Selection and use of standardized tests [1961]

SELECTION AND USE
OF
STANDARDIZED TESTS

CONTENTS

BOARD OF EDUCATION FOREWORD _ _ LN'fRODUCTION

_____ -------------------------------- i __________________________ ii ____________________ iii

Chapter One - VALUES IN TESTING __

____________________ 5

Chapter Two :-- ADMINISTERING A TESTING PROGRAM

___ 9

Chapter Three- USING TEST RESULTS

_ 21

.Chapter Four - ETHICAL PRACTICES IN TESTING

__ 39

Chapter 1'-.ive - A GLOSSARY OF MEASUREMENT TERMS ___ 43

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

JAMES S. PETERS, Chairman HENRY A. STEWART, Vice-Chairman CLAUDE PURCELL, Executive Secretary

MEMBERS

FIRST CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT

........ -. ___ .. PAULS. STONE

SECOND CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT __ - ..... ROBERT BYRD WRIGHT, JR.

THIRD CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT . __ . ------ --...... THOMAS NESBITT, JR.

FOURTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT_ .. _ ------ .. ______ JAMES S. PETERS

FIFTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT ------ ---- DAVID F. RICE

SIXTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT __

. - ---- FRANCIS SHURLING

SEVENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT ---------------------- HENRY A. STEWART

EIGHTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT ________ ___ --------- ...... LONNIE D. SWEAT

NINTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT--------------------- MRS. BRUCE SCHAFFER TENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT _________________________ ZACK DANIEL

FOREWORD
This publication was originally designed for use in the public schools of the State of Oregon. I wish to gratefully acknowledge the consideration of Dr. Leon P. Minear, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Oregon, in allowing us to reproduce the booklet for use in Georgia. We are also indebted to the author, Dr. William L. Hitchcock, Director of Counselor Training at Georgia Southern College for our use of his work.
Dr. Hitchcock's 'efforts here are designed to assist those educators who have a minimum knowledge of standardized testing; his use of non-technical language has aided in giving a meanful interpretation to those of us who are not specialists in the rapidly maturing field of testing.
Further acknowledgement is made to the California Test Bureau for "A Glossary of Measurement Terms."
The publication of this booklet was made possible through National Defense Education Act, Title V-A funds.
CLAUDE PURCELL State Superintendent of Schools
tl

INTRODUCTION
For a number of years we have had many requests from the public schools of the state for a state guide on the selection and use of standardized tests. We feel that the material in this bulletin will fulfill the needs represented by the requests which have been made. It is believed that schools at various stages of development with respect to the selection and use of tests will find this bulletin quite helpful in their further growth in this area.
The day and age in which we live continually demands that we become more sophisticated in assessing the potential capabilities and the real achievement of our children. This, of course, puts an increasing demand on the schools to do a better job in this area. It is obvious that schools need to develop a high degree of knowledge and skill in the selection and use of standardized tests. To this end we recommend this material to superintendents, principals, school counselors, curriculum directors, and teachers.
H. S. SHEAROUSE, Director Division of Instruction
Ill

I ..
I

CHAPTER ONE

Values In Testing

Standardized tests are an accepted part of American public school programs. Currently, however, serious questions are being raised concerning the improvement of testing practices employed by secondary schools in order to effect greater benefits to the ultimate consumer of tests-the student. The basic question then is "How can we utilize standardized tests to help us do a more adequate job of assisting youth in our public schools?"

"To teach an individual effectively, one must know him," is an accepted principle in educational circles.

In planning a testing program for a school it is important to

have a thorough understanding of the values that can accrue from

it, why testing is done, how testing fits into the overall guidance

program, and how it fits into the the testing program of other schools

in the same system. Testing pupils because of some vague notions

about the values of tests cannot be justified. On the other hand,

if the school can state specifically why it is testing the pupils and

how the results of the test will be used, it is off to an excellent

beginning.



The following are some of the values of testing that should be understood by the entire professional staff of a school:

1. Tests can aid in identifying learning problems of boys and girls.

A careful analysis of an individual's test results will indicate strong

and wea~ points in his educational and experiential background.

The diagnostic aspects of test can enable teachers and counselors

to assist the pupil to correct or overcome learning difficulties. Tests

having a number of subtests which measure a variety of traits or

skills enable the . teacher or counselor to further identify learning

difficulties. Some of the tests so constructed are The California

Test . of Mental Maturity, The Primary Mental Abilities Test, The

Stanford Achievement Test, .The Metropolitan Achievement Test,

The California Achievement Test, and many of the special apti

tude i~sts.





. From tests such as The Iowa Test of Educational Developmen_t,.

The Otis Intelligence Test. The Hemmon-Nelson Test of Mental

Ability, and The Iowa High School Content Examination one can

obtain a general idea of the learning problems being experienced

by mdividu,al boys .and giris. ro pinpoint the _difficulty .a student

iS

havirtg, .

.an.

anal.ysis

of.
. .

th.e

test..q~ ues~ t.iqn.s.

m.issed

is . necessary. - . ' . .

6 VALUES IN TESTING
2. Tests can help in determining expectancy levels of boys and girls. Expectancy level as used here refers to the capability of the pupil. Normally this indication is determined from the results of intelligence and special aptitude tests, but it may be inferred from achievement tests. For example, if a pupil scores high on an achievement test, school personnel may expect somewhat similar results in corresponding subject areas. However, the mental ability and aptitude tests are more explicit in indicating the special abilities possessed by the pupil.
3. Tests can assist in evaluating the pupil's skill mastery in many subiect areas. An evaluation of the degree to which learning has taken place or a demonstration of the proficiency and skill in a particular school course by students is of utmost importance to the teacher. This information can be obtained through the use of various achievement tests.
4. Interest Inventories can give additional clues of pupils' interests. From the autobiography, the personal history questionnaire, observations, and a pupil's statements, one is able to gain much information about the pupil's interests. Interest inventories may supplement these techniques of gaining clues to the pupil's interests. Interest inventories may indicate additional fields of interests. They may also verify stated interests or indicate discrepancies between stated and measured interest. The Occupational Interest Inventory, Strong Vocational Interest Blank, The Kuder Preference Record, and Thurstone's Interest Schedule are some of the interest inventories in current use.
5. Personality inventories can help in estimating pupil adlust ment in many areas of life, All pupils at one time or another experience adjustment difficulties some of which are slight while others may be more serious. All can, however, cause concern and may adversely affect the pupil's work.
Ass.stance from . teachers and co.unselors is often sougpt by the pupil. Personality inventories may ..be administered, particularly on an individual basis, to determine .the degree of maladjustment. It is. also possible to use the items- from the inventory in an interview situation to help pupils with their difficulties. Su~h person" ality inventories as The California Test of Personality, The Bell Adjustment Inventory, The Heston Personal Adjustment Inventory, The Minnesota Personality Scale, '!'he SRA Youth Inventory, and The Behavior Preference Record . _are <;:oi:mnonly used for this purpose.
It is recommended that specialized instruments such as The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, projective techniques such as The Rorschach; and . 'l'he Thematic Appreciation Test be used only by persons who are specially trained to usethem.

VALUES IN TESTING .. 7
6. Tests can help in making comparisons of what the pupil is capable of doing with what he is doing in school. By comparing measured ability with achievement scores, it is possible to determine whether the pupil is experiencing achievement difficulties. To gain on overall look at a group of pupils as well as identifying individually the ones experiencing achievement difficulties, the scatergram may be used (See Table II, Chapter Ill). This approach does not solve the problem, but indicates graphically discrepancies between measured ability and achievement. From this technique the teacher is able to identify the pupils who fall outside the normal expectation level, but other techniques must be used to find out "why" they are having difficulties. Further work will then be necessary to correct the discrepencies if this is warranted after investigation.
7. Tests can be used in the grouping of pupils for instructional purposes. The grouping of pupils for instructional purposes is a major and somewhat controversial issue in student programming. fn situations where grouping or "tracking" is employed, tests can be used to good advantage to assist school personnel in placing students in appropriate groups. Intelligence and achievement tests previously mentioned may be used for this purpose to supplement the academic records and teacher judgments and recommendations. Through the use of these techniques, groups may be formed where the tested ability and achievement levels of pupils in a particular subject may be equated to some degree.
8. Tests can be of assistance in selecting appropriate instructional materials for pupils. For pupils to profit most from instructional materials, these materials must be on their ability, achievement, and interest levels. The faculty committee or teacher in charge of selecting these materials should be aware of these pupil characteristics and utilize this knowledge in selecting materials. Ability, achievement, and interest tests can point out these pupil characteristics.
9. Tests can aid in evaluating various aspects of a school's in structional program. A comprehensive look at the achievement test results for the various subject areas at a particular grade level and relationship to area and national norms will point out strong and weak areas in the program of instruction. In light of these findings, changes and modifications may be indicated. Achievement tests should be of primary assistance in determining the present level of a particular subject for a given grade level. In determining the anticipated progress for a class, intelligence tests need to be employed.
10. Tests can help in identifying pupils in need of special attention. Many of the subtests of achievement batteries are designed to measure sv.ecial skills or traits. These subtests may be used to detect pupils who are weak in these ski11s. Additional investigation

8 .. VALUES IN TESTING

may indicate that the condition could be improved through some kind of special program. The tests mentioned in Identifying Learning Problems (item 1 above) can be of assistance in the identifica-
tion of special pupil difficulties as well. In addition to these tests it is desirable that individual intelligence tests such as the Stanford Binet Scale, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and the Wechsler-Intelligence Scale for Children be used in situations where greater accuracy is desired and where specially trained personnel are available to administer them.

11. Tests can help pupils in gaining a better understanding of
themselves. Wiser choices and decisions on the part of pupils are possible when pupils have a better understanding of themselves. All of the tests mentioned thus far can help the pupil to better understand himself if properly used in individual and group counseling situations.

12. Tests can assist in planning a pupil's educational and vocational program. As the pupil progresses through school, the amount
of individualized program planning is increased. When the pupil reaches the point where he is permitted to select a training program leading toward a future educational or vocational goal, extensive planning is a vital necessity. Ability, achievement, interest, and special aptitude tests can be of great assistance in this regard. In securing sufficient information about the student for the purpose of educational-vocational planning, it may be helpful to use general aptitude tests in addition to the ability, achievement, and interest tests.

Aptitude tests may be used to assist the student to recognize

his special abilities. Some of the current aptitude test are: Apti-

tude Tests for Occupations, Flanagan Aptitude Classification Tests,

Differential Aptitude Tests, and the Multiple Aptitude Tests. Other

specific aptitude tests are available in areas such as mechanical,

clerical, musical, art, and many separate subject matter and occu-

pational areas.

.

.

Another General Aptitude Test Battery, known as the GATB; is .- admin~s~ered by the Stat.e. Employment. Service to adults and high_school seniors who do not plan to attend college.

CHAPTER TWO
Administering A Testing Program
A school's testing program is sometimes doomed to failure or seriously handicapped because short cuts are taken in the planning stages. To be effective, a testing program must be an integral part of the total program. It should make a direct, systematic, and continuous contribution to what the school, as a whole, is attempting to do.
FORMULATING THE OBJECTIVES
It is necessary to clearly define the educational goals of the school before formulating the purposes of the testing program which should be designed to assist in the attainment of these goals.
The following three points are imperative in arriving at the purpose of the testing program.
Developing Cooperative Effort If all faculty members have a hand in the initial planning, it is
more likely that all will take an active part in the action phases of the program.
Making the Program a Practical One Teachers are, by definition, practitioners; therefore, it is reason-
able to assume that the testing program must demonstrate some degree of usefulness to teachers before it will be accepted. How will this program assist the teacher to do a better job with the student? The test committee must begin here.
Defining Objectives Clearly The objectives should be stated as clearly as possible, leaving no
doubt as to what end result is expected of the testing program. For example, such a statement of objectives might be to develop a testing program which provides:
1. Information about pupil achievement in basic skill subjects which will permit teachers to examine pupil weakness for the purpose of individual remedial instruction.
2. Information about pupil abilities in order to plan an instructional program in keeping with the ability level of each pupil.
In using objectives which are definite and to the point, the test users will not bog down because of lack of direction.

10 ... ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM
LONG RANGE PLANNING
Although the school is interested in test results that can be of immediate use, it is also important to establish a program with long-range values in mind. One important factor in favor of using the same tests several years is that the cost can be less than if testing is done spasmodically, using one battery one year and switching to a new one the next.
The second reason for using the same program of tests over a period of time is to enable the results to be used for curriculum revision purposes.
Another reason for long-range planning has to do with the individual counseling that is carried on in the school. The case-history approach is of inestimable value in working with the individual in many problem areas. Also, long-term planning and continuous testing insure sufficient raw materials for use in many kinds of research studies. These studies are needed in order to point out ways of doing a more effective job in working with school-age youth and also as information for reporting to the public the status of an educational program.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS
Do not let tests set the goals in education, but in light of educational and teaching goals, determine how and what particular tests may contribute to the attainment of these goals.
The testing program which does not contribute to, enhance, supplement, or implement the attainment of educational objectives is falling short of its job and will eventually have difficulty being justified.
PROVIDING LEADERSHIP RESPONSIBILITIES
A person who has had training in testing should provide leadership for the program, thus eliminating many costly errors and pitfalls.
A voluntary guidance committee or a testing committee appointed by the principal can function very adequately in the developmental role; thus insuring a team effort as opposed to an individual effort. The person with training should be a very important member of this group.
Classroom teachers as well as administrators should participate in nearly all phases of the program, together. Cooperation and participation by the total faculty is the key to success.

ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM 11
The elimination of many problems may be accomplished through an in-service training program in which experiences can be provided for sta.ff members to develop testing skills and understandings.
It is important to note that consultative assistance is generally available to schools at any stage of development. Sources of consultants include the offices of the system superintendents, Regents of the University System of Georgia, the State Department of Education, various private colleges and universities throughout Georgia, and the various test publishers.
TYPES OF TESTS
Relating the objectives of the testing program to what the tests are capable of measuring is most important. The following brief descriptions of tests will help to determine what type of test to use for a specific purpose.
Interest Inventories 1. Point out occupational areas which involve activities for which the pupil has expressed a preference. 2. Indicate discrepancies in expressed and measured interests. 3. May reveal fields of activity which might otherwise be overlooked.
Intelligence {Mental Ability) Tests 1. Indicate the level of academic attainment one may expect from pupils. 2. Point out discrepancies in the pupil's measured abilities and subject matter achievement. 3. Aid in determining additional academic accomplishments that may be within the reach of the pupil.
Achievement Tests 1. Serve as a yardstick for pupil and teacher in measuring progress toward proposed goals. 2. Point out to the pupil and teacher the degree of efficiency of tasks performed in the various subject matter areas. 3. Indicate, in a diagnostic way, assets and liabilities in the pupil's academic life as they relate to the various subject matter areas.

12 . . . ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM
Special Aptitude Tests 1. Help in determining the pupil's chances of success in academic and non-academic courses and future occupations. 2. Indicate special talents which may be worthy of development. 3. Provide the pupil with objective evidence which helps him to think critically of himself in relation to his future. 4. Point out assets and liabilities in the pupil which may be strengthened or compensated.
Personality Inventories 1. Help in pin-pointing certain areas of maladjustment. 2. Assist the student toward better self understanding.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING TESTS
Before making the final choice of a test, it is imperative that specimen sets of tests be secured to see if they may accomplish what is desired. It is recommended that those directly concerned with test selection take the tests since names and descriptions of tests are often misleading. MENTAL MEASUREMENTS YEARBOOK edited by Oscar Krisen Buros, may be consulted in selecting tests. This publication contains critical reviews of various tests.
Through this approach and through careful study of the test manual one may arrive at answers to the following questions which determine the usability of a test.
1. Is the test valid? A test is said to be valid if the test measures what it is intended to measure. This information is normally furnished by the publisher and is included in the manual accompanying the test. Through a critical examination of test content, one is able to determine if the test items will adequately measure desired knowledge and skills in a particular course.
2. Is the test reliable? A test is said to be reliable if it yields consistent results through reuse at varying times. In other words, one can depend on the test to yield similar results if re-administered at intervals. Again, these data are normally supplied by the author in the test manual.
3. Is the test easy to administer? Some tests are difficult to administer and require specially trained personnel; therefore, ease of administration should be given special consideration. A majority of test, however, _can be administered by most school personnel. A minimum amount of training may be required on the part of those charged with this responsibility. This may be accomplished through a thorough study of the directions included in the manual and some practical experience in test administration.

ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM . 13
4. Is the test easy to score? If school personnel are to be con cerned with scoring tests, this must be given ample attention. However, if the school has access to a test scoring machine this problem is not as critical. In any event this is an important criterion in test selection.
It is entirely possible that a test adequately meets all the criteria of a good test for a specific purpose except for ease of scoring. In such cases the school must weigh this limiting factor carefully before making a final decision.
5: Is the test easy to interpret? Is it possible for teachers, and others directly concerned, to glean from and make effective utilization of test results through adequate interpretation?
If a critical examination of the specimen test reveals possible difficulties of interpretation, can instruction be given to alleviate these difficulties? This is very important since teachers and counselors will be directly concerned with the interpretation of tests to pupils, other school personnel, and parents.
6. Is the cost of the test suitable for the budget? The cost of the test itself, related materials, and possible scoring expense are usually of prime concern. Consideration should be given not only to initial cost, but to long-range costs as well. For example, the major expense of the testing program may seem at first glance to be the cost of the test booklets. However, since a majority of the test booklets are reusable a long-range look will reveal the major cost to be answer sheets plus periodic replacement of the booklets.
DETERMINING SCOPE OF TESTING PROGRAM
The Scope of the testing program employed in a school depends upon a variety of conditions and situations within the school. However, the following factors should be kept in mind in formulating the program.
1. Quality is not determined by the number of tests used, but by what is done with the results. Merely administering tests is a waste of time, effort, and money. The use of the test results must be a primary concern in the program if the school is to reap the greatest rewards.
2. What is taught will determine the magnitude of the program. / The curriculum offerings of various schools differ and therefore
the scope of testing progranis will logically differ. A school offering primarily a college preparatory curriculum will not do as much testing as a school offering a more diversified curriculum including many vocational courses along with the college preparatory offerings. It is entirely possible that the basic testing programs of these two schools would be similar in that-:both would have the scholastic aptitude, achievement, and interest testing. Howaver, the .school

14 . ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM

emphasizing vocational preparation would of necessity include . many special aptitude tests in its testing program.
3. When to use "teacher-made" tests must be determined. Teacher made tests should be utilized whenever possible. It is felt that if a teacher-made test can do an intended job better it should by all means be employed. On the other hand, if a standardized test would be more effective it should be used. A thorough knowledge of what is expected plus a thorough knowledge of the tests that may be used to realize these expectations will help in making the decision of which test to employ.
4. Extent of individual and group guidance activities is a factor in determining scope of a testing program. It is probable that tests above the minimum testing program will be used, particularly where organized group guidance activities as a part of the regular curriculum or in conjunction with various subject areas are employed. For example, a problem check list may be used to determine common problems among the pupils. Interest and/or personality test may be used to initate a unit in the area of vocational exploration or personality development. Out of group guidance activities often comes a need for individual counseling, since difficulties of a personal nature will require individual counseling. In the latter instance, it may be desirable to administer additional tests in order to assist the counselor and pupil in diagnosing the real concern.
5. The competencies of the staff must be evaluated in initiating and administering a program of testing. The extent to which personnel is competent in the use of psychological tests, affects the extent to which test may be effectively employed in the school.
Keeping the above five factors in mind, the following programs are suggested as guides for schools which plan to evaluate their testing program:

A BEGINNING PROGRAM

Elementary
Grade 1
Grades 3, 5, 7 Grades 3, 5, 7
or . . Grades 4, 6, 8

Reading Readiness Test (compatible with reading program)
Mental Abilities Test
Complete Achievement Battery

ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM .. 15

Secondary

Junior High School (Grades 7-9)

Grade 7

Mental Ability Test General Achievement Battery

Senior High School (Grades 10-12)

Grade 10 Grade 11

Mental Ability Test
General Achievement Battery or Educational Development Battery

Four Year High School (Grades 9-12)

Grades 9

Mental Ability Test General Achievement Battery

Grade 11

General Achievement Battery or Educational Development Battery

A GROWTH OR EXPANDED PROGRAM

In addition to the tests suggested in the beginning program, the following tests are recommended at the following grade levels:

Grade 2

Spot Test as needed. (If the teacher feels a need for additional information on particular pupils she
may test to obtain these data.)

Grades 4, 6, 8 Reading Achievement Test (Diagnostic)

Grades 9, 11 Interest Inventory

Grade 9

Special Aptitude Tests . (For Vocational Counseling) and Spot Test as needed.

Grade 12

General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) administered by the State Employment Service to
selected seniors.

The suggested programs make provisions for four measures of the ability of the individual during his public school experiences.
This would seem to be adequate in that one would be enabled to look at the growth and development of the individual's ability over a period of time. Along with the ability measures are included at least four achievement batteries. These would not only enable the teacher to gain some knowledge of what to expect from the individual, but indicate the extent to which this ability is being used. Three additional reading achievement tests are recommended on alternate years since reading is so important in all academic areas.

The tests recommended at the ninth grade could be used in a flexible way depending upon the organizational pattern in the

16 ... ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM

particular school. The initial interest inventory is recommended

for the purpose of educational planning and occupational explora-

tion. A look at the world of work at this level may serve to moti-

vate the individual to utilize his time in school to better advan-

tage. Tentative vocational plans at this point could pay off in dividends

as far as the individual is concerned.

.

It is becoming increasingly important to place pupils in courses where there is a strong likelihood of them succeeding. Therefore, special aptitude tests for subject placement may fit in well at this level for many schools.

At the senior high school level another interest inventory and special aptitude tests are suggested in addition to ability and achievement tests. Serious vocational counseling and planning is strongly encouraged at this level in the educational program. Many research studies indicate a real need for greater emphasis at the high school level in the area of vocational planning. This is becoming more and more important since post high school educational curriculum programs are becoming more and more specialized.

Personal adjustment inventories were not included in the suggested programs. It is suggested that they be used when a need is prevalent and not generally. In many schools, units in personality development and other problem areas are included in the curriculum. It is possible that wise use could be made of personal adjustment inventories in these situations.

ADMINISTERING TESTS
Since the fundamental reason for employing standardized tests is the degree of accuracy developed in the standardization procedure, the test user should take great care to administer them according to the directions and to do everything possible to follow the same testing procedures upon which the test was standardized. Adheren~e to the following . points will .aid in obtaining the best results.
Preparation of Examiners
1. Staff members must understand the purpose of the tests. This creates a favorable attitude of the faculty concerning tests.
2. Examiners should be very familiar with the tests that are being used. Training programs will insure familarity with . the content as well as :the .. :.administrative directions and
timing of the tests.:
, I

ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM 17
3. It is often helpful if the examiners either take the test themselves or administer the test to a practice group.
Preparation of pupils 1. Pupils should know why they are taking tests and what uses will be made of the results. 2. Students should practice the correct procedure for marking answers prior to testing. This lessens the chance of invalid scores due to errors in marking. 3. Place pupils at ease if possible. This is very important at all age levels if the results obtained are to be valid and reliable.
Other Considerations 1. Provide good working conditions. Room temperature, lighting, and working space must be given ample attention. 2. Avoid distractions if possible. The use of signs such as "Testing-Do Not Disturb" and other related cautions should be given maximum consideration. It is possible that better results could be attained through changing rooms or time of testing if the testing room is located near the playground or metal shop. 3. Keep accurate time. In order to do this a stop watch is best. If the school does not have a stop watch or an x-ray timer, a watch with minute and second hands is a necessity. Guess work as to timing will invalidate test results. The tests were standardized on the specific time given in the manual and should be followed to the second. When using other than stop watches, the administrator should record beginning and stopping time on a sheet of paper to avoid confusion and inaccurate timing. 4. Follow the printed instructions. The printed instructions in the manual of directions should be followed to the letter. Again, the test was standardized on these instructions and any diviation invalidates the results.
SCORING THE TESTS
Tests are either hand or machine scored. In both instances it is necessary to check in order that all have a clear understanding of the procedure. When the scoring is done by hand:
1. Provide opportunity for trial scoring to bring about complete understanding as well as to give an indication of the time necessary for scoring.

18 . . . ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM
2. Provide the scorer with adequate norms and conversion tables for scores if they are to be included on the answer sheets.
When the scoring is done by machine:
1. Make certain that special pencils are used by pupils when taking the tests.
2. Have pupils check answer sheets after testing for double marks, stray marks, light marks, and to be sure that indentification data is completely filled in.
3. Have someone to double check for the above items.
4. If answer sheets are to be mailed for scoring, pack carefully in order to avoid bending, creasing, .or mutilating them in any way.
5. Ascertain what scoring service is available, and which is most appropriate to fit the need or situation. For example, some test publishers provide test scoring service and a few school districts in the state have test scoring machines and others have that service available in the county office, while others utilize the scoring service available through the Oregon Cooperative Testing Service located at the University of Oregon in Eugene.
RECORDING THE RESULTS
Normally, the results of tests are transferred from the answer sheets and recorded in the cumulative folder. A psychological profile sheet is frequently used in order that test results may be easily accessible and useable. The form on which the results of tests are recorded may be constructed to fit the tests that are being administered in the particular school. An example is the profile
of Mary Brown in Chapter m. Her school administers, The Cali-
fornia Test of Mental Maturity, The Iowa Test of Educational Development, and the Kuder Preference Record in its basic testing program. In addition, the California Test of Personality and the Orleans Geometry Prognosis Test are offered in cases of individual need.
When the teacher or counselor is studying the pupil's test records he is able to obtain an overall picture of the individual at a quick glance from the profile sheet. Instead of having to spread all the answer sheets on the table and examine them separately, he is now able to see the total picture. It is possible that the teacher or counselor would want to critically examine the sub-test by going back to the separate answer sheet so it would be desirable to retain the answer sheets for this purpose.

ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM . 19
In recording the results of the tests on the profile or in the cumulative folder, it is recommended that only authorized personnel perform this task. Some school personnel may feel that this is a meanial chore requiring too much of their time; however, it is recommended that students not be allowed to record the results. The results of test are very personal records and must be treated in a professional manner by professional workers. There is currently a trend toward the use of competent professional clerical personnel to relieve counseling personnel from this more routine clerical task. The recording of test data is a justifiable delegation of responsibility to the guidance secretary.
After completing these tasks, it is recommended that the cumulative folder and psychological profile sheet containing the test results be kept in a safe, yet accessible place. Test results along with the other data in the cumulative folder must not be handled in a lax way. Therefore, they must be filed where some responsible school employee will make certain that unauthorized persons will not have access to them. The location of the files should be such that teachers are able to use the folders without too many handicaps. A room adjoining the administrative offices or guidance offices in which teachers may examine the folders uninterrupted has proven satisfactory and is recommended.

CHAPTER THREE

USING TEST RESULTS
Directly or indirectly, the primary purpose of a testing program in the public school is to help the pupil in some way. The value of a testing program can only be measured in terms of the use made of the test results.
In using tests one must keep in mind that test results are no more than estimates or indicators of individual characteristics. A brief description will be made of the uses of test results as they relate to instruction, counseling, and administrative appraisals. These uses are not intended to be all-inclusive.

INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS TO STUDENTS

As a general rule when an individual submits himself to taking a test he is entitled to a knowledgeable interpretation of the results. There are additional factors which should be considered whenever test interpretations are to be made.

1. Make sure that the test results are available to the students as soon after taking the test as is possible.

2. Make the results available to students when they will be of value to the student. For example, at the time of program
planning, or during a counseling conference related to grades or scholarships.

3. Interpret test results only when the counselor or teacher is certain of his ability to do so.

4. Interpret test results only when the counselor or teacher can
communicate with the student. This also implies that the terms used are clearly defined by the counselor and understood by the student.

5. Interpret test results as one piece of evidence, not as a con-

clusion. Phrases such as "indications are," "according to this

test," and "it would appear," lend themselves to test inter-

pretation inasmuch as they leave room for possible error in

the test.



22 USING TEST RESULTS
6. Related to the inconclusiveness of tests referred to in five above, is the concept of reporting test results in approximations rather than pin pointing the results in concrete terms. Broader interpretive units such as decile, stanine, or percentile band or spread are frequently used by testing personnel since tests are not infallible precision instruments.
INSTRUCTIONAL USES OF TEST RESULTS
Uses suggested in this section relate primarily to the ways teachers may use test results in the instructional program; however, they do not exclude the counseling and administrative uses.
THE CASE OF MARY BROWN
The case of Mary Brown, an eleventh grade high school pupil, as shown in Table I, is used to supplement the discussion of the instructional and counseling uses of test results. An assumption is made that the test results are valid indicators of Mary's characteristics. In actual practice this assumption would need to be verified by other objective and subjective evaluations. Some suggested instructional uses follow:
1. To Determine the Degree of Progress toward Separate Course Objectives. Tests may help teachers determine the degree to which pupils are progressing toward the goals set in each subject matter area. This enables teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of their work.
In determining the degree of progress toward separate course obiectives, the Iowa Test of Educational Development scores indi cate that Mary scored approximately average in all sections of the test except in the general vocabulary in which she scored quite low, and in social studies in which she scored rather high. This informa tion, combined with the results of the teacher-made tests which were administered throughout the course, will enable the teacher to determine the degree of progress Mary has made.
2. To Ascertain the Strong and Weak Points in the Curriculum in Order that These May be Strengthened and Remedied. Test results may be used to point the direction teachers should take in their instructional program. By knowing the strong and weak points of the students, the teachers are enabled to know where emphasis should be made in their instructional procedures for remedying weaknesses as well as capitalizing on the strong points indicated by the test results.
3. To Group Pupils for Certain Instructional Programs. Grouping pupils for instructional purposes is an educational practice receiving

TABLE I Psychological Profile

NAME

BROWN, MARY

AGE:

Years 16

Months 2

Sex f

SCHOOL GRADE

11th

HIGH SCHOOL

NAME OF TEST

OESJ'~IS;';-ION g1~1:~ S~~:E %1LE

NORM GROUP

LOW 0 10

LOW AVE. 20 30 40

w

AVERAGE
oo ~

HIGH AVE. HIGH
~ oo roo

Adv
cen z
"em-nt
-t
;1:1
.cem.n..
-ent
....,
w

NAME OF TEST

TABLE I (Continued)

TEST

DATE RAW

DESCRIPTION GIVENSCORE %1LE

NORM GROUP

LOW 0 10

RECORD CH

LOW AVE. 20 30 40

so AVERAGE HIGH AVE. HIGH

50

70 80 110 100

..e..n...
:ewnl
.a..t ..ew..n.,
z
en :l
Total Teat
~
I

19110 Revloed Edition

30

29

Na&'l.

30

25

Local

1111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111111

USING TEST RESULTS . 25
much attention at the present time. Psychological tests have been used extensively as one basis for grouping. To adequately group for this purpose, psychological test results along with teacher recom mendations and previous academic attainment should be used.
In order to simulate a real case problem, assume that the faculty at Mary's high school must determine whether Mary should be placed in geometry. In considering the test data, Mary's spatial relationships and numerical reasoning score on the California Test of Mental Maturity are low. Her score in the quantitative thinking test of the ITED is about average but on the Orleans Prognosis Test is below average. Mary's computational interest on the Kuder Preference Record is low. Assuming that former pupils with a score similar to Mary's score on the Orleans Prognosis Test had not been successful in geometry, the faculty could then weigh this factor against teacher recommendations and former academic grades in mathematics to make a decision. If teacher evaluations and past performance as reported by grades were favorable, it would still be highly questionable that Mary be placed in the geometry class. If teacher recommendations and past performance were unfavorable, it would be obvious that Mary should not be placed in this class. However, if Mary and her parents still insist on her taking geometry, she should be allowed to do so.
4. To Diagnose Learning Abilities As Well As Disabilities. Many tests now on the market are constructed in such a way as to help teachers diagnose the learning assets and liabilities of the pupils under their direction. Through use of tests of this type, teachers are enabled to set up an instructional program more in harmony with the abilities and disabilities of the pupils they serve.
From the test results it is indicated that Mary would have difficulty in tasks involving spatial relationships and numerical reasoning. Tasks involving logical reasoning and verbal concepts should be met by Mary with average competence. Even though a discrepancy is evidenced in the verbal area between the ability (CTMM) and achievement test (ITED), it is highly possible that this could be remedied since there is an indication that ability is present. Through individual work with Mary the achievement in this area could possibly be increased.
5. To Gain a Better Understanding of the Pupil's Interests. Assist ing students to maintain a high level of interest in learning is one of the greatest challenges before the teacher. By having some knowledge of pupil interests, teachers can meet this challenge. Through tests, pupil interests are made more evident to teachers.
According to the interest inventory scores on Mary's test data record, a high and high average Interest is noted in the social service and artistic fields respectively. An average Interest is noted in the

.... ,
26 . USING TEST RESULTS
musical, scientific, mechanical, and persuasive fields. In the clerical, literary, outdoor, and computational fields very little interest is indicated. This knowledge coupled with Mary's expressed interests and the teacher's observation can enable the teacher to more intelligently assign tasks to Mary that are challenging.
6. To Help in Arriving at Expectancy Levels of Pupils. In determining the extent to which pupils are working up to capacity, teachers need to establish individual expectancy goals. Test results used with other informational data will help in determining the the anticipated quality and quantity of work that may normally be expected from each individual.
Mary's score on the Califorina Test of Mental Maturity places her at the 40th percentile when compared with eleventh grade norms as listed in the manual. When compared with eleventh grade norms developed in the local high school she ranks at the 47th percentile. From this evidence, the teacher may expect approxi mately average work from Mary. In comparing the ability score (CTMM) with the composite achievement (ITED) score it is noted that Mary is utilizing her abilities well in the subject matter areas measured by this test.
7. To Aid in Estimating Pupil Adjustment in Many Areas of Life. Schools are becoming cognizant of the importance of pupil adjustment in school as well as in post-school work. Currently schools are attempting, through units of instruction, to do something about assisting students toward better understanding of common personalsocial problems. One method of determining which problems will be dealt with in the program is to administer problem check lists or personal adjustment inventories. These instruments can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the units.
The personality test in the example indicates that Mary is a well adjusted person with the exception of the self reliance scale in which she scored low. Average adjustment was noted in the scales "freedom from withdrawal tendencies," "belonging," "freedom from nervous symptoms," and family relations." If Mary were the only pupil experiencing self-reliance difficulty the counselor could work with Mary individually in helping to overcome it. If a large number of students scored low in the same area or in other areas, group guidance would be an expedient means of aiding the students.
8. To Serve as a Basis for Selecting Appropriate Instructional Materials for Pupils. Publishing companies are continually striving to produce instructional materials of varying difficulty to meet the wide range of ability and achievement levels found in classrooms. In order to select these materials effectively tests are being used to determine the various levels of ability in a given classroom in order that appropriate materials can be employed.

USING TEST RESULTS 27
As nearly as possible instructional materials should be selected and assignments made which are appropriate to the academic level and which are within the interest area of the pupils. The teacher would probably select materials for the group by examining the achievement levels. In Mary's case it is noted that she was average in her reading skills on the ITED. In selecting materials for her it would be wise to provide normal eleventh grade reading level materials. Assignments appropriate to Mary's high social service measured interest and her expressed interests would possibly result in greater enthusiasm and better work.
9. To Evaluate the Effectiveness of Various Teaching Methods and Techniques. Effective evaluation through research is the cornerstone of progress. This is true in selecting appropriate methods and techniques of instruction as well as in other educational areas. In r eaching sound conclusions as to the most effective and appropriate methods and techniques to employ, tests can be of assistance.
In evaluating a method or technique of teaching, tests may be used to select members of the experimental group and the control group. After applying the technique or method of teaching to the experimental group, tests may be used again to measure the changes that are produced as a result of the experimentation. The test results of the total group would be needed to do this type of research.
10. To Motivate Pupils. Success is a great motivating force in educational endeavors. To master, to excel, to achieve, or to reach a goal that is challenging to the individual creates a condition that is conducive to learning.
Pupils are generally eager to know how they did on the tests that were administered to them. As early as possible after taking these tests an opportunity should be afforded for interpretation of test results. At this time teachers have an opportunity to develop the pupil's desire to capitalize on their strong points as measured by the tests and to remedy their weakness. As was pointed out earlier if pupils know why they are taking the tests and how the results will be used some degree of interest can be generated. Teachers must remember, however, that the time between the taking of the test and the interpreting of the test results is important to the degree of interest. The longer the period of time the less interest there will be in the results.

28 USING TEST RESULTS
COUNSELING USES
Test results uses described in this section are intended primarily for individual counseling situations; however, they may lend themselves to group situations. The major uses of tests in counseling situations will be summarized briefly with reference to the psychological profile of Mary Brown as found in Table I.
1. To Help the Pupil Gain a Better Understanding of His Abil ities, Achievements, Aptitudes, Interests, and Personal Charac teristics. Knowing one's self pays dividends. Each problem situation with which the pupil is confronted in life requires a certain pattern of ability, achievement, aptitude, interest, and adjustment. The pupil makes his greatest contribution to society and receives the greatest benefits from his educational experiences when aware of his potentialities. This knowledge may be used intelligently in present and future planning. Test results can help by indicating these characteristics.
In helping Mary to gain a better understanding of herself through an interpretation of the test results there would naturally be an exchange of thinking between Mary and the counselor concerning the test results. A trained counselor may utilize the communication thus established to assist Mary to a better understanding of herself.
If a counselor were to discuss the results of the test with Mary in an individual counseling situation, he might employ some of the following explanations to help her understand the strengths and weaknesses revealed by these measures.
"In interpreting the tests that were administered during April, you are being compared with eleventh grade students throughout the nation and other juniors here at our school. On the California Test of Mental Maturity, a test measuring your ability, you placed at the 40th percentile when compared with eleventh grade pupils on the national and the 47th percentile when compared with juniors who have taken the test here. This means that you exceed 40 and 47 percent of the eleventh graders and 60 and 53 percent of them exceeded you at the national and local levels respectively.
"It is indicated that your ability to visualize spatial relationships and your numerical ability are low in comparsion to pupils on your same academic level. Your ability to reason logically and to deal effectively with words and verbal meanings are about average.
"From the Iowa Test of Educational Development, a test designed to measure your achievements in various subject areas, you are achieving in the average or the above average category in all the areas except In general vocabulary skills/'

USING TEST RESULTS .29
Each subject area should be discussed with Mary. If an item analysis has been made of the skills in which she experienced difficulty in each subject area, these should be discussed and suggestions made as to ways and means of improving these skills. In the general vocabulary area it would be well to try to find out what happened that resulted in the apparent discrepancy between the ability test and the achievement test scores. In checking the ability test it is indicated that she has average ability in this area so this discrepancy would have to be critically checked to determine if she bas the ability or if something happened while she was taking the ITED test, or just what caused the difference. It is entirely possible the counselor should administer another test to verify the expressed beliefs that probably came out in the discussion with Mary.
"Your interests, as measured by the Kuder Preference Record, are significantly high in the social service and artistic areas. You. have average interests in the mechanical, scientific, persuasive, and musical fields. In the computational, literary, and clerical fields it is indicated you have very little interest."
(These interpretations should be checked against her expressed interests to determine if it is safe to assume that these are valid measurers.)
"From the California Test of Personality, a test designed to indi cate the adjustment in certain areas, you seem to be a well adjusted person. However, it is indicated that you are experiencing some difficulty in the self-reliance area. Here you scored very low."
(This point should be discussed thoroughly with Mary, leading her to make some plans for compensating and correcting the difficulty.)
"The Orleans Prognosis Test in Geometry indicates that you have very little aptitude in this subject area. This test is used primarily to select for the geometry class pupils who have a very good chance of doing satisfactory work. Since the ability test indicated that you have difficulty with math and you scored about average on math on the achievement test it is probable that you would have quite a lot of difficulty in the geometry class."
The counselor would then help Mary to summarize the results of the test along with the other comments that were made during the interpretation to determine if she understood them. The counselor would aid in this summary by emphasizing various points and supplementing Mary's summarization.
2. To Serve as a Yardstick in Charting the Progress of the Pupil Over a Period of Time, so That One May See the Pupil Not Only in Comparison with Others, but as a Growing Individual. In working with individuals it is highly desirable to utilize information of

30 . USING TEST RESULTS
past experiences in order to gain an adequate picture. In other words, what the individual has been will influence to some degree what he is and what he is to become.
The desirability of maintaining adequate records over a period of time cannnot be overemphasized if test results are used for comparative growth studies of the students. When the pupil is permitted to see what scores he made on tests in present situations in relation to what he did in past years he may be motivated along positive lines to keep the growth curve on an upward trend. This approach would probably work with a majority of the pupils, especially if individual counseling help is available. The self motivation developed by using this approach would be very healthy. The case study procedure would prove valuable if and when the pupil encountered difficulty in academic or non-academic endeavors.
3. To Assist Pupils in Planning Educational Programs. Practically all of the test results may be used to an advantage in helping the pupil with his educational program of work both at the public school level and at the post high school level. Many schools are succesfully placing pupils in selected courses on the basis of special aptitude tests. Mental ability, achievement, and interest tests can be used successfully in grouping pupils for certain instructional experiences in the curriculum program.
Colleges and other post-high school educational institutions, also are utilizing test results to place pupils in educational programs where there is the strongest possibility of them succeeding or in classes for remedial work.
4. To Assist Pupils in Vocational Planning. The right choice of a vocation can start an individual along the road to success whereas the wrong choice may lead one groping, ultimately blundering into a dead end. While the use of tests in vocational planning Will not insure success in a particular occupation, they do give some indication of one's chances of success in a vocational area. Information is available about many occupations outlining the desirable characteristics for success. Many schools offer opportunities for pupils to participate in planned units of vocational guidance where they are helped to make some tentative vocational plans. Career information is made available to pupils in these units. If they are assisted in becoming aware of their own qualifications compared to the requirements of the job, they are in a much better position to formulate sound tentative vocational plans. Generally speaking, vocational units have three major purposes. First, the pupil is helped to understand himself. Second, the pupil is assisted in understanding the occupation. Third, through group and individual counseling, the pupil is assisted to compare his qualifications with

USING TEST RESULTS .... 31
the requirements of the occupation and formulate tentative vocational plans. In attaining the first objective, tests will be used along with other techniques to help the pupil gain a thorough understanding of himself.
5. To Aid in Diagnosing Pupil Difficulties. The value of ability and achievement tests as diagnostic tools enables teachers and counselors to make more valid assumptions concerning the academic difficulties pupils are experiencing. On examining the test
results of Mary, the teacher and counselor would be aware of the limited abilities she possesses in spatial relationships and numerical reasoning. Knowing this, they would not expect high performance from Mary when tasks of this nature were involved. A critical examination of the ITED results would lead them to help Mary discover her weaknesses and strengths. As a result an adequate and effective remedial program might be formulated with her to remove the weaknesses and increase the strengths.
6. To Discover Special Aptitudes. Through the use of tests it is entirely possible that special talents may be discovered which would enable the pupil to make a greater contribution to himself and to society. There is the possibility that through interest inventories, occupational fields relating to the significant interests of the pupil can be discovered and information presented which <:ould be of value. From the general aptitude tests used by many schools special aptitudes may be uncovered which would enable the school to place pupils in a program which could develop his special aptitudes to the greatest extent. A critical examination of the ability tests, designed to measure multiple abilities, may be of value in discovering hidden and unused abilities. Discovery of special aptitudes is more likely to occur when test results are critically examined than when they are used in a general way.
7. To Predict Probability of Success or Failure in Future En-
deavors. In general a test score indicates the lower limit of per formance of which a student is capable. Many of the special aptitude and ability tests that are being used can indicate an individual's probable chances of success in future endeavors. Reference was made in the instructional uses of test result of how the aptitude test result could be used to place Mary in the geometry class. In using test results for this purpose there must be sufficient evidence and research developed on which to base a valid prediction. Adequate records must be kept over a period of time and correlational studies made, for example, to determine the predictive test score level at which students are succeeding or not succeeding when placed in a geometry class.
In school situations, information from other sources as well as test results should be used. Some of these were mentioned in the case of Mary's placement in geometry class.

32 USING TEST RESULTS
8. To Determine the Degree of Pupil Adjustment in Many Areas. Many personal adjustment problems and concerns are brought to teachers and counselors by pupils. To help in the counseling that takes place in these situations teachers and counselors are using tests and inventories to aid in narrowing and pin-pointing the areas of concern. The way in which test results may be used for this purpose was discussed under the instructional uses of test results. However, in counseling situations, the counselor may go further by using the items in the test on which Mary scored low in a forced interview. This means that these items would be asked Mary and she could express herself concerning the feelings behind the answers she had given when she took the test. This approach could enable the counselor to gain deeper insights into Mary's difficulty and they could possibly help Mary to get at the roots of the problem. By so doing, it might be made easier for Mary to make a satisfactory adjustment.
9. To Place the Pupil in Situations More in Harmony with His Individual Characteristics. Placement is an important end product of test results. In curricular as well as in extra-class activities test results can be used advantageously in placing pupils in situations which fit individual characteristics. The use of test results for placement in curricular activities was discussed previously. Some type of extra-class activity might be most important for the individual pupil and test results may serve a useful purpose in placement. For example, Mary would probably make the greatest contribution and receive greater satisfaction in a service organization and an art club than she would in a business education organization. Similar results would also occur if she were placed in an average ability group rather than In a high ability scholastic organization. Ability, achievement, aptitude, interest, and personal adjustment tests may all be effective indicators for assisting pupils in making next steps.
10. To Help Diagnose Why Pupils Misbehave. A critical look at the causes of misbehavior in school oftentimes reveals a lack of harmony between what is taught and the ability or interest of the pupil who misbehaves. If Mary were a mischievous child and the standards for the mathematics class required abilities beyond her capacity, it is possible that she would cause some trouble since she is weak in that ability and is not interested in computational activities. This same situation would probably occur in the art class since she does not possess the spatial ability; however, she has indicated an interest in art. The art teacher would have to assign her tasks where the spatial ability would not be an important factor. A thorough study of the individual's test results will provide helpful clues to the reasons for misbehavior, and hints as to remedial measures that should be taken to correct these situations.

USING TEST RESULTS .33

11. To Discover Discrepancies in the Ability and Achievement of the Pupil. Many pupils in the public schools experience achieve ment difficulties. Some underachieve while others may be erroneously classified as overachievers. Both groups need special attention. Through a comparison of the ability test results with the achievement test results these discrepancies may be revealed. One method for making such comparisons is the scattergram.
A scattergram is a device designed to organize data in such a way that relationships such as those between ability test scores and achievement test scores can be made more evident. While such a device may make the comparisons easier, it does not in any way interpret the comparisons. The teacher or counselor must still exercise professional judgment in interpreting the information.
In Table II, a scattergram has been developed using percentile ranges. Four students have been plotted on the scattergram using

TABLE ll A Scattergram

ACHIEVEMENT

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

99

99
~
90

--~

I

GH

10

10

- - -r---

I..

ll

CD

I

. .

PR 10

10
..
..

34 . . . USING TEST RESULTS
their initials as designators. Some of the following relationships can be observed from the device. "C.D.'s" ability test score places him in the 50th percentile, his achievement test score indicates the 50th percentile also. From this information about "C. D.'' it would appear that he was achieveing "up to capacity". The same would be true for "G. H.," both of his scores falling in the 90th percentile band as well as for "P.R.," as both of his scores fall in the. 20th percentile range. "L.B.'' presents a different picture. The ability tests indicate that his ability is in the 50th percentile range while the achievement test score indicates that he has achieved at the 20th percentile level. This discrepancy should be investigated.
This technique may be used with an entire class and the teacher can be aware of the pupils who are experiencing difficulties. Close observation and individual counseling is thus indicated to determine the causes of these conditions. After determining the reasons for the achievement difficulties. the teacher is in a position to effect remedial action and make suggestions to alleviate the conditions if she deems this necesary.
ADMINISTRATIVE USES
Adequate leadership at the administrative level provides the spark that is necessary to make a mediocre testing program outstanding. Wise use of test results can help the administration to evaluate the existing instructional program for the purpose of improving its adequacy. In using tests at this level many relevant factors must be kept in mind. Factors such as the cultural background, the socio-economic status, and the educational background of the pupil's families are important and must be considered along with the test results in making judgment. These factors influence both high and low scores pupils make on tests and therefore make it impossible to attribute high or low test scores to a good or a poor teaching staff.
The following administrative uses of tests are suggested:
1. To Determine the Condition of the Tot;ll School Councerning Various Characteristics. On many occasions data concerning the level of ability and achievement are needed by the school admin istration. This information will reveal the learning characteristics of the pupils the school system is serving. The degree to which the major overall objectives of the school are being met in the instructional program will also be revealed .
From the ability test given at the eleventh grade level through out the South County School System, the ability levels of the pupils in numbers and percentages are presented in Table III. The in formation will help th e principals and superintendent. to know

USING TEST RESULTS 35

TABLE m

Distribution of Eleventh Grade I.Q.'s in South County Schools

I.Q.'e AND DESCRIPTIVE
TERMS

'
MIDTOWN BROWN ROOSE COOLEY FARLEY SOUTH
VELT

Above145

Near Genlu1

5

110-145

Very Superior

10

115-110

Superior

40

85-115

Aver. . .

144

7G-85

Dull

32

60-70

Borderline

6

Below 60

Deficient

3

0

3

0

3

1

3

12

8

6

10

30

35

10

30

34

us

190

127

158

140

36

27

21

24

22

7

8

12

3

6

4

5

10

1

2

TOTAL
12 (1%) 49 (4%) 179 (10%) 944 (70%) 169 (10%) 42 (4%) 25 (1%)

TOTAL

240

265

280

195

225

215 1420 (100%)

the level of the learning abilities represented in each school and the county as a whole. From this information the school has some indication of what to expect from the pupils in the instructional
program.

In Table IV the overall subject areas percentile for the schools as a whole are presented. Through a comparison of the ability and the achievement percentiles the school administration is able to see the degree to which the instructional objectives are being attained .

2. To Serve as One Basis for Curriculum Modification and

Change. In order to make changes and/ or modifications in the

curriculum there must be sufficient evidence to warrant such

changes. By examining a specific grade or the total school's test

results it is possible to determine the status of achievement in all

or parts. of a subject area. Follqwing this procedure ~>Ver. ~ period

of time will give sufficient evidence for changing or modifying

rertain phases of the curriculum offerings and procedures in

teaching.



In Table IV a survey of the achievement and aptitude test results ~ccompanied by the median I.Q.'s are listed for each eleventh grade m the county. Examination of these test results indicates an overall weakness in the area of quantitative thinking. If, after checking thoroughly into this indicated weakness, changes or modifications are needed, procedures may be set into motion to effect such changes. .

36 . USING TEST RESULTS
A critical look at these results would indicate individual school weakness. From further checking it may be possible to find why these weaknesses are present and what may be done to correct them. The supervisory staff working closely with each school could determine the feasible course to take.
3. To Place Pupils (Accelerated Classes, Late Entrants, Special Classes). At the present time many schools are using tests as one means of grouping pupils in many areas. The majority of the grouping is for instructional purposes and is usually done by the teacher and counselor. However, in schedule making and course planning, grouping is an administrative function. Here, as well as in the classrooms, tests can aid in placing pupils in more desirable situations. Primarily, test results on individual pupils would be of most value since an evaluation of each pupil would have to be made .
Reference was made to placing a pupil in geometry class earlier under the instructional uses of test. However, the administration could get an initial indication of the type of special classes to provide from an examination of the test results in Table IV. For example, all schools except one are achieving approximately average and high average in the natural sciences section of the !TED. Advanced instruction in this subject area may be justified for those pupils who score extremely high. This would certainly warrant looking into as a system project. It is possible that additional projects of this nature would be warranted in other subject areas for the separate schools.
4. To Report to the People. Public relations is one of the major jobs of the school administrator. He must keep the public informed of the problems and needs of the school as well as the progress that is being made. By so doing, the chances are lessened that misinformation will be circulated about the school and its programs. Objective evidence, obtained through the testing program, will be valuable in helping to explain and clarify certain phases of the school program.
Test data may be used to keep the parents informed of the ability and achievement status of the pupils in the School concerned. It is not recommended that these comparative results be published thus pitting one school against another school
5. To Assist in Increasing Teacher Effectiveness. Assisting staff members to become more effective as teachers is a primary task of the principal and the supervisory staff in the school system. For example, it may be found, in comparing the ability and achievement test results, that satisfactory progress is not being made in a particular subject or area within a subject. The teacher or a group of teachers in the subject in question may be concerned about this situation and feel the need for assistance in changing their ap-

USING TEST RESULTS 37

TABLE IV
South County School System Survey Testing Report Eleventh Grades*

IOWA TEST OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Sodl Studies 81ckground N1tur1l Science leckground Corr1ctness In Writing Quntlttlve 11Unklng
1te1dlng Socll Studies Reeding Neturl Sciences
Reding Uter1ture
Gener1l
,....... Vocbulery
Composite
u.. of Sources
of lnfonnetlon
ORLEANS GEOMETRY PROGNOSIS TEST

MIDTOWN BROWN

ROOSE VELT COOlEY FARLEY

SOUTH
:

75

35

41

15

60

57

70

37

44

11

6S

60

77

25

45

10

70

6S

51

34

31

22

46

42

70

31

38

18

52

57

68

33

40

20

59

55

64

20

35

15

52

51

60

25

40

17

55

54

67

31

39

17

57

55

65

20

33

15

55

53

55

26

38

20

53

52

MIDIAN I.Q.'a

115

95

101

90

101

103

Colllpllrecl with eleventh grde students 1t the n1tion1l level (percentiles).

proaches or in modifying their procedures. The teachers should be able to sit with the principal and supervisory staff, diagnose the situation, and come up with a workable plan of action. In using test results in this way the information provided can serve as an important vehicle to better teaching.
In order for a situation such as the one described to occur, a wholesome attitude on the part of the teachers must exist concerning the administrator's use of test results. Teachers must be assured that the results will be used to help them, not used as indicators of teacher success.

6. To Serve as a Basis for In-Service Education of Teachers. It is possible that through a critical examination of test results, some glaring overall weaknesses may be evidenced throughout the
school. Since the total school faculty can be made aware of the points needing further study and possible revision, a natural set ting is presented for an effective in-service training program.

38 . . . USING TEST RESULTS
The results of the ability, prognostic, and achievement tests as found in Table IV may serve as the initial indicator that an inservice program in mathematics for all the schools in the system could be justified. Each separate school, through a critical analysis of the test results as they relate to their school, may uncover an area or areas in the instructional program needing attention.
7. To Use in Research Projects. Educational research is the cornerstone of progress. Educational institutions are using tests in their programs to evaluate a project or experimental study. They are using tests to help measure periodic progress and finally to evaluate the total outcome of the project. As a result schools are finding better ways to educate the youth under their supervision. Action research of this nature should be encouraged by the administration in the separate classrooms as well as throughout the total school system.
II

CHAPTER FOUR
Ethical Practices In Testing*
The use of tests and test results is a very personal, human relationship. Because this is true, there is a need for a code of ethics to guide counselors and teachers in their use of the program of testing.
Sound judgment should guide one in dealing with human beings. To maintain high professional standards in the use of the analytical tool, school personnel must be aware of and conform to certain ethical practices.
Beginners in the field of tests and testing must assume responsibilities probably not heretofore experienced in their professional career. A sense of professionalism and maturity should guide one in dealing with this tool in the school's guidance and curriculum program .
WHERE IS THE RESPONSIBILITY?
When working with individuals in school settings, the counselor and teacher are primarily responsible to the individual, the school, and ultimately to society. However, when working with tests these loyalties are somewhat broadened to include the test makers and publishers. These loyalties should guide all professional endeavors in the testing experiences.
The following code of ethics involves experiences and/or relationships with pupils, staff, school, self, and the proper handling of tests.
RESPONSIBILITY TO PUPILS
1. One is at all times to respect the integrity and guard the welfare of the person with whom he is working.
2. Generally, before communicating any information about the individual gained from tests, one must obtain the individual's permission. The individual should be told, prior to testing, those who will normally have access to the results.
3. Information concerning tests should be given to the individual
"Adapted from Hitchcock, WUllam L ., " Ethical Practice. 1n T estlne", Georeta Education .ICIIInlal, 111:18-17, September, 1957

40 ... PRACTICES IN TESTING
at such time when it is most likely to be accepted and understood by him. 4. Information concerning test results should be interpreted in such a manner as will assist in self-understanding or will aid in the solution of a problem. 5. Test results on an individual should be used in writing and teaching for demonstration purposes only when the permission of the individual is secured or when the information concerning him is obscured or cannot be recognized.
RESPONSIBILITY TO PARENTS
1. Interpretations of test results should be made available to parents.
2. Parents should be informed of the validity of tests and be shown that a test score is a tentative rather than an absolute indicator of a students capacity.
RESPONSIBILITY TO THE SCHOOL AND STAFF
1. One is obligated to define the nature of his loyalties and responsibilities regarding testing, to inform all involved of these commitments, and to carry them out conscientiously.
2. Test results should be discussed only in professional settings and with persons with a professional point of view who are directly concerned with the case in point.
3. Records including test interpretations, diagnostic and prognostic appraisals received from other personnel workers should not be shown to the individual.
4. One should not accept a fee or other forms of remuneration for testing an individual if that individual is entitled to these services through the school in which the counselor or teacher works.
RESPONSIBILITY TO SELF
1. Teachers and counselors should refrain from undertaking any testing activity in which they are not professionally competent.
2. Testing should be undertaken only with serious intent and not in a casual manner.

PRACTICES IN TESTING . . .41
RESPONSIBILITY TO TEST AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER
The methods by which test are distributed to users leave a lot to be desired unless test users use and not abuse this practice. A great deal of study, time and effort goes into the construction of an adequate test. If teachers, counselors, and other school personnel tend to be lax in using and handling tests and test results, the test loses its usefulness. To guard against misuse and abuse, the following points must be kept in mind.
1. One should guard against letting a test get into the hands of unauthorized persons by the following means:
a. Always keep them in a safe place while not in use.
b. Count carefully the number of test booklets after administer-
ing tests.
c. Collect scrap paper used by testees after administering tests.
2. Teachers and other school personnel having access to testing materials should not teach the test in order that their class will make a good showing on said test.
3. One who has access to tests should refrain from coaching or permitting any one to practice with the test in order to score higher than he normally would. Example: If a friend or an associate requests special privileges in order to gain an advantage in a competitive situation, one should reject said request.
4. School personnel handling tests and test materials are obligated to use these materials properly and protect them from abuse and misuse by others.
5. The test administrator must follow explicitly the directions in the manual in order to secure the most reliable results.

CHAPTER FIVE
A Glossary of Measurement Terms*
The terms included in the Glossary are those most frequently encountered in test manuals and in the literature. Thus while the Glossary contains terms whose general use and understanding are essential to the communication of ideas in testing, the precise meanings of many of the terms are difficult to define briefly. Persons in the fields of evaluation and testing are not always consistent in their use of terms. A further complication arises in that terms have more than one acceptable meaning. For the individuals who need a more comprehensive or detailed definition of terms, reference can be made to technical dictionaries, such as A COMPREHENSIVE DICTONARY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOANALYTICAL TERMS by Horace B. English and Ava Champ ney English (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1958), 594 pages, and A DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION edited by Carter V. Good (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959) 676 pages.
~llllblld b)' CaUlomta Tellt Bureau, and reproduced by permission.

44 ... GLOSSARY

ABILITY

The power to perform a designated responsive act. The power may be potential or actual, native or acquired. The term implies that the act can be per formed now, without further training, if the neces sary circumstances are present. APTITUDE is the capacity to acquire proficiency with training. CAPABILITY, like CAPACITY, refers to maximum ability with further training. Capability applies more particularly to potentialities for the near future. CAPACITY is potential ability. PROFICIENCY is the degree of ability already acquired. SKILL is the efficient performance of mental or physical tasks. TALENT is a relatively high order of aptitude. It refers to an individual's susceptibility to an unusually high degree of training. GENIUS is superlative ability to invent, originate, or execute. Genius is not a class or type by itself, but is found in the topmost range of the distribution of human abilities.

ACHIEVEMENT AGE The performance level or achievement test score expressed in terms of the chronological age group for which this performance level or achievement test score is average. If a given score on an achievement test corresponds to an achievement age of 11 years, 2 months, pupil1;> 11 years, 2 months, on the average, will earn this score.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST A test that measures the amount a pupil has achieved in one or more subject fields or in the general aspecta of schooling.

ADJUSTMENT INVENTORY

Usually a self-report instrument used . to uncov personal and social adjustment problems. SynOIIJ' mous with Personality Test, Mental Health and Temperament Test.

AGE NORM

Values or scores representing typical or average formance for individuals classified according chronological age, usually expressed as central dencies, percentiles, standard scores, or -sl;_a_JUllltloll
I.i:t achievement tests, which are standardized
grades, it is the "age equivalent" for grades, interpolation between given reference points.
NORMS.)

AGE-GRADE TABLE A table showing the relationship between the ological ages of pupils and the school grade in they are classified.

GLOSSARY . . . 45

AL TERNATEFORM RELIABILITY

A measure of the extent to which two equivalent or parallel forms of a test are consistent with each other in measuring whatever they do measure. (See RELlA BILITY.)

ANTICIPATED ACHIEVEMENT

The Anticipated Achievement of a student is the grade placement value obtained from the Anticipated Achievement Grade Placement Norms by using the chronological age, mental age, and school grade classifi cation of the student. This Anticipated Achievement Grade Placement value, when determined for a stu dent, is interpreted as the achievement performance typical of a homogeneous nationwide sample of students who have the same chronological age, mental age, and school grade classification of this particular student. Thus, it is possible, through the use of the Anticipated Achievement Grade Placement Norms to establish a performance standard for an individual student. (See ANTICIPATED ACH1EVEMENT GRADE PLACEMENT NORMS.)

ANTICIPATED

Anticipated Achievement Grade Placement Norms are

ACHIEVEMENT

systems of norms developed for an achievement test

GRADE PLACEMENT through standardization of the achievement test jointly

NORMS

with a test of mental maturity so that typical achievement test performance may be established for specific

groups homogeneous with respect to chronological age,

mental age, and school grade classification. (See

ANTICIPATED ACHIEVEMENT.)

ARITHMETIC MEAN The sum of a set of scores divided by the number of scores.

ARTICULATED
nm

A series of tests in which different levels of the test are used for different ages or grades and which have been constructed and standardized so that the same or comparable elements or objectives are measured in the overlapping ranges among the various levels of the test. Well articulated tests have considerable overlapping from level to level in order to test the wide ranges of abilities and achievements in any given grade or class. A well articulated series of test batteries yields the same DERIVED SCORES on a given grade group when either a lower or higher level of the test is used.

A group of several tests of which the results are of value individually, in combination, and/ or totally. When the tests have been standardized on the same popula tion, the norms are usually called "integrated."

- -.. Ill , . , by Dr. Wllllam M. Sbanner.

46 ... GLOSSARY

CEILING

The upper limit of ability that can be measured by a test. Individuals are said to have reached the cell ing of a test when they have abilities that are above the highest performance level at which the test can make reliable discriminations. When the ceiling of a test is reached with an individual or group, the next higher level of the test should be used.

CENTILE

A value on the scoring scale below which are any given percentage of cases. According to some statis ticians, the terms CENTILE is often superflously called percentile. (See PERCENTILE.)

CHRONOLOGICAL AGE EQUIVALENT

The mean or median test score for a specified chronological age group. (See DERIVED SCORES.)

CHRONOLOGICAL AGE GRADE PLACEMENT

A scale indicating the relationship between chronological age and school grade. For any school grade and month in grade, a chronological age equivalent, in years and months or months, may be assigned which represents the average chronological age of pupils 'classified at this grade placement.

CLASS INTERVAL CORRECTION FOR GUESSING
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r)

The divisions of a frequency distribution bounded by upper and lower score values. (See FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION.)

A technique devised to adjust the number of right

answers for a test by using some portion of the wrong

answers. The assumption is made that if an examinee

guesses on an objective test, the number of right and

wrong answers resulting will be proportional to the

number of alternate responses in each item. Common

w

w

correction formulas are: R - - , R - W, R - - .

3

2

This is the most commonly used measure of relation ship between paired facts or of the tendency of two or more variables, or attributes to go hand-in-hand. It ranges in value from -1.00 for perfect negative rela tionship through 0.00 for none or pure chance to +1.00 for perfect positive ~elationship. Examples are Pearson Product Moment, Bi-Serial, Tetrachoric, Phi.

CRITERION

A standard, norm, or judgment used as a basis for quantative and qualitative comparison.

GLOSSARY 47

CROSS.VALIDATION The process of checking whether a decllion derived f~om .one se~ of data is truly effective when tbls deci

ston 1s apphed to another independent. but revelant,

set of data. Not to be confused with cross-comparison

which. is the process of comparing the results from

two different tests, with neither being coDiidered the

-----------------criterion instrument.

DECILE

One of the nine points that divide a ranted distri

bution into ten parts, each containing one-tenth of

all cases. Decile rank is the rant order of the 10

divisions. Thus, the 1st decile rant ia the rant of

those below the 1st decile point, the 5th decile rank

below the 5th decile point, and the lOth decile rank

is of those at or above the 9th decile point.

(See CENTILE, PERCENTILE.)

DERIVED SCORE

Decile Point

I Percentile

Decile Rank

Percentile

Rank

9

90

10

8

80

9

7

70

8

6

60

7

5

so

6

4

40

5

3

38

4

2

20

3

1

10

2

1

90-99 80-19
70.79 60-69 50-59 40-49
30-39 20-29
10.19 0-9

A score that has been converted from a qualitative 0r quantitative mark on one scale into the units of another scale.

1. Grade Placement Equivalent. 2. Chronological Age Equivalent. 3. Chronological Age Grade Placement. 4. Educational Age. 5. Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.). 6. Intelligence (M.A.) Grade Placement. 7. Mental Age. 8. Percentile Rank. 9. Standard Score (Sigma score, T-score, Z.score). 10. Anticipated Achievement Grade Placement.

DIVIATION 1. Q,

A measure of intelligence based on the extent to which an individual's score deviates from a score that s normal for the individual's age.

DIAGNOSTIC T&ST

A test intended for the separate measurement of specific aspects of achievement in a single subject or field. Such tests yield measures of specific skills, lmowledges, or abilities underlying achievement within

48 GLOSSARY

a broad subject. Diagnostic tests are designed to identify particular strengths and weaknesses of an individual. (See PROGNOSTIC TESTS, SURVEY TESTS,
ABll.JTY.)

DIFFICULTV VALUE The per cent of a specified group who answer a test item correctly.

DISCRIMINATING POWER

The ability of a test item to differentiate between individuals possessing much of some characteristic (skill, knowledge, attitude) from those possessing little of the characteristic.

DUAL

The procedure of standardizing two tests simultane-

STANDARDIZATION ously on one sample, th(lreby integrating the two

instruments.

EDUCATIONAL AGE A pupil's achievement test score expressed in terms of the chronological age group for which his achieve ment score is average.

EQUATED SCORES Derived scores that are comparable from test to test;

e.g., Standard Scores, Grade Placements, Mental Ages,

etc.

-----------
ERROR OF

-

---

- --A-n-e-x-p-r-e-ss-i-o-n-f-o-r-t-h-e-d-e-g-r-ee--t-o-w--h-ic-h--te-s-t -s-c-o-re-s-e-s-ti--

ESTIMATE

mated from a criterion would expect to correspond

(Standard or

to scores actually made on the test. (See STANDARD

Probable)

ERROR OF MEASUREMENT.)

EVALUATION PROGRAM

The testing, measuring, and appraisal of the growth, adjustment, and achievement of the learner by meaua of tests and many non-test instruments and techniques. It involves the indentification and formulation of a comprehensive set of major objectives of a curriculum, their definition in terms of pupil behavior, and the selection or construction of valid, reliable, and practical instruments for appraising specified pbuel of pupil behavior. Evaluation includes integratiJII and interpreting the various evidences of behavior stability and behavior changes into an overall picture of an individual or of an educational situation. An adequate educational evaluation program is 011 (1) that is comprehensive and well-balanced in tel'llll of both the learner and the curriculum; (2) that II continuous and well-articulated from the first ~ through the secondary grades; (3) that is functiollll and practical for those using it; and (4) that integrated and scientific measuring instruments techniques.
Evaluation and measurement are not terms. T)le emphasis in , me_asurement is

GLOSSARY .. 49

aspects of subject-matter achievement or specific skills and abilities; emphasis in evaluation is upon broad personality changes and major objectives of the educational program.

EXPECTANCY NORMS

Any of various methods for adjusting achievement test norms with respect to mental ability and chronological age and/ or other characteristics of the person or persons to whom the tests are given. (See AN-
TICIPATED ACHIEVEMENT GRADE PLACEMENT NORMS.)

EXPECTED GRADE PLACEMENT (XGP)

A computed score representing the achievement test performance of an individual based on a regression technique which is a function of both mental age and chronological age and expressed in grade placement units.

IXTRAPOLATION

A process of estimating values of a function beyond the range of available data.

FACE VALIDITY

Refers to the acceptability of the test and test situation by the examinee or user, in terms of apparent uses to which the test is to be put. A test has face validity when it appears to measure the variable to be tested.

PACTOR ANALYSIS

A method (centroid, grouping, principal components) of analyzing the intercorrelations among a set of variables such as test scores. Factor analysis attempts to account for the inter-relationships in terms of some underlying ".factors," preferably fewer in number than the original variables. It reveals bow much of the variation in each of the original measures arises from or is associated with each of the hypothetical factors.

PACTORED TEST

A. test battery for which several scores representing different factors of ability, established by factor analysis, are obtained.

RIQUINCY IIUTION

A .tabulation of scores from high to low (or low to high) showing the number of persons who obtain each score -or group of scores.

The average test score obtained by pupils classified at a given grade placement. -

A score or a scale developed to indicate the school grade and month in that school grade which is then assigned to the average chronological age, mental age, test score. or other characteristics of pupils
__ Dr.. Allcee M. Bora

50 GLOSSARY

INTELLECTUAL STATUS INDEX
INTELLIGENCE

classified at this school grade. A grade placement equivalent of 6.4 is interpreted as the fourth month of the sixth grade.

A statistically derived index number which indicates the extent to which the chronological age and mental ability of a pupil differ from the chronological age and mental ability characteristics of the basic norming sample for the grade involved. An Intellectual Status Index of 100 indicates that a pupil's chronological age and mental ability characteristics are equivalent to those of the basic norming sample. Values above and below 100 indicates superior and inferior characteristics respectively in an individual pupil as compared with the basic norming sample. (See ANTICIPATED ACIDEVEMENT.)

The ability to perceive and understand relationships, such as logical, spatial, verbal, numerical; 'and recall of associated meanings. Also called academic aptitude, SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE, MENTAL ABILITY, CAPACITY, and MENTAL MATURITY. The types of tests that are used to measure various kinds of intelligence are illustrated below using the California Short-
Form Te.st of Mental M. aturity as an example:

TOTAL MENTAL FACTORS

~

Language Data

Non-Language Data

Inference Test Numerical Quantity
Test Verbal Concepts Test

Sensing Right and Left Test
Manipulation of Areas Test
Similarities Test
Number Series Test

Using the same test as an eXample, the tests that contribute to four mental factors are shown below:

TOTAL MENTAL FACTORS

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (1. Q,)

Sono!ns lllthl _ _ S[mllo(llle t_ . _ .l~hunber

oncl Loft Teot

Toot

Series Tool

Manipulation Inference Test

Numerical

of Arow Toot

Ouontlty Test

Ver.bal Concepti
Test

A measure of potential rate of growth up to 16 years of age, expressed as the Mtio of mental age to chron-
ological age. The formula is: I . Q: = -~:~: X 100.

GLOSSARY . 51

INTELLIGENCE (M.A.) GRADE PLACEMENT (I.G.P.)
INTERPOLATION
ITIM ANALYSIS
IIIAN

For ages over 16 years, 192 months is used as the chronological age, the evidence being that, on the average, mental maturity does not increase materially with further increases in chronological age. (See MENTAL AGE.)

A mental age scale expressed in terms of the grade placements for which the mental age is average. The I.G.P. for an individual is found by entering a table with the person's mental age and reading the I.G.P. equivalent for the mental age. The mental age grade placement scale, for the California Test of Mental Maturity, corresponds exactly to the chronological
= = age grade placement scale for all values up to and
including 9.0 grade placement (M.A. C.A. 172 months), since at these grades the average LQ. is assumed to be 100. Beyond 9.0 the mental age increases more rapidly than the chronological age due to the selection of individuals who remain in school at these higher grade levels. At C.A. 192 months and higher the mental age and consequent I.G.P. are determined by 192 times the median I.Q. of the respective grades. At 16.7 grade placement, the grade placement scale is discontinued. Higher mental age grade placement is expressed at this point upward in terms of college graduate percentiles.

A process of estimating intermediate values between two known points. In the example, a Mental Age value of 205, by interpolation, would be assigned a M.A. Grade Placement of 12.9

EXAMPLE

Mental M.A. Grade

Age

Placement

202

12.5

204

12.8

206

1.3.0

208

13.2

Anyone of several methods used in test construction to determine how well a given test item discriminates .among individuals differing in some charac.teristi. The effectiveness of a test item depends upon three factors: (1) the validity of the item in regards to curriculum content and . educational objectives; (2) the discriminating power of the item in regards to validity and internal consistency; (3) the difficulty .of .the jtem. (See CRITERION.)

The ~um of a set of scores divided by the number of scores.

The middle score in a set of ranked scores. It is the point above or below whieh an equal number of

52 . GLOSSARY

ranked scores lie. It corresponds to the 50th percentile.

MENTAL AGE

The chronological age for which a given score on an intelligence test is average or normal. A raw score of 51 on the Language tests of the CTMM, Junior High Level, corresponds to a mental age of 160 months (13 yrs., 4 months). The typical individual in the standardization sample who was 160 months old obtained an average raw score of 51 on the Language part of the test.

MENTAL AGE

(See INTELLIGENCE GRADE PLACEMENT, CHRON

GRADE PLACEMENT OLOGICAL AGE GRADE PLACEMENT, ANTICIPATED

ACHIEVEMENT.)

ME.NTAL MATURITY Intelligence, mental ability. (See INTELLIGENCE.)

MODE

The score or value that occurs most frequently in a distribution.

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

A derived curve based on the assumption that variations from the mean are by chance. It is bell-shaped in form and adopted as true because of its repeated recurrence in the frequency distributions of sets of measurements of human characteristics in psychology and education. It has many useful mathematical pl"operties. In a normal distribution curve, scores are distributed symmetrically about the mean, a many cases at various equal dist~ces above the mean as below the mean, and with cases concentrated near the average and decreasing in frequency the further one departs from it. (See page 10.)

NORMALIZED STANDARD SCORE

Usually called T-scores, niade to conform to standard score values of a normal distribution curve by use of percentile equivalents of the normal curved area; and most frequently expressed with a mean equated to 50 and a standard deviation equaled to 10.

NORMS

Summarized statistics that describe the test perfor mance of reference groups -of pupils of various ages or grades in the standardization group for the test. Grade, age, standard score, and percentile are com mon types o~ norms. (See DERIVED SCORES.)

OMNIBUS TEST

A test in which items measuring a variety of mental operations are all combined into a single sequence rather than being gt"ouped together by type of opera tio~. The te~_t has one ti~e ~imit and yields a sl~gle score.

Standard Deviations
T-Scores

0.13% \.

13.59 % 34.13 % I 34 . 13 %

0 .13 % ,/

4u

3u

2u

1u

Mean 0

1u

2u

3u

4u

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Percentiles

0.1 0.6 2 7 16 31 50 69 84 93 98 99.4 99.9

Wechsler I. Q .'s SI.tQan.'fsord-Binet I
CTMM I.Q.'s lnteiJigence Test withS.D.oflO

55

70

52

68

I

1

l

l

52

68

70

80

85

100

115

130

145

I

84
_____1_

. 100
__. _ _ _ _ _1._ ______ 1_

116

L_ q_2 __l__11_~ _.L__..J.

_! _____ - - - - - -

a
~

0

Cll

Cll

84

100

116

132

148

)>
;u

-<

90

100

110

120

130

NORMAL CURVE

"~ '

54 . . GLOSSARY

PERCENTILE
PERFORMANCE TEST
PERSONALITY
PHI COEFFICIENT POTENTIALITY POWER TEST

One of the 99 point scores that divide a ranked distribution into groups, each of which contains 1/100 of tb scores. A percentile rank is a person's rank in a standard group of 100 persons representative of the full range of the normative population. If a person obtains a percentile rank of 70, his standing is regarded as equaling or surpassing 70 percent of the normative group on which the test was standardized; a percentile rank score of 70 may also be interpreted to mean that 30 percent of the normative group excel this person's test performance. (See CENTILE, DECILE.)
Broadly speaking, every test is a performance test whether the performance is oral responses to questions, written responses to an essay test or an objective test, or the application of manual skills in a test situation. However, pencil-and-paper or oral tests are not usually regarded as performance tests. Performance tests generally require the use and manipulation of physical objects and the application of physical and manual skills in situations not restricted to oral and written responses. Shorthand or typing tests in which the response called for is similar to the behavior about which information is desired exemplify work-sample tests which are a type of performance test.
The sum total of everything that constitutes a person's mental, emotional, and temperamental makeup. Personality refers to the manner and effectiveness with which the whole individual meets his personal and social problems, and indirectly the manner in which he impresses his fellows. Personality adjustment status has been evaluated by three levels of projection: Level 1, direct or rationalized questions like the California Test of Personality or the Mental Health Analysis; Level 2, incomplete sentences or pictures; Level 3, ink blots, clouds, S-0 Rorschach Test.
A product-moment correlation coefficient computed from a 4-fold table (double dichotomy). Frequently the dichotomy is between passing or failing a test item and is interpretated as the discrimination effectiveness of an item.
Latent power. (See -ABILITY, APTITUDE, CAPACITY.)
A test which is desi;gned to sample the range of an examinee's capacity in particular skills or abilities and which places minimal emphasis on time limits.

GLOSSARY . .. 55

PROBABL ERROR (P.E.)

A value obtained by multtplying the standard error by 0.6745. This provides a value so that a range of one probable error on either side of the mean of a normal distribution includes exactly 50% of the cases. Two P. E. units equal 82% of the cases; three P.E. units equal 95.7% of the cases; four P.E. units equal 99.3% of the cases, or "practical certainty."

PROGNOSTIC TEST
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

A test used to predict future success or failure in a specific subject or field. The test usually measures the skills and abilities that are prerequisite for success in the particular subject or task. (See APTITUDE.)
A test situation in which the subject responds to timuli such as ink-blots, pictures, incomplete sentences, or clouds, in such a manner that he "projects" into his responses manifestations of personality characteristics. (See PERSONALITY.)

RAMDOM SAMPLE

A sample drawn in such a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included, thus eliminating bias of selection. A random sample is "representative" of its total population.

RANGE

The differ ence reflected by noting the lowest and the highest scores obtained on a test by some group.

READINESS TEST

A test of ability to engage in a new type of specific learning. Level of maturity, previous experience, and mental and emotional set are important factors in readiness.

REFERENCE POPULATION

The total population from which a sample is selected for measurement. The term is synonymous with Standardization Population. For the California Test of Mental Maturity and the California Achievement Test, the standardization or reference population is the total pupil enrollment in public schools (grades one through twelve) in the United States. (See STANDARDIZATION SAMPLE.)

REGRESSION EFFECT

Tendency for a predicted score to be relatively nearer the mean of its series than the score from which it was predicted is to the mean of its series. For example, if we predict school marks from an intelligence test, we will find that for all pupils who have I.Q.'s two standard deviations above the mean, the mean of their predicted school marks will be less than two standard deviations from the mean of the school marks.

56 ... GLOSSARY

RELIABILITY
SCALED SCORE
SCALED TEST SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE SIGMA (o-) SKEWNESS

The degree to which a pupil would obtain the same score if the test were readministered to the pupil (assuming no additional lear.ning, practice effectS!, etc.); trustworthiness of scores. Several types of reliability coefficients should be distinguished:
a. Coefficient of internal consistency refers to a measure based on internal analysis of data obtained on a single trial of a test. More prominent of these are the analysis of variance method (Kruder-Richard son, Hoyt) and the splithalf method.
b. Coefficient of equivalence refers to a correlation between scores from two forms given at essentially the same time.
c. Coefficient of stability refers to a correlation between te t and retest with some period of time intervening. The test-retest situation may be with two forms of the same test.
A unit in a system of equated scores established for the raw scores of a te t so that the scaled score values may themselves be interpreted usually as representative of the mean performance of certain reference groups and so that intervals between any pair of scaled scores may be interpreted as differences in terms of the characteristics of the reference group.
(1) A test in which the items are arranged in an order of increasing difficulty. (2) May also refer to a test whose items are assigned we ights or values according to the difficulty of the item.
A combination of native and acquired abilities that is needed to do school work. (See INTELLIGENCE.)
Designation for STANDARD ERROR and most frequently applied to STANDARD DEVIATION.
The degree to which a unimodal (one-peak) curve departs from symmetry.

SOCIOMETRY

Normal Curve

Curvo with Negative Skewn eu

Curve with Politive Skewneu

Measurement of the interpersonal relationships exist ing among the members of a group. One of the simple t sociometric methods is the "Guess Who" device. This is a test, used fir t by Hartshorne and May, consisting of descriptions of roles played by children; each child in the group responds to each description

GLOSSARY . . . 57

by naming any child he thinks the description fits. Another instrument, the Bonney-Fessenden Socio-gra ph, is a device for studying the social structure of groups by identifying cliques, hierarchies of leadership, and other social groupings.

SPEED TEST

A test in which performance is measured by the number of tasks performed in a given time.

SPLIT-HALF COEFFIC IENT

A measure of estimating the r eliability of a power test by splitting it into comparable halves (usually the odd-numbered items and the even-numbered items, whose respective means and variances are equal), correlating the scores of the two halves and applying the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula to estimate the correlation. (See RELIABILITY.)

STA NDARD

A level of performance agreed upon by experts or established by local school personnel as a goal of pupil attainment. Not to be confused with norm. (See NORMS.)

STANDARD DEVIATION (S.D.)

It is a statistic used to express the extent of the deviations from the mean for the distribution. It is obtained by taking the square root of the mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean of a distribution. If the group tested is a normal one their scores, if plotted graphically, would yield a normal distribution curve, Approximately two-thirds (68.3%) of the scores would lie within the limits of one standard deviation above and one standard deviation below the mean . One-third of the scores would be above the mean by one standard deviation , and one-third below the mean by one standard deviation. About 95 % of the scores lie within t he limits of two stand ard deviations above and below the mean. About 99.7% of the cases lie within the limits of three standard deviations above and below the mean.

STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT

Indicates how closely the individual's score compares with his true score. If the standard error is 3.0, the chances are 2 to 1 that the score lies within 3.0 points either way of his true score, or 19 to 1 that it is not more than 6.0 points (2 times STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT) from his true score.

STANDARDIZATION OF TEST BATTERY

lnvolves the assignment of a system of derived scores of the tests to facilitate interpretation of the test in terms of reference populations. In the standardization of the California Achievement Tests there were two specific steps: (1) the establishment of a longlturli

58 ... GLOSSARY

nal scale of grade placement values from grades 1.0 to 16.5, whose function it is to measure the relative status of pupils in relationship to the typical performance of pupils of known school-grade classification, chronological age, and mental ability; and (2) the establishment of a percentile scale at specific school grades, whose function it is to indicate the variation in test scores found for the total population of pupils classified in the same school grade.

STANDARDIZATION SAMPLE

Refers to that part of the reference population which is selected for use in norming a test. This sample should be representative of the reference population in essential characteristics, such as geographical representation, age, and grade.

STANDARDIZED TEST

A test that is composed of empirically selected materials, has definite directions for administration, scoring, and use, data on reliability and validity, and has adequately determined norms.

STANDARD SCORE (SIGMA SCORE, TSCORE, ZSCORE)

A score expressed as a deviation from the mean in terms of the standard deviation of the distribution (raw score minus the mean, divided by the standard deviation). (See NORMALIZED STANDARD SCORE.)

STANINES

A unit that divides the norm population into nine

groups. Except for Stanines 1 and 9, the groups are

spaced in half-sigma units, with the mean at Stanine 5.

Stanine

1234 56789

% in Stanine 4 7 12 17 20 17 12 7 4

STRATIFIED SAMPLE

A sample in which cases are selected by the use of certain controls, such as geographical region, community size, grade, age, sex, etc.

SURVEY TEST

A test that measures general achievement in a given subject area. It is used to test skills and abilities of widely varying types. A survey test may also yield diagnostic information. (See DIANOSTIC TEST.)

TSCORE
TRANSMUTATION OF SCORES VALIDI'tY

A derived score based upon the equivalence of percentile values to standard scores, thus avoiding the effects of skewed distributions, and usually having a mean equated to 50 and a standard deviation equated to 10.
The changing of scores from various tests to a com mon or equivalent scale so that the scores may be compared or combined.
A test is valid to the extent that we kno" what it measures or predicts. The two basic approaches to

GLOSSARY ... 59

the determination of validity - logical analysis and empirical analysis - are diagrammed below:

LOGICAL
IContent Validity
Item Structure

EMPIRICAL
Predictive Validity
IConcurrent Volidii)

Construct Validity

CONTENT VALIDITY refers to how well the content of the test samples the subject matter or situation about which conclusions are to be drawn. Content validity is especially important in an achievement test.
Examples: textbook analysis, description of the universe of items, adequacy of the sample, representativeness of test content, inter-correlations of sub-scores, opinions of jury of experts.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY concerns the psychological qualities a test measures. By both logical and empirical methods, the theory underlying the test is validated.
Examples: correlations of the test score with other test scores, factor analysis, use of a personality or interest inventory to describe a person, studying the effect of speed on test scores.
CONCURRENT VALIDITY refers to how well test scores match measures of contemporary criterion performance.
Examples: comparing distribution of scores for men in an occupation with those for men-in-general, correlation of personality test scores with estimates of adjustments made in the counseling interviews, correlation of end-of-course achievement or ability test scores with school marks.

60 ... GLOSSARY

VARIABILITY
WORK-LIMIT TEST

collected at a later time. Examples: correlation of intelligence test scores with cowse grades, correlation of test scores obtained at beginning of the year with marks earned at the end of the year.
The spread or dispersion of scores, usually indicated by quartile deviations, standard deviations, range of 9010 percentile scores, etc.
A test on which sufficient time is allowed for all or nearly all pupils to complete their work.