Curriculum framework for Georgia schools : a guide to curriculum planning

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CURRICULUIVI FRAIVIE'\NORK FOR GEORGIA SCHOOLS
A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM PLANNING
elORGIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION' JACK Po NIX. STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS

CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR GEORGIA SCHOOLS
A "'IDE TO CURRICULUM PLANNING 1967

Copyright 1967 Georgia State Department of Education Atlanta. Georgia 30334

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
James S. Peters, Chairman Robert Byrd Wright, Jr., Vice-Chairman
Jack P. Nix, Executive Secretary

Roy A. Hendricks Mrs. Ralph Hobbs

Leeman L. Jenkins David F. Rice

Henry Stewart James L. Dewar

Cliff C. Kimsey, Jr. William L. Preston

Many persons contributed to the preparation of this bulletin. The following persoT':" worked on committees at various stages of the development of this bulletin.

OFFICE OF INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICES

Dr. H. Titus Singletary, Jr. Associate Superintendent of Georgia Schools

Dr. Claude M. lvie, Director Division of Curriculum Development

Mr. H. Victor Bullock, Chief Consultant Curriculum Leadership Unit

Curriculum Framework for Georgia Schools
1967 REVISION COMMITTEE
GENERAL CONSUL T ANT
Dr. W. M. Alexander - University of Florida - Gainesville, Florida

CHAPTER COMMITTEES

CHAPTER l-"Purposes of Education" Miss Grace Hightower, Chairman Dr. L. E. Boyd Thomas P. James Alan Koth Dr. Garland Oliver Miss Juanita Skelton Mrs. Sarah Sloan Dr. Doyne Smith

CHAPTER II-"Psychological Bases" Dr. Pearl Nix, Chairman Mrs. Leland Bagwell
Mrs. Kay Crouch Mrs. Adrianne Lunsford Erskine Mills W. A. Morris Dr. Franklin Shumake Mrs. Esther Thomson

CHAPTER III-"Educational Content and Experiences" Dr. John Lounsbury, Chairman

ART-
Miss Olleen Williams, Chairman Mrs. Leslie Jo Bentley Dr. Frieda Gernant Mrs. Nancy Lawson Melford Paris

MATHEMATICS-
Miss Amabel Lansdell, Chairman Mrs. Gladys M. Thomason Martha Hildebrant Miss Vada Kent Mrs. Arlo Nesmith Dr. Len Pikaart Miss Lillian A. Price

III

DRIVER & SAFETY-
J. B. Angelo Crowe, Chairman Paul Carr J. C. Denman Earl Fales Miss Hazel Huffman
ENGLISH & READING-
Mrs. Juanita N. Abernathy, Chairman Dr. Ira E. Aaron Mrs. Billie Odum Robert Seay Miss Marian Sloan Dr. Mary Tingle
EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN-
Richard Bartlett, Chairman Miss Margaret Bynum Mrs. Martha Moore Dr. Frances Scott Mrs. Lurlyne Smith Dr. Glenn Vergason
FOREIGN LANGUAGEMiss Ruth Keaton, Chairman Mrs. Allyne Baird Herman Bostick Dr. O. E. Hicks Miss Gail Hutchinson

MUSICDr. Frank Crockett, Chairman Dr. Leon Culpepper Dr. James Dooley Mrs. Billy Kovill Don Robinson
PHYSICAL EDUCATION & HEALTH-
Wilbur Stanley, Chairman Gene Alexander Miss Rebecca Dennard Miss Harriett Donahoo Miss Virginia Hines Dr. Virginia McNamara Robert Nowell
SCIENCE-
Dallas Stewart, Chairman Dr. Eugene Lee, Gen. Chairman Arlo Nesmith, Jr. Mrs. Betty Scarboro Miss Louise Stakeley George Sturgis
SOCIAL SCIENCE-
Stanley Bergquist, Chairman Mrs. Miriam Clum Miss Madie A. Kincy Miss Cristy T. Trowell Miss Elizabeth Williams Mrs. George Youngblood

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GENERAL CHAIRMAN - Mrs. J. Mac Barber VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OVERALL CHAIRMAN - George Mulling

AGRICULTUREJ. H. Mitchell, Chairman James G. Harris, Jr. Fred C. Ingram
BUSINESSRussell Mercer, Chairman Miss Helen Cofer Mrs. Kathryn Korstian Lindle Freeman
DIST RIB UTIVERay Greeson, Chairman Miss Karen Belding H. R. Cheshire W. E. Glenn
HOME ECONOMICSDr. Aleene Cross, Chairman Mrs. J. Mac Barber Mrs. Myrtle Lawhon

INDUSTRIAL ARTSRaymond Ginn, Chairman James W. Bray Dr. D. F. Hackett
NUTRITION & SCHOOL FOOD SERVICE
Miss Josephine Martin, Chairman Mrs. Sarah Johnstone Mrs. Mamie Marshall Mrs. Margaret Mathews
TRADE & INDUSTRIAL-
Mark L. Davis, Chairman Lewis Brinson C. H. Weissinger

IV

CHAPTER IV-"Organization for Learning"
Mrs. Teresa New, Chairman Dr. Albert Cox Mrs. H. P. Jackson Sidney Jenkins Mrs. Catherine Kirkland Mrs. Evelyn Seitz Miss Florrie Still Mrs. Susie Wheeler

CHAPTER V-"Evaluation"
Dr. Florence Rambo, Chairman Miss Mildred Campbell A. C. Dickey Dr. William Holbert Dr. John H. Persell

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Foreword

CONTENTS

1. THE PURPOSES OF EDUCATION AS A BASIS FOR CURIDCULUM DEVELOPMENT Beliefs About Education in Georgia A Democratic Way of Life Values . The Role of Education Objectives

II. PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT The Nature of the Learner .
The Dynamics of the Learning Process
Conditions Favoring Learning
Interaction Between Teacher and Learner
The Learner's Perception of the Situation

III. EDUCATIONAL CONTENT AND EXPERIENCES

1. The Content Areas

Art

Foreign Language

Language Arts

Industrial Arts

Mathematics

Music

Physical Education and Health

Safety Education

Science



Social Science

Vocational Education

II. Schoolwide Experiences

III. Special Services

IV. ORGANIZATION FOR LEARNING . The Changing Basis for Organization The Multi-Level School Organization for Learning-What It Is The System Level . The School Level The Classroom Level In Summary

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3 3 3 3 4 5
9 9 11 12 13 13
17 17 17 17 19 20 22 22 23 24 26 26 27 29 30
37 37 37 37 38 39 41 41

VII

CONTENTS

V. EVALUATING OUTCOMES OF CURRICULA

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Steps in Curriculum Evaluation

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References

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STATE BOARD POLICIES ON CURRICULUM

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Introduction

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Policies

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The Elementary School

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The Junior High School

50

The Senior High School

50

Guidance

50

Use of State Allotted Teachers

51

Health Education

51

Physical Education

51

Local Adoption of High School Program

51

Making Parents a Part

51

Teachers in Their Own Fields

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Teaching Five Periods

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Subject Matter or Content Courses

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Certification of Teachers

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APPENDIX

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Alcoholism Studies by State Board of Education

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Textbooks in Public Schools

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School Year, Scholastic Month, and Special Days

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Instruction in Animal, Bird, and Fish Life

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Physical Education and Training

57

Special Teachers

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VIII

FOREWORD
Every school in the State of Georgia must strive to provide for its students the very best educational program possible. The minimum is no longer enough if our youth are to compete successfully in this era of rapid change and exploding knowledge.
Through the years, the State Board of Education has charged leaders in education with the task of recommending a curriculum for the public schools in the State, grades one through twelve. The State Board made a general policy statement on curriculum in 1938 in the "Red Book" of the Georgia Program for Improvement of Education.
In 1953, the Board appointed a committee to st\ldy the current school curriculum and, in light of changes which had taken place, to recommend a "minimum" or "framework" for all local schools in the State to use as a guide in the development of sound educational programs.
The present State Board of Education, in 1965, asked that a new Curriculum Framework for Georgia Schools bE; developed. This bulletin is the result of such a study made by leaders in education from all sections of the State who felt strongly that "minimum" was no longer enough and that adequate opportunities and a striving for maximum is necessary.
I sincerely believe that this bulletin will serve well the needs of every local school and system in curriculum planning and development for the future.
JACK P. NIX State Superintendent of Schools
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CHAPTER I
THE PURPOSES OF EDUCATION AS BASIS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER I The Purposes of Education as a Basis for Curriculum Development

Beliefs About Educafion in Georgia
Educational objectives in any place and time grow out of the nature of the society for which education is being planned, the nature of the individual in that society and the nature of the learning process. Today the curriculum in Georgia's schools must reflect the growing state and national concern for improved and extended educational opportunities which permit each citizen to develop to his full potential. Technological changes are resulting in socio-economic changes of great magnitude. These changes are bringing new needs and new resources which demand new skills and concepts in order that the people of Georgia can adjust to changing values and make the most of new opportunities. All of these things must be reflected in the school program.

organization and fundamental purposes of democratic institutions as well as to develop the skills essential
to effective participation in them. They must recognize that in a democracy freedom of the individual and the welfare of the group are coexistent. The individual's right to make decisions regarding the solution of his problems must be protected, but his responsibility for making intelligent decisions, tempered always by his regard for the right of others, must be developed. This means that the school should be continually striving for the individual's growth in self-direction and self-control as well as for the development of an understanding that the individual functions as a part ofthe total societyand performance should be in terms of the welfare of the group.

The educational programs in Georgia schools must be developed in view of facts that: the majority of pupils are not enrolling in post high school programs; that there are a number of pupils dropping out of school prior to graduation; that provisions should be made for mentally retarded and slow learners; that aoademically talented pupils should advance to their full potential; and that learning opportunities should be provided for adults. Adequate education for all citizens requires educational diagnosis in planning for each individual. In planning programs for all of these individuals, more attention should be given to understanding the learning process, to ,improved organizational and teaching techniques and to varied materials. Education, to meet the multiplicity of abilities and needs, must recognize the importance of how subject matter is taught and' for what purpose as well as the content of what is taught; breadth and depth of curriculum in content, instructional process and materials are demanded.
ADemocratic Way of Life
The essential function of the schools of Georgia is the development of individuals who can participate effectively in the democratic society of which they are a part. Democracy is a way of life and a quality of the human spirit as well as a form of government. As such, it must be acquired by the individual members of the social order. The school, as a primary institution of our society, must assume responSibility for helping people to develop the capacities, attitudes and skills which will enable them to meet with high purpose and effectiveness Changes arising in a democratic society.
As contributing members of a democratic society, the people of Georgia need to understand the basic

Values
The people in a democratic society rightfully expect the home, school and other institutions to foster and develop the individual's capacity to discern and identify values. Values are those principles or fundamental ideas inherent in manifestations of human existence which serve as basis for man's general benefit and realization of his full potential. These principles are found in every aspect of civilization and life. They may be distinguished in social units and organizations, human relations and behavior, significant cultural phenomena, scientific achievement, educational growth, possession and accumulation of material wealth, development of physical and social security and in numerous other examples of human involvement and endeavor.
Everyone establishes a hierarchy of values- a system which guides the individual in making quality judgments, choices and decisions. An evolving set of criteria or standards constitutes the basis for this hierarchy of values and must be nurtured within a wholesome and carefully structured framework of educational experience if the student is to realize outcomes which are:
a. beneficial and satisfying to the individual b. acceptable, fruitful and stabilizing for the social
order c. appropriate to the established cultural heritage d. consistent with developing concepts of "God"
and "Truth".
Many of the problems facing the citizens of Georgia and the United States today are due to confusion in the value system which guides decisions and actions.
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This confusion has arisen, in part, due to changed conditions ofthe present day and to leaving the development of values to chance.
It is impossible to isolate specific values and set them up as educational objectives to be achieved at a given level or in a given course. Rather, the school program should provide rich experiences in all areas of the curriculum for pupils to develop a desirable set of values and to make judgments on an intelligent basis.
The Role of Education
Based on the position that a society is only as sound anq as fine as its members, it necessarily follows that the school must provide for the basic educational needs of the total community including the youth of school age, out-of-school youth, adults on the job and in the home. Sound opportunities must be provided for citizens to cultivate their mental, physical, moral and spiritual talents to their highest individual capacities. If this practice is followed, education is seen as a continuing factor in the lives of the people as long as they live.
The schools face the task of motivating youth and adults to self-realization, to economic efficiency and to effective modern living. This can be accomplished when the curriculum considers those factors which made the community unique and also considers the individual differences of each student. The total educational program of the school should provide opportunities that permit the student to blend into community life as an active participating citizen. Since the school is an institution developed and supported by the people, it must prove itself to be the most practical and democratic vehicle to accept this challenge.

In addition to these abilities, opportunities shoull be provided for developing the ability to interpre and use specialized symbolism. In addition to thl symbolism of language itself, these include the sym bolism of mathematics, art and music.
Attention should also be given to discriminate between good and bad offerings of the mass medi: and to understand the techniques gO\7erning thei] formats.
LEARNING HOW TO LEARN To develop in people thl habits and the necessary skills for continuous learninl is one of the most important tasks of education today Basic knowledge is changing in all disciplines at : rapidly increasing rate. It is increasingly importan that everyone learns how to learn in such a waj that it becomes a habit, if he expects to become I productive and informed citizen while in school ani throughout his life.
Learning how to learn requires the developmen of an interest in acquiring knowledge and an inquisi tive mind, as well as the ability to: use a book ani all its parts properly; use all types of non-bool materials effectively as sources of information use specialized books and sets of books efficiently locate materials through the use of periodical gUides specialized indexes, card catalogs, and other librar; tools; ask questions of other people in interviews ani in conversation; and to experiment with solutions
Learning how to learn involves, in addition tl ffnding answers and information, checking manJ sources rather than anyone source, evaluatiIll accuracy and authenticity, weighing the conclusion! of others, re-evaluating one's own conclusions ani adjusting to change.

The ever-changing complexities of society demand continuous evaluation of the outcomes of learning which are essential to the continuing improvement of the curriculum.
Objectives
The objectives of the schoolE. should be consistent with the purposes of education. The following objectives are developed around persistent skills and competencies people will continue to need as expressed in the stated beliefs about education. These competencies cannot be learned at anyone level or in anyone subject but must become apart of each day's activities at all levels and in all subject areas. Their development cannot be left to chance but must become an integral planned part of the educational program.
COMPETENCIES IN COMMUNICATION The development of abilities to communicate is necessary in all areas of the curriculum. These abilities include listening attentively and with understanding, speaking clearly and interestingly, reading intelligently and critically and writing legibly and correctly.

UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD AND MAN Rapid techno logical, political and social changes require that al citizens develop as thorough an understanding al possible of the physical and human world about them This understanding should encompass scientific know ledge, cultural heritages, democratic action, skilll of human relations, the role of art, music ani literature, knowledge of other languages, knowledgE about forms of government and economics and knowledge of the world of work.
The curriculum should emphasize the constanl changes occurring in all of these areas to develo) citizens who: (a) realize the values of understandiDl the physical and human world; (b) possess necessarJ background knowledge and skills; and (c) have devel oped an awareness of the constant changes and th necessity to keep learning continuously with thE required interest, habits and skills.
ACTIVITIES OF CITIZENS An effective program of pub' lic education will develop individuals capable of assUID' ing their share of home and family responsibilities. Not only will they recognize and assume responsibilm

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for their own roles in developing the proper social, religious and cultural atmosphere for the family; but also they will assume responsibility for family economics including the ability to buy discriminatingly, to prepare and follow personal budgets and to investigate and evaluate wage and income possibilities.
Such individuals will be voting, law-abiding citizens who concern themselves with the society in which they live. They will act to conserve natural resources and to preserve their cultural heritage and will weigh civic issues and actively participate in worthwhile community enterprises.
ABILITY TO CARE FOR MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FITNESS Although the home has the chief responsibility for the general health and well-being of the child, the school has a distinctive role in the nutritional, physical and mental welfare of the child. Schools can provide knowledge and the atmosphere for developing responsibility in all children through successful educational experiences during their school years. The goal shouldbe to produce happy, satisfied, adjusted children and should be reached by providing experiences in the development of good living and learning habits relating to feelings and actions.
The physical well-being of a child and his emotional health are interwoven, and together they are related to his ability to adjust to family, school and friends. Nutrition, proper exercise, opportunities for selfexpression and creativity, healthy play and recreation, rest and relaxation are all factors that affect a person's ability to learn and adjust to life's situations. Establishing sound health practices in children is easier if the educational process is begun early.
Real learning results when there is a change in behavior. Successful learning experiences result in habit formation. The more closely these health experiences are related to real life activities, the better the learning.

life should include aesthetic experiences and should develop the ability to understand the nature of aesthetic quality. For some individuals, the extent of these experiences may be enjoyment and appreciation of beauty. For others, particular preferences may be explored in more depth, and special abilities and skills may be developed.
These interests and abilities can evolve from a curriculum which should:
a. stimulate interest in the aesthetic aspects or" all studies;
b. stimulate interest in all available cultural opportunities;
c. develop an appreciation for the enjoyment of beauty in all forms;
d. develop special abilities and skills to a high degree of sophistication.
SPEOALIZED INTEREST The curriculum in Georgia's schools must recognize that the average citizen of the state during the next generation will, due to technological change, probably have a number of careers. To assure the productivity and usefulness of citizens of the state, vocational and pre-vocational programs should prOVide for a variety of specialized interests directed toward making people adaptable to vocational change. To reach this goal, continuous guidance must be provided in vocations throughout the individual student's school program. The curriculum should provide for vocational guidance and exploration at the elementary level followed by continuous vocational guidance and occupational training and preparation to enable citizens to become productive members of society. This concept requires a well-planned, coordinated program based on the resources of the community, the elementary school, the comprehensive secondary school, the vocational technical school and the college. It also requires provisions for all types of learners - the academically gifted, the slow learner and the mentally retarded.

SENSITIVITY TO AND UNDERSTANDING OF AESTHETICS
All citizens, in order to be well-rounded and welleducated, should develop a sensitivity to and an understanding of aesthetics. All aspects of school

Emphasis should be placed on educating people to be adaptable and on providing them with a variety of interests. Specialization, whenever possible, should be in broad areas that represent many careers.

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CHAPTER II
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES FOR
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER II
Psycholoyical Bases for Curriculum Development

B. Othanel Smith's concept of teaching as "a system of actions intended to induce learning" places two sets of behavior in the spotlight in the educative process-first, th~t of Ute teacher, and s~cond: that of the learner. Placing the teacher fIrst m the above statement does not mean that the learner is second; it simply means that the teacher must take the initiative in establishing a climate for learning. To induce desirable or appropriate changes in the learner's behavior (including his knowledge and skills, his ideals and goals and his attitudes and feelings), the teacher needs a broad understanding of the factors influencing the learner's participation in the educative process on which to base his strategies and procedures. He will want to acquire valid information regarding: the nature of the learner, the dynamics
of the learning process, the interaction between the teacher and learner, and the learner's perception of the situation or learning environment.
The Nature of the Learner
GOALS DIRECTING THE BEHAVIOR OF THE LEARNER Understanding the learner implies some appreciation ~nd knowledge of the goals toward which he is mOVing. These goals, though personal and unique to the individual, are also social and reflect the values and ideals of his culture. To be an effective citizen of the United States, the learner should acquire these qualities of maturity as he moves 1through the educative process:
He solves problems as well as available facts permit;
He has self-respect and self-confidence; He is effective in dealing with other people; he re-
spects their rights and helps his associates to live satisfying lives; He has some absorbing interests and sources of satisfaction; He wants his actions to be praiseworthy, but he examines values critically before conforming to them; He exercises self-control, yet he can experience a wide range of emotions and enjoy aesthetic interests.
As one develops along these lines, one becomes a more complete person with both personal and social competencies. An interaction process is also evident; these qualities do not develop independently of each ether. For example, skill in solving problems may not be utilized properly unless the person has some appreciation and acceptance of socially responsible values.

An overview of the society of which the learner is a part and of the qualities of maturity needed for effective responsible adjustment provides the teacher with his first important clue for the selection of an appropriate curriculum.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS FACING THE LEARNER

Be-

cause of his nature and the demands placed upon ~im

by society; each individual is expected to perform a

series of developmental tasks as he moves toward

maturity and acquires the competencies needed for

effective, productive living. Robert Havinghurst first

popularized the term developmental tasks, which he

considered very nearly obligatory for the socializa-

tion of the child. He identified them as the roles

around which the culture is organized and which

depend upon the maturity of the individual. The chart

in Figure 1 is adapted from Havinghurst and Cronbach.

Although the life span is divided into stages, it is

just for convenience, for development is continuous

and there is no overnight change at any birthday. The

periods are marked off to correspond to major changes

in behavior and social role, but each person proceeds

according to his uniqueness and at his own speed.

Furthermore, the demands upon children of a given

age change from time to time; for example;, pubes-

cence comes earlier than before,andmarriageoccurs

earlier than it did a decade or two ago. There are also

intraculturaldifferences. Hence, it is always neces-

sary to view the child as an active participant in his

own culture for a realistic appraisal of the tasks he

must accomplish in order to be an effective member.

Some of the developmental tasks are completed before the child enters school and some will not be completed until many years after he leaves school.
However, his early school experiences will be influenced by what has taken place before his admis-
sion to school and all subsequent tasks will be either facilitated or inhibited by his school experiences. For example, the degree of success in learning to talk may not only infl].lence how well the child succeeds in reading but may also influence his concept of himself, his happiness and his success in subsequent developmental tasks and other school activities. Although the teacher and school may be more concerned with some tasks than others, the successful performance of all is usually essential if the individual is to achieve integrity of personality and competencies for happy, productive liVing. Hence, it seems important for the teacher and school administrator to consider carefully these developmental tasks when developing a curriculum for the child. The organization of the school for learning might follow stages of growth; i. e., the kindergarten, primary school, the school for the middle childhood years and the secondary school for adolescents.

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Figure I.

SOME DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF AMERICAN CHILDREN

Early Childhood 0-4 years

Experiencing rapid to a decreasing rate of growth. Acquiring a sense of trust in self and others. Developing healthy concepts of self. Learning to give and receive affection. Achieving skills in motor coordination. Learning to be a member of family group. Beginning to learn physical and social realities. Beginning to distinguish right from wrong and to respect rules and authority. Learning to understand and use language. Learning property rights. Beginning to understand principles behind regulations. Learning to accept some separation from parents.

Early School 5-9 years

Experiences stable growth. Adapting to organization. Developing tool skills. Accepting rules and procedures. Controlling emotions. Caring for own appearance. Winning acceptance in school group and developing play skills. Accepting own physical characteristics and aptitudes for school work. Gaining wider knowledge and understanding of physical and social world. Building wholesome attitudes toward self. Learning to give and take and share responsibility. Learning an appropriate sex role. Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values.

Middle Childhood Experiencing a growth spurt.

10-11 years

Making an effort toward school

achievement. Conforming to sex

role. Accepting group code and

Early Adolescence 12-16 years
Later Adolescence 17-20 years

Adapted from Havinghurst and Cronbach

learning to compete within the code. Carrying on tasks without supervision. Accepting some conflict with authority. Developing interests and finding means of earning pocket money. Learning to extend projects over longe] period of time. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions. Assuming more responsibility for directing self.
Reaching puberty (Girls 10-15, Boys 12-17). Experiencing an increased sense of unique personality and planning for the future. Beginning to date, accepting more impersonal direction in departmentalized school. Gaining acceptance from opposite sex and acquiring new sex roles. Accepting own body and role of own sex. Acceptown abilities and talents. Finding vocational direction. Achieving more emotional independence from parents. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior0
Experiencing a tapering off in growth. Forming close comradship with member(s) of opposite sex. Holding self to schedules and completing tasks defined in general terms. Making serious decisions without reliance on adults. Choosing specific vocational goal and developing vocational . skills. Achieving mature values and social responsibility. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence. Preparing for marriage and family life. Achieving assurance of economic independence.

BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS OF THE LEARNER
Underlying the child's developmental tasks are his needs which motivate him to action:
1. Biological maintenance needs - basic tissue needs such as food, water, oxygen and safety needs;
2. Psychological maintenance needs-love, belongingness, adequacy, security, self-esteem, independence;
3. Self-actualization needs-self-fulfillment.
An understanding of these as sources of motivation within the learner is crucial in ordering his learning

environment. For example. there is considerable research which suggests that the child whose maintenance needs are not met satisfactorily is not free to give his best attention to the task of developing his potential. Thus, the child's biological and pyschological needs provide the teacher with another clue for curriculum planning.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING HUMAN GROWTH In choosing a curriculum pattern suited to the readiness of the learner, it is also important for the teacher to have an understanding and appreciation of the following basic principles of growth and development:
1. Growth is dynamic; the child must groW;

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2. Growth is qualitative as well as quantitative as evidenced in the added maturity necessary for more complex learning such as logical reasoning and the expansion of verbal concepts; the qualitative nature is more evident during plateaus when quantitative change is at a minimum.
3. Growth is continuous and follows c.. cyclic pattern as long as organismic and environmental factors are relatively constant; another way of expressing the idea of continuity is to say that the growth impulse functions during the life of the individual.
4. Growth varies among individuals; no two children grow quite alike; thus children differ in their readiness for learning a particular skill, in their rate of growth and in the maximum toward which they are progressing.
5. Growth is modifiable; the impulse to grow is a powerful force in the growth pattern; nevertheless under specific conditions, growth may be modified in terms of rate, timing or maximum.
Research findings indicate that any phase of school achievement is a function of the total growth of the child. Hence, knowledge about children's growth patterns and ways to use it in organizing the learning environment are of paramount importance 1 each child is to experience his measure of success in the school program.
Growth and learning are complementary. When a satisfactory maturity status is reached, learning takes place more easily. Presenting learning experiences in terms of difficulty, scope and sequence according to the child'S maturity makes possible more effective learning and helps to prevent adverse attitudes. This means that the teacher must see that the task is interesting enough to challenge the student, simple enough to be performed with reasonable effort and meaningful enough to be transferred. Furthermore, e'ach child must be treated as an individual and educated on the basis of his own characteristics and level of maturity. Since the growth processes result from the interaction of the child's potential with his experiences and are both complex and uniquely patterned for each individual, it appears that a thorough study of human development should undergird curriculum planning.

The Dynamics of the Learning Process

Since one of the unique purposes of schooling is

its contributions to the intellectual growth of the

individual learner, an understanding of the learning

~p~rlo~ceecstusalisorofcomganjiotirveimoppoerrtaatniocne.s

Directing the inof children so that

td~erlerct?leOhnasViisorincdheaendgeas

in the complex

desired or desirable task depending upon

e teacher's definition of intelligence, his concept of

cognitive growth, his view of concept formation,

his understanding of conditions favoring learning and his skill in motivating and evaluating learning.
A CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE )From research done by J. S. Bruner and Guilford, among others, it appears that a cognitive approach rather than a strictlybehavioristic one offers a better basis for achieving the purposes of education discussed earlier, particularly those purposes related to critical thinking and continuing intellectual growth. According to Guilford's model of human intelligence, to which he refers as the "structure of intellect", the individual has many (approximately 60 known) separate abilities. If one accepts this view, a single general measure of mental maturity such as an "IQ" does not provide a satisfactory index as to what the child can learn or how he should be taught. A more thorough diagnosis of his cognitive processes including abilities, achievement and effective characteristics would seem advisable for improving the teacher's understanding of the factors involved in learning.
COGNITIVE GROWTH Currently, efforts are underway to bring to teachers a better understanding of the cognitive growth of children. J. S. Bruner has suggested that if one is to profit from contact with recurrent regularities in his environment, he must represent them in some manner. He has identified three modes of representation; namely, (1) enactive representation or the representing of past events through appropriate motor responses such as bicycle riding and knot;-tying which are represented in the muscles; (2) ikonic representation, a set of summary images that stand for a concept without fully defining it; and (3) symbolic representation, a set of symbolic or logical forms such as words, numbers, formula which, although they do not look like the object represented, stand for the object in the mind of the learner. It further appears that these emerge in the order listed above-first the action, then the image and lastly the word or symbol. The quantity and quality of the learner's early growth in symbols determine to a great extent his further ~ental development. As he progresses through the educative process, language development becomes increasingly important.
DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS Concept formation is a spiraling, cumulative process through which the learner moves from matching of symbol with object, to sensing the SImilarities in objects or ideas, to broad generalizations and richer meanings. Since growth in concepts (defined as general ideas or ideas embracing the similarities in otherwise dissimilar objects, events or ideas) is a gradual process somewhat paralleling the child's unfolding mental potenti'!.l, the curriculum should provide repeated opportunities to deal with the most significant general concepts, as well as introduce new ones as the learner is ready. Since concepts provide the vehicles for critical thinking, creativity and logical reasoning, ways and means of concept development should receive the

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attention of the curriculum-maker at every step on the educational ladder.
Conditions Favoring Learning
CURRICULUM RELATED TO LEVEL OF THOUGHT' Throughout this chapter, it has been emphasized that the personal charateristics of the learner influence his response to the curriculum, but this is only a part of the picture. Other conditions favoring learning result from an interaction between the learner and the external situation or task. Hilda Taba found that when the level of learning tasks is below the level of thought, the effect is boredom. When questions and learning tasks are too far beyond the existing levels of thought, passive or rote learning is inevitable. Hence, it is recommended that the teacher make a careful analysis of how the child thinks and learns and works so that he can match the curriculum to the learner's level of thought.
STIMULATION FOR CREATIVE POWERS Getzels' view of the creative nature of man suggests another condition of learning which should not be overlooked. If the teacher accepts Getzels' idea that "the human being is not only a stimulus - reducing but a stimulus-seeking organism who strives not only to master problems with which he is confronted but. to confront problems in order to master them", he has another curricular problem; he must provide a learning situation in which there is a balance between the concrete and the abstract, the known and the unknown, so that the learner can sense achievement and the satisfaction of maintenance needs but at the same time have the motivation and stimulation to exercise his creative drive and to experience self-fulfillment.
INQUIRY TRAINING The curriculum should also offer opportunities for inquiry training and independent learning. Inquiry can be divided into four main types of actions: searching, data processing, discovery and verification all of which should be emphasized through all the curricular offerings. It has been repeatedly observed that conditions favoring active learning and discovery of principles lead to a clea-rer understanding, better retention and an increased likelihood of transfer.
GUIDANCE IN DEVELOPING DISCRIMINATORY POWERS Research by H. F. Harlow and others has shown that learning discrimination in the early years tends to -sensitize the organism to various aspects of his complex environment and thus makes him more curious and responsive to the stimulating conditions surrounding him. This observation implies that the school should offer a wealth of concrete experiences and guidance in the child's interpretation and use of these, especially during his primary school years. As he begins his school career, he should also be taught how to study alone and in groups. This emphasis

upon how to learn and how to study appears to be a means of helping the learner extract more meaning from his environment and to acquire attitudes conducive to continuous learning. These skills would also enable him to become an independent learner who could go down many paths to knowledge either alone or with minimum guidance.
When learning conditions are favorable, the learner's urge to grow and his curiosity push him toward self-fulfillment. His growth in ideals and goals, in knowledge and skills, and in attitudes and feelings becomes evident in increased competencies for solving the problems of living.
MOTIVATION AND EVALUATION OF LEARNING Understanding the nature of the forces motivating the individual child places a heavy responsibility upon the teacher. Basic to such an understanding is the concept of readiness-the learner's fitness for the tasks in question. At any given time and for any specified task, the learner's readiness depends upon a multiplicity of forces converging within him, including his level of maturity, his present needs, his past experiences, his goals and expectations of self, his pattern of abilities and his general feeling of adjustment or maladjustment. The teacher needs not only an appreciation of these forces but knowledge and skill regarding methods of appraising readiness, if he is to select a curriculum design and tea,ching strategy appropriate for the child. lf one accepts the view that the human being is a stimulus-seeking organism, it follows that a cur~ riculum adjusted to the readiness level of the learner will generate interest and strengthen motivation. As new understandings of readiness, motivation, learninE, and structure of knowledge are developed, the teacher should use them in arranging the school setting and should plan experiences for children to encourage their native curiosity to flower into strong persistent drives for learning.
The teacher's responsibility for evaluation goes beyond assessing readiness for learning. He also has the task of prOViding feedback to the learner regarding the quality and accuracy of his responses. The situation must be perceived and interpreted by the learner before he makes a response, but without knowledge of results or feedback he does not know how appropriate his interpretation or response is. Feedback is also the sounding board against which he perfects his response through practice. Furthermore, the teacher has been charged with the responsibility of guiding the learner in providing his own feedback. Thus, curricular experiences should be ordered so that the student becomeS increasingly more competent in judging the adequacY of his own responses and in making the necessary revisions. When one considers evaluatiqn a vital part of 'the learning process, one will make ample curricular provisions for its continuous development.

12

Knowledge regarding the dynamics of the learning process is still inconclusive; yet the recurring consistencies in observed phenomena can furnish valuable cues for the curriculum builder.
Interaction Between Teacher and Learner
The concept of teacHing as "a system of actions intended to induce learning" suggests that one key to success in this endeavor lies in the interaction between the teacher and the learner. Again, the teacher has the first move. By virtue of his position he constitutes a part of the stimulating situation. In fact, he becomes a vital part of the learner's environment and curriculum. At the same time, he becomes the goal for some students who choose him as their identification model. From him they learn ideals, goals, attitudes and emotional responses; they may also acquire new interests and different motives. Consequently, the teacher not only selects the curriculum designs but becomes an inseparable part of the educational experiences. The learner may respond enthusiastically to the knowledge involved in arithmetic problem-solving because of the enthusiasm his teacher radiates for the subject and his effective plans for the learning process.
ENCOURAGING COGNITIVE GROWTH Through his behaVIors relatea to the 1earning process, the teacher tends to augment or nullify the effectiveness of the curriculum designed for moving the learner toward self-fulfillment. For example, the teacher may encourage growth through these behaviors: motivation producing, perception-directing, response -elicting, reinforcement-providing, generating cognitive operation, integrating bits of information, generating independent methods of inquiry, stimulating creative uses of knowledge, draWing inferences from data, evaluating effects, assisting differentiation and grouping, and applying principles.
FOSTERING EMOTIONAL WELLBEING The teacher's behaviors related to personal characteristics tend to determine the emotional climate of the classroom. For example, different atmospheres will be associated with these patterns of behavior; (1) warm, kAndly, understanding and friendly as opposed to aloof, egocentric and restricted; (2) responsible, businesS-like and systematic as opposed to evading, unp.lanned and slipshod; and (3) stimulating, imagina~lve and surgent as opposed to dull, routine and Ummaginative. The particular pattern assumed by the teacher becomes the stimulus for the learner's response and thus the interaction begins. It can b~ a r~stricting force or an encouraging, liberating P wer mfluencing the whole curriculum. The quality of the teacher-learner interaction and planning can m"ake an ordm' ary-appearl,llg curn'cIu um glow W.Ith ~ctanahty and excitement'' or , on the other hand , it st' cast a benumbing shadow over an otherwise
lmulating plan of work.
T~MPRO~ING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICA nON e quahty of teacher-learner interaction is also as-

sociated with the effectiveness of communication, In a warm, accepting climate it is usually easier to establish lines of communication than in an emotionally strained atmosphere. Open lines of commucation enable the teacher to assist the learner in interpreting the stimulus situation accurately and thus contribute to the effectiveness of the school program.
The possibility of promoting cognitive growth, emotional well-being and effective communication through desirable teacher-learner interaction gives the teacher another cue for curriculum development. Seeing the interaction process as a fluid field through which the curriculum is administered brings one face to face with one of the subtle factors often overlooked in educational planning.
The Learner's Perception of the Situation
A look at the way the learner perceives himself and his world often reveals that he does not feel that he needs what the teacher thinks he needs. His behavior in the learning environment is a reflection of his personality and the specific meanings the academic situation possesses for him. In the school setting, as in all others, he will respond in terms of his characteristic modes of perception; he will attempt to maintain, protect and extend his self concept and in doing so will rely on the defense and mastery mechanisms he has acqUired over the years. Thus, behavior is the product of the perceptions existing for the individual at the moment he is behaving. It is, therefore, difficult for the teacher to realize that the stituation he has arranged for the learner is not necessarily the one the individual perceives.
At any step on the educational ladder, it is important for the teacher to recognize that the learner's perceptual view reflects the cumulative interaction of self with the physical and social forces surrounding him such as family values and patterns, economic conditions, community pressures, peers and previous school experiences. Since the learner's purposes and past experiences strongly influence the learning that takes place, an understanding of the social and cultural forces impinging upon him should undergird curriculum development.
Everyone will, to some extent, perceive his environment in terms of his needs, but sometimes an individual is so beset with internal conflicts that he constantly does so. Then he distorts the em-ironment and the intentions and the actions of others in an effort to minimize threat and anxiety; consequently, without being aware of it, he has deceived himself. In such cases, the curriculum should be a means of helping the learner perceive differently and develop his inner resources along more constructive lines.
To be effective, the curriculum builder needs to understand the forces influencing the learner's perceptions, the learner's pecular perceptions, of himself and his world and the dynamics through which

13

perceptions may be modified. He should then build upon this foundation a curriculum broad enough and varied enough so that each individual can find some area in which he can have a feeling of accomplishment as well as develop the competencies needed for happy, productive living in the social order in which he moves. Consequently, the curriculum-maker has the difficult task of keeping one eye on the child and the other on society, both of which are dynamic and, often times, elusive.
BASIC CRITERIA FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
To assist the teacher in perfecting a system of actions intended to induce learning has been the purpose of this chapter. In summary, the following \criteria regarding psychological bases for curriculum development are suggested:
1. Have the goals of socialization approved by the culture been duly considered?
2. Has provision been made to re-evaluate continuously the competencies required for productive living in a dynamic society?

3. Have experiences been provided through which
the learner can accomplish his developmental tasks satisfactorily? 4. Has an understanding of the biological and psychological needs of the individual learner been used as a base? 5. Have known principles of human development been used in selection and organization?
6. Has an adequate theory of mental growth and learning been utilized?
7. Has there been conformity to the best knowledge regarding the learning processes and conditions favoring learning?
8. Have the most effective means of motivation and evaluation been evidenced?
9. Has the teacher-learner interaction process been explored in relation to the content and organization of the curriculum?
10. Have the learner's perceptions of himself and his world been given consideration in its development?

14

CHAPTER III
EDUCATIDNAL CDNTENT AND EXPERIENCES
,.

CHAPTER III Educational Content and Experiences

Children would learn without schools. Schools exist, however, because they make learning more efficient. By their ability to structure the environment, select the lessons and gather together appropriate materials, schools make the learning of needed information, skills and attitudes possible in- a minimum of time.
The curriculum is the means by which an individual school seeks to achieve the objectives agreed on. The composite content of the courses taught in a school is the major portion of the curriculum; yet a school's educational influence certainly extends
beyond its individual classrooms. It is generally accepted that a school's curriculum, therefore, consists of all the experiences and activities for which the school assumes responsibility. By this definition, club activities, athletic events, study halls, library periods, conferences with counselors, assemblies and similiar non-class activities are a part of the curriculum. This chapter is concerned with all these aspects of the school's curriculum, though naturally and appropriately the major emphasis is given to the various subject areas which make up the major portion of the total program.

his environment, to reach selective conclusions in the evaluation of his own work and to make sensitive judgments in the development of an appreciation for the creative work of others.
The art program should provide: (1) continuous fundamental laboratory experiences in a variety of materials and processes compatible with the natural growth of the individual from the kindergarten through the twelfth grade; and (2) a study of varied two-and three-dimensional masterworks by contemporary and past artists. The visual arts include the broad areas of painting, graphics, sculpture and weaving. Because of the interrelationship of these areas, it is desirable that the student have opportunity to explore all four each year.
ELEMENTARY LEVEL The nature of the creative art experiences on the elementary level should be planned to meet the individual needs ofthe child. The emphasis placed on the visual arts should be consistent with that of other subject areas. The time, however, devoted to each of the four areas (painting, graphics, sculpture and weaving) should vary according to the nature of the individual child.

In the first section of this chapter an attempt is made to describe the basic rationale of and suggest the content to be presented at the various levels in each of the subject areas. A second section of the chapter deals with several school-wide experiences that lie outside the regular classes such as clubs, student government and assemblies. The final section describes briefly the several special services which schools normally provide to supplement and support the regular academic program, including guidance, exceptional children, health and library and instructional materials services.

I. The Content Areas
What students learn is determined largely by the content presented. Though teaching opportunities are always presenting themselves unexpectedly and should be seized, content to be dealt with must be agreed on, planned for and coordinated in a sequence. The content presented is largely dependent upon the plans made by teachers which, in turn, will be outgrowths of their philosophies and the organized courses of study and textbooks that have been adopted.

Art

~eAsrct heodoulcpartoiognraims

a non-derivative subject area of developingthe individual's aesthe-

ie, perceptive and creative sensitivities. Art exl:riences. gi~e the student many opportunities to in-

grate hIS mtellectual and emotional response to

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL The visual art experiences on the junior high level should emphasize exploration with a va'riety of materials in the areas of painting, graphics, sculpture and weaving. A predominance of three-dimensional work should be evident. An art education teacher should work directly with the students in an appropriately eqUipped laboratory workroom.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL The high school program should be conducted in a visual arts laboratory furnished with adequate tools and eqUipment. The program should provide opportunities for intensity and diversity in each of the four areas. GUidedbythe teacher, a student may explore some processes in great depth in order to develop aesthetic skills and value judgments.
The high school art program should be planned to affect the daily lives of a/l students. There should be opportunities for students to explore the visual arts for four years with course credits and scheduling flexibility consistent with those of other subject areas.
Foreign Language
The events of the past decade have given rise to the need for improved communication skills, a more comprehehensive outlook and a greater appreciation of other peoples and cultures than ever before. Studying a foreign language offers one of the best paths to these goals.

17

Language specialists, educators and psychologists have established that to develop proficiency in the basic skills of understanding, speaking, reading and writing a modern foreign language, a student must pursue its study over a number of years. It is, therefore, highly desirable that an uninterrupted, graduated, articulated sequence of at least four years be available to him.
There is much evidence that foreign language study has value for all children, not just for the academically gifted, and that when trained teachers are available, it is best begun at an early age when children have flexible speech organs and when they are uninhibited, imitative and curious about languages. However, at whatever point in the curriculum the sequence is begun, the school system should feel a responsibility to the student to assure him of an opportunity to continue the study, without interruption, through the twelfth grade. To do this, many small schools may need to restrict their offerings to a single foreign language. Its choice should be based on the availability of competent teachers, on local interest and on whether that language will be available for continued study in the colleges which students may attend.
First consideration should be given to a modern language, but where language enrollment warrants offering two or more languages, the second might be Latin.
The following general guidelines for a foreign language program are suggested:
1. When possible, offer a program in elementary school and assure an unbroken progressive sequence through Grade 12;
2. If only secondary school language study is possible, begin the sequence in the ninth grade and strive to move it into the junior high years as soon as practicable;
3. In modern languages avoid materials and methods which involve decoding into English; limit the use of English in the classroom. Use an audio-lingual approach, an audio-lingually oriented series of textbooks and such correlated materials as visual aids, tapes, records, filmstrips and movies;
4. Continue use of texts of the same series at least through the first three books unless spe- . cial circumstances indicate a change:
5. Advise that Latin may be taken in addition to or instead of a modern language; however, if both are to be studied the modern language should be begun first;
6. Evaluate carefully each year's progress to assure smooth articulation from level to level.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL (FLES)
A foreign language program in elementary school may use three different arrangements:
1. The utilization of television with follow-up done cooperatively by language specialists and classroom teacher;
2. Instruction by language specialist and class-

room teacher working together; 3. Instruction by specialist alone.
If televised instruction is to be used, the study should begin in Grade 3 (Georgia ETV provides a Spanish series which begins at that level and continues through Grade 6). Where television is not used, the language may be begun at any grade level, though research indicates that perhaps Grade 3 is the optimum beginning point. A 15-to-20 minute daily class is recommended. The program should employ sound, sequential audio-lingual course materials including coordinated texts, tapes and visual aids.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL The program should provide opportunities for continued study for those who have completed a FLES program as well as opportunities for those who want to begin to study a foreign language. At this level, guidance in the selection of a foreign language becomes important. For the student who has completed a FLES program, it is advisable that he continue the language started. The class period should conform to the standard daily time limit for other classes. The course materials should consist of sound, sequential, audio-lingual texts and tapes featuring native speakers. Dailypractice using electronic facilities should be an integral part of the activity of each class period. This experience will improve pronunciation, fluency, intonation, immediacy of response and aural comprehension.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL The high school program must be planned in the light of other language study offered in the system. Students with previous training should continue their study together in a sequence well articulated with their past language experience. They should not be grouped with others who are electing their first course in the foreign language. Their series should be continuous through Grade 12 with broader opportunities in the advanced levels since" they would have completed the more basic audio-lingual work early. They would be able to study selections of literature and history in Grades 11 and 12 and to discuss these in the foreign language. Seminars and other opportunities for directed individualized study might be included. An advanced placement program maybe initiated where possible. Another possibility for seniors would be the study of a different subject, (world history, for example) in the foreign language itself. The program for these long-sequence students ought certainly to offer enrichment beyond the regular high school sequence. Use should be made of community resources. Field trips to restaurants, museums or college classes where additional opportunities to communicate in the foreign language would be available should be included in the program. Correspondence with students in other countries would permit fu~ther use of the target language and add to international understanding. Films in the language would also be advantageous for increasing comprehension of both language and culture.

18

For students just beginning a foreign language in high school a more limited approach must be taken. Four years of sequential study with an audio-lingual series should be presented. Reading and writing must be controlled. As in the other program, listening and speaking skills must be well established before great variety of reading material can be handled successfully. If the study of literary selections ;n addition to those included in the adopted text is desired, it should come in the fourth year of high school with emphasis on contemporary works; however, primary attention must still be given to the fundamental skU Is. Texts should be accompained by coordinated tapes and visuals. The utilization of electronic facilities can serve as a valuable adjunct.
Guidance counselors should stress the importance of pursuing work in one modern foreign language throughout high school. If a second foreign language is desired, it should be added only ifthe first language is continued. It should be beglill only after a good foundation is established in the first language.
Evaluation of progress must be checked regularly. Both teacher-prepared and standardized tests should be used to ascertain levels of achievement. These tests should invariably ref1ect the oral-aura} emphasis of the program in direct proportion to the nature of the instruction. The four fundamental skills must be improved every year.
Library or resource centers can offer invaluable assistance by obtaining and processing for classroom use the audio-visual materials correlated with the adopted textbooks and by having duplicate sets available in the resource center for individualized study. This implies use in the center of such eqUipment as listening stations, tape recorders with headphones and Language Masters.

opment of tool skills and the building of projects, per se, are not basic purposes of this program.
Industrial arts is designed specifically to help prepare individuals to meet the requirements of our technological culture. As an integral part of the total program of education, it provides unique opportunities for students to obtain representative industrialtechnological experiences. These experiences require the application of mathematics, science, language arts and other school subjects. Industrial arts assists in the discovery and development of personal aptitudes, interests, creative technical abilities, self-reliance, sound judgment and resourcefulness through problemsolving and self-expression in an environment related to industry. Problems involve the students in developing ideas from their inception through the necessary research, planning, designing, managing, laying out, shaping, assembling, finishing, testing and evaluating phases.
Industrial arts brings about changes in the learner that involve the man-made physical world. They 'ire brought about by developing; (1) a knowledge of materials, their production and fabrication; (2) an understanding of the place of tools, machines, materials and men in industrial processes; (3) an intelligent understanding of craftsmanship and construction work; (4) an understanding of the health, recreation and economic values of such work: and (5) a favorable attitude toward creative thinking and the scientific method of problem-solving.
In summary, the unique objectives of industrial arts are:
1. To develop insights and understanding of industry and its technology in our culture;

Industrial Arts

2. To discover and develop interests and capabilities of students in technical industrial fields: and,

Industry and its technology have had, and will continue to have, an overwhelming impact on society. Industrial ingenuity has brought abou1; new tOOAS, materials, methods and developments. Automatic production, scientific management, engineering re~earch and the changing occupational pattern with 1ts requirements for continuous retraining are evidence of a new way of American life.
lp..dustrial arts is: (1) the study of industry and its technology; (2) the tools, materials, processes, products and occupations involved in converting raw materials into useful products; and, (3) the related SOCial, economic and cultural problems. It involves the student in creating, experimenting, designing, constructing and operating with industrial materials, processes and products.
it Industrial a.rt.s is not vocational education nor is manual trallllllg or manual arts. While tools and
materials are prominent in industrial arts, the devel-

3. To develop the ability to use tools, materials, and processes to solve technical problems involving the applications of science, mathematics, and mechanics.
The general nature, content and operation of American industry, suitable for study in industrial arts, fall within six broad industrial classifications (manufacturing, construction, servicing, power, communication and transportation, all functioning under the orientation of research and management) which may be generally subdivided according to the materials and or processes involved. Industrial arts curricula should be structured so as to ref1ect an organization
as listed on the following page.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL The elementary school child should be provided informal constructional and informative experiences involving tool,,;, material,,;. processes, occupations and product,,; of industry a,,;

19

MANUFACTURING
Woods Metals Plastics Ceramics Textiles Leathers

CATEGORIES OF INDUSTRY

CONSTRUCTION
Carpentry Masonry Plumbing Wiring Finishing

Research, Development and Management

SERVICING

TRANSPORT ATI ON

Household Industrial Commercial

Automobile Aircraft Train Ship Truck & Bus Facilities

COMMUNICATION
Electronics Drafting Printing Photography

POWER
Natural Electrical Mechanical Thermal

they relate to the home, the community and the world instruction and guarantees cumulative learning.

of work. These should be provided as an integral part of the elementary school program rather than as a separate subject. Pupils should be involved in reading, writing and speaking about people and the work they do. They should learn to solve simple constructional problems involVing applications of science, mathematics and mechanics.

The richness, the complexity, the multiplicity of the language arts should be structured so that all components of the program complement the overall basic pattern. In other words, the program should not be organized in bits and pieces but in larger wholes around basic ideas that compose the structure of the discipline of the study of the English language.

Instructional experiences should develop and correlate

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Industrial arts in grades seven, eight and nine should emphasize the purposes of this subject which deal with the understanding of American industry and its technology and the discovery

the understandings and knowledge in the four language skills-listening, speaking, readmg and writing-so that learning of one skill reinforces learning of the other skills.

of the learner's talents in the technical and industrial fields. These should be achieved by providing for the learner a wide variety of basic, up-to-date experiences, both informative and manipulative, in each of the above mentioned industrial classifications. At this organizatonal level emphasis should be on breadth rather than depth in industrial activities. This may best be done in multiple activity shops, laboratories and drafting rooms.

There should be a plan for diagnosing, studying and providing for the needs, abilities and interests of all students. The organization of instruction plans should provide for both group and individualized instruction to meet the needs, abilities and interests of all students in the classroom and to provide many opportunities for independent study. It is most important that all instructional materials be suited to the levels of the students. The language arts pro-

gram should be continuously evaluated and modified

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL At the senior high school to include proven traditional content and methods along

level, industrial arts should become more specialized. with promising contemporary practices and know-

Greater consideration should be given to the specific ledge. There should be a plan for continuing supervis-

needs of pupils with varying abilities, aptitudes, ion and in-service education for both teachers and

interests, backgrounds and aspirations. The emphasis administrators.

of industrial arts at this level should be placed on

the development of special skills (including independent

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL (a) English: The major

study skills) and abilities in the technical and indus- areas of the elementary program shouldbe literature,

trial fields. For some learners, this will be occupa- composition and language. Children should study

tional preparation; for others, foundation training for significant literature representing all of the genres

advanced study in vocational - technicltl schools, of literature. There should be a plan for the guided,

colleges and universities.

individual, personal reading for each child. There

should be sequential, cumulative teaching of oral

and written composition with frequent. opportunities

for oral and written composition under the guidance

of the teacher who teaches the skills of composing.

Language Arts

The language program should place emphasis on planned, rigorous, developmental experiences in using

language patterns effectively rather than in termi-

The skills ofthe language arts are listening, speaking, nology and generalizations. Throughout the elemenreading and writing. These skills should be developed tary schools, planned experiences in listening, speak~

within the content of language, literature and com- ing, reading and writing should make possible the in~

position. The language arts program should be ductive teaching of grammar, usage and vocabulary. organized around an overall baSic pattern that en- The program should encourage the individualizati~n

courages reasonable continuity and balance from year of spelling and handwriting, the desire to communI-

to year, assures adequate emphasis on all areas of cate effectively by spelling correctly and writing

legibly. 20

(b) Reading:

There should be a developmental

reading program for all children in the elementary

grades, taught by all teachers with adequate instruc-

tional, enrichment and library materials and media.

Beginning in the third grade, there should be a

corrective reading program for students with reading

disabilities. This program should be taught in reading

laboratories equipped with appropriate materials and

media by interested teachers who have special edu-

cation in the teaching of reading. These classes should

have no more than fifteen students so that needed

individual or small group instruction can be provided.

Clinical reading services should be available for

students who are severely retarded.

The total program should enable children to develop the comprehension and word recognition skills of phonetic and structural analysis; it should encourage children to read critically and think creatively; it should lead children to learn and practice the dictionary and library skills for which they are ready; it should enable children to develop a variety of study skills to be used in functional reading and to adjust rate to the material being read. It should produce readers who can and do read.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL (a) English:

The three

areas of the English program continue to be language,

literature and composition.In language study,emphasis

should be placed upon helping students recognize

and accept the changing aspects of the language

and variant levels of usage in differing situations

and cultural groups. Emphasis should also be placed

on helping students understand and use the basic

structural patterns that characterize the language.

The background of information about language and usage derived from the inductive study in the elementary school should provide a basis for a more

formal study of 'grammar and usage in the junior high school. The study should be planned and presented so that students at each level of instruction understand

and learn well what is bught, thus making repetition

unnecessary. Significant literature representing all

the genres of literature should be taught, and there should be a plan for the guided, individual, personal reading for each student. There should be sequential, cumulative teaching of oral and written composition

with frequent opportunities for oral and written composition under the guidance of the teacher who teaches the skills of composing. Students should Continue the development of the skills of listening. The program should encourage the individualization

of spelling and handwriting and the desire to commu-
nicate effectively by spelling correctly and writing legibly.

(b) Reading:

There should be a developmental

reading program for all students. In the seventh

and eighth grades, there should be regularly scheduled

reading instruction for all students in all English ~lasses taught by interested teachers with adequate

instructional, enrichment and library materials and

media. Of course, all content area subjects should be taught within the framework of an organized reading program with concentrated attention by every teacher to teaching the special reading skills in each subject. There should be a corrective reading program for all students with reading disabilities taught in reading laboratories with many varied materials and media by interested teachers with special education in the teaching of reading. These classes should have no more than fifteen students, and there should be individual or small group instruction as needed. Clinical reading services should be available for students who are severely retarded in reading.
The total program should enable students to continue the development of the comprehension and the word recognition skills of phonetic and structural analysis; it should encourage students to read critically and think creatively; it should lead students to learn and practice the dictionary and library skills for which they are ready; it should enable students to develop study skills to be used in functional reading and to adjust rate to material being read. It should produce readers who can and do read.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL (a) English:

The three

areas of the English program should be language,

literature and composition, closely correlated. In the

language study, there should be emphasis on helping

students to recognize and accept the changing aspects

of our language and variant levels of usage in differing

situations and cultural groups. There should be

emphasis upon helping students use the basic struc-

tural patterns that characterize our language and

opportunities for the study of historical and geographi-

cal linguistics as well as other units on language.

Significant literature representing all the genres of

literature should be taught in depth, and there should

be a plan for the guided individual, personal reading

for each student. Sequential, cumulative teaching

of oral and written composition should be provided.

Much attention should be given to short-length expos-

itory writing. Students should continue the develop-

ment of the skills of listening and the skills of com-

municating more effectively by using correct spell-

ing and legible handwriting. Courses in drama, jour-

nalism and other specialized English courses may be

offered as ellectives.

(b) Reading:

There should be a developmental

reading program for 01/ students, Le., literature

in 01/ English classes and all content area sub;ects

should be taught within the framework of an organized

reading program with concentrated attention by every

teacher in teaching the special reading skills inevery

subject. There should be a corrective reading program

for all students with reading disabilities taught in

reading laboratories with many varied materials

and media by interested teachers who have special

education in the teaching of reading. These classes

should have no more than fifteen students, and there

should be individual or small group instruction

as needed. Clinical reading services should be avail-

21

able for students who are severely retarded in reading. There should be elective reading classes for average and above average readers. The total program should enable students to continue the development of the comprehension and the word recognition skills of phonetic and structural analysis; it should encourage students to read critically and think creatively; it should lead students to learn and practice the dictionary and library skills for which they are ready; it should enable students to develop study skills to be used in functional reading and to adjust rate to material being read. It should produce readers who can and do read.
Mathematics
The mathematics program should provide each student, according to his ability, with an understanding of mathematics adequate for his current and future needs. No one can foresee now what competencies will be needed in the future; therefore, instruction in mathematics should be based on fundamental concepts. Certainly computational skills must be learned, but major emphasis must be placed on understanding the structures in mathematical ~system8 and on acquiring the major spirit of mathematics-the ability to analyze and resolve problem situations.
Instruction should involve periods of exploration and experimentation leading toward generalization. Concepts should be introduced early. Complete masfery of concepts will not be attained at first, but, by means of cyclical learning, development in depth will continue throughout the school program. (The State Department of Education guides, Mathematics lor Georgia Schools, Volumes 1, 2, and 3, provide a more detailed description of the mathematics program).
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL From the beginning, mathematical learnings should stress knOWledge, skills and understanding. It is recognized that everyone should be able to read and write numerals and perform the basic arithmetical operation. Of equal importance, however, is the development of fundamental concepts which aid students in understanding mathematics and its applications. For example, in the study of the system of whole numbers emphasis should be placed on the commutative, associative and closure properties of addition and multiplication and on the distributive property of multiplication over addition; subtraction and division shouldbe understood as inverse operations of addition and multiplication, respectively. rn the study of the Hindu-Arabic numeration system, students should understand underlying concepts such as place value and base of ten, and their study of geometry should emphasize basic properties of geometric figures.

zations. These procedures should encourage the pupil to think for himself, to exercise creativity and to discover a variety of ways to reach a solution through active inquiry.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Mathematics in the junior high school years is not a capstone for the elementary program, but it is a continuation in the development of concepts and skills. Areas of major emphasis are: properties of number system; geometry, both metric and non-metric; fundamental alegebraic ideas; graphical representations in one and two dimensions; and precision of language in reading and in speaking. At this level, students begin to use the interplay of intuition and deduction in productive -thinking in mathematics, science and other areas.
Patterns of course offerings will vary in individual schools. Some eighth grade students may be ready to begin the high school sequence with the first course in algebra, while others should continue their stUdy of mathematics with the emphasis on the areas described above.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Curricula in high school mathematics should contain offerings such as: general mathematics, elementary algebra, geometry (in two and three dimensions), intermediate algebra, trigonometry, analysis and analytic geometry. An increasing number of schools also include introductions to probability and statistics, to matrix theory and to calculus. In all high school programs, there are various patterns of course sequences which may be used successfully.
The program for each student should be planned to capitalize on his aptitudes, abilities and interests. It is important to note that sequences traditionally clasgified as college preparatory are becoming a part of general education in a technological society. A student who is college capable should be encouraged to complete at least those courses prerequisite for college entrance. A student who is an underachiever or non-college capable student should be provided with a program which is challenging and which fulfills his needs in becoming a productive citizen in a democratic society. Such a program is designed to extend basic mathematical concepts of the junior high school curriculum which underlie the reasoning competencies needed by adults. Opportunities should be provided for every st\ldent to study mathematics throughout his high school years.
Emphasis in all high school mathematics should be placed on refinement of concepts which have been or are being developed and on experiences involving analytical thinking. The student should become aware of the power and usefulness of mathematics in hiS continuing vocational and personal development.

Throughout the program, instructional procedures should provide sufficient time for experimentation with physical objects and for investigation of number statements so that concepts will emerge as generali-

Music
The primary function of music education is to provide experiences which offer opportunity for all

22

students to achieve musical maturity commensurate with their abilities. The objective of music in the schools is to develop attitudes, understandings and skills through a carefully structured framework of ~1Usical experiences. A sequential instructional program in music should be provided in grades K-12.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL The music program in the elementary school should introduce pupils to the basic concepts of music. Care should be taken
to present the content at a level appropriate to the physical and psychological development and readin~ss of each child. The instructional program should melude experiences in listening to music, performing music, creating music and analyzing music.

In the primary grades, only the most obvious detail should be studied; in the upper grades, more subtle detail should be enjoyed and explored. In the upper elementary grades, as an outgrowth of a well balanced classroom music instructional program, choral groups should be developed and instruction provided for those students who elect to study band and orchestra instruments. Ideally, "group" keyboard expe riences should be made avai lable as a part of the school program.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Serious music study

and musical activities fill a great need for young

adolescents. This is obviously a crucial time in the

education process, and it is extremely important

that exploratory experiences in all the arts, including

music grade

be made 'levels. The

mgaenndearatol r~y1Uasticthcelassesvsehnothuldorpreoivghidthe

not only a music perfol.'mance experience but a variety

of intellectually stimulating activities that are not

performance oriented.

It is important that the special music instruction begun in the upper elementary grades be continued in the areas of band, orchestral, keyboard and vocal music. This instruction should be designed so as to attract and appeal to junior high school students.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Music in the senior high school should be scheduled during the school day, offered for credit, supported by school funds and offered within the framework of the total school program. Emphasis in senior high music instruction should be on content, the premise being that depth instruction and knowledge lead to depth understanding and apprec iation of music.

In addition to elective choices in band, orchestra ~nd choral groups, there should be course offerings

1n mUsic literature and music theory. Courses should

be available for the non-performing student in music

appreciation. While opportunities should always exist

for experimental development and expansion of the ~usic program by the music teacher in the senior

hm1ignhesdchporio~l arthielYmbuysitchecuprreircsuolnuaml

should tastes

not be of the

determusic

teaCher. There should be specific content to serve as

a "framework", although allowances for experimentation should be made.
The music program should have carefully determined objectives with selective experiences designed to help achieve the objectives. There must be appropriate and adequate materials, equipment and facilities as well as carefully trained, enthusiastic and energetic personnel to insure quality music education program.
Physical Education and Health
Physical education and health have special contributions to make toward achieving desirable educational outcomes because they are the only areas specifically designed to promote the physical development of the individual.

Physical education should be broad enough in scope to m"eet the needs of all participants. Leadership opportunities should be made available to pupils regardless of their skill levels. Occasional and
suitable activities should be conducted co-education:dly for the development of wholesome boy-girl relationship.

Evaluation of the curriculum by pupils and teachers should be an integral part of the program and should be used to determine the extent of pupil progress toward desired objectives, needs in future programs, adjustments needed in present programs, improvements in instructional methods and necessary gUidance for individual pupils.

Every school should place emphasis upon intra-

mu all

rsatl~deenxtstr.aTmhuorsael

and recreational programs not only

activities for should provide

a laboratory period for physical education but also

afford opportunities for social exchange and enrich-

ment of individual personal resources.

Adapted physical education should be provided for those pupils who, because of health reasons, are unable to participate in regular classes. A physician's recommendation and determination by the teacher should be the basis for assignment to these classes and for determining the activities which should be prescribed for each child.

In organizing and administering the program, all students from kindergarten through grade twelve should participate daily in an instructional period of physical education. No other activity, such as band, should substitute for the instructional program in physical education. Class size should be comparable to those in other subject fields for instruction to be fully effective.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL A minimum of 30 minutes per day in an organized and directed physical education program should be provided for all children. Practical and functional health instruction should be a regular part of the program.

23

In the primary grades, the following types of

experiences should be provided:

(a) vigorous big muscle activity through running,

chasing, jumping and climbing activities to

build musculature and increase endurance;

(b) periods of activity followed by relaxation peri-

ods;

(c) instruction in posture, standing, sitting and

playing;

(d) throwing, catching, kicking and hitting skills

involving arms, hands, and fingers are neces-

sary for developing strength and coordination

of small muscles;

(e) stunts and self-testing activities involving use

of playground apparatus, tumbling, rope skip-

ping to develop body control;

(f) safety practices for self and others;

(g) self-expression activities such as mimetics

dramatic and creative play;

,

(h) play and sharing with others (group play)

through games of low organization and rhythmic

activities with emphasis on basic movements

and movement exploration.

In the upper elementary grades, these types of experiences should be provided:
(a) team games, individual and couple activities, rhythmic activities, stunts and self-testing activities, tumbling and gymnastiCS as a means of achieving and maintaining physical and mental health;
(b) instruction in care and use of equipment and facilities, experiences in following rules of games and sportmanship, cooperation and teamwork which lead to performing responsibilities of a citizen;
(c) vigorous activities of all kinds which include skills, drills, games and safety skills with placing emphasis on cooperation, competition and opportunity to develop leadership;
(d) instruction in postural habits and help in the correction of remedial defects;
(e) competition through an intramural program conducted during after-school hours.

JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL A department of health, physical education, recreation and athletics should be established in all junior and senior high schools. An intramural program, which involves sport activities and competition within the individual school, should be available on an after-school basis for all students interested. An extramural program, which involves more than one school in competition on an individual basis (with emphasis on the social outcomes) should also be provided on an after- school voluntary basis. An inter-scholastic athletic program. which involves competition characterized by varsity teams, organized conferences, leagues and a regular season schedule, should be provided on an after-school basis for students who are interested and sufficiently skilled on the ninth grade level and above.

1. At least one health course should be reqUired;

if only one course is offered, one semester should be at the junior high school level and one semester at the senior high school level. 2. Physical education should be offered daily in both the junior and senior high schools. 3. The program should be organized sequentially and scheduled according to physical maturity.
At the junior high school level, the following concepts should be observed: (a) health courses should include the study of the
body and its functions with emphasis given to nutrition and sex education; units of study in first aid, child care (for baby sitters) community health services, personal grooming and safety of self and others should be included: (b) phySical education courses should include daily, Vigorous activity through team sports, rhythms, aquatiCS (when possible), gymnastics, stunts, tumbling, individual and dual sports and special conditioning activities; safety of self and others should be paramount in all physical education activities: (c) opportunity should be provided for developtng desirable attitudes, habits, concepts and understandings through participation in physical activities: (d) em~hasis at this level should be placed on basic skills, team games and personal fitness activities and the beginning of individual and dual sports with carry-over value for leisure time use;
(e) intramural and extramural type after-school programs should be stressed; the interscholastic athletic program should be limited in scope.
At the senior high school level, the following concepts ~hould be observed: (a) health courses should include a continuation 0;
the study of personal and community health with special emphasis at this level on family living: (b) physical education courses should include "limited team sports, aquatics (when possible), gymnas.., tics, stunts, tumbling, special conditioning activities with emphasis on the carry-over sports (individual and dual activities), rhythms and coeducational activities; safety should be stressed; (C) opportunity should be provided for developing attitudes, habits, concepts and understandings through participation in physical activities; (d) intramural, extramural and interscholastic afterschool programs should be provided; programs should be available for both boys and girls with a broad scope of activities; individual and dualsports competition should bea part of these programs.
Safety Education
Safety education is a paramount reqUirement at all levels in the total educational process.
The concept of effective safe living requires the development of attitudes, knowledge and skills. Safety is a way of living - a philosophy, an attitude - not just

24

a set of memorized facts. Safety is built upon personal awareness and respect for self and others.
The school has a definite responsibility for providing an environment for effective safe living and for providing enlightened safety education for the child in terms of his individual needs, his ability and his environment.
The instructional program should recognize the importance of teachers and pupils being safetyoriented so that the direction taken for the development of safe living is one of self-direction, pupil initiated and teacher directed. Attitudes and knowledge of safety education should be correlated and incorporated into subject areas at all grade levels.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL Safety education experiences as related to pupil's daily activities should be paramount in the instructional program in the lower gracJes. Activities which warrant special attention and correlation in the general instructional program are: (1) pedestrian safety: (2) non-vehicular safety: (3) traffic safety: (4) playground activities: (J) other group activities: (6). personal safety within school environment (halls, stairs, cafeteria, rest room:3, etc.); (7) civil defense: (8) fire safety and prevention (home, school, vehicular, evacuation).
Correlation of safety education instruction should be continued in the upper grades with the addition of an organized program for the developrnent of safety education skills. Safety education program organization (such as safety councils and school patrols) for the development of skills is dependent upon the needs of the com:nunity.
General skills in safety education should be developed in four areas: home and school: vehicle and pedestrian: public: and industrial.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL The safety education program in the junior high school should be a continuation of the elementary safety instruction program including extended study, special emphasis and specific information in the areas of school, home, farm, traffic, recreational, fire safety and prevention, water safety, fire-arms safety, first aid, poisons and civil defense.
Each of these safety instructional areas should be specific units of study for all junior high school pupils. These units of safety instruction could easi] be placed in the curriculum of health education, business education, home economics education, physical education, social studies or some additional vocational education courses.
Each junior high school should establish safety erucationorganizations (e.g., safety council, safety cUbs, teen traffic safety clubs, safety education
~epresentatives as a part of student government,
een fire marshals, etc.).

SENIOR HIG!j SCHOOL LEVEL The senior high school curriccllum should provide for competencies being interrelated and extended to those of the junior high school with special emp'1asis being carried on through.
(1) safety education organizations: (youth safety committee of student council, teen safety clubs, teenage traffic safety clubs, fire marshal, teenage safe driving road-e-o. etc.):
(2) research, creative projects, independent study opportunities as are correlated with subject matter areas:
(3) driver education instruction.
The senior high school's most urgent obligation in the area of safety education is to provide driver and traffic safety education for aI/ regularly enrolled students. The course should be offered as a regular part of the high school curriculum, preferably covering a full semester.
Driver education involves all those learning experiences necessary for helping students to learn to use the motor vehicle safely and efficiently. This is achieved tllI'ough interrelated experiences involVing both classroom and practice driving instructions.
Driver education is designed to: (1) develop in young people a strong sense of personal
and social responsibility for the common welfare, particularly as it is affected by and involved in me opcr"tinn of motor vehicles: (2) develop pride in maintaining high standards of Ferformance, particularly in the operation of Illotor vehicles: (3) promote the safe, efficient and enjoyable use of equipment and environment, especially of motor vehicles and highways: (4) promote effective habits of cooperation in meeting problems of the common welfare, especially those concerned with the use of motor vehicle and highways: (5) prepare young people for socially useful vocations suited to their individual abilities, particularly those that involve the use of motor vehicles.
To achieve all these objectives, both phases of instruction must be integral parts of the program.
Classroom instruction deals with driver attitudes and physical characteristics, the motor vehicle, rules of the road, laws of physics related to driving, good pedestrian practices and the development of driving skills.
Practice driVing instruction must lead to competencies in driving habits and patterns that conform both to traffic laws and ordinances and to sound driving practices (including driving in urban and suburban traffic, in rural areas, on the highways on the freeways).
In addition to these specific skills, a greater objective, that of learning and implementing good citizenship, respect for law and order and consideration of

25

resources, can be brought about through driver educatiun.
Science
The science program should provide for a series of continuous, interrelated learning experiences from grades kindergarten through twelve. Objectives for the elementary grades should show relationship to those of the junior high school which in turn should reflect the senior high school science objectives. Throughout this total science curriculum system there must be provisions for the ability differences among students.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL The elementary school program should regard the subject of science as a way of learning about the world. Activities designed to develop competencies in skills basic to further learning stimulate an excitement in extending the child's understanding of his world. Children who are allowed to be free to seek, free to be curious and free to inquire soon discover the intellectual power of sCience as the scientist discovered it. The fundamental process skills of observation, communication, inference and prediction are common to all practicing scientists.
If skills of investigation are stressed to the exclusion of specified scientific principles, there is likelihood that the same problems may be investigated by students year after year. In developing the elementary curriculum, therefore, it is wise toplan with the aid of definite scope and sequence 61 science principles as set forth in the Georgia Science Curriculum Guides.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL In the junior high school science programs, the development of investigative skills in the field and laboratory should be stressed. Quantitative aspects of investigation should be introduced with functional relationships being determined and measured.
The junior high school years offer an opportunity to study some areas of science which may be new or previously neglected in the total science program; earth and space sciences may quite appropriately be included. If a comprehensive program in life sciences is to be taught at the senior high school level, an introductory physical science course during the junior high school years is strongly recommended.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL While science consists of fact as well as the processes of science, both should be included in teaching science courses. Some time shouldbe given to true student investigation. Those problems chosen for investigation should be in keeping with the ability of the individual student.
Inquiry should be the focal point for science curriculum development. The National Curriculum Studies for high school curricula are excellent in this regard and should be considered for student use.

The development of interrelated science disciplines in recent decades indicates that some common factors for all of science must be sought.
The titles of course offerings at any grade level do not determine the quality of science education, rather every science course must provide the opportunity for students to continuously develop skills in the processes of science.
Social Science
The Georgia Social Science Curriculum is based on the concept and methodology of the disciplines of geography, economics, anthropology, p~litical science, sociology and history. The social science program, as a vital part of the total school program designed to educate each student to the fullest extent of his individual capability, has the responsibility to:
(1) facilitate the growth of an adequate self-concept so that a student becomes self-actualizing, selfdirecting and has a love for learning: ......
(2, dcvelop needed competenciE; " skills and knowledge of basic concepts from social science disciplines and teach him the information gathering, analytic and interpretive methods of specialists in these fields:
(3) expand and enrich his knowledge of and apprechfion for his own heritage and the social, politIcal, cultural and economic structures of other nations so that he will understand and accept his responsibilities in his own society and in the community of nations;
(4) teach the skills that are uniquely a part of the social science disciplines as well as skills that are essential to critical thinking;
(5) develop in him the habit of keeping well informed on issues which affect society, and of relating social science principles and knowledge to contemporary affairs;
(6) help him make whatever changes modern conditions demand or creative imagination suggests that are consistent with basic principles and values of democracy and to understand and appreciate the basic principles and values that make a free society what it is.
Each school system and each school should organize its social science curriculum in accordance with the suggestions in this framework and the social science guides which are designed to provide direction Without limiting individual initiative.
The social sciences should enrich and reinforce the child's conceptual patterns pertaining to the world in which he lives. The content of the social scienCe program should prOVide continUity as these conceptual patterns are developed at each level. A curricul~Ill plan should be developed which deals with real hfe situations and draws on the appropriate social scienceS to provide the needed understandings.

26

A student should :::e introdw-:ed to concepts and skills of increasing complexity and should become more and more skilled in independent study based on an inquiry and discovery approach. Concepts and skills should be enumerated, explained and periodically revised in the social science guides which provide a framework for local development of the curriculum.
An understanding of the basic skills and concepts unique to the social sciences should prepare the student for responsible citizenship with an adequate understanding of his contemporary world. Adaptation of the social science curriculum at the local level should be undertaken with specific objectives in mind and with full knowledge of the resources and personnel available for implementation. Materials of all kinds should be made increasingly available to meet individual needs of both pupils and teachers. Courses should be revised periodically to include new facts and interpretations.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL On the elementary level, the role of the individual in a multi-group society should be stressed. Various cultures, historical and contemporary, should be examined and compared.
Experiences based on cooperation with one another, dependence on one another and the dignity and worth of individuals should be included. The development of basic social science skills is an important element of the curriculum at this level.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVELJunior high school students should have many opportunities for exploratory experiences utilizing methodology of the various disciplines in a manner suited to their' developmental level. An in~reased understanding of international relationships, based on a knowledge of our own society and its role in the world community, should be developed.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL Social science concepts and skills in the high school should be studied on the highest level of sophistication possible for each student. Important social, economic and political ?roblems should be analyzed. Suggested problems ~nclude: (1) population growth and mobility: (2) the Impact of science and technology on society; (3) urbanization; (4) change and continuity in political ?atterns and techniques: (5) change and continuity In social patterns.
StUdy of the United States should develop an under~.tanding and an appreciation of the American way of /e. StUdy of the United States Constitution and its unction should be included.
a A.dditional social science offerings should be made 8~allable as elective courses the content of which reould be determined by the personnel and material
80urces available in each school system.

Vocational Education
The controlling purpose of all vocational education programs in Georgia schools is training for gainful employment. The more specific objectives of vocational education include guiding students: (1) to make appropriate choices of occupational spe-
cialization consistent with interests and abilities: (2) to develop desirable attitudes and basic skills
and to master technical information required for success in chosen occupations; (3) to gain understandings of how to secure a job, how to perform successfully on the job and how to plan for advancement: (4) to develop the ability to make wise decisions in accord with changing socio-economic conditions; (5) to assume responsibilities as citizens, homemakers, employees or employers.
Learning skills included in vocational education curricula are problem solving, decision making, application of knowledge and skills, and development of desirable work habits. The concepts in vocational education that contribute to understanding the world of work include appreciation and application of democratic principles and processes, economic and societal changes, moral and ethical responsibilities, and universality of families. Mental and physical health concepts include challenge of change, socialization of indiVidual, uniqueness of families, pride in personal appearance, desirable health habits and adjustment of environment. Aesthetic values and concepts in vocational education include appreciation for culture, beauty in functional arrangements in merchandise and in the home and pride in a job well done.
Vocational education includes, but is not limited to, the areas of agriculture, business and office education, distributive education, home economics and trade and industrial education. The offerings must be planned with an awareness of the occupational opportunities available.
AGRICUL TURAL EDUCA nON The controlling purpose of agricultural education at the secondary, post secondary and adult levels is training for proficiency in agricultural occupations.
The vocational agriculture instructional program normally consists of a four-year. course sequence. In some senior high schools the course is offered as a three-year program with one or more years of instruction in the junior high school. The first two years consist of basic agricultural orientation and instruction in animal, plant and soil science, agricultural mechanics, agricultural occupations and opportunities and personal development. The last two years are devoted to specialized training in livestock and poultry production, crop production, forestry, horticulture, farm business management, agricultural

27

business, agricultural mechanics and a continuedemphasis on personal development. Post secondary and adult instructional programs are designed to meet current needs in agricultural production and agricultural businesses at the practitioner and technician levels.
BUSINESS AND OFFICE EDUCATION The purposes of a business education program are: (1) to develop vocational skills, knowledges, attitudes
and other competencies that are necessary for beginning workers in business occupations and to help them make satisfactory adjustments to the condition and demands of employment: (2) to develop a satisfactory degree of proficiency in the use of one or more of the business skills to meet the students' nonvocational needs; (3) to provide certain consumer information and skills that will be useful to students in their personal-economic planning; (4) to enable students to gain better understanding of the organization of the American system of business enterprise.
The "curricula" of an approved business education program are stenographic, clerical and business management. The courses recommended are general business, typewriting I and II, business arithmetic, office practice, business law, bookkeeping I and II, shorthand I and II, transcription, clerical practice I and II, office machines, business English, business principles and management, orientation in data processing, business economics and vocational office training with work experience.
Vocational office training is a cooperative worktraining program for seniors who are preparing for full-time employment in office occupations. Students are enrolled in regular classes and the vocational office training class during the morning: in the afternoon, students are placed in part-time jobs. The teacher coordinates job experiences with inschool training.

11th and 12th grades who have occupational objectives in distribution. A preparatory program, which is a variation of the cooperative study-work experience program, may be provided for students in grades 10, 11, and 12 who have occupational objectives in distribution. Teachers in grades K-9 should have available the services of a distributive education consultant. Instruction at the post secondary level focuses upon education in employee, supervisory and managerial skills in an area referred to as midmanagement. This program is concerned with specific training in the field of distribution such as automotive marketing, fashion merchandising, wholesale selling, etc., as well as comprehensive training in the concepts of marketing and distribution. At the adult level, the program focuses upon preparing or upgrading individuals for distributive employment.
HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION Home economics education prepares (1) for the occupation of homemaking and (2) for occupations providing employment requiring home economics knowledge and skills. The curriculum content includes child development and the family, food and nutrition, housing, management and family economics, textiles and clothing'.
Course offe rings are appropriate at junior high, senior high, post secondary and adult levels. A twoyear basic course in education for homemaking should be m'ade available for all girls at ninth grade or above. Courses designed to meet special needs and interests include advanced courses in content areas, family living for twelfth grade boys and girls and a specialized course for senior girls. Courses in occupational education are recommended for the eleventh and twelfth grades. Offerings at the post secondary level in occupational education should be sub-professional and based on employment opportunities in child care services, clothing services, food services and institutional services. Adult offerings are designed to increase students' competencies as homemakers or as employees in home-economics- related occupations.

DISTRIB UTiVE EDUCA TlON Distributive education provides instruction in marketing and distribution at the secondary, post secondary and adult levels 1hat will develop the competencies needed for employment in distribution. Distributive occupations may be found in various business establishments including, but not limited to, retailing, wholesaling, manufacturing, storing, transporting, financing and risk bearing.
The curriculum content includes the functions of marketing, product of service technology, human and public relations skills, supervisory skills, application of mathematics and communications. These areas of instruction vary in emphasis according to the occupational need of the student and are taught in relation to one another and to the economy.
A two-year, part-time cooperative study-work experience program is recommended for students in

Home economics in the eighth grade is prevocational and should emphasize home and personal living. Teachers in grades K-7 should have available the services of a home economics consultant for assistance with study of personal development, family relations, nutrition and personal finance.
TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The purpose of vocational trade and industrial eduation is to prepare persons for employment and to offer extension or training to those already employed in a trade or industrial occupation who need to develop manipulative skills, gain technical knowledge and related information concerning job attitudes, safety practices and trade judgment necessary for employment.
The curriculum content of trade and industrial education includes instruction in the skilled and serniskilled occupations relating to designing, producing,

28

processing, fabricating, assembling, testing, modifying, maintaining, servicing or repairing any product or c 0lYlm odity.
Some of the course offerings in trade and industrial education at the high school level (11th and 12th grades) are automotive mechanics, industrial electricity, sheet metal, welding, machine operators, brick masonry, printing, heating and air-conditioning, office machine repair, electrical appliance repair, radio and television servicing, drafting, etc.
High school programs oftrade and industrial education consist of pre-employment training, industrial cooperative training and extension classes for upgrading employed workers. The area vocationaltechnical schools shall offer pre-employment training and extension training for employed workers at the post secondary level.

II. Schoolwide Experiences

To achieve fully many of the generally accepted objectives of education, a school should provide experiences beyond those normally found in regular classes. Though reluctantly included in the school day many years ago, clubs and related activities now have earned their rightful place in the school program. The value of such activities in the eyes of students is clear, so much so that teachers are sometimes envious of the enthusiasm and energy expended in these non-class activities. These activities occupy a significant portion of student time and garner perhaps more than their share of publicity and commlillity interest. Certainly a modern school cannot afford to ignore the potential value and place of student activities. At times, such activities have been taken to extremes (such as, that
all elementary schools must provide for clubs); however, individual school faculties should give serious thought to providing, under supervision, experiences beyond those which deal with the specific subject areas.

The specific contributions which student activities make are of several types. They provide, for instance, Opportunities for the pursuit of special interests.
They provide experiences in the area of citizenship education and help to develop traits of leadership ~nd cooperation. They build school spirit and help In the social development of young people. In addition
stUdent activities make a definite contribution to c~rriculum improvement by supplementing and enr~c,hing classroom experiences, by providingopportun~hes for group work and guidanceo Student activities
lv'~ so help to make school administration more effective ,fostering team work, by coordinating several , ISlons of the school and by giving youth a part In the operation of the school.

aOcrSt'lTVUI',tDYEN~TrCoOgUrNa-CmIsL

The is

cornerstone of most student a student council. Such an

ga01zahon should be the "laboratory in democracy"

to provide young people with sufficient experiences

in democratic living to help them know and appre-

ciate the democracy.

vaAltutees~ptaisng

well to

as teach

the limitations, of democracy without

experiences in democratic living is on a par with

trying to teach swimming by correspondence. In

recent years, it has been demonstrated that elemen-

tary school pupils are not too young to participate

effectively in some form of student government.

Though their responsibilities will necessarily be

limited, they deserve and should be given the chance

to have a part in directing some school affairs.

Important to the success of any student government,

whether in the elementary school, the junior high

school or the senior high school, is a clearly defined

area of responsibility where students can, in fact,

make decisions. If a student council has no real

responsibility, it has no reason for being.

CLUBS AND ORGANIZATIONS Fundamental in most programs of student activities are special interest clubs and service organizations. These clubs attempt to capitalize on existing special interests of students or to help in developing new interests. Typical is model bUilding club, book review club, choral group, tumbling club or chess club. Organizations of the service type may include audio-visual club, library club or safety patrol. Membership in these organiza':' tions should not be restricted except where necessary as in the case of an honor society. Extensive dues or equipment should not be required. While 100 per cent participation is a goal to work for, it should not be achieved by REQUIRING all to participate in some form of club. Time during the school day should be provided for these clubs though some may also use after-school hours for activities.

ASSEMBLY The school assembly can be an important educational experience for the young people enrolled. It is unfortunate that many schools do not have a space sufficient to seat the entire student body at one time because many learnings occur best in large group situations where the presence of many others gives the experience a special significance. When facilities permit, schools should provide regular large group experiences. Though a poor setting for formal instruction, a large group is a good setting for inspiration and the building of spirit. The culminating activities of many class units and projects often make a fitting assembly program. Students should have a part in all assembly programs through giving a devotional, introducing a speaker, making announcements and appearing on the program itself. In larger communities with several schools, the exchanging of assembly programs can be an effective practice.

THE INTERSCHOLASTIC ATHLETIC PROGRAM

A well

directed itIterscholastic program, as an integral part

of education, should be made available to all youth

in grades 9-12 who are interested. This program

allows students to participate in competition char-

acterized by conference, associations and a regular

season schedule. The interscholastic athletic program

29

?
must be approved by local boards of education and administered by local school officials. Junior high school athletics should be well planned and with limited inter-school competion.
In the primary grades, athletics should be of a recreational nature. In the intermediate grades, athletics of an intramural level should be introduced.
The health and 'welfare of pupils should be the paramount consideration in planning an interscholastic athletic pi'ogram. To insure this, the follOWing conditions should be met:
(1) policies for the protection of athletes should be based on the best medical knowledge available;
(2) policies should include procedures to assure adequate medical examination and on-gOing medical supervision of all athletes; a mimimum of one medical examination must be required each year (preferably this should be given immediately prior to the sports season): re-examination should be required after any serious injury or illness before the pupil returns to participatjon:
(3) pupils should not be permitted to engage in contests which overtax their physical capacities;
(4) coaches must be certified teachers who are fullUme members of the school staff and are professionally prepared for their responsibilities;
(5) the best protective equipment should be available . for each participant;
(6) competition should be between teams of comparable ability using standarized classification and eligibility requirements;
(7) playing seasons should be of reasonable duration: (8) contests should be confined to reasonable geo-
graphic areas; (9) practice periods should be of reasonable length
and geared to tlJle physical condition ofthe participants.
The athletic program should be varied in scope and should provide Wide participation.
A separate program for girls should be conducted in the secondary schools by a professionally prepared and certified instructor.
Games and contests should be officiated by qualified and licensed personnel.

priate learning situationfor all requires a broadcurriculum, varied materials and numerous special services.
The scope of the public school is expanding; however, as members of the society develop new competencies the functions of the services are changing. An effective school district must constantly study services needed in schools which will enhance educational experiences of students.
LIBRARY SERVICE'MATERIAL CENTER The school library is the materials service center for the entire school and exists for the purpose of undergirding the teachmg and learning activities and experiences that take place in the school.
The library distributes to the individual student, teacher and classroom those materials which expand the textbook and enrich learning. At the same time, the library is also a teaching center where students learn and practice research skills, seek and evaluate information and grow in appreciation of the best in reading, viewing and listening.
The explosion of knowledge and the rapidly changing world have made the use of a single textbook in the teaching process obsolete. The mere accumulation of facts that often change overnight does not prepare a child to grow in ability to meet his problems, responsibilities and challenges in the world in which he lives. Emphasis today must be placed on helpingthe individual develop skills and understandings that will enable him to become an independent learner, capable of self-directed study.
The library-materials center can perform its function as a laborary of learning only if it can provide a collection of materials of the variety, quantity and. quality needed to meet the requirements of the total school curriculum. It must furnish not only the basic materials needed for understanding the present society in which we live, but it must provide materials of all types that will help the individual move into his future. The library must provide the stimulation that encourages students to become independent learners, and it must provide guidance and help as students explore and learn to use the resources that are available to them.

III. Special Services
The concept of a school in America has progressed from a simple teacher-pupil-textbook learning situation to a comIllex interrelationship involving, besides teachers and pupils, many varied staff members and special serivices. The primary task of the school is certainly that of the academic development of its students, but the ambitious goal of providing an appro-

Library service in a school is an important ingredient of every area of the curriculum, of the instruCtional practices that are followed and of all the learning that takes place. Librarians are teachers with special library skills responsible for working with all
teacbers and students. The program of the school will
be strengthened or weakened in proportion to the quality of library service available and the use teachers and students make of its services and facilities as a part of classroom experience and actiVity.

30

SERVICES FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Ten to fifteen per cent of the school-age children are considered to be exceptional. They are e~ceptionalbecause they have emotional, physical, communicative or mental deviations sufficient to require some special educational experiences. Mental deviations include those who are gifted or academically talented as well as t.hos~ who are retarded. Some children have a combmatlOn of deviations. The degree to which the deviation interferes with the children's normal school achievement will determine the extent to which a school's curriculum will need adjustment or modification for: them. The allcillary services afforded exceptional children are as much a part of the curriculum as are the subjects being taught.
The academic or enrichment content of the curriculum for most exceptional children will remain essentially the same as for the other children in the school population and should be provided in the confines of the regualr classroom as much as possible. However, the methodology in curriculum
or accompliShment will be influenced by the nature of the services needed.
The child who has a communicative deviation may require the services of a speech clinician. A child with a visual impairment will necessitate an alternation in methodology in curriculum through the utilization of low vision aids, large print books, a braille reader or talking records. The child who is physically impaired will need a curriculum designed for implementation in relation to his physical limita'tions. He may have to utilize unusual adaptations in reading materials and different methods for writing.

'The academically gifted or talented student needs curricula offerings and learning experiences which challenge his mental ability as well as his special ability. Opportunity should be provided for the gifted child t6develop his mental or special ability so he will be able to adequately assume his appropriate educational role in our society.

An adequate curriculum for the gifted child will include the utilization of differentiated materials and methods. The employment of seminars, advanced study groups or independent study in the area or areas of giftedness will need to be provided for this child. The academic schedule for the gifted child must not be so rigidly designed that he does not have the opportunity to pursue his special areas of talent. The program must be challenging' to the gifted Or his educational pursuits will become meaningless and of little value to hirp.

1 A child who has a limited intellectual capacity and

s unable to benefit adequately from the regular

schaal curriculum is referred to as "mentally handi-

C~h;ppheadn"dicoarpp"emd ecnhtailldlyrenretaarrededth."oseWwithhoin

this are

group called

e educable mentally retarded and those who are

called the trainable mentally retarded. The educable mentally retarded are those children who, on an individual test, range between 50 through 75 to 80 I.Q. points. The train:>h1e mentally retarded are those who. on an individual intelligence test, range between Jb through 50 or 55 I.Q. points. Each group requires a different curriculum.
In curriculum planning for the educable mentally retarded the total school environment must be utilized. It'must be recognized that, for the majority of these students, this program is a terminal one and consequently must have as its goal not only academic but vocational and social competency. This 'curriculum may be administered through the establishment of special classes or the utilization of specially prepared resource teachers attached to a school's teaching staff.
The educable mentally retarded child of age six through nine years needs a curriculum which emphasizes social, emotional and physical readiness as well as pre-academic readiness. Structured activities should be designed to develop the communicative skills of language and speech, visual and auditory skills, initial development of the quantitative concepts and the ability to think. Activities which will develop the large as well as the small muscles must be provided by an organized and meaningful physical and recreational program.
The educable mentally retarded child who is between the ages of ten and fourteen needs a curriculum which emDhasizes functional reading, writing and arithmetic' skills. Emphasis must be placed upon the daily functions of life and the development of an adequate language pattern. Social studies should be the core of the educable mentally retarded child's curriculum, and at the intermediate level he should learn about the family, neighborhood, school and community.
Emphasis in the curriculum for the educable mentally retarded child who is fourteen and over should be on reinforcement of academic skills and his relationship to the vocational and social world of an adult. There should evolve a curriculum balanced between academic understanding, its utilization and pre-vocational training. The enrichment areas of the regular school curriculum must be a part of the program. These areas include: industrial arts, home economics, physical education, music, art, typing and R.O.T.C. Opportunity for participation in other activities such as band, chorus, clubs and the regular athletic program should be provided. Opportunities should also be provided for the development of a school work-in and a school work-out program as part of the curriculum. The adolescent educable mentally retarded should remain a part of the regular grades and be assigned to the special education teacher for instructional purposes the same as any other child is assigned to the regular teacher.

31

The Office of Vocational Rehabilitation Services should be utilized through a cooperative program to provide the following assistance: vocational evaluation, psychological consultation for pupils, medical examinations, pupil and parent counseling, vocational counseling and assistance in the supervision of the school work-in and school work-out programs. A few will need to continue with vocational rehabilitation counseling to become adequate contributing members of society.
Curriculum development for the trainable mentally retarded child must provide for acceptable patterns of language and speech, acceptable patterns of personal and social behavior, skills that will make him a more useful member of his family and skills that will make him a more contented and useful member of a social group.
The emphasis and content of the curriculum will vary according to the potential and developmental level of each child. Younger or more severely retarded children should have a program which emphasizes communicative skills, sensory training, large muscular coordination, personal skills and self-help experiences. Older trainable mentally retarded children who have mastered these skills should be provided opportunities to participate in activities to reinforce and utilize these skills. This curriculum should reflect an interdependence of the school, family and community and their responsibilities to the child within each of these environments.
GUIDANCE SERVICES Guidance services complement the teaching function. The basic concern of counseling and gUidance is that of fostering the grmvth and development of students through learning which is based upon self-direction, self-sufficiency and self-respect.
In this process of self-development by the student the counselor's role is one related to the curriculum in that it encourages pupil growth which enables students to perceive, evaluate and take advantage of opportunities available to him in the educational setting.
Guidance gained momentum through the advent of Sputnik, but recent knowledge, population explosion and shift and the emphasis on automation has emphasized the need for the counselor to serve as one of the critical feedback elements in the educational system. Open lines of communication are essential if a dynamic curriculum is to be developed and maintained. Students with unique attitudes, aptitudes, interests and Jmotivations are influenced by parents with unique socioeconomic standards and values as well as aspirations concerning their children's future goals. Business and industry constantly demand and upgrade their demand for specific skills. Colleges and technical schools, in attempting to prepare students to meet these demands and the societal demands, continually change their requirements. School counselors are a

channel for this information. They are able to gather data for curriculum makers, teachers, administrators and parents which have implications for all. One of the functions of the counselor is to encourage innovation, experimen~cc:ion, evaluation and adaptation in light of these dynamic and evolving socio-economic
needs.

The ultimate function of the counselor is to provide students and parents with current and correct inform'ltion as a basis for making appropriate vocational and educational choices. Basic to this function is interpreting data which the school has gathered to the parents, helping parents and students understand socio-economic forces which are shaping the present and future, helping students understand and place value on their own talents and capabilities and helping students grow in self-direction, self-sufficiency and self-respect, thereby achieving greater personal and social maturity.

ADUL T EDUCA nON In the plan of organization of a school system, adult education should have status equivalent to othe r major levels and should be closely articulated with them because many of the fundamental purposes are identical. Policies made by the board of education should be administered by the superintendent through channels to carry out the program needed in the system.

Program s for adults will vary more than those for children and youth, because adult needs are usually more specific and immediate. Policies should be kept general, simple and flexible, but should take into consideration the following: (1) scope ofprograrnprogram areas: (2) population to be served: (3) staff leadership. qualification and remuneration of leaders; (4) financial support: (5) facilities for meeting: (6) degree of cooperation with state and federal governments and other agencies: (7) promotion of program.

For adult education to assume its proper importance, its direction should be in the hands of specialized personnel. Therefore, a local director of adult education should be employed having eqUivalent qualifications as a supervisor or principal of elementary and secondary education. He should be direct] y responsible to the SUI1erintendent.

SCHOOL HEAL TH SERVICES A good health service

program - one that will really help the child to achieve

good health-utilizes teacher observation, nurse con-

sultation and use of all resources of the school, horne and community. The child needs not only to have ed~

cational experiences that will be meaningful to hiS

health education but to understand why these things

make differences in his health and his growth.

The School Health Services Program should have

these major purposes:

d

(1) to stress the development of good attitudes an

habits as well as the acquisition of knowledge

and understanding;

32

(2) to identify and record health needs an.d intere.sts of children, adolescents and adults m relatlon to their physical and social environment;
(3) to be integrated with other phases of the school and community health programs-environmental health, health services, physical education and recreation;
(4) to demonstrate scientific knowledge and develop critical thinking which will result in intelligent self-direction.
Accurate records must be kept on the various aspects of the child's health. The resources of the local health departments and other official and voluntary agencies should be a part of the total school health program.

Health Services include;

(1) cumulative records;

..

(2) physical examinations, ideally four tImes durmg

a child's school experience;

a. dental examinations every six months,

b. vision and hearing screening tests, ideally

four times during a child's school experi-

ence;

c. continuous teacher observation for detection

of physical, emotional and social defects.

(3) provisions made to keep parents informed con-

cerning the effective use of available services;

(4) control of communicable diseases by immuni-

zation, education and other preventative measures.

SCHOOL FOOD SERVICE AND NUTRITION EDUCA TION PRO-

GRAM

'The school food service program is an

important educational medium for establishing food

habits which will meet nutritional needs throughout

a child's life. The American Medical Association

calls nutrition' one of the "Seven Paths to Fitness."

Modern educators consider the food service program

an opportunity to enrich the educational curriculum,

New methods oPteaching and the centering of learning

around life experiences have focused the attention

of alert educators upon using school food service

as an educational laboratory. An understanding of it's

educational value has led to the correlation of the

school food services with the total school curriculum.

Inadequate nutrition is an obstacle to learning as well as to physical and mental development. Many children today do not get a nutritionally adequate
meal at home. Time demands on working mothers
may cause meals at home to be omitted or to be nutritionally inadequate. Therefore~the meal at school may often be the only nutritionally adequate meal.
F.oOd habits developed at school are also important
Since current family patterns of work and play
prOVide less opportunity to develop desirable food habits at home.

school faculty is convinced of the importance of prOViding learning opportunities which will help boys and girls to improve their food habits.
Specifically the school food service - nutrition education program has two baSic functions:
1. to provide food service that meets school day nutrition needs of the pupils;
2, to help pupils develop desirable food habits and learn the importance of food habits to health.
The opportunity for improving nutrition practices is greater while the child is young. He is less fixed in his food habits; thus, there is greater possibility of developing desirable food habits. Food habits and nutritional needs change with age. During adolescence rapidly m'lturing teenagers have increasing body needs for food nutrients. This makes nutrition education most important to the teenager. The teenager, through understanding, relation of nutrition to his interests and wants, and his own involvement problems, can be motivated to improve his food habits.
Nutrition need not be taught as a separate subject, but may be integrated into many subjects. The teacher is in a unique position to correlate nutrition with science, English, history, geography, mathematics, language, art, health, physical education, and other classroom subjects which may add additional deDth, to the curriculum. Nutrition education should be continuous, and should be offered at all grade levels depending upon the developmental needs and interests of the children.
Some suggested activities for nutritional education are: (1) Teach "What is a Good Breakfast?"; (2) Show that "What One Eats Makes a Difference"
through Animal Feeding Experiments; (3) Survey pupil food habits and make plate waste
studies; (4) Study the biochemical make-up of the body; (5) Study the different nutrients supplied by foods; (6) Study interrelationships between nutrients and
their biochemical functions in the body; (7) Evaluate food and nutrition information in magazine
and newspaper advertisements and radio and television programs; (8) Broaden dietary habits by exploring new foods in the school food service laboratory.

~eAna

effective planned

program part of

in the

ntuottrai tli osnc heodoulc. a teixopnersiheo~ucl de,

he program will be most successful If the entIre

33

CHAPTER IV
ORGANIZATION FOR LEARNING

CHAPTER IV Organization for Learning

The rapid changes of the past decade noted in the introductory chapter to this Curriculum Framework have produced a society which needs more from its citizens than can be furnished by the traditional school organizational pattern.Contemporary society creates needs for organization at the system, the school and the classroom levels which will provide the best possible learning conditions for the total school population in terms of their present livinglearning needs and their future roles as individuals and citizens. This organization should give public school students the respectful tolerance which the kindergarten provides for individual growth patterns and that balance of group versus individual instruction now sacred to the graduate school.
The function of organization at each level is to mobilize total resources available to prOVide curricula designed to meet the current and long range needs of each student. Both the students' needs and the curricula should be subject to fresh and complete analysis at least annually. The larger organizational designs should incorporate opportunities for modification and rectification throughout the year.
The Changing Basis for Organization

of curriculum assigned to a school year. Pupils pass or fail on an annual basis. Pupils who fail repeat the "grade" the following year.
The multi-level system consciously acknOWledges differences in rates of learning, in interest, in readiness, in needs, and attempts to devise patterns of organization which provide for these differences. It can incorporate most varieties of curricula. As a form of organization, it encourages the" use of enough curricula to fit each student's needs. Each student continues to use carefully developed courses of study with materials suitable to his age, his interests and his ability levels. Each student progresses at a rate which allows him to remain proficient as he moves through his curriculum. The advantages of over-learning, of adequate readiness (previously the privilege of the rapid learners) is extended to all students.
Both systems usually operate in modified forms. For years, teachers in graded schools have been adapting the curriculum to fit the abilities of students. In multi-level schools, pupils are often grouped in classrooms according to achievement levels which in actual practice are only modifications of the graded system.

The base of school organization is changing from that of a curriculum with a fixed body of content graded for annual consumption to that of a composite of the specific needs of individuals liVing in the late twentieth century. This change came about through recognition of the glaring unsuitability of the rigid traditional pattern for the majority of students and for the needs of contemporary society.

The catapulting of job requirements in an increas-
ingly urban society, the explosion of knowledge, the expanding resources of an affluent nation are demanding curricular content with different organizational patterns. Individuality of each student's learning processes demands differences in curricular content and rates of consumption. State Standards for Schools establish criteria for organization which encourage local systems to function in a manner Consistent with these demands.

The Multi Level School
~here are basically two systems of school organi~atlOn, one based on a fixed, graded curriculum, he other on the individually diagnosed abilities, needs, and interests of the students.

~h~lChhe

graded can be

system divided

assumes a fixed curriculum into set amounts to be learned

n determined periods of time. A grade is the amount

Basing a school's organization on the actual needs of its students is not easy. It is not too rewarding during transitional stages. It becomes an easier method of organization and professionally rewarding only after some years of devoted efforts and many trial and error experiences. Universal education has brought an unexpected amount of diversity to the school population. The school organization ill capable of changing to accommodate it.
Organization for Learning - What It Is
The work of organizing a system, a school, a classroom for learning; consists of: identifying; the membership of the schools; finding out what individual students need and summarizing these needs; developing curricula to meet the nees found; surveying (critically the resources at hand to provide the curricula; developing the organizational patterns which will relate the curricular resources to each student's needs.
IDENTIFYING THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE SCHOQLS Much of the organization depends on the attendance areas and the age or grade range of the students assigned to a local school unit. The attendance area will determine the number of students, their prOXimity to the school, their home and community background and their mobility. " The age or grade range will affect the character of the total organization.

37

The natural distinctions of age will bring about groupings approximating the kindergarten--primary schools, the middle elementary--junior high school, and the senior high school. The natural distinction of age has not yet brought about a satisfying grouping for the early adolescent, and the demands of the high school have interfered with the free wheeling experimentation which might devise an organization fitted to these transitional years. Generally, the years previous to the primary school age have not been considered important to the education of the child.
IDENTIFYING THE INDIVIDUAL. NEEDS OF STUDENTS The effectiveness of the total school program depends on the accuracy of the diagnosis of the individual needs of each student, his social and emotional development as well as his physical and intellectual development. Chapter II (Psychological Bases for Curriculum Development) and Chapter V (Evaluation) will guide evaluators in developing the keen perceptions needed to analyze individuals.
DEVEL.OPING CURRICUL.A TO MEET INDIVIDUAL NEEDS To meet the individual needs of all students whicn have been identified and summarized, the curriculum has to become a set or sets of evolving entities. Chapter III (Educational Content and Experiences) outlines the organization of subject matter and indicated its breadth, depth and adaptability to individual needs.
CRITICAL. SURVEY OF AVA/LABL.E RESOURCES The types of main resources out of which an organization providing successful learning experiences for each member of the student body can be constructed should be the same in most systems. Professional ability, breadth of curriculum as well as depth, differentiated instruction and community support are necessary resources for effective, efficient organization for learning. A warmth of spirit toward each child underlies all these resources.
DEVEL.OPING ORGANIZATIONAL. PATTERNS FROM RE SOURCES WHICH WIL.L. REL.ATE CURRICUL.A TO THE STUDENT Policies andprocedure for an effective organizationfor learning must occur at the three m3.in levels: the system, the school, the classroom. Each level should consistently support and should consistently articulate with the other two.

considerable leeway in identifying the membership in each school so as to provide optimum learning conditions.
The gross partitioning of the system's students should be based on age. At each school, age characteristics dominate the particulars of housing and space needs, scheduling, selection and use of materials and eqUipment and the selection of professional staffs. The common characteristics of age will facilitate these groupings. When these "natural" groupings are not possible, the system administration should provide for students' needs by separate organi-
zations within the larger group with which they must be housed.
Special consideration should be given to the needs of the 11-15 year-olds before decisions which will prevent the development of the best organizational patterns for their particular learning needs are made. This group requires the flexibility of scheduling presently characteristic of the elementary school; it needs opportunities to learn how to participate in activities similar to but not junior to those of the secondary school. This learning is time-consuming and takes freedom from the pressures of overly formal specialized educational activities.
Some students will profit from part-time assignment to instructional centers not under the jurisdiction of the system administration. These arrangements require assent by parents and school and often close cooperation at the system level.
These administrative decisions regarding the attendance areas, the size and ages of the school population, seemingly determine the flexibility ofthe instructional program, the size and quality of the faculty , the amount and variety of instructional materials and the breadth of social experience of the students.
A minimum time limit for the length of the school day and number of days in the year are set by the State Board of Education. These minimum limits provide little enough time to carry out the express purposes of education. The local administration should seek ways to extend the length of the school day, at least for secondary students, and to addtothe number of days taught so as to provide for summer sessions.

THE SYSTEM L.EVEL.
The function of organization for learning is carried out at the system level through administrative and coordinative activities.
The first task, identifying the membership of the system and the schools, is the responsibility of the superintendent and the board of education. The State School Standards determine some of these decisions. Existing buildings and prospects for new buildings impose certain limits on decisions. The length of time students must spend on the way to and from school sometimes causes difficulty. There remains

The other major tasks of organization require cooperation at all levels. At the system levels, this work is carried out mostly by the members of the superintendent's staffs. These staffs provide cooperative leadership with staffs of local schools in selecting methods for developing curricula, securing materials and consultants, summarizing studies and for interpreting findings.
Instructional and special services staffs should have regular interaction with school staffs to coordinate their total efforts effectively. An experienced system-wide instructional committee that has developed mutual understandings of the services which

38

the system office can provide and conditions under ing policies. A student's total needs must be balanced in

which the services can be rendered is needed to his daily school life and his annual and continuing maintain liaison between the schools and the central program.

office.

At the school level, grouping is carried out by

Decisions made at the system level regarding supervisory staffs and administrative staffs of the schools determine the caliber of the analysis of students' needs, the quality of the curriculum and the adequacy of the organizational pattern.

assigning teachers to pupils either on a part- or whole-time basis. At the classroom level it is carried out by organizing students according to their immediate learning needs; it results in groups of varying sizes working together for common purposes, At both levels, the number of groups of which a student is a

Decisions regarding the design of buildings and equipping of schools determine the range of possibilities of curricular design. Space and facilities have to be provided for audio-lingual-visual equipment, for a variety of kinesthetic experiences, for many physical and manipulative activities, for adequate library resources and use.

member should be viewed in relation to his total needs. Other things being equal, the fewer the groups, the more unified his program will be.
Methods of grouping which satisfy many of the needs are age, achievement, subject matter, ability, interest, future plans and sets of ones (individual study). These bases, expressed from the organizational viewpoints, have to be correlated with the

THE SCHOOL LEVEL

generalizations of student needs previously listed. Care has to be exercised in selecting the right base

The local school is the center of activities which for the particular purpose.

produces the organization for learning for its students.

The tasks, after the initial one of identification of HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING Many of

membership, are carried out at the local school the studies on homogeneous versus heterogeneous

and in direct relation to conditions prevailing at grouping have been conducted at the elementary school

that school.

level. Fewer studies have been made at the secondary

school level. Many types of homogeneous groupings

Performing these remammg tasks requires a high have been tried. and m_any bases for such homogeneous

quality of organizational know-how. It involves orien- groupings have been used. The most widely used

tation of the staffs and the parents, careful coordina- is mental ability grouping.

tion of the remaining tasks, facilitation of the final plans and their later modifications.

In 1920, Detroit, Michigan, introduced ability group-

ing on a large scale. All children entering first

A changed basis for organization involves a 180degree change in directional approach for many staff members. These members may accept the
principles for which change is made yet need help to stay on the course. Because certain components of organization appear to remain unchanged, they

grade were classified into X, Y, and Z groups on the basis of a group intelligence test. Differentiated curriculums were provided for each group to meet its varying ranges of interest and ability. Since 1920. many variations of this system of ability grouping have been set up by various school systems.

may tend to carryover, unexamined, old attitudes

One of the chief problems has been to find a suitable

and habits. They may confuse instructional methods basis for ability groupings. Various measures, such

with organization patterns. A number of adaptions as intelligence test ratings, achievement in reading, have been made in traditional instructional patterns average achievement in several subjects, grades, or

but they have slid along with, rather than changed, teachers' comments, have been used as criteria. traditional organizational patterns. All staff members Experience and research have shown that anyone

should be thoroughly clear regarding the distinctions involved in placement, learning, promotion and rePorting.

of these factors, when considered alone, is seldom satisfactory. Moreover, several factors used together do not reduce materially the range of differences in

a class of 30 or more. It is doubtful that any "perfect"

GROUPING In the multi-level school, there are new- combination of factors exists though the various

and yet old- approaches to the problem of grouping. types of grouping within the classroom have value. of students.

The purpose of grouping is to relate students to the reSOurces needed for each one to internalize his own Curriculum. Groups are determined initially by the ~verlap~ing_of students' needs as uncovered by resh, annual diagnoses and by the exigencies of the Curricula which meet those needs.
To achieve the purpose of grouping, flexibility and procedures for modification must be built into group-

DEPARTMENTALIZATION PATTERNS One of the administrative and instructional practices, primarily in secondary schools, is departmentalization of instruction. Other groupings are usually refinements within this structure. Thus, within a subject field, such as science. the students are grouped on a two (2) up to five (5) track plan or more according to ability, or interest and ability, or the remedial instruction needed.

39

In other schools, secondary school students are

During the past two decades, experimentation and

grouped according to the kind of curriculum they research have emphasized grouping within the class

wish to follow. One kind of curriculum, the academic, as a way of improving instruction and of providing

leads to college entrance; another is commercial: for individual differences. Several studies show some-

a third is general, where formal education is termi- what better results for sub-grouping than those obtain-

nated at the end of the high school period; the fourth ed with class-as-a-whole instruction. As yet, there is

curriculum is vocational or industrial in character, and the fifth curriculum is centered about work-study activities and is usually terminal. All these curricula include required subjects such as social studies, English, science and health education. Along with these required subjects, elective subjects are chosen on the basis of interest and future plans.

little evidence that indicates the best approach to sub-grouping. In all probability, there is no one best approach. Different conditions require different solutions. It must be emphasized again that grouping, per se, does not automatically provide better learning or improved instruction. To be effective, it must have purpose and meaning for both the classroom

teacher and the child. When there is real under-

A recent survey showed that secondary schools in standing of the grouping, it becomes an effective

the United States are making more administrative aid to better teaching.

provisions for slow learners than for rapid learners.

The provision most frequently made for rapid learners

Grouping is a flexible kind of classroom or_ganiza-

is to give them a college preparatory curriculum. The tion for adjusting the curriculum to the needs and

provision least frequently made for rapid learners is abilities of class members. It is not a method of

to accelerate them-to place them in classes that do teaching reading, writing, mathematics, science or

three years of work in two, or two years of work in any other subject. It is essentially a phase of classroom one. Enrichment, of course, is sometimes reported. management. It is a means to an end, not an end

in itself. Studies indicate that what is done with

CORE AND-BLOCK 'PRCJGRAMS In more recent years, the group, how it is done ,and how the children

the block or the core curriculum plan has been used. and the teacher feel about the group are the important

This plan, which integrates two or more subjects, considerations. Grouping demands a variety ofproce-

is used extensively in the junior high school. Pre- dures and materials and constant regrouping as the

scribed courses are organized so that they may be children achieve the desired goals. It calls for

closely related to one another and may develop more constant evaluation of the purposes of grouping and

effective learning outcome when taught by the same of the children in the group. It presupposes that

teacher in a long, daily block of time. Integration the teacher knows his pupils well.

is provided by "blocking" such related subjects as English and social studies or English, social studies and science.

Each of the above bases implies homogeneity of needs, if only by categorization. Obviously the homogeneity includes some range. Even the age base

The experiences in the "block" or core curriculum are planned by the teacher and the students together and are centered primarily around the needs and interests of the students as well as the formal organization of the subject-matter. Generally,studies on such programs indicate that the degree of subjectmatter mastery is about the same for both the block-core curriculum and separate subject programs. On measures of personal adjustment and social participation, students in the block-core curricula score higher. The morale of the class is higher. Students believe they receive more help on their personal problems, and they have more opportunities to participate in activities such as small group stUdies, committee reports and individual study.

encompasses twelve months. Neither achievement nor ability bases lend themselves to very restricted ranges. Heterogeneity will appear in every group. How
much homogeneity or heterogeneity shouldbe attempted in any group should be determined by balancing all the needs of all its potential members in relation to the group ur,der consideration and to the other groups to which the potential members will belong.
The curricula themselves also impose conditions which grouping must meet. Large groups can listen to a lecture, watch demonstrations, educational television,etc. Some learning activities requiring physically active participation require large groups, e.g, chorus, band, pageants, certain calisthenic drills. The size of others ranges down to the set of one working individually. Laboratory activities may set special conditions. It is certain that these learning experiences

GROUPS WITHIN THE CLASS In recent years, teachers and supervisors in elementary and secondary schools

should be carefully planned and written out in courses of study.

have increasingly organized sub-groups within a class or classes as in team teaching in attempting to meet the problems of differentiation of instruction. Various provisions such as unit plans, contract plans, differ-

The size of the building and its arrangement,of space affect the size and the number of groups WhiCh can be accommodated.

entiated assignments, individual projects, remedial classes, research-type teaching (Curriculum Currents

Grouping is an organizational resource which J1la~

No.2, Research- Type Teaching, Georgia State Depart- help or hinder learning but it is not a method 0

ment of Education, Atlanta) andmulti-groupprograms

such as in team teaching have been used.
40

teaching. The major problem posed by grouping lies in making the decision as to what purpose it shall serve.
Parents need on-going counseling regarding the school's organization for learning patterns as well as regarding their children's progress. The school has special need of the parent's on-going understanding and cooperation where its organization is so directly tied to students' needs.
The coordination of the four remaining tasks, the identification of individual needs, the development of personalized curricula, the critical survey of resources, the development of organizational patterns to relate the selected curricula resources to each student is a sub-organization in itself needing careful study and design.
The Classroom level

will be responsible for his continued success. This teacher will need to have opportunities to confer with all the teachers working with the student and to confer with the student regarding his total program.
It is in the classrooms with his teachers that the individuality of each student's learning processes will or will not be accorded true differences in curricular content and will or will not have that content paced to his rate of internalization.
CO-OR-EXTRACURRICULUM GROUPING
The secondary schools, and increasingly elementary schools, serve individual and group interests through a program of co-or-extracurriculum activities. These activities are under the direction and supervision of the school, are educative in nature, and are a part of the curriculum of the school. These activities cross departmental and organizational lines and allow voluntary participation in worthwhile activities based upon strong interest.

The tasks of organizing for learning at the classroom level are similar to those performed at the school level but have a more personal emphasis, They are performed in a continuum with the workload bulging at certain periods. At the classroom level, the tasks of organization relate directly to the changing and/or developing needs of the class members. They also include performing some of the tasks and helping with others in developing the school's organizational patterns for the following year.
The teacher and the class come together originally because the teacher has been selected to guide students through some or all of the activities by which each
one can learn to meet his own educational-developmental needs. These needs have been diagnosed and analyzed and sets of curricula for individuals and groups have been worked out on an outline basis in a course of study. The work already done enables the class to begin its planned activities at its first meeting with little time wasted because of ignorance or misinformation. It lays the groundwork for carrying on the remaining work.
An essential feature of classroom organization is the inclusion of procedures for orderly and purposive change. Two features which may need special attention (where students are not accustomed to curricula tailored to their needs and are trained in the pass-fail type of evaluation and reporting) are the need for time for orientation of students to t?e type of organization being used and the need for time for individual and group planning with students.
Where the classroom is "self-contained," one teacher with assistance from specialized teachers plans for the balancing of all the needs of his students. When a student is in a departmentalized school his ~Chedule will have been determined at the school e\,el and will have been balanced in its broader ~S~c.ts, but he will need a counseling teacher, lUnlhar With his history and his planned future who

Almost every subject area of the curriculum has its co-curriculum counterpart. schoofpublications, dramatics, speech, citizenship, science clubs, athletics, intramurals and career and hobby clubs extend and enrich education in subject areas, citizenship training and guidance. Group activities are directed toward problems and events of the school community. Many club activities arrange trips to museums, industries and other agencies that exemplify community life or engage speakers from public or private agencies. Often events and affairs are conducted in which the out-of-school community is involved either as audience or as participant.
One problem in relation to co-curriculum group activity needing further attention is that of providing nearly all students with opportunities to participate. Even in a well-organized secondary school, only about one-fourth of the students are reached effectively by extra-curriculum groups. Students who join one organization are likely to join others and also to participate in out-of-school groups. Factors affecting participation are: lack of time, student employment, inadequate guidance and unattractive club program.
In Summary
In summary, it can be seen that attempts to organize school systems, schools and classrooms for effective learning have swung pendulum-like from content organized administratively in terms of dif.... ficulty on the one side, to content organized administratively lor student ability-level and interests on the other.
In education, it seems that designs to improve instruction must assume an "either-or" position on one of the ends of this continuum from "content level" oriented curricula to "stUdent-centered" oriented curricula. If Georgia schools are to educate all their children and youth, there must be admini-

41

strative grouping at the system level; there must
be administrative grouping at the school level: there must be administrative grouping at the classroom level. Further variations must be made in the types of content: abilities, needs and interests of the students must enter into the choice of subject matter and courses. Where general education occurs particularly, as against "special or elective" courses, content within the classroom must vary as to abilities, needs and interests. Even the teaching procedure, which too often is the "one book, all doing the same thing," must vary as to abilities, needs, and interests.

Variations such as working with the large group, directing small groups and stimulating individuals should be the common practice. Instructional materials must be available in great quantity and quality. The courses of study should integrate content, process and instructional materials. The involvement of
students actively in planning and carrying out the learning tasks within the classroom should promote the greatest goal of educationr self direction and responsibility in learning and, above all, should create the desire to learn.

42

CHAPTER V
EVALUATING OUTCOMES OF
CURRICULA

CHAPTER V Evaluating Outcomes of Curricula

Any attempt at curriculum planning is incomplete without the final step evaluation. Evaluation is the process by which it may be determined whether or not the objectives of the curriculum have been met. Unless teachers, schools and school systems can evaluate outcomes in terms of objectives, there can be little or no evidence that a curriculum is effective. Therefore, it is imperative that a serious detailed appraisal of the school program be attempted.
This kind of evaluation is not easy, but it can be done. It is quite true that many influences are impinging upon pupils both from without and within the school that may not be readily observable or that may be unknown- to the school. This does not excuse the school from evaluating what it does know and can observe. The school has a very grave responsibility to evaluate its curricula in order that its program may be justified or improved.
The following paragraphs contain a suggested outline for evaluation of the curriculum of an individual, a class, a school or a school system.
Steps in Curriculum Evaluation
1. Define each objective in terms that can be measured or observed: a. Measurable pupil behavior (tests, surveys, inventories, check lists, etc.); b. Observable pupil behavior (that which can be assessed subjectively by (1) teachers, (2) peers, or (3) the student himself);
2. Plan and carry out experiences for pupils which are designed to bring about the desired outcomes;
3. Employ pertinent tests, measurements, or observations: (a) During the learning experiences; (b) Following the learning experiences;
4. Compare outcomes with objectives; 5. Continue, revise or expand learning experiences
which seem to result in the desired objectives.
Evaluation, at the simplest level, begins with a teacher and a student. Following the outline suggested above, the teacher determines what objectives are SUitable for helping an individual student achieve

the next steps in his educational growth and development. The teacher then plans experiences for and with the student which are best calculated to help him obtain these objectives. Finally, the teacher seeks ways to evaluate the progress of the student in terms of the objectives for that student.
This same process is used by a teacher in setting up objectives, experiences and evaluation for class groups. On the next level, the teachers in a school use the same procedure in arranging objectives, experiences and evaluative procedures for a total school. Finally, school systems follow the same steps in evaluation of all the schools with which they are concerned.
At any time the evaluation process may vary from simple devices, measurements or observations on the part of a single teacher or more sophisticated, highly structured statistical studies involving many teachers and large numbers of students. There are now in the school systems of Georgia staff members who can give leadership in methods of evaluation. Certainly, professional help of this kind is readily available from the State Department of Education and the various educational institutions in Georgia. This help should be sought if needed.
One of the statements in Chapter I regarding objectives of education in Georgia makes it clear that educational opportunities must be provided which will permit each pupil to develop to his full potential. In the final analysis, the schools must provide breadth and depth of curriculum, proper organization of instruction for learning and the required materials of instruction so that each child can succeed in his educational life. Success is to be measured by his achievement on a level with his abilities and by his own attitudes. It never can be certain that these opportunities have been provided unless each teacher and administrator understands his role in the process of evaluation and constantly and persistently uses suitable evaluative measures in all areaa of the school. This process must not be left to chance.
There follows an annotated bibliography for recent materials in the field of evaluation. The school systems should keep the list current.

45

References

Ahmann, J. Stanley and Marvin D. Glock Evaluating Pupil Growth. 2nd ed. Rockleigh, New Jersey, Allyn and Bacon, 1959.
Ahmann, J. Stanley. Testing Student Achievements and Attitudes. Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1962. This book has valuable sections on the nature of evaluation, formal statements of educational objectives, and evaluating in terms of educational objectives.
Baughman, Millard Dale, ed. Pupil Evaluation in the Junior High School. Danville, Illinois, Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1963.
Bloom, Benjamin S. (ed.). Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives, Handbook, I:

.

Cognitive Domain.

New York, David McKay

Company, Inc., 1956. In this volume and in

Handbook 1/: Affective Domain

(listed under

Krathwohl) the authors attempt to classify the

goals of our educational systems in the cognitive

and affective areas. A third volume concerned

with the psychomotor domain is planned. Hand-

book I deals with the cognitive objectives of

learning, establishing them in an order from

simple to complex. Each objective is discussed,

illustrative test items are listed, and suggestions

are made for evaluation procedures. In Handbook

1/: Affective Domain, the basis for the classifica-

tion system is presented, its relationship to the

cognitive domain is discussed and each objective

is analyzed in detail. Here also are included illus-

trative test items and procedures for evaluation.

The educator who wishes to establish clear

goals and objectives, to plan educational experi-

ences to carry out these goals, and to evaluate

accurately t~ results of his planning will find

these books invaluable.

Curriculum Currents No.7, Conference Reporting to

Parents. State Department of Education, Atlanta,

Georgia.

Dressel, Paul L. and Lewis B. Mayhew, eds. General

Education: Exp"6i'ations in Evaluation. Washington, D.C., American Council on Education, 1954.

Ebel, Robert L. Measuring Educational Achievements:

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall,

Inc., 1965. This is an excellent book concerned with test development and test analysis and with the construction and use of classroom tests planned, written, and administered by teachers. It is oriented towl;Lrd the practical problems of meas-

uring the results of learning.

Gerberick, J. Raymond, Harry A. Greene, and Albert N. Jergensen. Measurement and Evaluation in the MoJern School. - New York, David McKay Company, Inc., 1962.

The authors stress the crucial and practical

classroom problems of improving all types of

teacher-made tests and evaluative instruments.

Harper, Aaron W. and Merlin C. Wittrock. Guide for

Planning YouncEducational Program.

Danville,

Illinois, The Interstate Printers and-Publishers,

1960.

This is a workbook designed to give the school

a guide for studying and evaluating its program.

It provides for the participation of lay citizens

as well as teachers.

Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram

B. Masia. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,

Handbook 1/: Affective Domain.

(See Bloom)

The Measure of a Good School. Kentucky University,

Bureau of School SerVices, Lexington, 1964.

This is a guide to evaluation of school systems.

It was developed for Kentucky but may be appli-

cable elsewhere.

National Education Association, Department of Class-

room Teachers. Evaluating and Reporting Pupil

Progress. Washington, D.C., National Education

Association, 1955.

Nunally, Jim C. Educational Measurement and Evalua-

tion. New York, McGraw Hill Book Company,

1964.

A central theme of this book is that tests are

helpful only to the extent that they help in making

educational decisions. Each major type oftest is

discussed with respect to its contribution to

particular kinds of educational decisions.

Quest for Quality. National School Boards Association

and American Association of School Admini-

strators, Washington, D. C., 1960. This is a

series of 14 booklets describing how a selected

group of school districts in the nation evaluated

their educational programs.

Russell, David H.

"What Does Research Say About

Self-Evaluation?" Journal of Educational Re-

search. ,46: 561-74, 1953.

Thomas, R. Murray. Judging Student Progress. New York, David McKay Co., Inc., 1960. This is a book in four parts, all directed toward the evaluative aspects of the school. Part 1, Understanding the Place of Evaluation; Part 11, Using Evaluation Instruments in the Classroom; Part III, Organizing and Using Evaluation Data; and Part IV, Seeing the Over All Program. The entire book is concerned with evaluation techniqueS that appear most useful for classroom and
school appraisal.

46

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION POLICIES ON CURRICULUM

STATE BOARD POLICIES ON CURRICULUM
September, 1966

Introduction

In the years since 1900 the school enrollments in Georgia as in the United States have doubled, as a rule, each decade. Schools were established within walking or short riding distance, of students. Small schools, primarily including grades 1-12, developed in rural and small town locations. The programs in these schools were shaped predominantly by desires of parents and teachers who were interested in preparing students for college entrance. Many other parents saw little value in preparing their children for more than "reading, 'riting, and 'rithmetic." There were few students who completed high school.
In very recent years the following changes have rapidly occurred: the improvement of roads: the mechanization of the society both urban and rural: the need for preparation in pre-vocational skills for some students; the need for vocational preparation for others; the increasing demand for providing educational training for all youth; and the movement of the population to urban centers. Yet with all these changes, the school curriculum and the small schools have changed little. App-roximately one-half the students in .the United States still attend the small schools, grades 1-12. The typical curricular offering in a typical four-year high school of even 300 pupils probably includes: four (4) units in English; three (3) each in mathematics and science; four (4) in social studies; two (2) in foreign languages; three (3) or four (4) in
agriculture; two (2) in physical education for a total of about twenty-eight (28) units.
In the nation, approximately 70% of the youth continue through the high school; in Georgia, apprOXimately 55% of the youth continue through the high school. Of course, no judgment other than the statistics can be made of the effectiveness of these small schools in reference to the changes which have occurred in the American society.
Until these changes in the society developed so rapidly, the success of the schools in preparing students for college entrance has generally been adequate. There was a flurry of demands in Georgia and the United States in the late fifties for an increase in requirements in mathematics and science to meet ~he challenge of space achievement in the world. The mterest still was in the college-bound students, but there was a change in emphasis on minimum requirements in the schools to an increased curricular ?ffering. The need to provide proper educational offerings to the non-college bound students and the dis ad;antag~d school-Ieavers is receiving growing support {om lllfluential leaders from industry, business, abor and government.

The new frontier in Georgia and the United States is to design and produce schools which will have both breadth and depth in curricular offerings so that all children and youth will truly have an opporturiity to succeed in preparing themselves for an adequate personal, civic and moral life.
The State Board of Education is charged by law (Code 32-408 and S.B. 180) with the responsibility of prescribing a course of study for all common and high schools receiving state aid and may, in their discretion, approve additional courses of study set up by local units of administration. They may also provide curriculum revision from time to time.
The State Board of Education has reviewed all regulations it has passed with respect to the high school program of studies. The Board has adopted a re-statement of some of its former policies and has added additional policies. The following contains the re-statement of previous policies and new policies.
The Board has, from time to time, studied the curriculum and designed certain subjects as required . Suggestions of an "adequate" curriculum are made herein. Local boards of education are encouraged to seek the "maximum" curriculum.

Policies

The minimum reqUirements for graduation from a Georgia public high school (grades 9-12) shall be as follows:

English Social Studies (including 1 unit in
U.S. History and government as legally reqUired.) Science Mathematics Science or Mathematics

3 units
3 units 1 unit 1 unit 1 unit

TOTAL NUMBER OF REQUIRED COURSE UNITS
Electives
TOTAL NECESSARY FOR GRADUATION

9 units 9 units
18 units

ADDITIONAL COURSES TO BE OFFERED
The Board al.s6 re-states that in order to equalize educational opportunities for all Georgia children,

49

all high schools are required to offer the following additional courses.

Art, Music, Foreign Language, Industrial Arts and Homemaking, etc.

1 unit in Biology (including Human Biology) 1 additional unit in English 1 additional unit in Mathematics 1 unit in Physics 1 unit in Chemistry 2 units in one (1) Foreign Lal}guage Vocational Subjects (Vocational Agriculture, Homemaking, Business Education, Diversified Cooperative Training, Trades and Industry, Distributive Education) as needed.
WHEN A SUBJECT IS OFFERED- The Board considers a subject "offered" in a high school when it is officially listed in the program of study for that school and a teacher is available to teach it.
ALL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS QUALIFIED to do so will graduate with not less than two (2) courses in Algebra, one (1) course in Chemistry and one (1) course in Physics. Effective Date shall be with classes beginning the school year (1967) and graduating in 1971.
The Elementary School
Each elementary school shall have a curriculum that provides as a minimum the following areas: Art, Health and Physical Education, Language Arts, Mathematics, Music, Science, and Social Studies. The elementary school should also have such additional curriculum areas as Foreign Language and Industrial Arts.
The Junior High School
The school years prior to those designated as high school are becoming increasingly important. Students are potential drop-outs in the elementary schools certainly, but the junior high school years are most critical as a transition period during which the elementary school child becomes the young adult in high school. There should be a broad and searching curriculum for the junior high school student in which he is given exploration time in the major subject ,fields, as well as in the special fields.

(1) In organizing for instruction in these latter areas, and in order for all students to have an opportunity for exploration in many areas, twelve (12) to eighteen (18) week time periods should be planned.
(2) Courses which have traditionally been reserved for the senior high may be offered without credit in the eighth grade.
The Senior High School
To provide as well as equalize educational opportunities for all Georgia children, all high schools (grades 10-12) should offer in each of the three years courses in:
English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies, Art, Music, Foreign Language, Physical Education including Driver Education, and Industrial Arts. A basic prescribed program of courses in Vocational Education such as Agriculture where appropriate, Homemaking, Business Education, workstudy subjects including Vocational Office Training, Distributive Education if possible, Diversified Cooperative Training, and in Trades and Industry where students are available in sufficient numbers.
Guidance
For many reasons, guidance is an increasingly important need in the school. Much of the guidance a child needs is given by his classroom teachers: but in a high school there should be a specified person responsible for coordinating the school's gUidance and testing program for helping teachers to understand and use it effectively and for helping pupils and parents to get the utmost from its possible services.
Guidance and testing includes helping the pupil find his abilities, choosing those courses that will develop them best, picking a career or a college or both, and rounding out his life in every area by getting the most that he can out of his school, his studies there and the resources that are opened up to him in job opportunities in Georgia business, industry, agriculture and profession.

In the junior high school (grades 7-9) the curricular offering should include courses in each of the three years in:
English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies which are closely coordinated with the elementary and high school curriculum. Georgia history and government must be included in the social studies program. Physical education, including health instruction equivalent to one year.

There should be a guidance counselor in every high school with one period free from other duties for each 50 to 100 pupils enrolled.
PERIOD IN GUIDANCE A period in guidance will. be recognized as the equivalent of a regular class perIod.
STAFFING FOR GUIDANCE SERYI.CESLocal sc?ool s'yste:c~ are urged to provide for guidance serVlCes III e high school.

50

QUALIFICA TlONS FOR GUIDANCE COUNSELORS - Persons assigned to guidance must have had at least three (3) courses in guidance and counseling from a qualified institution. They must also show annual progress until they obtain professional certification.
Use of State Allo tted Teachers
It shall be the responsibility of local school administrators to first use the quota of teachers prOVided for by the Minumum Foundation Program Law to staff the schools for the purpose of offering the course of study as prescribed herin.
Health Education
Health Education is still a required unit subject in high school unless it is taught in the 8th grade. (No unit credit is given for the 8th grade.)
Physical Education
Section 32-1901. "The Georgia State Board of Education shall prescribe a course of study in Physical Education for all common schools and shall fix the time when said course shall go into effect. This course shall occupy periods totaling not less than 30 minutes each school day which shall be devoted to instruction in health and safety, to physical exercises and the recess play under proper supervision.
A manual setting out the details of said course of study shall be prepared by the State Superintendent of Schools in cooperation with the State Board of Health and State Board of Education, and such expert advisers as they may choose. Said manual when published shall be sent by said State Board of Education to the teachers of the common schools." (Acts 1920,pp.232, 233.) (Note: The State Board of Education has interpreted common schools to be Grades 1-8.)
Local Adoption of High School Program
The local boards adopt a program of studies for each high school and/or system. These are to be sent to the Department of Education which will

review them to see that they meet minimum reqUirements. School funds will be withheld from systems which do not comply with the above regulations.
Making Parents A Part
Local school administrators are reqUired to have the parent or guardian of each high school pupil review, approve, and sign the child's course of study at each annual registration.
Teachers in Their Own Fields
In order to improve the quality of classroom instrur.::tion local school systems are requested to assign teachers to teach in the area for which they have prepared themselves.
All high school teachers must teach the majority of the classes in an area in which they are certified. Also, elementary teachers must hold an elementary certificate.
Teaching five Periods
In order that students may get in all units of study now required to graduate, teachers in grades 8-12 paid from State funds in whole or in part must teach at least five (5) fifty-five (55) minute periods or more each day or the equivalent thereof. In Vocational Education on-the-job instruction, coordination and supervision of instructional projects may take the place of not more than two (2) of the fifty-five (55) minute periods.
Subject Matter or Content Courses
Shall hereafter be reqUired for the purpose of renewing or reinstating professional certificates based on four (4) or more years of college work: provided this regulation shall be amenable to the course reqUirements prescribed by colleges for master degree programs.
Certification of Teachers
The State Department of Education does not issue a teaching certificate to any beginning teacher with less than four (4) years of college work.

51

APPENDIX:
SEL,ECTEC LAW RE'FERENCES

APPENDIX Selected Law - References

Laws from time to time have been passed by the General Assembly concerning specific areas of instruction in the public schools. Present legal bases primarily derive from Minimum Foundation Program of Education Act, Act No. 523 (S.B.180). See all sections.
Alcoholism Studies by State Board of Education
An act to provide for the creation and maintenance of a State educational research service with duties and powers to carry out the development and dissemination of facts and materials concerning the influence and effects of alcohol on human health and behavior and on social and economic conditions and to provide for the use ofthe appropiations made by the legislature for temperance education for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this Act.
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Georgia, and it is hereby enacted by authority of the same.
Use of Funds for Research in Alcohol
Code Section 32-434. The State Board of Education may use and allocate money for educational research, preparation and publication of instructional materials and such funds may be paid upon approval of the Governor.
Subject Matter of Research in Study of Alcoholism Code Section 32-435. The Funds allocated under
the provisions of this Act shall be used for the purpose of creating and maintaining State educational research services:
(a) For the development and production and procurement of curriculum materials and units of instruction on the scientific facts in regard to the influence and effect of alcohol on human health and behavior and on> Social and economic conditions, including suggested methods of instruction of ways of working with boys and girls and young people in the various age groups and grade levels of the public elementary and secondary SChOOlS of this State, as aids to classroom teachers and others responsible for the conduct of ,the educational program in the public schools;
(b) For the publication, procurement, ami dissemination of curriculum materials, units of instruction, and suggested methods of instruction relating to the influence and effect of alcohol on human health and behavior and on social and economic conditions, for the school teachers and educational officials in the various local public school systems of the State, the State Department of Education, and the various

educational institutions of the State which are engaged in the education and training of teachers; and
(c) For cooperative work by and between the State educational research service and the public school systems ofthe State, the State Department of Education, and the educational institutions of the State which are engaged in the education and training of teachers, through conferences, study groups, demonstrations of methods and materials of instruction, and other means.
Employment of Personnel. Instruction in Matters Related to Alcohol
Code Section 32-436. The State Board of Education is authorized to expend such amounts as may be necessary of the monies allocated to it under the provisions of this Act for the employment of a specialist or specialists and/or contract for the services of specialists in research and in development and production of curriculum materials and units of instruction on the scientific facts in regard to the influence of alcohol on human health and behavior and on social and economic conditions, including methods of instruction, for the employment of secretarial and clerical assistants and other office expenses, for expenses of conferences, study groups, and demonstrations, and for all other expenses necessary in carrying out the purposes of this Act.

Availability of Curriculum Materials

Suggested

Methods of Instruction

Code Section 32-437. The State Board of Education

shall make available uniformly to the public schools

of the State, and the educational institutions of the

State enga~ed in education and training of teachers,

the curriculum materials, the units of instruction,

and the suggested methods of instruction which are

developed under the provisions of this Act.

Should any part or application of this Act be declared unconstitutional or invalid by court of competent jurisdiction, such declaration shall not affect the parts that remain or other applications; to that end the provisions of the Act are declared to be severable.
All laws and parts of law in conflict with this Act are repealed to the extent of the conflict.

This Act shall become effective immediately upon its passage and approval by the Governor or upon its otherwise becoming a law.

55

Textbooks in Public Schools
Addition to the State Course of Study. Bible Reading Code Section 32-705. Health and hygiene, the nature
of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, the elements and principles of agriculture, and the elements of civil government shall be taught in the common or public schools as thoroughly and in the same manner as other like required branches, and the board of education of each county and local system shall adopt proper rules to carry the provisions of law into effect: Provided, however, that the Bible, including the Old and New Testaments, shall be read in all the schools receiving State funds and that not less than one chapter shall be read at some appropriate time during each school day. Upon the parent or guardian of any pupll filing with the teacher in charge of said pupil in the pUblic schools, a written statement requesting that said pupil be excused from hearing the said Bible read as required by this section, such teacher shall permit such pupil to withdraw while the reading of the Bible is in progress. Such request in writing shall be sufficient to cover the entire school year in which said request is filed. (Acts 1919, p. 296; 1921, p. 156.)
Instruction in Essentials of United States and State Constitutions. Study of American Institutions and Ideals.
Code Section 32-706. (Amended) All schools and colleges sustained or in any manner supported by public funds shall give instruction in the history of the United States, and in the history of Georgia, and in the essentials of the United States Constitution and the Constitution of Georgia, including the study of and devotion to American institutions and ideals, and no student in any school or college shall receive a certificate of graduation without previously' passing a satisfactory examination of the history of the United States, and the history of Georgia, and upon the provisions and principles of the United States Constitution and the Constitution of Georgia.
All laws and parts of laws in conflict with this Act are hereby repealed. Instruction in Federal, State, county, and municipal government is required
for graduation. Code Section 32-724. The State Board of Education
shall prescribe a course of study in the background, history and development of the Federal and State governments. The Board shall also approve and recommended textbooks to be used in this course. The course so prescribed shall be taught in the 11th or 12th grade of all high schools which receive in any manner funds from this State. The course shall be taught for the entire school year: provided, however, the total time devoted to said course of study shall be sufficient to earn one full unit of credit. The courses in the study of Federal and State government shall be supplementect in each high school by a study of the local county and municipal governments. No student shall be eligible to receive a diploma from a high school, which receives funds from this State, unless said student has successfully completed the course in

governments provided for by this section. (Acts 1953, p. 587.)
School Year, Scholastic Month, and Special Days
Observance of Special Days Code Section 32-1503. The county and local boards
of education shall see that the following days are observed either by holidays or appropriate exercises and it shall be the duty of the State .Superintendent of Schools to arrange programs for the proper observance of these occasions, and of the superintendent and teachers to direct the attention of the pupils to these dates and topics by practical experiences:
1. Thanksgiving Day, fourth Thursday in November. 2. Uncle Remus Day, December 9. 3. Lee's Birthday, January 19. 4. Georgia Day, February 12. 5. Washington's Birthday, February 22. 6. Arbor and Bird Day, third Friday in February.
(Acts 1941, p. 349.) 7. Memorial Day, April 26. (Acts 1919, p. 356.) 8. Alexander H. Stephens's Birthd~y. (Acts 1937-38,
Ex. Session p. 1407.) 9. Crawford W. Long's Birthday. (Acts 1937-38,
Ex. Sess., p. 1407.) Temperance Day Designated: Program in Schools
Code Section 32-1504. The fourth Friday in March of each year shall be designated and known as Temperance Day in the public schools. On Temperance Day at least two hours shall be devoted in the public schools to a program, which shall be educational in nature, teaching the good of temperance and prohibition, and the evils of intemperance and disobedience to law. (Acts 1933, pp. 183, 184.)
Instruction in Animal, Bird, and Fish Life
Purpose of Chapter Code Section 32-1701. The purposes of this Chapter
are the lessening of crime and the raising of the standards of good citizenship and inculcating in the minds of the children a spirit of thrift, economy, kindness, by including in the curriculum of all public schools a course of training to teach, promote, and encourage the conservation and protection of birds, animals, fish, and all others forms of useful wild life, and the forests. (Acts 1929, p. llR \
Public School Instruction in Bird, Animal, .Fish, Forest Life, etc.
Code Section 32-1702. In every public school a period of not less than 25 minutes of each week during the entire school term shall be devoted to teaching the pupil thereof the practical value of conserving and protecting birds, animals, fish, and other forms of wild life, and the forests; also the humane treatment and protection of our domestic birds and animals, as well as the part they play in the economy of nature. It may be optional with the teacher whether thiS

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period shall be a consecutive 25 minutes or be divided into shorter periods during the week; and it shall also be within the discretion of the teacher as to the method of instruction to be employed. The instruction herein prescribed shall constitute a definite purpose of the curriculum of study in all the public schools_ (Acts 1929, p. 188) Certification of Teachers
Code Section 32-1703. Each and every teacher in the schools shall certify in his or her reports that the instruction provided for has been in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter. (Acts 1929, p.188)

visers as they may chose. Said Manual when published shall be sent by said State Board of Education to the teachers of the common schools (Acts 1920, pp. 232, 233.)
Code Section 32-1902. The curriculum of all state normal schools and of all other institutions supported wholly or inpartbypublic funds having special courses adopted for the preparation of teachers, shall contain one or more courses in physical education and each person graduating from a teachers' course in any of these institutions shall have completed one or more courses in physical education. (Acts 1920, p. 233.)

Physical Education and Training
Course Prescribed Manual
Code Section 32-1901. The Georgia State Board of Education shall prescribe a course of study in physical education for all common schools, and shall fix the time when said course shall go into effect. This course shall occupy periods totaling not less than 30 minutes each school day which shall be devoted to instruction in health and safety, to physical exercises and to recess play under proper supervision.
A manual setting out the details of said course of study shall be prepared by the State Superintendent of Schools in cooperation with the State Board of Health and State Board of Education, and such expert ad-

Special Teachers
Code Section 32-1903. County boards of education and boards of education of cities and of graded common school districts may employ supervisor and special teachers of physical education in the same manner as other teachers are employed, provided they possess such qualifications as the State Board of Education may prescribe. Boards of education of two or more school districts, city grades school, or county, may jointly employ a supervisor or special teacher of physical education. Boards of education may allow the use of school building or school grounds after the regular school hours and during vacation as community centers for the promotion of play and other healthful forms of recreation, under such rules and regulations as to them seem proper. (Acts 1920, p. 233.)

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