets and satellites are used to secure information about solar radiations and their effect on the earth, particularly in production of weather. 13. Further understanding of interplanetary radiation and the changes brought about in the atmosphere of the earth will be of great significance to man.
-57-

Telecast No. XIII
Background Material
1. The relation between the earth and its atmosphere to the sun and its atmosphere is an important area of research in the atomic and space age.
2. The sun is a star, the center of our solar system, and although 93,000,000 miles from the earth, affects directly or indirectly every phase of its weather, its surface changes, its climate, its movements, and the life that has developed.
3. The principal features of the sun
a. A central gaseous ~ at very high temperature (120,000,0000 C) and tremendous pressure. Under these conditions atomic fusions take place readily transforming matter into energy and releasing energetic electrically charged particles, protons (nuclei of hydrogen), alpha particles (nuclei of helium) and free electrons.
b. An outer surface or photosphere, from which the light that reaches the earth arises. The temperature 10,0000 C.
Sunspots arise in the photosphere. They vary in size and number and pass from minimum to maximum number in cycles of 11 years. IGY studies in 1957-58 were made during a period of maximum sunspot activity.
c. Solar atmosphere - consisting of three layers:
(1) Reversing layer, composed of gases cooler than those in the photosphere. This layer absorbs certain wave lengths of sunlight.
(2) Chromosphere, a layer of luminous hydrogen, showing reddish color during eclipses. From this region solar prominences shoot out into space 250,000 miles or more.
(3) Corona, the outermost region of the solar atmosphere consisting of thin, very hot (1,000,0000 C) gaseous material which sends out streamers of charged electric particles into space.
4. Explorer Satellites Nos. X and XII (1961), and Mariner II (1962) verified the presence of great "solar winds" of charged particles, protons and electrons, streaming from the corona of the sun, as clouds of plasma. The earth is within the outer portion of this solar plasma which mingles with the upper atmosphere.
5. The Van Allen Radiation Belt or Region, discovered in 1958 by an IGY team led by James A. Van Allen, surrounds the earth at the equatorial region. The region is made of overlapping zones of high and low energy protons and
-58-

Telecast No. XIII

high and low energy electrons. The inner portion of the belt begins about 300 to 500 miles from the earth and extends outward 36,000 miles or more. As the Van Allen Belt is struck by streams of solar plasma the sunlit side becomes compressed while the opposite side is blown outward over 100,000 miles like an inverted cream cone.

6. The magnetosphere is made up of the Van Allen Belt together with the rr4gnetic field of the earth.

7. The atmosphere of the earth is continuous with the atmosphere of the sun. Changes in the sun's atmosphere, such as sunspots and solar flares, have a definite effect on the atmosphere of the earth.

8. Passing outward from the surface of the earth the atmosphere is divided into the following zones or layers, not clearly separated from each other.

a. The troposphere, average depth about 8 miles, being thinner at the
poles and thicker at the equator. The temperature varies with the height, reaching a low of -800 C over the tropics and -55 0 C in the polar regions. This layer (troposphere) is the area producing weather.

b. Tropopause, the upper limit of the troposphere, and with its lowest telliperature.

c. Stratosphere - Extends above the tropopause about 30 miles. Little vertical mixing, and little turbulence present.

At the top of the stratosphere is the ozone layer consisting of molecules of oxygen, 03. Ozone absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiatior. from the sun.

d. The ionosphere extends from about 60 miles to more than 120. It contains fewer air particles than the other layers but many more ionized electrical particles. Important in reflection of radio waves. Divided into several layers.

e. Exosphere - the outer fringe of the atmosphere which extends from the ionosphere throughout interplanetary space.

9.

Up to about 75
dioxide (COz),

miles, molecules of oxygen and water vapor (~O) make

u(p02

), the

naitirro.gen90%(N2o)f

,

carbon the air

is

below 10 miles from the earth, 99.9% below 30 miles.

Above 75 miles and up to 625 miles atomic oxygen is the abundant gas; between 6Z5 miles and 1,560 miles helium is dominant material, and from 1,560 miles outward into interplanetary hydrogen forms the atmosphere.

-59-

Telecast No. XIII 10. Water plays an important role in receiving, storing, and transporting the
solar energy received by the earth. As water vapor in the atmosphere it forms clouds which upon cooling produce precipitation. Evaporation from oceans, lakes, and rivers sends the vapor back into the air. The oceans serve as a sort of global thermostat to equalize the temperature over the earth.
-60-

TELECAST NO. XIV

Topic: Basic Concepts of Chemical Reactions

References:

Barnard, J. D. et. al., Science - A Key to the Future, pp. 28-67. Beauchamp, et al., Science is Understanding, pp. 21-23. ETV - Howell and Wilson - Speaking of Science, Lessons 2, 3, 13,
15. ETV - Singletary - How Do We Know? - Lessons 11, 12, 13. Georgia Science Guides, Appendix III, Section 1, part C. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chap. 12. Joseph, et al., A Sourcebook for the Physical Sciences,
pp. 104-127.

1. Comparison of physical and chemical changes.

2. Meaning of chemical symbols for elements.

3. Interpretation of formulae for ~olecules.

4. Differentiation of atomic numbers, mass numbers, and atomic weights.

5. Interpretation of chemical equations.
yields 2 HzO + Heat.

6. Reactions may be reversed.

Example: Electrolysis of water.

7. Combining weights in chemical reactions.

Fe + S

yields

56 grams 32 grams

FeS 88 grams.

8. Definition and illustration of valence.

9. Changing of atoms into ions.

10. Stable and unstable elements.

11. Explanation of periodic table of elements.

-61-

Telecast No. XIV

Background Material

1. Chemical elements are composed of single atoms or of molecules in which atoms of the same kind are joined together.

2. Chemical compounds are made of molecules in which there are two or more different kinds of atoms.

3. Chemical reactions of an atom are determined by the electrons in its outermost energy level or shell. Each energy level can contain only a fixed number of electrons. If the shell is less than half filled, the atom tends to give up electrons and becomes a positive ion. If the shell is more than half filled the atom tends to take on electrons and becomes a negative ion.

4. Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which electrons are lost. Reduction is

a chemical reaction in which electrons are gained.

----

5. Most metals are made of atoms with only one or two electrons in their outer shells. These electrons are easily lost and the atom becomes posi-
tive. Examples: Na, ca, and K. Most non-metallic atoms have six or
seven electrons in their outer shells and readily gain electrons, making them negative. Examples: CI, Br, and I.

6. Elements which nave three to five electrons in their outer shell sometimes gain electrons, hence reacting like non-metals, and sometimes lose electrons and react as metals.

7. The number of electrons received or donated by the outer shell of an atom indicates its value in combining with other atoms. Atoms of each element have a combining capacity or valence.

8. Three types of valence are known in forming compounds.

a. Electro-valence, in which the combining atoms gain or lose electrons. Both atoms electrically charged.

b. Co-valence, in which electrons are shared. Since there is neither loss nor gain of electrons, both atoms remain electrically neutral.

c. Co-ordinate valence, in which one of the combining atoms furnishes both electrons in at least one of the pairs shared.

9. Four types of chemical changes are readily recognized:

a. Combination, in which atoms or molecules combine to form larger molecules, e.g., carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide.

-62-

Telecast No. XIV b. Decomposition, in which molecules are broken down into elements or other compounds; e.g., sugar when burned produces carbon dioxide and water. c. Simple replacement or substitution, in which one kind of atom replaces another kind in the molecule; e.g., hydrochloric acid placed on zinc gives zinc chloride and hydrogen. d. Double replacement, in which some kinds of atoms in one molecule exchange places with other kinds in another molecule; e.g., silver nitrate added to sodium chloride produces silver chloride and sodium nitrate.
10. Elements combine to form compounds in definite ratios. Dalton formulated the Law of Definite Proportions.
11. Chemical reactions can be expressed in a concise and meaningful matter through the use of symbols, formulae, and chemical equations.
12. Nuclear reactions can also be expressed in symbols and equations.
-63-

TELECAST NO XV

Topic: Energy Release and Use in Organisms

References:

Barnard, et al., Science--A Key to the Future, pp. 24-454. ETV - Howell and Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 23, 24. ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know? - Lesson 5. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 4, 13. Morholt, et al., Sourcebook for the Biological Sciences, pp. 13-
68. Richardson, J. S. - Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, A
Resource Unit on Photosynthesis, pp. 190-197.

1. A discussion of the "Basic Seven Food Groups" with emphasis on the part each plays in adequate nutrition is a good way to introduce this study. Charts and diagrams should be made by the pupils.

2. The securing of energy necessary to carryon activities for living is the most important task facing all organisms.

3. The organization of all protoplasm (living matter) as well as the composition of the basic foods involves a relatively few chemical elements. The most important and abundant of these are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Phosphorus and sulfur are also important.

4. All energy storage and release seem to be related to the behavior of the hydrogen atom. Most of our concepts of food manufacture, digestion, assimilation, and energy transfer are related to hydrogen with phosphorus as the medium of exchange.

S. A basic knowledge of the chemistry of water, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, enzymes and vitamins is necessary to the proper understanding of nutrition.

6. The beginning of synthesis of food takes place in plants bearing chlorophyll through the process of photosynthesis.

7. The ultimate source of energy for life is the sun. The chief energy radiations used are in the visible portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum.

8. Photosynthesis consists of two basic reactions:

a. Light reaction (photochemical, independent of temperature) during which chlorophyll is energized by light energy and electrons are expelled. Water is split by the energized chlorophyll, the oxygen is released and the hydrogen enters into subsequent reactions.

b. Dark reactions (thermochemical, affected by temperature) carried on by enzymes, during which hydrogen is combined with carbon dioxide to form intermediate products (CHOH). Three of these combine with phosphate ions to form phosphoglyceric acid (C3H603.phosphate). The

-64-

Telecast No. XV

TPNH2 reactions during the dark phase of photosynthesis use energy supplied

by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and

(triphosphopyridine nucleo-

tide). These compounds are the energy currency for metabolism and

are thought to be formed by the stimulus of light on chloroplasts.

9. Green plants are the primary producers in the food chain. There is much energy lost in a long food chain from primary producers to ultimate consumers.

10. A study of the teeth of mammals gives an indication of their place in the pyramid of food chains.

11. The release of energy from foods by organisms is essentially the stripping off of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) and the transfer of the energy to ADP to make ATP.

C6H1206 ---oJ) 2C3~03 + 2~ + E1 (energy)

Glucose

Pyruvic acid

The hydrogen is captured by oxygen from air to form water and the El is stored in ATP.

--~) 2H20

The process is repeated and the pyruvic acid, in the presence of free
oxygen becomes CO2 + H20. 2C31J403 plus) 502 yields) 6C02 + 4H20 + E2

Pyruvic acid

-65-

Telecast No. XV
Background Material
1. Photosynthesis is one of the most significant processes in life. By capturing and storing energy from the sun photosynthesis stands between the continuation of life and its complete exhaustion. Chlorophyll may properly be called a ''magic pigment."
2. The principal elements involved in the composition of protoplasm, as well as of the foods in which energy is stored, are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Phosphorus is present in smaller amounts and in the compounds ATP, ADP, TPN and DPN, plays an important role in energy transfer.
3. Living organisms are complicated machines and are able to recover about 70% of the energy stored in foods.
4. Pyruvic acid (C3H403), a three carbon compound, is a sort of way station in metabolism, both in the storage of energy and its release from foods.
5. Detailed studies of the structure of leaves and their chloroplasts has aided in the understanding of the process of photosynthesis.
6. Two types of chlorophyll, A and B, are or common occurrence in chloroplasts. Chlorophyll A, bluish-green in color, has a composition C5SH720SN4Mg, while Chlorophyll B is yellowish-green in color and has a composition CSSH7006N4Mg. Note that the basic chemical difference is in the presence of two more atoms of hydrogen in Chlorophyll A and one additional atom ~f oxygen in Chlorophyll B.
7. Leaves appear green to our eyes, principally because chlorophyll reflects rather than absorbs yellow-green rays of the electro-magnetic spectrum. Most of the red and blue-violet rays are absorbed and provide the energy for energizing the chlorophyll and setting off the photochemical phase of photosynthesis.
8. Only about .S% to 2% of the total light energy absorbed by a leaf is actually converted into the chemical energy of foods in photosynthesis. This small amount of energy, however, provides all the food for the world.
9. In addition to Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B, other pigments in chloroplasts are carotene (a precursor of Vitamin A), and xanthophyll. Dissolved in the cell sap are the anthocyanins, which give the red, blue, lavender, and purple colors of the various plant parts.
-66-

Telecast No. XV

10.

Phosphate bonds binding the an important role in energy

psthoorsapgheataendrardeilceaalseP0. 4

to

adenosine

play

ADP = Adenosine diphosphate
ATP = Adenosine triphosphate

A-P",P A- P,.,., P -." P

Each ~ sign has, 12,000 calories of energy.

Light is thought to change ADP to ATP by adding a high energy bond.

11. Food chains are important in the understanding of energy relationships between organisms.

12. Man must learn to produce more food and shorten food chains as much as possible if the increasing population of the world is adequately nourished.

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TELECAST NO. XVI

Topic: Reproduction in Organisms

References:

Blough, et al., Elementary Science and How to Teach it, pp. 232-262. ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Sciences, Lessons 30, 31, 32. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 2, 3, 4, 6. Science for Georgia Schools (Vol. I, 1964 Rev.) pp. 77-82.

1. The climax of the activities of organisms is reproduction.

2. Many superstitions and unproven beliefs have arisen regarding reproduction.

Examples:

a. Frogs arise from decaying leaves in a pond.

b. Worms arise from horse hairs placed in spring water.

c. Maggots arise from decaying meat.

d. Molds arise from moist bread.

3. Redi, in 1688, disproved the spontaneous generation of life. His ingenious experiment may be duplicated in the classroom by using fruit flies.

4. Louis Pasteur, in 1875, proved that bacteria can arise only from pre-existing bacteria.

5. Reproduction is essentially a matter of molecular and cellular replication. This is dependent upon nuclear elements known as chromosomes. (A chemical substance, Desoxyribose nucleic acid, (DNA for short) is thought to be responsible for the replication of the chromosome. DNA, acting in conjunction with ribose nucleic acid (RNA) seems to determine the replication of cytoplasmic parts.

6. Two basic types of reproduction are usually recognized:

a. Asexual or vegetative reproduction, which does not involve union of cells or parts. Example: Euglena.

b. Se~l reproduction, which involves the union of specialized cells known as gametes.

7. The gametes which unite may be similar (isogamy) or unlike (heterogamy). Dissimilar gametes are usually called eggs from the female organ and sperms from the male organ.

8. Chromosomes, through DNA, determine the distinguishing characteristics of organisms, as well as the cyclic changes which occur during development. Chromosomes may be called the "road maps of heredity."

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Telecast No. XVI 9. Chick eggs can be studied in the laboratory and the stages of development can be observed by use of special technics. 10. Man has improved many of his plants and animals by use of his knowledge of their reproductive processes, and the part played by DNA and RNA. 11. Organismal reproduction, i.e. reproduction of the complete individual, follows molecular and cellular reproduction. 12. Regeneration of a lost part or of an injured tissue is a special type of reproduction involving molecular and cellular replication. 13. Propagation of plants through cuttings, etc. is a type of asexual reproduction. 14. Many of our important plants produced by hybridization are continued by asexual means, such as cuttings, grafting, and budding. 15. Seeds of higher plants are stages in reproduction and provide excellent materials for classroom studies. 16. Mendel's Laws of Heredity form the basis for modern genetics.
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Telecast No. XVI
Background Material
NOTE: Studies of Seeds as Background for Understanding Reproduction.
1. A seed is a ripened ovule containing an embryonic plant surrounded by stored food and protected by outer coats.
2. Seeds enable a plant to withstand adverse conditions and begin a new plant when proper conditions are met.
3. A fruit is a ripened ovary witn or without accessory parts. If the ovules within the ovary are properly stimulated by pollination and fertilization, the fruit will contain seeds. A plant may produce fruits without producing seeds.
4. Germination of seeds involves both internal and external conditions.
a. Internal conditions:
(1) Embryo must reach maturity. Examples: Holly, orchids, Ginkgo, some lilies.
(2) Dormant embryos must be reactivated or "after ripened." This takes place during winter in many seeds so that they germinate in the spring. Examples: Apples, pears, peaches, tulip poplars, and many other wild plants such as dogwood, pine, ash, Viburnum.
Seeds may be "after ripened" by storing them in moist geat for two or three months at temperatures between 400 and 50 F.
b. External conditions:
(1) Impermeable seed coats must be made permeable to oxygen and water. This is usually accomplished by action of soil microorganisms.
If seed coats are permeable and the embryos are mature, water is absorbed and the swelling embryo penetrates the coat.
(2) Water must be present.
(3) Oxygen must be present.
(4) Temperature must be favorable for enzyme action.
(5) Some seeds, such as lettuce and tobacco, require stimulus of light to induce germination.
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Telecast No. XVI
5. In some seeds the food is stored around the embryonic leaves (cotyledons) (Exendospermous). Example: Castor bean.
In others, the food is stored in the seed leaves (Endospermous). Example: Garden bean.
6. Under germination some seeds retain their food supply underneath the ground while only the plumules grow into the air. Example: English peas and corn.
This is known as hypogean germination.
Others raise the food supply above the ground. Example: Beans.
This is known as epigean germination.
7. Steps in germination of seeds when internal conditions are suitable: a. Water is absorbed.
b. Seed coats are ruptured. c. The primary root emerges through micropyle.
d. The shoot is pushed above the soil. e. Respiration becomes accelerated as oxygen is taken in.
f. Digestive enzymes become active and the insoluble stored food is broken into soluble ones.
g. Soluble foods begin to move from storage to growing points of the young seedling.
h. Some of the food is respired, some is used to form additional tissue.
8. Many different methods have been evolved by plants for the dissemination of seeds.
9. Successful propagation of plants from seeds demands a knowledge of the nature of the seed and the conditions necessary for their germination.
10. The longevity of seeds is an important field of investigation.
11. Much of the food for man is provided by seeds.
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Telecast No. XVI
12. Seeds of most wild plants show a type of dormancy which enables them to delay germination to survive the hazards of a specific environment. a. Desert plants Many species have germination inhibiting chemicals in the seed coats which must be leached out by heavy rains. These seeds do not germinate after light rains, but after heavy rains enough water is present in the soil to enable young seedlings to survive. b. Plants in temperate zone. If seeds shed in autumn germinated immediately, cold of winter would kill the young seedlings. These seeds usually require low temperatures to break dormancy. c. Xerophytic plants Example: The endemics on granite outcrops. These plants complete the cycle and shed their seeds in early spring. If the seeds germinated during summer the seedlings would die during the drought periods. The dormancy is broken by the rain of late fall and early winter. d. Seeds buried too deeply Weed seeds buried by plowing lack sufficient oxygen for germination and may remain dormant for several months in some cases, or until they are plowed up the next season. e. Aquatic plants Some seeds have corky coats which act as floats; others sink to the bottom where the deficiency of oxygen may prevent germination for many months until low water allows exposure to air. Some plants such as rice have developed low oxygen requirement for germination and develop seedlings in mud or under water.
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TELECAST NO. XVII

Topic: Kinds of Organisms and Their Identification - Taxonomy

References:

Comstock, Handbook for Nature Study. ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 5, 11, 28. ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know, Lessons 7, 8. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Teachers, Chaps. 2, 3,
4, 5, 6.
Palmer, Field Book of Natural History.

1. The study of the different kinds of living organisms should be carried on in the field.

2. Certain definite criteria enable us to recognize living organisms. These are:

a. Organization b. Irritability and adaptation c. Metabolism d. Reproduction e. Tendency to pass through cyclic changes f. Growth and differentiation

3. The great abundance of living organisms makes it necessary to group them on a basis of similarities and differences. This branch of science is taxonomy.

4. The binomial system of naming organisms was suggested by Linnaeus. Each name consists of two parts:

a. A genus name and b. a species name.

Examples: Genus

Species

Common Name

Homo Rosa Quercus Felis

sapiens alba alba iomesticus

= Modern man = White rose = White oak
= House cat

Genera are grouped into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes into phyla.

5. A study of the complete life cycle of an organism is a good classroom project.

Example: Cycle of moss, cycle of a frog, cycle of a bean, cycle of a butterfly, cycle of Drosophila.

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Telecast No. XVII 6. Each organism should be studied in relationship to its total environment if
we are to adequately understand it. Such studies constitute the science of ecology. 7. Plants can be somewhat differentiated from animals on the basis of a few broad characteristics: a. Cells with cellulose walls b. Indeterminate growth c. Usually fixed in position d. Plants with chlorophyll can make food 8. Many organisms are harmful to man. These should be recognized and controlled. 9. Many organisms are beneficial to man. These should be protected and developed. 10. Living organisms have evolved in time (geological history) and space (geographic distribution). 11. There are about 350,000 known plants and approximately 1,200,000 known animals.
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Telecast No. XVII
Background Material
1. The subdivision of science which deals with classification is taxonomy.
2. There is a great variety of plants and animals on the earth. Approximaterly 1,250,000 species of animals, and 350,000 species of plants are known. More are yet to be described and named. We cannot learn details about every individual organism, hence it is desirable to arrange them in groups.
3. Classification is essentially the sorting out of many objects on the basis of their sUnilarities, as well as their differences. By knowing the characteristics of a group we can properly locate an individual.
4. Names were originally given on the basis of first impressions made on the observer. Later names came to be applied on the basis of certain rules of nomenclature (the science of naming). All organisms have two names--a genus name and a species name. Example: Homo sapiens.
5. Different methods of grouping have been used:
a. On basis of habitat. b. On basis of life habits. c. On basis of structure. d. On basis of embryological development. e. On basis of genetic relationships.
6. Linnaeus (1754), a Swedish botanist, is known as the father of classification, and gave us a binomial system of nomenclature.
7. Charles Drawi, (1859) emphasized the interrelationship between all organisms-- f1The Web of Life." His theory of evolution was a unifying principle which brought together many isolated facts in the field of biology.
8. The identification of plants and animals is facilitated by the use of keys.
9. Taxonomy is an interesting phase of biology and should be made a challenge rather than a chore.
10. The divisions of a group of organisms are:
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
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Telecast No. XVII 11. Students may be taught the principles of classification by sorting out a
variety of objects into groups based on similarities and differences. Example: Cutouts of varied shapes and sizes from a metal and from card-
board of different colors. Arrange according to: a. Material - metal or paper. b. Colors - white, green, etc. c. Margin - smooth or notched. d. Shape - round, diamond, square, etc. e. Size - large,small. Example: Leaves from different trees in your vicinity arranged according
to: a. Duration - evergreen or deciduous. b. Margin. c. Size.
d. ShaPe.
e. Arrangement - opposite or alternate. f. Other differences or similarities. 12. After sorting out objects as indicated, a key for identification should be constructed.
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TELECAST NO. XVIII

Topic: Man's Use and Improvement of Plants and Animals

References:

Blough, et al., Elementary Science and How to Teach It, pp. 232262.
Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp. 633-655.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lesson 31.
Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 3 and 5.

1. Discoveries made through science become most significant when man learns to use and control them.
2. Health, safety, and conservation should be studied in connection with an overall science program.
3. Desirable plants and animals should be conserved and improved; undesirable ones should be controlled or exterminated.
4. The application of the laws of genetics has enabled man to produce more desirable and useful plants and animals to meet his needs for food, fibers, ornament, and protection.
5. Organisms live together in an environment in various relationships known as symbiosis. Some types of symbiosis are commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.
6. Parasites are responsible for many diseases of both plants and animals. Man should learn to control the parasitic diseases that affect himself and his useful plants and animals.
7. Ectoparasites live on the outside of the body of the host. Endoparasites live within the body of the host.
8. Many parasites pass through complex life cycles. In some cases they have alternate hosts in completing their cycle.
9. Man through science seeks to understand and interpret the objects in his environment.
10. Careful studies of Drosophila, the vinegar gnat or fruit fly, have given us laws of genetics which can be applied to other organisms.
11. Through breeding from selected organisms, w~ are able to produce desirable ones to better meet our needs.
12. Chromosomes represent the physical basis for genetics.

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Telecast No. XVIII
13. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk, was first to state some of the laws of genetics and, working with garden peas, proved the ratios in which characters would appear in successive generations.
14. Chromosomes have been called the "road maps of heredity." They owe their specificity to a chemical substance known as DNA (desoxyribose nucleic acid) .
15. Another nucleic acid, RNA (ribose nucleic acid) is closely associated
with DNA in bringing to expression the inherent potentials of an organism.
16. DNA combines with proteins to form nucleoproteins which constitute the regions in chromosomes known as genes. A gene may be defined as:
a. A unit of biochemical action; b. A unit of mutation, or c. As a unit of genetic crossovers.
17. The nucleic acid portion of nucleoproteins seems to be responsible for the activity of genes.
18. No two organisms have exactly the same kind of DNA, the differences
being due to the structural pattern of the four constituent nucleotides of the DNA.
19. Nucleotides of DNA and RNA are compounds consisting of a nitrogenous
base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate. There are two kinds of nucleo-
tides and five varieties involved in the make-up of DNA and RNA.
20. DNA nucleotides:
Base - sugar - phosphate. Adenine - deoxyribose - phosphate. Guanine - deoxyribose - phosphate. Cytosine - deoxyribose - phosphate. Thymine - deoxyribose - phosphate.
RNA nucleotides:
Base - sugar - phosphate. Adenine - ribose - phosphate. Guanine - ribose - phosphate. Cytosine - ribose - phosphate. Uracil - ribose - phosphate.
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Telecast No. XVIII
Background Material
Environmental factors in plant growth, development, and improvement. An attempt should be made to study these different factors in the laboratory.
1. Internal Factors
a. Heredity - the genetic composition of chromosomes. Plant selection, breeding and hybridization - Mendel's laws.
b. Food reserves - made by photosynthesis from carbon dioxide of the air and water from soil. Energy from light rays. Foods stored in roots, ste~s, leaves, and seeds. Storage possible only after immediate needs are met.
c. Hormones - plant auxins - growth regulators. Produced in leaves and terminal buds - affect flowering, fruit formation, and regulate growth in general.
d. Cellular growth, differentiation, and development.
2. External Factors
a. Soil - nature's great chemical laboratory. Consists of rock particles, mineral salts, water, air, living organisms, and humus. Forms a dark mantle of life-giving substances. Man must conserve and improve soil if he expects to get the best from his plants.
b. Water - source of, nature of, and role in living things. Role in transpiration, photosynthesis, and digestion. Pollution of and necessity for conservation.
c. Light - radiant energy - quality - intensity - duration. Role in growth, flowering, photosynthesis, and photoperiodism. Long day, short day, and neutral plants.
d. Temperature - life range 320 to 1100 F. Heat tolerance. Relation to dormancy and hardening - effect of night temperature - effects on growth and flowering. Peaches and 1,000 hours at 400 F.
e. Air - mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, dust, spores, chemical gases and inert gases. Oxygen necessary for all life - respiration uses oxygen, gives carbon dioxide and water. Nitrogen of air fixed by bacteria on roots of legumes to give soluble nitrates in soil. CO2 combines with water to give carbohydrates in photosynthesis. Air necessary in soil for root growth - texture of soil affects amount of air and water present. Air pollution by gases, dust, spores, and radiation fallout.
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Telecast No. XVIII 3. Limiting Factors - the law of the minimum.
a. Role of minor elements - Fe, Cu, Zn, 5, Bo, MD, Mo. b. Minimums of water - light - heat - mineral salts. 4. Man's Use of Environmental Factors. a. Plant selection and breeding based on knowledge of internal factors.
Hybridization gives types desired. b. Good gardening based on use and control of external factors.
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TELECAST NO. XIX

Topic: The Solar System in Space and Time

References:

Barnard, et al., Science--A Key to the Future, pp. 263-337. Blough, et al., Elementary School Science and How to Teach
It. Part II. The Earth and the Universe. Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp.189-3ll. ETV - Flanigan, Science and You, Lessons 5, 6, 7, 8.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 14.
ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know1 Lessons 18, 19, 20, 21. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chap. 10. Newell, Homer E. A World in Space - 1963. NASA Publication,
Office of Educational Programs and Services. Science for Georgia Schools (Revised 1964), Vol. I, pp. 114-117. Scope and Sequence Chart - The Earth in Space. Space, The New Frontier. NASA Publication D-696-690, 1963.
Office of Educational Programs and Services.

1. Present day science instruction must take pupils into the atom and out to the stars.

2. The earth is our platform in space) from which we may view the universe.

3. Three basic discoveries made possible much of present day concepts of the earth and its place in the universe.

a. The earth is not the center of the universe. b. Newton's statement of laws of gravitation. c. Determination of the speed of light.

4. Measurement of celestial distances.

Prepare scale model of sun and planets to show distances.

5. Discussion of "Doppler effect." The direction and speed of movement of stars determined by "Doppler effect."

6. Instruments for observing and measuring extra-terrestrial phenomena.

a. Telescope b. camera c. Spectroscope d. Radio-telescope e. Star maps

7. Some facts about galaxies and nebulae.

a. Galaxies made of stars; nebUlae of gas and clouds of dust. b. The sun, solar system, and the milky way make our "Island in
Space."

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Telecast No. XIX 8. Atomic fusion is source of the sun's energy. 9. Forces which operate on earth operate throughout the universe. 10. The concept of an expanding universe.
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TELECAST NO. XX

Topic: The Story of the Earth as Told in the Rocks

References:

Blough, et al., Elementary Science and How to Teach It, pp. 89140.
Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Chap. 10. ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know? Lessons 14, 15.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 10, 26.
Life Magazine's The World We Live In, 1955. Science for Georgia Schools, Appendix III, Part III. Spar, Earth, Sea and Air, pp. 40-51.
UNESCO - Sourcebook, Chap. V.

1. Geologists estimate that the earth is approximately 4 1/2 billion years old.

2. The same forces which operate on the earth today have operated throughout its history.

3. The erosion of surface rock material and its subsequent deposition on the bottom of seas and oceans as sediments gives the geologist data regarding the history of the earth.

4. The internal forces of the earth lift, lower, and/or distort the rocks in its crust. These processes result in mountain forming, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

5. Classification of rocks as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic is based on their origin primarily and thus reflects in their composition and structure the conditions under which they were made.

6. The presence of igneous rocks such as granite and basalt, indicates the action of intense heat on the minerals of which the earth is composed.

7. Sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone, and shales indicate the action of water in eroding, transporting, and sedimentation of mineral matter.

8. Metamorphic rocks such as marble from limestone, slate from shale, and quartzite from sandstone indicate the action of heat and pressure.

9. By measuring the thickness of specific layers of sedimentary rocks, geologists can estimate the time required for their formation.

10. With the discovery of radioactivity of uranium compounds and the rate of their disintegration, a reliable method of determining the age of the earth was developed.

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Telecast No. XX
11. Conditions arose on the earth suitable for the origin and continued existence of life.
a. A mixture of ammonia, water vapor, hydrogen, and methane (marsh gas) when subjected to high temperatures, form organic compounds. The atmosphere of the cooling earth contained these gases.
b. The cooling and shrinking earth became the right size to retain atmosphere as we know it.
c. The distance from the sun and the rotation on its axis provided proper temperature for life.
d. With the coming of green plants, oxygen and carbon dioxide ratios in the atmosphere were established.
e. Layer of ozone developed in upper atmosphere to filter out harmful rays from the sun.
f. Van Allen Radiation Belt formed shield against harmful electrically charged particles.
g. The approximately circular orbit maintains relative stability of conditions.
12. Organisms that have lived in the past sometimes leave evidence of their existence embedded in the rocks. These remains are known as fossils.
13. Certain conditions are necessary for the formation of a fossil:
a. The dead organism must be protected from disintegration and decay through quick burial.
b. The organism must possess hard parts such as shells, bones, teeth, scales, or wood.
c. Foot prints, trails or burrows must be made in soils, clay, mud, etc. which may become sediments and change into rocks.
14. Some ways in which rapid death and burial have taken place for organisms:
a. Volcanic ash and dust.
b. Preservation in caves.
c. Tar pits.
d. Sand storms in arid regions.
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Telecast No. XX
e. Swamps and bogs. f. Deposits of silt and sand during floods. g. Quicksand. h. Muck and ooze on ocean bottom. i. Frozen wastes in the frigid zone. 15. The oldest fossils known represent organisms which lived about 550,000,000 years ago. 16. Geological history is divided on the basis of rock types and their relative position, together with the fossil remains. Four major divisions or ~ have been designated: a. Pre-Cambrian, which is believed to account for 2/3 of all geologic
time. Life was so simple that fossil records are not common. b. Paleozoic (old life) - cambrian is its first period. c. Mesozoic (intermediate life). d. Cenozoic (recent life). These ~ are further divided into periods and periods into epochs. 17. A comparative study of fossils gives evidence for the theory of evolution, which may be defined as "descent with modification." 18. The determination of the age of a rock formation in a given area is aided by "index fossils." 19. Carbon dating through the study of the disintegration of radioactive carbon in fossils has proved to be a reliable method of determining the age of deposits in which the fossil is found.
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TELECAST NO. XXI
Topic: Relation Between Atomic Behavior and Electricity, Light, Heat, and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

References:

Barnard, et al., Science--A Key to the Future, Unit 4. Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp. 680, 738-
782; 790-800.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 14, 15, 16,
17, 18. ETV - Flanigan, Science and You, Lessons 29, 30. ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know? Lessons 22, 23, 24, 25. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, Chaps. 16, 18,
22, 24. Science for Georgia Schools (1964), Environment Chart, Teaching
Units on Heat and Light.

1. Electricity, light, and heat are forms of energy.

2. The chief source of energy on the earth is from fusion of hydrogen atoms in the sun.

3. The sum total of matter and energy in the universe is apparently constant.

4. Under certain conditions energy may be changed into matter and matter into energy.
5. Einstein's formula E = mc2 expresses the basic relationship of matter and
energy. Essentially the formula means that a very small mass of matter can be converted into a tremendous amount of energy.

6. The transformation of matter into energy is made possible through nuclear changes in atoms.

7. The electrons which surround the nucleus of atoms move in "orbits" or "shells" which give them different "energy levels." Electrons can be shifted from one energy level to another.

8. All atoms have potential (stored) energy due to their internal structure. Under certain conditions this is changed into kinetic energy (energy of motion).

9. Chemical energy is the result of the action of atoms on one another.

10. Nuclear energy is a result of the action of the parts within the atoms.

11. The atoms of some elements, e.g. uranium, release nuclear energy spontaneously as electrically charged particles, alpha (+) and beta (-) and as radiations of high frequency (gamma rays).

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Telecast No. XXI
12. By bombardment of atoms of heavy elements (uranium) with neutrons, the nuclei can be split (nuclear fission) and new elements formed.
13. Atoms of lighter elements (e.g., hydrogen and lithium) when exposed to extreme heat can be made to fuse to form new elements (nuclear fusion).
14. Studies of radioactive elements and of nuclear fission and fusion indicate that all matter is electrical in nature. Some particles
(protons) bear + charges, others (electrons) are negative (-) and
neutrons are neutral.
15. Radiant energy is given off from substances when their atoms are excited sufficiently to cause their electrons to jump from one "orbit" or energy level to another. Heat, for example, causes displacement of electrons from an inner orbit near the nucleus to an outer one. However, the attraction of the nucleus with its + protons causes the electrons that have been displaced to jump back to an inner one and in so doing radiant energy is released. Example: Heat applied to an iron nail first gives radiations of heat which can be felt but not seen. Continued heating produces a red glow, then a yellowish and finally becomes r~hite hot" or incandescent, at a temperature of about 12000 C.
16. Radiations of certain wave length can be received by the human eye and constitute what we call visible light. Infrared rays cannot be seen by the eye but affect types of photographic film and produce heat. Ultraviolet radiations cannot be seen but can be tested by certain instruments.
17. Light is a form of radiant energy which travels from one place to another as if it were a wave. When it is given off by a body or strikes an object it acts as if it were a stream of rapidly moving particles o~ bundles of energy. These bundles are known as quanta, or for light,photons.
18. Radiant heat and light both seem to be forms of electromagnetic waves, differing from radiowaves, ultraviolet rays, x rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays in their frequency and wave length.
19. The different forms of radiant energy taken together constitute what is known as the electromagnetic spectrum, all traveling at approximately the same speed in a vacuum, 186,000 miles per second.
20. Electrons can be removed from surfaces of objects by friction, e.g., rubbing a glass rod with silk takes electrons from the rod which then becomes positive, while the silk becomes negative. A comb rubbed with wool receives electrons from the wool and becomes negative, while the wool becomes positive. This illustrates static electricity.
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Telecast No. XXI 21. Electrons can be made to travel along certain materials known as conductors,
if they are excited by a stimulus. Such flowing of electrons is known as current electricity. 22. Resistance to the passage of electrons through a conductor generates heat from excited atoms. This is the basis for incandescent light bulbs. 23. Some substances can be made to produce electric currents when struck by light; e.g., the light meter for photography or the '~gic eye" for opening doors. 24. Lightning is the result of discharge between the negative charges on the lower surface of a cloud and the positive charges on the earth. 25. Modern research on the nature of electricity and its relation to heat, light, and sound is providing man with many useful products.
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TELECAST NO. XXII

Topic: Machines as Means of Harnessing Energy

References:

Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp. 688-715.
ETV - Howell & Wilson, Speaking of Science, Lessons 19 and 20.
ETV - Singletary, How Do We Know? Lessons 29, 30, 31, 32. Science for Georgia Schools, pp. 65-67. UNESCO - Sourcebook for Science Teaching, Chaps. X and XI.

1. Machines are essentially man's devices for extending his energy and power in order to do work. Work is the product of a force applied and the distance through which it acts.
2. The principles which operate in modern machines operate throughout the natural environment. Man has discovered many of these and has learned to utilize them; e.g., Newton's laws of motion; laws of conservation of energy.
3. All complex machines are made of simple ones. Simple machines are:
a. The lever, three types of; b. The inclined plane; c. The pulley; d. The wheel and axle.
4. With the discovery of new sources of energy (steam, electricity, nuclear fission) and lighter construction materials (aluminum, magnesium, plastics, alloys) smaller and more powerful and more efficient machines have been developed.
5. The mechanical advantage of a machine is equal to the force output divided by the force input.
6. Machines are designed to:
a. Increase force; b. Change direction of application of force; c. ~hange direction of motion; d. Change speed of motion; e. Transmit mechanical force from one point to another.
7. Friction tends to reduce the mechanical advantage of machines.
8. Man's body is essentially a machine for converting energy into work.

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Telecast No. XXII 9. Stages in the harnessing of energy to machines:
a. Muscle power - man and animals; b. \vind power; c. Water power; d. Steam power; e. Electricity; f. Gas combustion engines; g. Diesel engines; h. Jet engines,
Turbo-prop, Turbo-jet, Ram-jet; i. Rockets - solid and liquid fuel; j. Electronic engines and machines.
-90-

TELECAST NO. XXIII
Topic: Science Teaching in the Space Age
References: Blough, et al., Elementary School Science and How to Teach It, pp. 540-562.
Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, pp. 189-226. Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 434-464. NASA Facts - An Educational Services Publication of the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.,20546. NASA-EP-2l, Handbook in Aerospace Education for Elementary School
Teachers, "Teaching to Meet the Challenges of the Space Age" Florence V. Oths, 1963. (This booklet emphasizes the significance of science education in the space age and shows how the science experiences may be related to the curriculum as a whole. Comprehensive lists of free and inexpensive materials are given, as well as bibliographies specially prepared for elementary grades. Current publications of NASA are listed. Available from U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.)
1. Man sits on his platform in space and with microscopes views the infinitesimally small; with telescopes projects himself into the region of the stars and beyond; and by combining his discoveries gains comprehensive understanding of his total environment. "We are indeed on a shrinking globe in an expanding universe."
2. In order to make measurements for the extremes of the infinitesimally small and the immensity of phenomena of space he has devised new standards of comparison.
3. The idea of space travel presents a distinct challenge to scientists.
4. Space travel is expensive but the contributions already made seem to justify the necessary expenditures.
5. New and more powerful fuels have been developed to send satellites into space. These are both liquid and solid.
6. Some major problems which concern space travel are:
a. Null gravity. b. Absence of atmosphere. c. Adequate nutrition. d. Provision for disposal of wastes. e. High pressures at take-off and re-entry. f. Extreme heat at re-entry. g. Exercise and relaxation for astronauts. h. Psychological reactions on part of astronauts. i. Hazards of cosmic radiation.
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Telecast No. XXIII 7. Space stations are being designed. 8. Special ships for exploring the moon are being tested. 9. The Van Allen belt presents certain hazards for space ships leaving the earth. 10. The future of space travel cannot be predicted but the possibilities defy the imagination. 11. Many useful products and technics have been developed as by-products of investigation of space.
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TELECAST NO. XXIV

Topic: Science and Human Welfare

References:

Blough, et al., Elementary School Science and How to Teach It, pp. 334-362.
Bulletins from Georgia Health Department. Carson, Rachel - Silent Spring. Craig, Science for the Elementary School Teacher, Chaps. 6 and 21 Hone, et al., Sourcebook for Elementary Science, pp. 492-501. Science for Georgia Schools (1964), pp. 91 and 97.

1. Man's use of the methods of science results in useful products. Science itself produces nothing.

2. The environment provides matter, energy, and change which man learns to understand, interpret, and control.

3. Health is a most important condition for effective living. Many phases of the environment affect man's health.

4. Natural defenses against disease.

5. Certain microorganisms cause disease.

6. Knowledge of the cause of disease enables man to develop methods of prevention and cure.

7. Materials in the environment may be put to use.

a. Building materials. b. Tools. c. Fuels.

8. Resources in the environment are of two kinds:

a. Exhaustible. b. Inexhaustible.

9. Conservation of natural resources is an important activity.

10. Pollution of air and water should be prevented.

11. Misuse of lands must be avoided.

12. Man, who could control and use resources wisely, has been nature's greatest despoiler.

13. The atomic age has presented new problems of contamination of water, air, and food.

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TELECAST NO. XXV
Topic: Science as Preparation for the Future
1. The challenges of the future, which no man can predict, demand that we critically reevaluate our educational procedures designed to prepare our students for meeting changes we cannot anticipate.
2. The key to understanding of the world in which we now live, as well as the world of the future, lies in the intelligence of human beings.
3. Science is a human activity which leads to discovery, understanding, interpretation and wise use of the principles which operate throughout the entire animate and inanimate environment.
4. Science does nothing, produces nothing, and accomplishes nothing. Intelligent man using the methods of science makes the discoveries, interprets them, and relates them to the store of knowledge he has already acquired.
5. Science is no longer the concern of the specialist alone but of every citizen, in every community.
6. The training in the scientific pattern of thinking, which begins with careful and unbiased observations and proceeds to establishing relationships to previous observations and interpretations, gives a sound basis for forming judgments.
7. Explanations are at best tentative and are stated as "hypotheses" or "theories" until fully tested by logical reasoning and controlled experimentation.
8. Scientists are aware of the fact that the most unchanging principle of nature is the principle of change. The ~ of change and the direction of change are most important considerations.
9. In looking to the future we must prepare our children to anticipate changes, to face them not with fear but as challenges. They must be prepared to set the direction of and the rate of those changes which they can understand and control.
10. A strong science program closely related to all other areas of the curriculum offers the best means of preparation for living in the world of tomorrow.
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Reference Books
1. Elementary Science and How to Teach It. Blough, Glenn, et ale 1958,
Revised Edition, Holt, Rinehart &Winston.
Both content and methods are very effectively presented.
2. Book of Methods - Teaching High School Science. Brandwein, Paul, Fletcher
watson, and Paul Blackwood. 1958. Harcourt, Brace & Co.
Although this book was written for high school science, it contains much valuable material for any science teacher. Section 5, pp. 476-530, contains particularly good suggestions for carrying out a strong science program. Sections 1 and 2, pp. 11-200, are particularly good for providing an understanding of what science really is and how scientists carry on their work.
3. Handbook for Nature Study. Comstock, Anna. 1953. Rev. Ed.
Excellent reference book for identification of many of the natural objects and specimens which children bring to class.
4. Science for the Elementary School Teacher. Craig, G. S. 1958. 2nd Ed. Ginn & Co.
This is a classic in the field. It is good for the basic philosophy of science teaching. The content material for the early sciences and astronomy is especially good. There are also many good suggestions of science experiences to lead the children to discover principles for themselves.
5. How to Do An Experiment. Goldstein, P. 1957. Harcourt, Brace & Co.
A concise and comprehensive discussion of the scientist's work and how the student may learn these procedures through his own experiences.
6. A Sourcebook for Elementary Science. Hone, Elizabeth, Alexander Joseph,
Edward Victor, and Paul Brandwein. 1962. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
At the end of each chapter in this Sourcebook, capsule lessons are suggested which will prove of much value in developing your activities in the classroom. In addition, there is included for each chapter a brief bibliography which will help in your selection of supplementary books for your classroom and general library.
Be sure to read the appendix (pp. 482-506) carefully for specific suggestions on using your classroom for a strong science program.
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Reference Books
7. A Sourcebook for the Physical Sciences. Joseph, Alexander, Paul Brandwein,
Evelyn Morho1t, Harvey Pollack and Joseph castka. 1961. Harcourt, Brace &
World.
This book was written primarily for the high school but will be found valuable as a reference for any science teacher. The introduction (pp. XIXXXX) is particularly good in showing how elementary science should be related to that taught at secondary levels without unnecessary and often boring repetition.
8. A Sourcebook for the Biological Sciences. Morho1t, Evelyn, Paul Brandwein and Alexander Joseph. 1958. Harcourt, Brace and Co.
This book provides subject matter ~ent and tested methods of effective presentation for science experiences dealing with living organisms. The "capsule lessons" at the end of each chapter are particularly good in suggesting interesting and dynamic experiences for introducing pupils to the problem finding and problem solving method of developing concepts in science. Chapter 21 gives many valuable instructions for preparation of teaching materials.
9. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, E. Laurence. McGraw-Hill Co., 1949.
Excellent for identification of common plants and animals.
10. Science Teaching in Secondary Schools. Richardson, John S. 1957. PrenticeHall, Inc.
A book of practical suggestions for any science teacher. The first chapters are particularly good to give a background of the "why" and "how" of science teaching.
11. Science Projects You can Do. Stone, George K. 1963. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Suggestions for simple experiments which can be performed with minimum equipment.
12. UNESCO.
Excellent suggestions for simple experiences designed to illustrate all phases of elementary science. Revised as 700 Science Experiments for
Everyone. Doubleday & Co., Inc.
13. Things to do in Science and Conservation. Ashbaugh, B.L., and Muriel Beusch-
lein, 1960. Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc., Danville, Ill.
This book contains many valuable suggestions for providing science experiences by using equipment found in the average school. The theme of conservation is emphasized.
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Textbook Series - Teacher's Edition
1. Macmillan Science-Life Series, Books 1-8. Barnard, J. Darrell et a1. 1962. The Macmillan Co.
2. The Basic Science Program, Grades K-8, Teacher's Edition. Beauchamp,
Wilbur L., et a1. 1964. Scott, Foresman & Co.
3. Lyons & carnahan Developmental Science Series, 1964. Bond, A. D. et a1.
4. Singer Science Series, Grades 1-9. 1964. MacCracken, Helen, et a1. L. W. Singer Co.
5. Harper and Row, Science Series, grades 1-6, Teacher's Edition. Navarra,
J. G. and Joseph zafforoni, 1963. Harper & Row, Publishers.
6. Heath Science Series, Grades 1-8, Teacher's Edition. Schneider, Herman
and Nina. 1961. D. C. Heath & Co.
7. Ginn & Co. Science Today and Tomorrow. Craig, et a1.
8. American Book Company Science Series, Grade 1-9. Jacobson, W. J. et a1.
9. Allyn & Bacon Science Series.
10. Harcourt, Brace & World Science Series.
Miscellaneous References
1. It's Time for Better Elementary School Science. Blough, Glenn, 1958. National Science Teachers Association. An excellent discussion of the criteria of a good elementary science program and its implementation.
2. Navarra, John G. The Development of Scientific Concepts in a Young Child. Harper and Row, Publishers, 1960.
3. Science Today for the Elementary School Teacher. Navarra, John G. and Joseph zafforoni. Harper and RoW, Publishers, 1960.
4. Science Facilities for our Schools. National Science Teachers Association. 1963. Washington, D. C.
5. Science Equipment and Materials for Elementary Schools. Piltz, Albert. 1961. Bull. No. E-29029, U. S. Office of Education.
For more complete lists of references, consult
1. Appendix 1 of Georgia Science Guides, 1964.
2. Deason, Hilary J., 1963. The AAAS Science Book List for Children. American Association for the Advancement of Science.
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SELF APPRAISAL OF THE USE OF PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING SCIENCE*
Regardless of the content of a science program, or of a specific course, the method by which it is presented is of paramount importance. Proper science teaching should be a dynamic process by which the student is trained in critical thinking and evaluation of evidence in the solution of problems which he recognizes as significant, states clearly and concisely, and seeks to solve through the study of valid and pertinent evidence.
By making a self analysis of your practices in teaching science,you will provide yourself with a reliable basis for improving classroom procedures.
I. Recognition and Clear Statement of the Problem Through Curiosity and Inquiry

To what extent do you:

Often Seldom

1. plan activities in advance which will help pupils recognize and state problems of significance to them?

2. limit your activities to suggestions in a text?

3. help pupils to isolate a single problem which can be subjected to critical examination and testing?

4. encourage pupils to propose plans for gathering evidence in support of their solutions?

5. encourage pupils to propose possible solutions for the problem on the basis of their previous experience?

6. have a clear statement of the outcomes you anticipate as a result of the lesson plans?

7. relate the proposed problem to a specific set of principles under one of the broad areas of the Scope and Sequence Chart?

8. encourage individual inquiry regarding science materials which can be brought to school for observation and study?

Never

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II. Gathering Evidence Pertinent to the Problem

To what extent do you:
1. cooperate with the librarian in supplying a variety of reference sources?
2. help pupils develop skills in consulting references?
3. provide a variety of reference books in the classroom?
4. introduce a variety of sources from which information may be obtained?
5. provide adequate laboratory and field trip experiences for collecting information?
6. help pupils develop skill in interviewing resource people to secure evidence on a problem?
7. use community resources in helping with your science exercises?
8. provide visual aids to supplement your teaching plans?
9. evaluate the pupils' progress in habits of critical thinking as carefully as you evaluate their factual information?

Often Seldom Never

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III. Formulating Conclusions and Making Applications

To what extent do you:
1. help pupils develop skill in arranging and tabulating data?
2. help pupils distinguish relevant from irrelevant data?
3. help pupils to reason critically and logically in evaluating data?
4. help pupils see the relationships between facts learned and other problems which the studies suggest?
5. help pupils develop an awareness of the significance of progress in science to modern society?
6. help pupils make inference from the data secured in gathering evidence?
7. help pupils to evaluate their data in light of the solutions to the problem they originally proposed?
8. relate the science experiences to other areas of the curriculum, such as language, art, civics, etc.?

Often Seldom Never

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IV. Basic Principles and Understandings Taught
To what extent do you:
1. lead the pupils to discover for themselves the principles you proposed in your lesson plan?
2. expand the principle learned and show its relationship to other broad areas of the Scope and Sequence Chart?
3. test the pupils' ability to spell, read and write new words related to the particular exercise?
4. encourage pupils to do projects illustrating principles learned, in addition to the work covered in your lesson plan?
5. encourage pupils to develop projects to be submitted to the science fairs?
6. plan science programs to be given before the entire school by students who have completed the study of a problem?

Often Seldom Never

*Adapted from Oburn, Ellsworth S. "An Analysis and Check List on the Problem Solving Objectives," Science Teaching Service Circular No. 481, Washington. D.C., U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1956.