Conference on the teaching of reading in Georgia schools [1963]

Conference on
THE TEACHING OF READING in Georgia Schools
A Part of The Superintendent's Research and Educational Development Program
Sponsored by Georgia Association of School Superintendents
Georgia State Department of Education College of Education, the University of Georgia

Conference
~
on
THE TEACHING OF READING in Georgia Schools
A Part of The Superintendent's Research and Educational Development Program
Sponsored by Georgia Association of School Superintendents
Georgia State Department of Education College of Education, the University of Georgia
1963

FOREWORD
This publication consists of materials used in a one-day conference on ''The Teaching of Reading in Georgia Schools." The conference was the first of three educational development days for selected school systems. The Area Representative, State Department of Education, was responsible for the organization of this meeting.
This and the following conferences are parts of the Superintendent's Research and Educational Development Program, a cooperative venture of the Georgia Association of School Superintendents, the Georgia State Department of Education, and the College of Education, the University of Georgia. The major.leadership for SREDP has come from Doyne M. Smith, of the College of Education, the University of Georgia, and Allen Smith, of the Georgia State Department of Education. The SREDP is concerned primarily with the organization that the Superintendent uses for improving instruction and with furnishing the Superintendent needed information on strengths and weaknesses in various instructional areas. In this instance, the focus is on the teaching of reading.
The one-day conference here reported was planned and executed primarily by I. E. Aaron and other members of the. Readin.g Clinic, the College of Education, the \1niversity of Georgia:. Conference content was based upon a surVey of reading' pr:actices in Georgia schools, which was carried out in April and May, 19620' J
This bulletin was prepared in the hope that it will aid teachers attending the conference in reporting to their school faculties. Only a limited number of copies have been prepared. For this reason, copies will not be available for wide distribution.
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THE TEACHING OF READING IN GEORGIA SCHOOLS
PROGRAM
8: 30 - 9: 30 Plan for Year Plan for Day's Program "A Good Reading Program for Grades 1-12"
9: 30 - 10: 30 Grades 1- 6 - "Estimating a Child's Reading Level" Grades 7-12 - "Helping Children with Reading Disability"
10: 30 - 10: 45 Coffee Break
10:45 - 11:45 . Grades 1- 6 - "Helping Chil<l.ren with Reading Disability" Grades 7-12 - "Estimating a ChUd's Reading Level"
.,
11:45 - 12:45 Lunch
12:45 - 1:45 ,"Materials for Teaching Poor Readers"
1:45 - 2:00 Coffee Break
2:00 - 3:00 Questions from Audience Summary Possibilities for Follow-Up iii

A GOOD READING PROGRAM IN GRADES ONE THROUGH TWELVE
I. E. AARON
University of Georgia
Each fall many thousands of Georgia children enter the first grade. If the first grade teacher were to ask her pupils why they were coming to school, many of them would reply that they were coming to learn to read. Many of them, from the very beginning, recognize that being able to read well is important. The academic careers of many of them will depend upon how well they learn this complex process.
Reading instruction is the major job of the school. School success - or failure - can often be traced to reading. It has been estimated that 75 per cent of what a student learns in high school is learned through reading.l If this major avenue of learning is partially closed, at best the student can expect a struggle through his junior high and high school years. ~any high school dropouts become dropouts because of inability to read on a level in keeping with the demands of the subjects in which they are enrolled.
Every school subject depends heavily upon reading. When a school improves its reading program, improvement can be seen in the various subjects being taught in that school. The writer believes that one of the most profitable actions Georgia could take to improve the overall quality of its education would be to make an all-out attempt to improve the reading programs of the State. To be sure, many schools and teachers are doing excellent jobs in teaching reading. The ideal toward which Georgia should aim is for all schools and all teachers, from first grade through twelfth, to do the best possible job in teaching children to read well. Enthusiastic and continued work toward such an ideal would reap educational dividends almost beyond the realm of imagination.
lLeo Fay. Reading in the High School: What Research Says to the Teacher. NEA Deparonent of Classroom Teachers and American Educational Research Association; Washington, 1956.

Eleven characteristics of a good reading program in grades one through twelve will be discussed. These selected characteristics, for the most part, are those used in one part of the teacher questionnaire utilized in the recent survey of reading practices in Georgia schools.
(1) Children are taught on the levels at which they read. One of the major problems teachers of reading face is that of fitting instruction in reading to the many differences children have. Children at a particular grade level do not all read at the same level and do not all learn at the same rate. If instruction is to be successful in reading, a child must be taught on his reading level or near it.
From their first days at school children vary considerably in intelligence and never again will they be so much alike in capability for learning. Intelligence is only one factor in reading, but it is an important factor. The child with the higher level of intelligence will have better chances of success in reading and will be expected to learn more rapidly than the child of lower ability, other factors being equal. At the beginning of school, some first grade children are more like four-year-olds in intelligence than they are like six-year-olds, even though they are six chronologically. Others are more like eight-year-olds in capability. Most, however, are somewhere near the age of six mentally. This four-year range is typical of intelligence in a group of first grade children. As the children move through the grades, this spread becomes larger. At sixth grade and above, at least an eight-year spread in mental age is usually found in typical classes.
Just as large a range exists in reading achievement as is found in intelligence. The spread begins to grow from first grade upward. It is not unusual to find an eight-year or eight-grade spread in sixth or higher grades.
To help the reader estimate the various levels on which children in a particular grade may read at the beginning of the year, Table I is presented. It makes three inaccurate assumptions: (1) that the teacher has a typical group intellectually, (2) that the chronological ages are typical, and (3) that each child is achieving up to his capability level. Despite these assumptions that cannot be met, the table does offer a rough picture of the range of reading achievement. Percentages have been converted into number of pupils in a class of 36. As one would expect, there would likely be fewer in the lower levels because of special classes and retentions.
2

TABLE 1 READING ACHIEVEMENT EXPECTANCY FOR
GRADES 2, 4, AND 6

Number in
Class

Grade 2

Grade 4

Grade 6

3

3.4 and up

5.8 and up

8.2 and up

6

2.7 to 3.3

4.9 to 5.7

7.1 to 8.1

9

2.0 to 2.6

4.0 to 4.8

6.0 to 7.0

9

1.4 to 1.9

3.1 to 3.9

4.9 to 5.9

6

1.0 to 1.3

2.2 to 3.0

3.8 to 4.8

3

Readiness

Below 2.2

Below 3.8

Table 1 is based upon an idea presented by Harris.2
Among the most widely quoted figures on junior high and high school reading are those given in Table 2. These are old figures, but most systems of comparable size probably would show the same range. The Traxler Silent Reading Test was administered to two groups of pupils graduating from the eighth grade in the St. Louis schools in consecutive years. More than 7,000 pupils were involved. The percentages of students reading on each difficulty level are shown in Table 2, which is a modification of a table originally presented by Kottrneyer.3

TABLE 2 READING ACHIEVEMENT OF TWO GROUPS OF
GRADUATING EIGHTH GRADERS

Grade Per Cent Grade Per Cent Grade Per Cent

Below

fourth

2

Fourth

5

Fifth

9

Sixth

14

Seventh 17

Eighth

14

Ninth

15

Tenth

11

Eleventh 7

Twelfth

4

College

2

Teaching all children in a typical classroom the same reading skills and having them read the same reading texts will lead many

2Albert ]. Harris. How to Increase Reading Ability. Third Edition. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1961. p. 123.
3William Kottmeyer. "Improving Reading Instruction in the St Louis Schools," Elementary School Journal, Vol. 45, September, 1944. p. 33-38.
3

of them into reading failure and some "good readers" into a dislike for the process of reading. A good reading program adjusts reading instruction to the different reading levels and learning rates. One of the greatest causes of continued poor reading on the part of some children is failure to teach the child on his own level. If he is not taught on his level or very near it, he will never grow in reading.
(2) The classroom is organized so the teacher can teach effectively. In good reading programs, the classroom is organized to permit the teacher to teach the children effectively on their reading levels. Many different plans are used, but major attention will be given here to those most frequently used.
No organizational plan in itself will ever teach a child to read. What really matters is what happens within that organization. Some plans appear to be better than others under certain circumstances. A good teacher sometimes operates effectively in what is generally considered to be a poor organizational plan. This same teacher, how ever, might teach more effectively with less effort in a better organized class.
The three organizational plans most frequently found in the elementary grades are grouping within the class, cross-class grouping, and individualized reading. The non-graded primary pattern, in which grouping within the class is often used, and the special reading class at junior high or high school level are also used. All of these plans, plus a variety of modifications, have been operated effectively by many teachers. It is likely that everyone of them has also on occasion failed miserably in particular school situations. It is not the plan as much as it is what the teacher and pupils do within that plan that counts in teaching children to read well.
Setting up sUb-groups for reading within an elementary classroom probably is the pattern most frequently encountered. Groups usually range from as few as two to as many as five, with three being most frequently used. Each group has different materials and is taught different reading skills. Many teachers have operated classrooms so organized quite successfully, but a few precautions are in order. The teacher still must make some adjustment to differences of the children within each sUb-group. Children also must be shifted upward or downward if they outgrow their group or the group outgrows them.
In the cross-class grouping plan two or more teachers schedule reading at the same time each day. For reading instruction, the children are divided according to reading achievement, disregarding the classroom from which they come. Each teacher may in tum divide the children in her reading class into two groups. Instruction
4

then may proceed as in regular grouping within the class. At the end of the reading period, the children return to their home rooms. This approach has several advantages and some possible disadvantages. More time can be spent in working with a group. If three or more teachers are involved, teaching may be done on six or more different levels instead of three or four as in the self-contained classroom. This pattern also has possible disadvantages. A greater burden is placed on the student in that he may have to adjust to two teachers instead of one, and the teacher must get to know more pupils. One major problem is that the teacher cannot follow up in other school work the teaching of skills of reading for those pupils who are with her only during the reading period. This can be avoided by close coordination between the teachers. Cross-class grouping appears to work better in fourth and higher grades. However, it has worked effectively for some teachers in some groups as low as the second grade.
Individualized reading is now the most discussed organizational plan for reading instruction. Each child reads in his own book, and that book is suited to his interest and achievement level. This is, of course, the best way to adjust to the child's achievement level. However, a much greater burden is placed on the teacher to see that adequate attention is given to skill development. This plan is not appropriate for use if the teacher does not know well the skills of reading and how to teach them. The teacher must improvise on the spot some of the help children / need in word recognition and comprehension. She does not have" the guidebook as she may have in regular basal reading instruction. This appears to be a good approach when children have progressed to the point that they have fairly good backgrounds of skills in reading. It is not a cure-all, but it is one approach. Still, what the ,teacher does within this organizational plan is what really matters; the fact alone that a classroom is using individualized reading - or any other pattern - will not teach children to read well.
One teacher may like one particular organizational plan and not another. If possible, then that teacher should be permitted to use the plan she feels is best for her.
(3) A variety of materials and equipment is used. To do a good job of teaching children to read, the teacher needs a variety of materials and equipment for use in teaching reading. Because of the wide range of reading achievement on any grade level, the teacher must of necessity have books on many different difficulty levels.
In a second grade classroom, the teacher would probably want basal readers on several different levels, a different level for each
5

of her groups, if she is grouping within the self-contained classroom. She would also probably want one or two supplementary or enrichment reader series for use with each group. She may use workbooks accompanying her basal readers to help those needing additional practice on certain skills. Not the least of her materials would be an abundance of library books on many different topics and on many different levels. In addition, she would have a number of teaching exercises of her own making.
In an eighth grade classroom, the teacher might use a basal reader with some or all of the children - but if with all of them, she would need several different levels. In some classrooms materials such as the Science Research Associates Reading Laboratory may serve as a part of the core for instruction. Along with this may be several different levels of Reader's Digest Reading Skill Builders. High interest, low vocabulary books, such as Teen-Age Tales or the Dan Frontier series, may be used with those who don't read up to grade level. In addition, a wide variety of library books, probably from third up through adult levels would be on hand. Some special skill workbooks might also be used.
This is but a brief listing of some of the materials that are available for use. The teacher needs to be thoroughly familiar with all materials to be used and should know what they are designed to help her to teach. One of the most important necessities of doing a good job of teaching reading is to know the materials being used. Time spent, for instance, in becoming better acquainted with a basal reader series is time well spent.
Various types of equipment - the tape recorder in oral reading, the filmstrip projector, and so on - are also useful in reading instruction. Instruments which are labeled as machines are becoming more widely used in reading programs. They are especially used in increasing speed of comprehension. These machines have something to contribute to the reading program when they are used with their limitations in mind. For instance, a rapid exposure machine should not be used with the child who has serious, or even mediocre, word recognition problems or with one who becomes upset easily by pressure. On the other hand, they may be used to advantage with those who have good skill development in reading but who are just slow in moving along the printed page. They also serve to motivate, especially to motivate boys.
In the next few years, it is likely that more and more machines will be used in the reading program. Perhaps programmed instruction, as it is called, may be used to teach some of the word recognition and comprehension skills. Some of these skills may lend
6

themselves to such treatment. These machines, with their programs, would not replace the teacher but might help the teacher to individualize instruction for the children.
The teacher of reading needs to use all materials and techniques that appear appropriate for the children she teaches. In general, she will need a variety of materials and not one but a number of techniques of instruction.
(4) Adequate attention is given to skill development. Basal or developmental reading instruction is necessary to teach children the skills of reading that they will need in all types of reading situations. The story-a-day approach with little or no attention to the development of comprehension and word recognition skills will not get the job done effectively. Ample time must be devoted to teaching these skills, and situations must be set up to permit periodic practice of these skills, if permanent learning is to result.
The overwhelming majority of elementary schools - at least through the fourth grade - base much of this fundamental reading instruction on basal reading series. These series offer, in most instances, good sequences for skill development, and the teacher's guidebooks present suggestions for teaching all of the important skills. If in using these basal readers time is not taken to teach these skills, then the teacher is not really teaching reading as it should be taught.
In teaching a story from a basal reader, usually more than one class period will be necessary to do what needs to be done in the way of skill development. The teacher may take as much as three or four days to complete a particular story and all of the skill development that needs to be accomplished with that story.
The complicated process of reading is filled with a multiplicity of skills. These skills must be developed in sequence, and time must be taken to teach them. Moving too rapidly results in poor learning.
(5) The junior high and high schools give systematic attention to teaching pupils to read better. The job of teaching reading is not completed when the child has mastered fourth, fifth, or sixth grade level skills. Regular basic reading should be taught at least through the eighth grade. Only about one-half of Georgia's eighth-grade pupils are now receiving such instruction. One of the big reasons for failure to grow on the part of some children who have reading problems is that little or no systematic attention is given to developing reading skills beyond fourth or fifth grade level. Many of the pupils above the sixth grade level still read at much lower levels and need systematic instruction to guide their reading growth.
7

Much can also be done to help the average and above-average readers. Research-type of reading, recreational reading in advanced books for superior readers, attention to speed of comprehension and critical reading may all be used with the best readers. Every one of them could profit from the right type of reading instruction. Most high school students do not reach their potentials in reading, and without systematic attention to reading instruction, they will never reach their potentials.
Junior high and high school students who read considerably below grade level need to be taught the reading skills on their reading levels. They lack lower level skills, and it is not likely that they will be taught these skills unless some provision is made in the school program for the direct teaching of reading. An occasional teacher may give such instruction as a part of some other course, but in general, the job is not accomplished unless reading as such is scheduled in the school program. For many of these students, developmental reading should be continued on into the high school. Many of them will need special remedial help.
Some schools have special reading or special English classes in the junior high or high schools. These classes should be taught by a person who knows how to teach the skills of reading. For effective instruction in these special classes for students who have failed in reading, the class size must of necessity be smaller than that of the regular class. At the high school level it should probably not exceed 15 to 18 persons. The large high schools should have well-trained reading teachers to work with other high school teachers and to give special help to the more seriously disabled by small-group and individual instruction.
(6) The subject-matter teachers teach the special vocabulary and reading skills related to their subjects. Each teacher is responsible for teaching the special vocabulary and skills related to his area. For most elementary teachers this means that they must give attention to these special vocabularies and skills in each area of the curriculum - science, English, history, geography, and so on. In the junior high and high school grades, the teacher's obligation here generally narrows down to one or two subject areas. The teachers must also teach the pupils how to read the materials to be read in the subject being taught. If there are any "best ways" for reading the text materials, then the teacher must pass those "best ways" on to the pupilS. Sometimes this area of reading skill improvement is referred to as content area reading skills.
Pupils may learn well those fundamental skills needed in all types of reading and still read poorly in some subject area. When
8

this occurs, it indicates a weakness in content area reading skills in a particular subject area. The job is not finished when basal skills are taught. These special skills, a part of each subject area, are also needed.
Most te~chers, without thinking of these as reading skills, give some attentIOn to teaching the content area reading skills. When these are recognized as special reading skills, it is likely that a better job of teaching them will occur.
(7) Children not only learn the skills of reading but also learn to enjoy reading. No matter how effective reading skills are taught, they are of limited use to the child who seldom uses them. Of course, children must know the skills in order to read books, newspapers, and magazines. But the teaching of reading goes beyond the teaching of the skills. Good readers must also learn to enjoy reading. This enjoyment becomes the motivation to put into practice the skills that have been learned.
Much isolated drill in the teaching of word recognition skills may lead to the learning of skills at the cost of interest in reading. Overemphasis upon oral reading with little chance to enjoy what has been read may lead the child to think of reading as "all work" and "no fun."
Interest in reading in the home is a big factor in determining whether the child will enjoy reading. If parents enjoy books, children are more likely to learn to enjoy them. Any school activity aimed toward getting parents more interested in reading is likely to aid in the area of creating interest for reading in the children.
Another important factor in teaching children to enjoy reading is the teacher's interest in reading. The teacher might ask herself whether she enjoys reading, whether she reads books, magazines, and newspapers when she has the time. If her answer is in the negative, she is not likely to be successful in teaching children to enjoy reading.
(8) Attention is given both to oral and silent reading from the beginning. Both oral and silent reading are important. When a person reads silently, he is attempting to obtain meaning for himself. When he reads orally, he usually is attempting to pass meaning on to others in order to inform or entertain. Though it is estimated that up to 95 per cent of the reading an adult does is done silently, the oral reading he does do is important. A good reading program gives attention both to oral and silent reading from the first grade upward.
The amount of instructional time in basal reading which is devoted to oral reading is usually much greater, probably approximat-
9

ing about one-half of the instructional time, at the primary grade level. In the early grades, oral reading is used also as a check on word recognition skills and in teaching punctuation. Somewhere near the end of the primary grades for the typical child, he begins to read more rapidly in silent reading than in oral. This, along with the increase in subject-matter texts to be read, helps to account for a greater proportion of time being spent on silent reading instruction in the intermediate and higher grades.
When the teacher is attempting to teach audience reading, a better job can be done if the reader is the only pupil with a copy of the material being read. Under these circumstances, he has a true audience. Having all children in the room taking turns in reading orally from the same text is considered a poor educational practice. This may be used in sub-groups for oral reading practice when the materials are suited to the levels of all of the children and when the purpose is to reinforce word recognition skills. If audience reading is the aim, it would be better not to have the children follow along in their own books.
Children should be permitted to read silently any material they are expected to read orally. By reading silently in advance, they can figure out any unknown words, can get the author's meaning, and can determine the expression to be used in the oral reading. They are more familiar with the copy and can do a better job and will feel more secure in the oral reading.
An overuse of oral reading may lead to slow speed of reading and to lip movements or whispering in silent reading. It may also lead the child to feel that he has not read unless he reads orally. In a few instances, children may also give so much attention to expression that the meaning is lost.
The good reading program includes both silent and oral reading instruction.
(9) The teacher knows the skills of reading and how to teach these skills. The most important ingredient in a successful reading program is the teacher. Regardless of how well the class is organized, how much time is available, how good the program looks on paper, the success or failure of a reading program depends largely upon the teacher.
If the teacher is to teach children to read, that teacher needs to know the skills she is going to teach. The teacher cannot do much about teaching something she herself does not know. The teacher's first task is to learn these skills if she does not already know them.
But knowing the skills is not enough. The teacher then must
10

know how they can be taught efficiently and effectively to children.
There are some "best ways" - not necessarily a "best way," but
some "best ways" - for teaching the skills. The teacher needs to know these and needs to follow them in her reading instruction.
The teacher who knows the skills of reading and how to teach them, as well as the materials she is using, is in a good position to give on-the-spot attention to a particular child's reading needs. Advanced preparation will give the teacher that security that permits more attention to the children who are doing the learning. Concern with the process takes less energy, and the children get the benefit.
(10) The teacher keeps records on a child's reading progress and passes these records on to the next teacher. In basal reading instruction, the teacher needs as much information as she can get about the child's reading. Many school systems have worked out records to be kept by the teachers of basal reading. Frequently these take the form of printed or mimeographed lists of basal and supplementary readers with space for teacher comment. The teacher can record the basal readers that the child has completed and can make comments about strengths and weaknesses noted in reading. Space is frequently provided for comments about the child's independent reading and interests, as observed by the teacher. These give clues for the selection of library books.
Often record-keeping forms are developed on a system-wide basis, and provisions are made for transferring records from one school to another when children transfer within the system. Such records consume the teacher's time, but they provide the next teacher with useful information that may take her a long time to discover on her own. All systems not having such plans for keeping reading records probably would find such records of benefit in their developmental reading programs..
(11) Parents are kept informed about the reading program. Parents have a big stake in the schools and usually show much interest in what goes on in reading instruction. Whatever a school does in its reading program should be explained to parents if there is any doubt about parents understanding the program.
The reading programs in America's schools have been criticized a great deal in recent years by some parents. Some of the criticism grows out of not understanding what the school is attempting in reading. Questions parents sometimes ask include these: Just how is a child taught to read? How can a parent help his child in reading? Or should the parent help the child in reading? Why are basal readers kept at school? Does the school teach phonics? All of these are sincere questions, and they need to be answered.
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By answering such questions and informing parents of changes in reading programs, the school usually gets the wholehearted support of the parents for what it is attempting in its reading program.
In informing the parents, the school has an obligation to let the parent know the approximate level on which the child is reading. If the pupil is being taught in basal readers at a grade level below the level on which the child is placed in school, as is frequently warranted, then the parent ought to know this. When the parents are not informed, they sometimes are shocked several years later to discover that the child is not reading as well as they thought he was. This occurs when children are graded on progress made at the level on which they are being instructed-which is a good practice-though they may not be reading up to grade level.
Effort expended in keeping parents informed about the reading program is worthwhile in terms of parental support for that program.
Summary. The importance of a good reading program has been discussed. Then the following eleven characteristics of a good program were offered:
( 1) Children are taught on the levels at which they read.
(2) The classroom is organized so the teacher may teach effectively.
(3) A variety of materials and equipment is used.
(4) Adequate attention is given to skill development.
(5) The junior high and high schools give systematic attention to teaching pupils to read better.
(6) The subject-matter teachers teach the special vocabulary and reading skills related to their subjects.
(7) Children not only learn the skills of reading but also learn to enjoy reading.
(8) Attention is given both to oral and silent reading from the beginning.
(9) The teacher knows the skills of reading and how to teach these skills.
(10) The teacher keeps records on a child's reading progress and passes these records on to the next teacher.
( 11) Parents are kept informed about the reading program.
Some of the points discussed are based upon material contained in an address delivered on July 6, 1961, at the Twenty-Second Annual Reading Conference, The University of Georgia.
12

HELPING CHILDREN WITH READING DISABILITY
I. E. AARON
Most teachers have a number of children in their classrooms who are poor readers. A "typical" class contains from a fourth to a third of the pupils reading below the grade in which they are placed. Do all of these reading below grade level have reading disability? A definition of "reading disability" will help to answer this question.
A child is disabled in reading when he is not reading as well as he is capable of reading. The poor readers in a classroom include some children with limited intelligence who are reading at a level in keeping with their capabilities. These, according to the definition of reading disability, are not disabled readers though their reading levels are low. No special help is needed for them because the regular developmental program is helping them to grow in reading at a rate in keeping with their capabilities.
Who are the children with reading disability? A few children of limited intelligence may be among them, but the majority are average or above in intelligence. Among them are the very bright who read up to grade level but not up to capability level.
Sixth grade Joe, extremely slow in reading, comprehends well what he reads. He seems to "squeeze" ..all of the meaning out of a selection. His speed is so slow that he really does not enjoy reading. He wants to improve because he wishes to be a lawyer and knows that he must read more rapidly if he is to do college work. He is well above average in ability.
Jenny, a pretty little second grade girl, reads at pre-primer level. She has almost no sight vocabulary and no word recognition skills at all. She is very alert and talkative.
Carl, bright normal in ability, has difficulty in reading his tenth grade textbooks. He is a word-by-word reader. He appears to memorize words and seems to have no attack on unknown words. He has a good sense of humor and is well liked by teachers and peers.
Some of the finest, most liked children in the schools are disabled in reading. In some instances, their only problems are in the area of reading, but in other cases, reading disability is only one of several problems.
Locating children with reading disability. Most teachers make use of teacher observation, informal reading inyentories, and read-
13

ing and intelligence test results in locating children with reading disability. The teacher sometimes can tell from observation that the child is capable of performing at a higher level in reading. He knows arithmetic skills that involve manipulation of numbers but cannot work word problems, or he shows in discussions that he can think on a par with other children who read well. Perhaps he comprehends almost immediately the details of anything he hears. These give the teacher indications that the child is not up to expectancy in his reading. However, she usually uses test scores to supplement her observations.
Ted, in the fifth grade, cannot keep up with most of his classmates in geography, history, and all other areas of the curriculum. He cannot read the textbooks available in the classroom. The teacher notes that he always participates in class discussions and enjoys them. His contributions are good; his only limitation appears to be in the area of reading. From observations she has evidence that his reading skills, or lack of skills, are at a much lower level than they should be. Ted definitely shows signs of needing special help in reading.
Often test results indicate that children need remedial help in reading. A child having a reading grade placement lower than his mental grade placement is in need of special help in reading. The size of discrepancy between reading achievement and capability level varies with the grade level. Bond and Tinkerl state that from one half to three-fourths of a grade at primary grade level and from one to one and one-half of a grade at intermediate level are minimum discrepancies for classifying children as disabled in reading. At junior high and high school level, usually a two-year gap between mental grade placement and reading grade placement is considered minimum for placing children in remedial reading classes.
Joe, in the seventh grade, has an intelligence grade placement of 7.1, but his reading placement is 5.7. This is a signal for the teacher to examine Joe's progress more carefully to see if he needs remedial help in reading.
This screening by means of test results is a useful one, but it should always be doublechecked with all that the teacher knows about the child. The tests themselves have certain limitations.. The child handicapped in reading will be penalized on a group intelligence test that depends heavily upon reading. From such a
lGuy L. Bond and Miles A. Tinker. Reading Difficulties: Their Diagnosis and Correction. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. p. 76.
14

test, the teacher may get an indication of the child's inability to read rather than an estimate of his capability for learning. Another limitation is that a reading achievement test, such as is used in most schools, measures only a limited number of the skills involved in silent reading. Some of them also tend to overestimate instructional level by as much as one year. Despite these limitations, the teacher gets much useful information from intelligence and reading achievement tests. She will, of course, check the results against her own observations and any school records she may have on the child or children involved.
In screening to locate children needing special help in reading, the teacher should keep in mind that some of the children reading below grade level are probably performing at a level in keeping with what should be expected of them. These children, instead of being given special help in reading should continue in the regular developmental reading program.
Mary, in the fourth grade, has an intelligence grade placement of 2.2 on a test involving very little reading and a reading grade placement of 2.6. This indicates that even though she is not reading up to her actual grade placement in school, she is doing as well as could be expected of her. She does not need special help in reading.
Extent of disability in reading. Estimates of reading disability cases vary from one writer to another. Figures cited usually vary from 10 to 25 per cent of the entire elementary and secondary school populations.2 Fifteen per cent is the figure most frequently found. Four or five children., on the average, in each classroom of 30 pupils are disabled in reading. This is a significant proportion of the children.
Among these disabled readers, boys by far outnumber the girls. When severe cases are considered, such as those referred to reading clinics, boys outnumber girls approximately 9 to 1. When mild as well as severe disability is under consideration., the ratio becomes about two boys to one girl.3
Factors involved in reading disability. If reading disability is severe, usually several factors are involved. One factor, however, may appear to be more influential than others in a particular case. Some of the possible causes will be discussed here. They may
2Guy L. Bond and Miles A. Tinker. Reading Difficulties: Their Diagnosis and Correction. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. p. 7.
3Irving H. Anderson and Walter F. Dearborn. The Psychology of Teaching Reading. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1952. pp. 32-33.
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better be thought of as factors associated with reading disability since in many cases actual causation is not determined.
The teacher or reading clinic does not seek causes in order to place blame. Often they need to know causes so that the handicapping conditions may be eliminated if at all possible to give the child a better chance to learn the skills needed in reading. Some handicapping conditions may be corrected, whereas others may not be correctable and must be adjusted to in setting up a corrective program.
(1) Intelligence. If a child is limited in intellectual ability, he is likely to be slow in learning to read. Occasionally adjustment is not made by parents or teachers for this deviation from average, and the child is pushed to achieve at a higher level than he can achieve. He may devote most of his time to trying to learn to read, or he may become emotionally disturbed because of the pressure. He might react in a hostile manner, fighting all teaching efforts. On the other hand, a child with superior intelligence may be bored with the simple materials and the teaching procedures used by the first grade teacher. If he already reads a little and is forced to go through a readiness program with less advanced children, he may learn to dislike reading and everything associated with it.
(2) Vision. When a child's reading is not up to the teacher's expectancy, that child's vision should be checked. Vision alone, however, will not necessarily keep a child from learning the basic skills of reading, but if he has good vision, his chances of learning will be enhanced. Some studies show that children with visual defects may learn to read well. However, it is not likely that a child whose eyes hurt when he reads will read unless he is forced to do so, or unless he has an extremely strong interest in the subject.
(3) Hearing. Children's hearing also should be checked. Hearing especially affects the child's ability to profit from instruction in oral reading and in phonics. For children with severe hearing loss, modification of method may be necessary. However, hearing is seldom found to be the major cause of reading disability.
(4) Emotional disturbance. Many cases of reading disability have emotional disturbance associated with them. Sometimes it is difficult or almost impossible to determine which came first, the reading disability or the emotional disturbance. Either may come first, or they may develop together. The emotionally disturbed child has a poorer chance to profit from instruction. The seat of the emotional disturbance may be in the home (such as rejection in the home, a broken home, or nagging parents) or it may be
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in the school (such as fear of school, fear of teacher, embarrassment because of some physical condition or for economic reasons, or embarrassment because of poor reading). The extent to which emotional disturbance is associated with reading disabilities as a causative factor is debated. Estimates range from almost zero to almost 100 per cent, and these vary with the beliefs of the researcher. Gates4 states that about 75 per cent of reading disability cases show personality maladjustment and that in about 25 per cent of these emotional disturbance is a contributing cause.
It is not necessarily a matter of removing emotional disturbance and then teaching the child to read. Sometimes through work in reading the child can be helped to overcome all or a part of his emotional disturbance, especially if it is associated primarily with poor academic achievement.
(5) Educational factors. The writer believes that educational factors of various sorts assume a large role in the development of reading disability. Even when one or more of the other factors are operating, such as emotional disturbance or visual defects, the educational factor is present. Failure to adjust instruction to individual differences of children is a major factor in keeping children from growing as they should in reading. Failure to adjust instruction to individual differences is an educational factor. The schools often can take steps to improve on educational conditions or practices that may lead to reading disability, but in some instances, they are unable to correct what they recognize to be a bad situation. Some of the possible educational factors that influence reading disability are: methods and materials being used are too difficult for the poor readers, skills of reading are not taught thoroughly, a particular skill is overemphasized to the neglect of others, the school policy states that a certain' number of books must be covered by each child in a particular grade, the classroom is overcrowded, and so on. Poor teaching, though it does contribute to reading disability, is not the only educational factor that may influence reading growth adversely. Lack of sufficient time devoted to reading instruction because of school schedule, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate materials, inappropriate instruction in the home, and many other factors of an educational nature may be associated with disability in reading.
(6) Other factors. Other factors, such as brain injury, may be associated with disability in reading. Investigation is still being
4Arthur I. Gates. "The Role of Personality Maladjusnnent in Reading Disability," Pedagogical Seminary, 1941. 59: pp. 77-83.
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made of the relationship of lateral dominance to reading disability.5 One recent study has attempted to explain severe reading disability in terms of imbalances in chemicals believed to influence neural impulses in the brain.6
Sometimes the teacher and clinician have explanations for the causes of reading disabilities, and sometimes they do not. Under certain circumtances they may need to "get at" the cause before much can be done about the correction. In other instances, it may be sufficient just to know what appears to be wrong in reading, without necessarily knowing why the disability occurred.
Some guiding principles. The next segment of this paper will be devoted to a discussion of selected guiding principles for corrective reading. These are given in broad terms. These are by no means all of the points that could have been included. The writer feels, however, that they are among the most important.
(1) Diag;nose before setting up a corrective program for a child. One of the most important parts of corrective work in reading is a good diagnosis. Most teachers are not trained to administer elaborate diagnostic reading tests. However, through selected group tests, observations, and informal reading inventories, they may determine what needs to be done to help the mildly disabled reader. The more specific the diagnosis is, the more useful it will be. Does the child know and use all of the comprehension skills? Is he weak in certain word recognition techniques? If a weakness is noted in phonics, for instance, the teacher needs to know the specific weaknesses within that area. Diagnosis, going from the general to the specific, may be thought of as a series of successive screenings. First the teacher finds that the child is having difficulty in reading. Next she discovers that the child is weak in specific areas. Then she attempts to determine exact needs in those ateas.
Teacher observation by the experienced teacher discloses many strengths and weaknesses in reading. In the child's oral reading, the teacher may note mispronunciations, reading through punctuation, poor phrasing, or the like. Hearing the child say, "I didn't get much out of that," she has a clue of possible poor comprehension. Lip movements and whispering, as well as pointing, are rather obvious to the teacher, and they indicate that something needs to be done to help the child in his reading.
5Albert J. Harris. How to Increase Reading Ability. Fourth Edition. New
York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1961. pp. 249-260. 6Donald E. P. Smith and Patricia M. Carrigan. The Nature of Reading
Disability. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1959. 149 pp.
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Diagnosis should be continuous. The teacher should feel free to consider possibilities for explaining the child's disabilities and what may be done to correct them, though she should avoid jumping to hasty conclusions. As she works with a child, she may note that she is wrong in what she originally thought about his reading, or she may discover that he has corrected one aspect of his problems, thu~ permitting her to concentrate more upon other aspects. If a partIcular technique used appears to have promise, it should not be abandoned too quickly. The technique should be given a chance to work. If, however, in the teacher's judgment it has been given a fair chance and it does not seem effective, then she should reappraise the situation and try something else.
(2) Aim corrective instruction at the child's known weaknesses. With the knowledge of the child's strengths and weaknesses in reading, the teacher is able to pinpoint the specific areas in which the child needs help. For those skills the child knows and uses effectively, occasional reviews are all that is necessary. The major portion of the instruction time may be devoted to the specific weaknesses of the child.
(3) Set up a situation so the child will succeed. Once corrective reading is started, the child should leave each session with a feeling of success. All teachers have seen children who are capable of learning to read well but do not and who, through repeated failure, have lost confidence in themselves. Sometimes they just sit; sometimes they become "trouble makers" in the classroom. Many of them have failed so often that they have given up. Some of them actually believe that they cannot learn. They, of all people, desperately need success.
If the child is to succeed in corrective help, instruction must be geared to his achievement and ability levels. Instruction needs to be challenging but easy enough so that the child can succeed. Unfortunately, society has not yet developed a miracle drug to take the work out of learning to read. The process of learning this complex set of skills still takes effort, but if instruction is properly paced and materials are suited to the child, he will not be aware of the extent of the effort he is expending. He will succeed, and he will be motivated to exert more effort. Not much progress can be made in corrective work unless the child succeeds from the beginning. Success is a powerful motivating factor.
(4) Use honest praise frequently. Praise motivates almost anyone. The teacher should take advantage of opportunities to give the child honest praise for work he has done well. If instruction is on the child's level, he can succeed, and the teacher will have
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sufficient opportunitIes to praise him for his progress. How the praise is given often detennines whether the child interprets it as "reward" or "punishment." The praise should be in terms acceptable to him. First grade teachers sometimes hug the children to show that they are quite pleased with their work. The reaction of the typical fifth grade boy to such a show of affection along with the praise would be entirely different from what it would have been several years earlier. The method of showing praise should be in terms of the child's and the teacher's personalities. Above all, the teacher wants to appear sincere and not artificial, because she needs a trusting relationship with the child.
(5) Establish a good relationship with the child. How this can best be done depends upon many factors including the child's age, his way of reacting to adults and to the teacher in particular, and the teacher's general way of working with children. She should be friendly and understanding and let the child know she respects him and accepts him, problems and all. The personal relationship between the teacher and the child is as important as the techniques and materials being used.
(6) Give well-planned instruction. After diagnosis, instruction should be well planned and, as stated previously, aimed toward teaching the specific skills children need. Planned instruction, important in all academic situations, is essential in corrective work. Haphazard instruction wastes time and effort.
Both the teacher and pupil should have a good idea of the purposes of the instruction. The teacher should help the pupil to unaerstand his weaknesses and how specific instruction is aimed toward improving those weaknesses. The pupil needs to be aware of his progress, and instruction should be planned with this in mind. This can be accomplished in some instances by having the child keep his own progress record, as in percentage of comprehension questions answered correctly or number of words read per minute.
Even though instruction is well planned, the teacher sometimes must deviate from the plan. The teacher may have miscalculated in her preparation, the child's interest may lapse momentarily, or he may come to the corrective session while emotionally disturbed about something which has happened at home or at school. These and similar situations may warrant a change of plans. The teacher should also take advantage of opportunities that may arise to teach something not in the original plan but which seems appropriate at the time. Plans are made as guides, and the teacher devitates from them when the situation appears to warrant it.
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(7) Make reading instruction pleasant and unpressured. Not only does the child need to learn the skills of reading, but he also needs to learn to enjoy using those skills. If he feels pressured continually in a reading situation and if he receives little or no enjoyment from reading, the child will not develop a love for reading. Children who have failed in reading situations over a period of years need to be convinced that reading can be pleasant. Once they enjoy the corrective sessions they will expend more energy in learning. The pressured child also becomes less effective in his learning.
If corrective help in reading has a cardinal sin, it is for the teacher to expect too much progress in too short a time. The child usually did not get the way he is overnight, and he should not be expected to "recover" overnight. Some teachers show a strong tendency to move children to higher levels too rapidly in order to show progress. Teaching, in order to be thorough, must proceed no faster than mastery will permit. The teacher who keeps this in mind avoids placing the child in materials that are too difficult.
The teacher should be relaxed as she works with the child who is disabled in reading. Children can sense tension. The teacher should of course exert all the effort she can to help the children to overcome their reading difficulties. However, she should not go through life with guilt feelings because she did not help a particular child overcome some reading difficulty. She would certainly take stock to see whether she used the best approaches, but blaming herself when she did her best only leads to frustration. Teachers, being the conscientious group they are, sometimes let this conscientiousness become so acute that it interferes with their enjoyment for teaching. Teachers, by doing their best and resolving to spend a minimum amount of time in worrying, will become happier, more effective-and less pressured-teachers.
Some specific instructional suggestions. The remaining part of this paper consists of reproductions of mimeographed sheets of specific remedial reading instructional suggestions prepared by the University of Georgia Reading Clinic. These were prepared originally because many children referred to the Reading Clinic needed help in these areas. Specific suggestions for helping children with word attack problems may be found in Teaching Word Recognition Skills in Georgia Schools.7
71. E. Aaron. Teaching Word Recognition Skills in Georgia Schools. Atlanta: State Depamnent of Education, 1961. 55 pp.
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STOPPING LIP MOVEMENTS AND VOCALIZATION IN SILENT READING
Occasionally children move their lips and/or whisper when reading silently. This may arise from an overemphasis upon oral reading or from materials being too difficult for the child. Such children should usually be required for a while to do most of their reading silently.
(1) Call the child's attention to his lip movement or vocalization during silent reading. Explain to him that the typical reader begins to read more rapidly silently than orally in story materials at about the last half of the third grade. If he persists in moving his lips he will be unable to read more rapidly than he can talk, and this will eventually be a very handicapping condition. It should also be explained to him that sometimes in silent reading we need to read very slowly but at other times we want to read rapidly. We should read just as fast as possible to get meaning from the material in keeping with our purpose for reading. In other words, if we want to get details from the material it will require a slower reading than if we want to get the general impression or the plot. However, whatever our purpose, we want to read as rapidly as we can and still accomplish our purpose. By keeping away from vocalization or lip movements during our silent readingeven when we are reading slowly-we do not develop the habit that will slow us down when we try to read rapidly in silent reading.
(2) The first factor to consider in such cases is the difficulty of the materials the child is reading. Dropping to his proper instructional level may cut down on the lip movement and vocalization. The child should have no difficulty with more than one word per 20 running words in what he is reading.
(3) If a drop in difficulty level of the material does not do the job, then ask the child to hold his lips together as he reads silently. If they still move after a little practice with this, then suggest that he place a finger tightly over his lips to remind him when he moves them. This will slow his reading at first, but after the slight drop in the beginning-caused by preoccupation with holding his lips tightly or placing the finger on the lips-improvement will be noted.
(4) Refrain from use of oral reading with these children until this habit is broken. Some oral reading may be necessary for checking purposes, but it should be held to a very minimum. Give primary emphasis for a time to silent reading improvement.
(5) If the child has a sight vocabulary of several hundred words,
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a pacing device may be used with him. This will pace his reading so that he is forced to look rapidly at words for recognition.
A. home-made pacer can be devised by having one pupil move a
pIece of cardboard slowly down the page while another child reads. This forces the child to keep ahead of the cardboard as it is moved down the page. Very easy materials should be used with this.
(6) For a while, emphasize the use of context clues as a first approach to recognition of unknown words.
HELPING THE OVERANALYTICAL READER
Some readers are extremely slow in their reading because they analyze too carefully each word they read. The manner in which this overanalysis occurs varies. Sometimes the child spells out each word, sometimes he breaks it into syllables, and sometimes he may stop to study the general configuration of the word first. This may result from an overemphasis upon oral-phonetic instruction. It may also be brought about by an overuse of a mechanical or artificial way of teaching word recognition in isolation. An approach to the teaching of reading in which the letters of the alphabet are taught first and then the putting together of these letters into words can also result in an overanalytical reader. As he reads, the child should analyze only those words he does not know and cannot figure out rapidly from context. Helping the overanalytical reader must be concerned with two tasks: removing the handicapping habit of overanalyzing each word and then of teaching a balanced word recognition attack. For a time oral reading should be held to a minimum. Use only as a check until some headway is made in establishing proper word recognition techniques. The following suggestions are offered:
(1) Increase the reader's sight vocabulary so that there will be less cause to analyze words.
(2) Avoid a letter-by-letter approach to word recognition. Do not permit the child to attack words letter-by-letter. This habit may be established by persistent suggestions that the child spell an unknown word so that the busy adult can help him with it by telling him what it is. It also may grow out of attempting to teach him to recognize words purely by spelling them. It also may result from an attempt to sound out a word letter-by-letter. Insist that the child use large elements in unknown words for discovering what they are. Look first for known words within the word if it is likely that the word is made from that known word-
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a root or stem within the word. The child can be guided to see that the word is made from two words he already knows if the word is a compound word. It can also be called to his attention that the word is like one he already knows except that it has a prefix or a suffix. These are analytical approaches to word recognition, but they are rapid analytical techniques rather than the meticulous letter-by-Ietter approaches.
(3) Use a flash technique in which you expose cards of wellknown words for a brief interval. The child should identify the word immediately. Gradually speed up the presentation and gradually add familiar phrases to the list of words. Be sure that this is carried out when the child is highly motivated, and make the periods short. Before the end of the practice period, use some of the words in sentences the child is asked to read.
(4) Raise specific questions for the child to answer from his reading, and have him read easy material as rapidly as possible to get specific answers. He may also read easy materials to get the general significance or to predict outcomes.
(5) If the child has a sight vocabulary of several hundred words, a pacing device may be used with him. Using selections containing words he knows, he can be pushed to read rapidly, so rapidly that he does not have time to overanalyze the words. Such selections must contain known words.
HELPING THE CHILD WITH ORIENTATIONAL CONFUSION
Orientational confusion refers to reading difficulties of the following types: reversals (star called rats), transposition of letters (left called felt), axial rotation (pig called big), and inability to move from left to right throughout a line of print. Possible causes of these problems are: ( 1) not enough training in left to right orientation, (2) teaching in which emphasis is placed on word endings before establishing the habit of looking at words from left to right - from beginning to ending, (3) occasional severe eye defects, (4) too much prolonged analysis of words in the early stages of reading instruction because of heavy vocabulary.
The following procedures may be used in helping the reader with orientational confusion; however, they should not be used indiscriminately. One should choose the procedures and devices
which seem most appropriate for correcting the difficulty. If
eye defects occur, correction should be made or instruction should be adjusted in terms of the defect, if it cannot be corrected.
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(1) Use easy materials for all remedial instruction. (2) Frequent demonstrations should be given on left to right m~vement by sweeping hand under word, phrase, or sentence bemg read. Experience chart~ may be ~sed for this practice. . (3). In severe. cases, re~dmg .matenals should be prepared with smgle hnes of pnnt, and wIth wIde spaces between lines. (4) While print is being read, the child should be instructed to follow under the print with a pointer or finger in a continuous, consistent sliding movement from left to right. This should be discontinued as quickly as the child can do without it. (5) In teaching, emphasis is placed on going all the way back to the first word of each new line with a single continuous backsweep of the eye after a line is finished. Experience charts may be used to demonstrate this. (6) Give exercises that require the child to note the beginning of words. Prepare examples so that they will not make sense unless word is read correctly. Examples: Bill is a (boy, toy). Sam (was, saw) the dog. (7) Give practice in recognizing initial consonants and consonant blends. Teacher's manuals give good suggestions on this. Some suggestions are also contained in Teaching Word Recognition Skills in Georgia Schools. Example: stop, start, storm, step - With what letters do these words begin? Let's pronounce them. Hear how they sound in the beginning? (Write st by the list of words. Then use each word in a sentence on board, letting children read the sentences.) (8) Occasionally in clarifying confused letters, the child should be led to see differences in the letters by comparing them. The same can be done for words. The child needs to see the variation in length, general shape, and other distinguishing characteristics about words he confuses. Sometimes what appear to be reversal errors may be the result of overdependence on the general shape of a word for recognition. (Was and saw, for instance, look very much alike in general shape.)
HOW TO HELP THE SEVERELY DISABLED READER WHO IS CAPABLE OF LEARNING
Frequently the intermediate, junior high, or high school teacher finds children in his classroom who can hardly be called readers at all or who read only on low first grade level. Often these children have ability levels that are average or above average. Sometimes factors associated with their disabilities may make teaching ex-
25

tremely difficult. However, in most cases, these children can be helped to improve in reading by the regular classroom teacher. Some suggestions for working with these children are given here.
(1) Determine first if the child is capable of learning to read insofar as general ability is concerned. This can be done through intelligence tests and observations. Intelligence tests used for this should not depend upon reading; if they do, the child's disability in reading is measured rather than his capability for learning.
(2) Determine whether physical factors, such as visio~ hearing, and general physical well-being, are satisfactory. These conditions, though not usually the complete cause of reading disability, can easily become blocks to efficient and effective learning. Those conditions interferring with learning should be corrected if possible, and if not, they should be adjusted to through methods and materials used in instruction.
(3) The instructional level of the child should be determined. This can best be done by using a series of basal readers. Have the child read a selection (preferably containing more than 100 words) silently. Have the child respond to questions which you ask. Next have him read aloud to you from the same material. Find the highest level at which he comprehends at least 75 per cent of the main ideas and mispronounces not more than five words per 100 running words. This is considered his instructional level. Once this is determined, he should be instructed in the beginning in materials that do not exceed that level.
(4) Let the child move just as fast as he is capable of going, but under no circumstances should he be pushed more rapidly than he can comfortably achieve.
(5) Select some systematic method of teaching the skills of reading to the child. Whatever the techniques, they should be related directly to printed materials in book or story form. They should not be isolated drill exercises. These can kill completely an interest in reading. Practice is important, but it should be related, if at all possible, to words the child is going to read or has already read. Drills can be effective in teaching when the child is highly motivated and they make sense to him. The skills practiced in the drills should be put to use in reading.
(6) If a high-interest level, low-vocabulary series of readers can be located, they may be used for instruction. In such cases, the teacher's guidebook should be used as a guide, the teacher deviating whenever necessary from the suggestions in the manual. Try the materials with the child. If he accepts them without excessive complaint, then they may be used. Sometimes the stigma of using
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"baby" books can be overcome by suggesting that you would like for the child to try them, and if he doesn't like them after a short time you will get other books. Success in reading easy materials frequently overshadows the dislike of "baby" materials.
(7) Another possible approach is to use stories prepared by the teacher, the pupils, or by both together for teaching the skills of reading. If they are used, the vocabulary should be controlled as much as possible. An occasional use of this technique is effective regardless of the approach used for most of the teaching. Words with which the child is having a great deal of trouble may be used over and over in the stories. The teacher must be careful that too heavy a vocabulary burden is not placed on the child.
(8) Instructional periods, in the beginning, should be short and as highly motivating as possible. As soon as the child improves, the length of time that can be spent profitably in instruction will increase. A short period daily is usually more profitable than one or two long periods during the week. If reading activities are varied considerably during the period, the time spent in instruction may be lengthened without loss of interest on the part of the pupil.
(9) Be sure the child succeeds. Don't give him materials that he can't read. He must learn that he can read. Success motivates further success.
(10) Give him honest praise for his achievement whenever the situation permits. This also will serve as a motivating device.
(11) In the content areas, such as geography, science, and history, do not expect the child to read materials on a level above his actual reading level. In part, other avenues for teaching the subject matter must be used. These children are often capable learners but just cannot read well. Therefore, they can profit from class discussions, from hearing the teacher or some pupil read, from audio-visual media, from reading very simple books on related topics (when such books are available), and from listening as the teacher or pupil talks.
(12) Some provision should be made for these children to receive special instruction in the basic reading skills. In the selfcontained classroom, the teacher who has two or three of these children may give partial attention to their problems through the regular grouping for reading instruction within the classroom. The regular classroom teacher may provide this help during a period while the other children are engaged in free reading or activities not calling for the direct supervision of the teacher. In large schools a cross-grade or cross-class grouping for reading instruction (where for reading instruction only, children are grouped
27

according to achievement levels disregarding grades or classes within grades) may provide time when these children can be helped. Frequendy the intermediate or upper grade teacher may not, because of time or training, be able to give this help. In such cases, one of the primary teachers may be able to take them for special work for 25-30 minutes per day or several days per week after the primary children have departed, if they have a shorter school day than the other pupils. Regardless of the administrative organization for the systematic instruction, the instruction should be on the child's achievement level. Attempting to teach the child who reads on first grade level - or higher - is similar to attempting to build the second floor of a house before the foundation is constructed. It is wasted time and effort for both pupil and teacher.
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AN INFORMAL READING INVENTORY
I. E. AARON
University of Georgia
Purposes: (1) To permit the teacher to find the level on which a child should be instructed in reading, or (2) to tell the teacher whether a particular textbook "fits" the child - whether it is too hard or too easy.
Materials needed: Series of graded reading textbooks, questions prepared on a selection of at least 100 words from each book.
Selecting stories: Story located between pages 20 and 40 in each book and on at least 100 words.
Questions: Four questions at first grade level, eight at higher levels. Multiples of four make scoring easier. At least one-fourth of questions should involve thought beyond what is stated in copy. ("The story didn't tell us, but what do you think made Nancy late for the party?" "From what you have read, try to describe what you think will happen next.")
Criteria for success:
COMPREHENSION - Understands at least three-fourths of main ideas (answers three-fourths of comprehension questions).
WORD RECOGNITION - Misses not more than one of each twenty words he reads - includes misses both in silent reading and in oral re-reading. Proper names and additional misses on same word are not counted.
Determining instructional level: Highest level at which child meets both criteria for success.
When to use: Use with those children about whose reading instructional level the teacher is in doubt. Not all pupils need it. May be used in beginning of year to help in grouping children for instruction if teacher does not have sufficient information about some children. May also be used in getting instructional level in remedial work.
How to give the informal reading inventory: (1) Assemble books to be used. (2) Select one in which child is likely to succeed. (3) After quick attempt at motivation, ask child to read selec-
tion silently.
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(4) As child reads silently, record any words on which he requests help. Mark any symptoms of poor reading. Record these on guide sheet.
(5) Ask the child questions on the selection. Record "plus" for correct answers, "minus" for incorrect answers.
(6) Have child read same selection orally. Record any words he misses. Check symptoms of poor reading.
(7) Determine whether he passed both requirements - comprehension and word recognition. If so, take next higher level book and repeat from item three. Keep going until he fails. Instructional level is highest level at which he meets both criteria. If he fails on first selection tried, drop to a lower level.
Informal reading inventory guide sheet: University of Georgia Reading Clinic Form 7 has been prepared to aid the examiner in recording the results of the informal reading inventory. All records should be kept on this guide. It may be duplicated for teacher use. One sheet will usually be sufficient for a child since up to four trials may be recorded on one form. If five or more levels are used, a second copy of the form would be necessary.
To help the reader become oriented to the inventory guide, each section will be discussed. It will be noted that the top two lines consist of identifying data. The remaining parts of the guide are labeled alphabetically, except for the space for the examiner to enter his own name.
The examiner should fill in as much of the identifying information in the top two lines as he can at the beginning of the inventory. The name of the pupil, the date, the series of textbooks being used, and the difficulty level of the book to be used as the first trial can all be written in before the inventory is started. The examiner should be certain to record accurately the difficulty levels at each trial. In the blank opposite number 1 should be entered the difficult level (as J2 for third grade, second semester) of the first book tried. Each time, as a new level is tried, the difficulty level of the book should be entered.
A. WORDS ASKED DURING SILENT READING: As the child asks for help on a word, the examiner should record that word in the appropriate space. Words asked on the first book used would be recorded in the "Trial 1" space, and so on. These words will be counted later and entered in section C. If no words are asked, "none" in large letters should be written in the space.
R WORDS MISSED IN ORAL READING: When the child is reading the selection orally (after the comprehension check),
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the examiner records words on which he requests help and words mispronounced. The examiner may put what the child called the mispronounced word in parentheses following the word. If the child omits a word, enter the word and put an "0" in parentheses following the word. If the child adds a word, enter the word and put an "A" in parentheses following the word. When omitted and added words are to be counted in the total words missed will be discussed in section C. They will, however, always be recorded under section B. The examiner should make certain to enter the words missed in oral reading under the appropriate trial. If no words are missed, he will write "none" in large letters.
C. SUMMARY OF WORD RECOGNITION: At the end of a trial, the examiner will enter (1) the number of words in the selection (taken from a count of the words), (2) the silent words asked (taken from section A, counting repeated misses only one time, and not counting proper names), (3) oral words asked (taken from section B, counting repeated misses only one time, not counting proper names, and omitting words previously recorded under oral words missed), (4) total words missed (obtained by adding silent words missed and oral words missed (if duplicate misses were eliminated before recording number of oral words missed that is, eliminating from the number of oral words missed any words that were previously missed in silent reading). If the total words missed is not more than 1 in 20, then S will be circled. If the total words missed is more than 1 in 20, then P will be circled.
The examiner must decide about whether to count additions and omissions in the words missed. If the word added or omitted is an inconsequential word, such as a, an, or the, and really makes no difference, do not count it. Enter it under B, but draw a line through it to indicate that it is unimportant. If the word added or omitted changes the meaning in any way, count it as a missed word.
In order to keep from counting in the total the same word more than once, it is a good idea to go through sections A and B and draw a light pencil line through repeated words. For instance, if thought is recorded twice under Trial 1 in section A and once under Trial 1 in section B, then the second listing in section A and the listing in section B should be crossed out by means of a line drawn through the word. This will remind the examiner to count it once only in his totals. A line may also be drawn through a proper name as a reminder not to count it in the totals.
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D. COMPREHENSION AFTER SILENT READING: The examiner will enter a plus for each correct answer and a minus for each incorrect answer. When the questions are all answered, he will circle S if as many as 3 of 4 or 4 of 8 questions are answered correctly. He will circle P, indicating "poor," if the criterion of "75 per cent comprehension" is not met.
E. SILENT READING CHECK LIST: The examiner checks each symptom of poor reading as he notes it du~lng the silent reading of a selection. It is important to check each symptom under the correct trial because some symptoms may be in evidence at one level but not at another.
F. ORAL READING CHECK LIST: Before moving to another book, the examiner should check the symptoms of poor reading noted in the child's oral reading. Again, it is important to check the symptom in the appropriate column. For instance, "tense or nervous" may be checked only on the failing level where material is too difficult, and the examiner needs to be able to tell this when he looks, perhaps several days later, at the inventory guide.
G. INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL: The examiner should enter the instructional level in the blank provided. The instructional level is the highest level at which both criteria for success are met. Sometimes, because of excessive faulty reading habits or symptoms, the examiner may drop to a lower level for the recommended instructional level.
H. NOTES ON WORD ATTACK: The examiner should make abbreviated notes on anything discovered about the child's word attack skills. Comments such as these may be made: "leaves off word endings," "appears to break words into syllables," "spells all words," "confuses similar looking words," and "repeated several phonics principles as he tried to pronounce a silent e word."
Other sources of information on this informal reading inventory: More details on this informal reading inventory are given in the following sources:
I. E. Aaron. "An Informal Reading Inventory," Elementary English, November 1960, p. 475-460.
I. E Aaron. Teaching Word Recognition Skills in Georgia Schools. Atlanta: Georgia State Department of Education, 1961. (See Chapter 8, "Determining the Instructional Level," p. 46-49.)
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Name 0 Series:

_ Date: Trial Lelevls: 1

A. WORDS ASKED DURING SILENT READING:

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial

(U. Ga. Reading Clinie Fonn 7)

.2

.3

.4

_

Trial 4

B. WORDS MISSED IN ORAL READING:

TOm ,

IT,i,"

I,~ ,

C. SUMMARY OF WORD RECOGNITION:

Words in selection Silent words asked Oral words asked TOTAL WORDS MISSED
Saus. or Poor.

1 234 SP SI" S1' ~I"

E SILENT READING CHECK LIST-

1

2

3

4

Moves lips, no souod Whispers Points at words Book held too close Book held tOO far away Appears tense Moves head Reads slowly

G. INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL:

_

H. NOTES ON WORD ATTACK:

D. COMPREHENSION AFTER SILENT READING:

Trial 1 1. _ _ 2. _ _ 3. _ _ 4._ _ 5. _ _ 6. _ _ 7. _ _ 8. _ _
SP

Trial 2 1. __ 2. __
3._ 4. __
5._ 6. __
7._ 8._
SP

Trial 3 1. _ _
2. _ _ 3. _ _ 4. _ _ 5. _ _ 6. _ _ 7. _ _ 8. _ _
SP

Trial 4 1._ 2. __ 3. _ _ 4. __
5._ 6. __
7._ 8. _ _
SP

F ORAL READING CHECK LIST-
12 34
Word-by-word reader Inappropriate phrasing Ignores punctuation Many mispronunciations Faulry enunciation Monotonous voic High-pitched voic Tense or nervou Excessive repetiti005 Loses place Poor sight vocabulary Context guesses wrong Poor word attack skills Reads slowly Skips words Adds words Reads too fast Unknown words not tried

Examiner:

_

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BOOKS AND READING MATERIALS FOR POOR READERS
( 1) Air Age Books Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 2-3 Price - $1.92 Science fiction. Interesting stories about space exploration. High interest level. Many illustrations. Five books.
(2) Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful and Ghostly Gallery Random House, 457 Madison Ave., New York 22, N. Y. Reading level - Upper elem. - Junior high Price - $3.95 Haunted Houseful a collection of nine "cool" stories about ghosts and haunted houses. Includes one Mark Twain and one Sir Arthur Conan Doyle story. Introduction by Alfred Hitchcock. Ghostly Gallery a collection of eleven more stories of same type. Good for reluctant readers. Designed for upper elementary to age 15.
(3) American Adventure Series (State Textbook List) Harper and Row, Publishers, 680 Forrest Road, N. E., Atlanta 12, Ga. (GSD) Reading level- Grades 2-6 Price - $1.65 High interest, low reading level. Number of illustrations. Action and adventure stories of American pioneers and warriors. Authentic historical background. Nineteen books. "Handbook of Corrective Reading" also available.
(4) Basic Reading Skills for Junior High School Use Scott, Foresman and Co., 3145 Piedmont Road, N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Reading level - Grade 4 Price - $1.16
Designed to help poor readers in junior high school learn basic skills of reading. Includes exercises on most comprehension and word attack skills. Not suited to those reading below fourth grade level. One or two page exercises. Workbook style. Teacher's edition available at same price.
Prepared by Reading Clinic, College of Education, University of Georgia. Prices cited latest available at time of preparation of list. Need checking before ordering. Many books useful for good readers also. "GSB" following address means book available through Georgia School Book Depository, 680 Forrest Road, N. E., Atlanta 12, Georgia.
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(5) Basic Reading Skills for High School Use Scott, Foresman and Co., 3145 Piedmont Road, N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Reading level - Grade 6 Price - $I.l6
Designed to help poor readers in high school learn basic reading skills. Includes exercises on most comprehension and word attack skills. Similar in style to publication described directly above; some exercises identical in these two workbooks. Not suitable for those reading below sixth grade level. O~e or two page exercises. Teacher's edition available at same pnce.
(6) Basic Vocabulary Books (Dolch) Garrard Press, Champaign, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grade 2 Price - $2.50 ($1.87 net)
True stories and folk tales. Use Dolch 220 basic sight words plus 95 most common nouns. Supplement classroom readers or for slow readers who need high interest - low vocabulary materials. Sixteen books.
(7) Be a Better Reader
Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Reading level - Grades 7-12 Price - $1.20
Series of six books. Designed not to teach content, but to teach processes needed in studying content in different fields. Exercises in four content areas - mathematics, literature, science, and social studies.
(8) Beginner Books Random House, 457 Madison Ave., New York 22, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 1-2 Price - $1.95
Books for beginners and "beginning beginners." Controlled vocabulary. Good illustrations and interest. Good recreational reading. Several titles by Dr. Seuss and by Bennett Cerf.
(9) Button Family Adventures Series Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Preprimer to grade 3 Price - $1.52 - $1.96
Attempt to show typical school child and his family. High interest. Controlled vocabulary. Aids social studies study and personal development. May be used as supplementary reading. Twelve books now available. Teacher's manual also available.
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(10) Beginning to Read Books (State Textbook List) Follett Publishing Co., 1010 W. Washington Blvd., Chicago 7, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Kindergarten to grade 3 Price - $1.08 Written for primary children but interesting to older children also. Controlled vocabulary. Some books correlate well with science and social studies. Colorful illustrations. More than dozen titles now available.
( 11) Conquests in Reading Webster Publishing Co., 1154 Reco Ave., St. Louis 26, Mo. (GSD) Reading level - Primary to Junior High Price - 72 Workbook presents systematic program in word recognition. Involves both reading and spelling. Designed for remedial work in intermediate and junior high grades. Phonetic and structural analysis exercises. Teacher's edition available. Core workbook of "Classroom Reading Clinic." Kottmeyer and Ware publication.
(12) Cowboy Sam Series (State Textbook List) Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Preprimer to grade 3 Price - $1.12 - $1.44 Adventures of the West. High interest. Graded vocabulary. Good illustrations. Pleasure and supplementary rt~ading. Teacher's manual and several workbooks also available.
(13) Dan Frontier Series (State Textbook List) Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level- Preprimer to grade 4 Price - $1.32 - $1.71 Series of stories of early Kentucky frontier. Controlled vocabulary. High interest. Good illustrations. Mature characters in pictures and stories. Eleven books now available. Teacher's manual also available.
(14) Deep-Sea Adventure Series (State Textbook List) Harr Wagner Publishing Co., 680 Forrest Road, N. E., Atlanta 12, Ga. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 4-5 Price - $1.26 - $1.36 Adventure and mystery stories about sea. Mature characters. Excellent lifelike illustrations. Good for poor readers. Comprehension check items in back of each book. Five titles available.
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(15) Developing Your Vocabulary (by Paul Witty and Edith Grotberg)
Science Research Associates, Inc., 259 E. Erie St., Chicago 11, Ill. Reading level - High school Price - $1.50
Workbook. Designed to help improve vocabulary in grades 9-12. May be used in English or developmental reading classes.
(16) Diagnostic Reading Workbooks Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1300 Alum Creek Drive, Columbus 16, O. (GSD) Reading level - Readiness to grade 6 Price - B - 36 Seven text-workbooks. Graded story units. High interest. Skill building program. Seatwork exercises in basic skills. Large pictures.
(17) EDL Study Skills Library Educational Development Laboratories, Inc., Huntington, N.Y. Reading level - Grades 4-9 Price - $9.00 each Labs for developing study skills - interpretation, evaluation, organization, and reference. Three boxes - science, social studies, and reference - at each grade level. Now available grades 4-9. Eventually will have materials for grades 1-12. Ten practice exercises and 100 answer sheets for each exercise in each box.
(18) Everyreader Series (State Textbook List) Webster Publishing Co., 1154 Reco Ave., St. Louis 26, Mo. (GSD) Reading level - Fourth grade Price - $1.23 (Paper - 66) Eleven books. Interest through high school. Simplified "classics." Some titles: "The Gold Bug and Other Stories," "Cases of Sherlock Holmes," "Ivanhoe," "A Tale of Two Cities," "Ben Hur," and "Count of Monte Cristo."
(19) First Books Franklin Watts, Inc., 575 Lexington Ave., New York 22, N. Y. Reading level- Grades 3 through high school Price - $1.46 Authentic information. Arts and recreation, social studies, science, literature and language, occupations and products, transportation and communications topics. Difficulty level dependent upon subject. Some titles excellent for poor readers. High interest. Well prepared. More than 100 titles.
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(20) First Reading Books (Dolch) Garrard Press, Champaign, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grade 1 Price - $2.00 ($1.50 net) Encourage independent reading in primary grades. Use easiest 110 words from Dolch Basic Sight Words and Commonest Nouns. Supplementary. High interest. Fourteen books.
(21) Easy-to-Read Books Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Preprimer to grade 1 Price - $1.56 - $1.64 Series of six books. Animal stories. Controlled vocabulary. Use as supplementary reader.
(22) Frontiers of America Books (Edith McCall) (State Textbook List) Children's Press, Inc., Jackson Blvd. & Racine Ave., Chicago 7, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grade 3 Price - $2.50 ($1.88 net) True stories of pioneer days. Introduction to American history. High interest level, low reading level. At least eleven titles now available.
(23) Gates-Peardon Practice Exercises in Reading Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York 27, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 3-6 Price - 40 each, Manual 25 Four booklets on each of four reading levels to improve types of reading - details, main ideas, directions, prediction of outcome. Interesting materials, good variety.
(24) Improve Your Reading Reader's Digest Services, Inc., Educational Division, Pleasantville, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 7-8 Price 75 Rewrites of Reader's Digest stories for junior high - high school use. Advertised as being complete in itself. Comprehension questions following each story. Self-checking answer key and progress chart in back of book. Emphasizes speed of comprehension. Two books available.
(25) Interesting Reading Series Follett Publishing Co., 1010 W. Washington Blvd., Chicago 7, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 2 (high) - 3 (low) Price - $1.50
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Designed for remedial work in junior and senior high school. Edited by Morton Botel. Rapid screening test in front of each book to help in determining if difficulty level suitable. Illustrations keyed to content for context clues. Stories in many areas: history, adventure, biography, sports, science, and fiction. High interest, partial control of vocabulary. Nine titles available. (26) I Want to Be Books Children's Press, Inc., Jackson Blvd. & Racine Ave., Chicago 7, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grade 1 Price $2.00 ($1.50 net)
Occupational topics. Good for social studies reading. Large type. Gives information on different occupations. Approximately forty titles.
(27) Jim Forest Readers (State Textbook List) Harr Wagner Publishing Company, 680 Forrest Road, N. E., Atlanta 12, Ga. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 1-3 Price - $1.36 - $1.48 Supplementary readers. Good for remedial work. Two titles on each grade level. Adventure stories around Jim Forest, young teenager. Characters in stories and illustrations more mature than reading level. Interesting to poor readers.
(28) Junior Everyreader Series (State Textbook List) Webster Publishing Co., 1154 Reco Ave., St. Louis 26, Mo. (GSD) Reading level - Third grade Price - $1.2 3 Ten books. Interest through age 16. Simplified "classics." Some titles: "Robin Hood Stories," "King Arthur and His Knights," "The Trojan War," "Greek and Roman Myths," and "Old Testament Stories."
(29) Let's Find Out Books Franklin Watts, Inc., 575 Lexington Ave., New York 22, N. Y. Reading level - Grade 1 Price - $1.88 Subjects on things children contact or hear about daily, such as the seasons, school, water, and electricity. From 30 to 100 words used in e~ch book. Eighteen titles available. All written by Martha and Charles Shapp. Good illustrations.
(30) McCall-Crabbs Standard Test Lessons in Reading Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Dniv., New York 27, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 3-7 Price - 50 each. Manual 25.
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Five booklets on different grade levels. Aimed toward development of rate of speed and power of comprehension. Page-length exercises consisting of brief article followed by multiple-choice comprehension questions. Grade norms offered for each eyercise. (31) New Reading Skilltext Series Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1300 Alum Creek Drive, Columbus 16, O. (GSD) Reading level - Readiness through grade 6 Price - 72 (54 net)
Units similar to My Weekly Reader. Purports to work on all reading skills. Illustrations weak. (32) Phonics We Use (State Textbook List) Lyons and Carnahan, 2500 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 16, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Readiness to grade 5 and above Price - 36 - 42
Six word recognition workbooks. Exercises on phonics and all types of word attack skills. Book A (Readings), Book B (Grade 1), Book C (Grade 2), Book D (Grade 3), Book E (Grade 4), Book F (Grades 5 and above). (33) Pleasure Reading Books (Dolch) Garrard Press, Champaign, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grade 4 Price - $2.50 ($1.87 net)
Easy reading for fourth grade up. Nine books with variety of stories for different interests. Famous stories and legends. Thirteen books. (34) Random House Easy-to-Read Series Random House, 457 Madison Avenue, New York 22, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 2-3 Price - $1.95
Informative science books, adventure tales, and humorous stories. Partially controlled vocabulary. Good recreational reading. Interesting, entertaining, and informative. (35) Reader's Digest Reading Skill Builder Educational Division, Reader's Digest Services, Inc., Pleasantville, N. Y. Reading level - Grades 2-8 Price - 60 each
Adapted stories from Reader's Digest. Comprehension exercises following most stories. Three books for each grade from second through sixth. Two books each for grades seven and eight. Second grade books on sequential difficulty levels; other books of equal difficulty. High interest. May be used to supplement basal reading or in remedial work. Excellent art work. Teacher's editions available at same price.
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(36) Reading Adventures Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1300 Alum Creek Dr., Columbus 16, O. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 1-6 Price 76 (57 net) Three books in series: Book A (grades 1-2), Book B (grades 3-4), Book C (grades 5-6). Supplement social science or science. Stories in each book built around same themes. May be used as multi-level materials.
(37) Reading for Meaning Series. J. B. Lippincott, 680 Forrest Road, N. E., Atlanta 12, Ga. (GSD) Reading level- Grades 4-12 Price - 88 (66 net) Paperback, workbook type of material. Work to improve basic skills of comprehension.
(38) Sailor Jack Series Benefic Press, 1900 N. Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level- Preprimer to grade 3 Price - $1.60 - $1.88 Navy stories. High interest. Adult characters. Controlled vocabulary. Illustrated. Teacher's guide available. Ten books now available.
(39) SRA Better Reading Books Science Research Associates, Inc., 259 E. Erie St., Chicago 11, Ill. Reading level - Grades 5-10 Price - $2.50 ($1.95 in quantities) Set of three books designed to improve rate and comprehension. Twenty tests to measure each reading rate and comprehension exercise. Selections from literature, content subjects. Book 1 (5.0-6.9 grade level), Book 2 (7.0-8.9), Book 3 (9.0-10.9).
(40) SRA Reading Laboratories Science Research Associates, Inc., 259 E Erie St., Chicago 11, Ill. Reading level - Readiness to college level Price - Varies ($49.50-$54.50 for all except Lab. I - $79.50. Record booklets - $0.35-$1.15) Multilevel stories and exercises in one kit. Identified by color instead of grade designation. Three types of exercises: power builders, rate builders (not in primary labs), and listen-
41

ing skill builders. Up to fifteen power builders at each reading level; same number of rate builders. Answer keys for selfchecking. High interest. Good as part of basal program or as part of remedial program. Teacher's guide in each kit. Kits available and reading levels in these kits as follows:
Ir/1 - Readiness
I - Phonics program (Word games to accompany labs la, Ib, Ie)
Ia - Grade 1 (Levels 1.2, 1.4, 1.7, 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 3.0) Ib - Grade 2 (Levels 1.4, 1.7, 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 3.0, 3.5,4.0) Ie - Grade 3 (Levels 1.4, 1.7,2.0,2.6,3.0, 3.5,4.0,4.5,5.0) IIa - Grade 4 (Levels 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 3.0, 3.5,4.0,4.5,5.0, 5.5,
6.0,6.5, 7.0) lIb - Grade 5 (Levels 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5,
7.0, 7.5, 8.0) lIe - Grade 6 (Levels 4.0,4.3,4.6,5.0,5.5,6.0,6.5, 7.0, 7.5,
8.0, 8.5, 9.0) El em. Ed. - Grades 4-6 (Levels 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 5.0,
6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0) lIla - Grades 7-9 (Levels 3.0, 4.0,5.0,6.0,7.0,8.0,9.0, 10.0,
11.0, 12.0) IIIb - Grades 8-10 (Levels 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0,
11.0, 12.0) IVa - Grades 9-12, College Freshman (Levels 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14) (41) Simplified Classics (State Ttextbook List)
Scott, Foresman and Co., 3145 Piedmont Rd., N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Reading level - Grades 3-5 Price - $1.80 - $3.04
Simplified editions of classics for handicapped reader. Supplementary. More than thirty titles. (42) Tactics in Reading Scott, Foresman, and Co., 3145 Piedmont Rd., N. E., Atlanta, Ga. Reading level - Approximately grade 6 upward Price $56.00
Box of fifty different cards of exercises, 35 copies of each card. Teaches comprehension and word attack skills. Aimed at poor reader in ninth grade. May be used alone or with Vanp;uard, ninth grade reader. Pretest on first three cards. Final evaluation test on last three cards. Student uses own paper for responding. Good for part of developmental or remedial reading or English classes.
42

(43) Teen-Age Tales (State Textbook List) D. C. Heath & Co., 280 Spring St., N. W. Atlanta 3, Ga. Reading level - Grades 3-6 Price - $2.01 Nine books of high interest containing stories about teenagers and for teen-agers. Adventure, mystery, action. Many illustrations. Designed to alter poor attitude toward reading. Books A, B, and C on third grade reading level. Books 1-6 on fifth to sixth grade level.
(44) Time for Phonics Webster Publishing Co., 1154 Reco Ave., St. Louis 26, Mo. (GSD) Reading level - Kindergarten through grade 3 Price - 60 96
Phonics program for kindergarten and primary grade levels. Book R - kindergarten, Book A - grade 1, Book B - grade 2, Book C - grade 3. Combines listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Designed mainly for kindergarten and primary grades but useful with remedial reading groups. Supplements a basal series of readers. Scott and Pavelko publication. (45) Tommy O'Toole Books Benefic Press, 1900 Narragansett Ave., Chicago 39, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 1-3 Price - $1.80
Three books. Interesting adventure stories. Two-color illustrations. Sixteen page section at back of book using Cordts System of Functional Phonics. Stories designed to develop reading skills, independence in reading, word recognition skills. Controlled vocabulary. (46) True Books Childrens Press, Inc., Jackson Blvd. & Racine Ave., Chicago 7, Ill. (GSD) Reading level - Grades 1-3 Price - $2.00 ($1.50 net)
Non-fiction topics. Varying reading levels from first through third grades. Well illustrated. More than fifty titles. (47) Webster's New Practice Readers Webster Publishing Company, 1154 Reco Ave., St. Louis 26, Mo. Reading level - Grades 2-8 Price 78
Graded readers for use in basal or remedial reading. Contain tests and progress charts. Aimed toward development of seven comprehension skills. Story on left hand page, test questions on right. Readiness section before each story. Interesting stories. One book on each grade level from second through eighth. Books A through G.
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POSSIBILITIES FOR FOLLOW-UP
DOYNE M. SMITH
Follow-up of the conference should involve three types of action: (1) a report of the conference to the schools represented, (2) an opportunity for the school faculty to discuss its own reading program in terms of ideas presented at the conference, and (3) an evaluation directed by the superintendent to see what has been do~ following the conference and what, if anything, it means in terms of improvement in the system's reading program. Each system or school should plan its own way of presenting ideas obtained from the conference. However, some possibilities that may be considered are presented here.
(1) The superintendent may call the teacher-representatives together and plan a system-wide presentation of conference happenings.
(2) Each teacher-representative, in conference with the superintendent, may plan his own school presentation of the conference happenings.
(3) The superintendent may call together the principals, teacher-representatives, and the curriculum director to plan for a system-wide presentation of the conference activities.
(4) The superintendent may call together the principals and the curriculum director to plan how to make use of teacherrepresentatives in reporting on the conference.
(5) Teacher-representatives may circulate to interested teachers a copy of the conference bulletin, keeping a record of teacher interest in and use of the copy.
(6) The teacher-representative may present the characteristics of a good reading program and evaluate with the faculty the school's reading program. This might give leads for further study or modification.
(7) A short faculty meeting may be held in each school around each topic with the aim of passing on a report of that topic and then deciding what it means to the teachers and principal.
(8) The teacher-representative may demonstrate the informal reading inventory at a faculty meeting.
(9) Teacher-representatives from several schools may plan a joint reporting session with each representative taking the responsibility of reporting on a particular topic.
(10) An abbreviated presentation of the talk on characteristics of a good reading program may be used with school faculties, and the tape may be followed by faculty discussion.
(11) The superintendent will make plans to evaluate what happens in his system as a result of the conference.
44