Social science bulletin: s. r. 105 [June 1962]

SOCIAL SCIENCE BU LLETI N
s. R. lOS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CLAUDE PURCELL SUPERINTENDENT ATLANTA.GEORGIA

CURRICULUM BULLETIN S. R. 105 CONFLICTING IDEOLOGIES IN A CHANGING WORLD
A Directive Bulletin for Public School Personnel Authorized by the State Department of Education June 1962.

GEORGIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

,

State Office Building

Atlanta 3, Georgia

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"Today, as always, 'eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.' But, as never before, this vigilance must be active, broadly shared, and informed. We are witnesses to the fact that the arduous climb from bondage to freedom can be quickly reversed for those peoples, however well-intentioned, who are indifferent, weak or confused. History demands of us that this great nation be the principal bulwark against the multitude of forces, often obscure, which are constantly working against freedom wherever it eXists. ff
- John F. Kennedy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD INTRODUCTION

pro Claude Purcell State Superintendent of Schools
Dr. H. S. Shearouse Director, Division of Instruction

PREMISES FOR THE PROGRAM

4

IMPLICATIONS FOR SCOPE AND SEQUENCE CHART

5

GUIDELINE I: CLASSROOM PROCEDURE

13

A. Handling Controversial Issues

13

B. Teaching Critical Thinking

21

C. Problem-Solving and Thinking

22

D. Developing the Skills of Research

27

E. Recognition of Propaganda and

Specific Propaganda Devices

32

GUIDELINE II: THE PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FREEDOM

35

GUIDELINE III: CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE WORLD

41

GUIDELINE IV: COMPLEXITY OF WORLD INTERDEPENDENCE

49

REVIEW OF PROGRAMS FROM OTHER SCHOOL SYSTEMS

51

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FOREWORD
The state Board of Education, at its March 21, 1962 meeting, adopted the Scope and Sequence Chart for Social Studies. I am bringing this to your attention for two reasons:
(1) As new materials are selected, this sequence should be taken into consideration; and
(2) The subject of Americanism vs. Communism should be taken up at appropriate times in all of the social science -- economics, history, sociology,geography and political science at all grade levels when appropriate.
The Scope and Sequence Chart was developed by a committee working in this area for several years. It is a part of a teacher's guide in social science, which is being used in several pilot school systems this year. We expect to revise the guide after its use in the pilot systems and make it available to all social science teachers of the state.
The General Assembly, by Resolution SR 105, called on the State Board of Education to require 30 hours of classroom instruction "in the dogmas and tenets of Americanism and to develop intelligent and aggressive opposition to Communism and teach loyalty to our American political and economic system."
It is the concensus of the committee, members of the State Board of Education and those of us here in the State Department of Education that 30 hours is not enough instruction in this field. We believe appropriate instruction in this field should be within the framework of the presently required courses in American and world history, economics, sociology, political science and geography.
In view of this decision, a sub-committee of the State Social Studies Committee has prepared this Curriculum Bulletin SR 105, for distribution and use throughout the state, keeping in mind that these are suggestions to be developed at the local level. The purpose of this bulletin is to give to the instructional staffs help in the use of the techniques involved in the basic understandings of American Government and economics and the basic understandings of the Communist system of government and economics.
Claude Purcell State Superintendent of Schools

1
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INTRODUCTION
In keeping with the philosophy of the State Department of Education that the subject of "Americanism" versus "Communism" shall be taken up at appropriate times at all grade levels, I recommend, for your consideration, this material which has been prepared by the Social Science Teachers as a result of SR-105 and the subsequent action of the State Board of Education.
In this curriculum bulletin, the American tradition is emphasized as well as the threat of Communism to the World today. We have a responsibility for this type of instruction and we must meet this responsibility in such a way as to acquaint our students with the facts in order for them to be able to make wise decisions at a time when the Communist movement has engulfed nearly a quarter of the land surface of the World.
You will receive at a later date a bulletin on instructional material in social sciences for the State of Georgia including a special bibliography of materials needed to implement this bulletin.
Sam Shearouse, Director Division of Instruction

-4PREMISES

In developing this bulletin, Social Science SRl05, the committee evaluated the problem and pursued under the following assumptions:

1. It is imperative that the Superintendent of the local school system obtain from the school board a written policy for implementing the program as outlined.

2. The program should be reflected throughout the total school curriculum and the responsibility should be shared by the entire school personnel.

3. To meet the need does not require additional courses, but rather the supplementing of the present program with expanded units and clarifying the purposes for the teaching of selected content. There is value for resource units to be developed at the local level.
4. The teacher is responsible for providing opportunities for students to develop the skills of logical thinking; however, the teacher must be on the alert to see that critical thinking starts with the use of accurate facts.

5. Before organizing the program the school administration should evaluate faculty competency in both content knowledge and classroom procedure. The following phases should be considered:

(a) Understanding the techniques of teaching controversial issues

(b) Understanding of the evolution of our political, economic and social heritage

(c) Understanding the nature of conflicting ideologies of today'S world

(d) Understanding the complexity of world interdependence

6. Extreme caution should be exerted to adapt the content offerings to the maturity of the student and stay within the framework of the state adopted scope and sequence. The first responsibility of the teacher is to see that the student has a sound foundation in his own country's heritage.

7. All materials on the broad subject of Communism are not necessarily suitable; the school has the dual responsibility (1) to evaluate the material used in the classroom, and (2) to give the students the skills for evaluating his own pertinent facts.

8. All teachers, K through 12, should assume the responsibility of pursuing adequate preparation in order to meet the demands of the student's interest and concern. The policy should be -"answer the student's questions."

9. It is the responsibility of the local school system to provide an

In-Service Program for teachers. This program should emphasize

both the "why" and "what of it" type of instruction, as well as

give the teacher content knowledge on contemporary affairs. It is

well to keep in mind, the urgency for teachers being well-informed

on this particular subject; in fact, the program must start with

teacher competence.

----

...,

-5IMPLICATIONS FOR SCOPE AND SEQUENCE CHART

The members of the sub-committee selected certain concepts which were pertinent to the Curriculum Bulletin - SR 105, within the framework of the Scope and Sequence and in keeping with the educational maturity of the students. This selection is suggestive and should not limit the teachers as far as developing these concepts or expanding the list. Furthermore, the selected list attempts to cover only one particular area of the total year's program. The committee at the local level will need to exert particular vigilance to keep a program balanced in sequence and scope.

Kindergarten, Grades 1 - 3:

Scope and Sequence

Concepts developed within the framework of the home, school and community units.*

Concepts for Emphasis

1. Worth of Persons

Respect for adults

Respect for siblings

Respect for wisdom

obedience to and appreciation

Courtesy

of authority

Self-respect

Responsibility for self

Thoughtfulness

2. Property Respect for possessions of others Respect for personal property
Sharing

3. Individual a part of the group Compromise those who do not consider others,act this way because they have not learned a better way Success of group requires responsible action of each
member Individual worth of each member Helping others

4. Law and order

5. Civic Responsibility Family, School and Community

6. Right to be different

7. Man uses the best sources in his environment to satisfy his basic needs

REFERENCES: Michaelis, John U. Editor, SOCIAL STUDIES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 32 Ybk.

National Council for Social Studies, 1962. pp. 146-147. EDUCATION FOR AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP. Am. Assn. of School Adm. 32 Ybk.

pp. 55 - 66.

7

* see: TENTATIVE GUIDE SOCIAL SCIENCE - Ga. State Department of Ed. pp. 25 4

**Ibid. p. 32

4th Grade: 5th Grade:

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Scope and Sequence Chart Geography Southeastern U.S.* Introduction to the world through comparative study of
physical geography
ANTHROPOLOGY * Indian Culture
Concepts for Emphasis
1. People's ways of living are conditioned by the natural environment Social institutions and government are modified by physical conditions
2. Interdependence The Southeast with other parts of the United States, of the Americas and of the world
3. Geography affects how people make a living and the resulting economy of the region
4. The natural environment modifies human behavior
5. All cultures develop a system for establishing and maintaining law and order
6. Change is inevitable: Opportunities to bring about change peacefully must be provided within the framework of the government and social institutions or violence and destruction of a society will bring change
Scope and Sequence History*
Survey of U. S. with emphasis on period from 1492 - 1790
Geography*
U. S. and Canada with emphasis on physical, economic and cultural
Concepts for Emphasis
1. Worth of the individual a. People from many different parts of the world contributed to the basis of American democracy

See TENTATIVE GUIDE SOCIAL SCIENCE, Ga. State Department of Education, p. 95-97; p. 176-177. TENTATIVE GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE, Ga. State Department of Education, p. 54-55; p. 98-102.

,.
-7b. People fought for and earned the right to practice
religious freedom separate from state domination c. Right of each man to have part in decision making
processes
2. Individual initiative, private property and freedom of choice - basis of the free enterprise system a. Democracy is a way of life as well as a form of government
3. Democracy exists and was fostered only to the extent that more and more people were given their personal rights and their right to participate in the government
4. Acceptance of responsibility a. responsible citizenship prerequisite for democratic institutions
5. Geography of a region basis for economic system a. U. S. and Canada's free enterprise system fOSLered by its geography b. Similarity has been basis of cooperation
6. Interdependence
6th Grade: Scope and Sequence HISTORY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION *
Survey of old world with emphasis on countries and cultures which have primarily contributed to the formation of the Anglo-American community.
GEOGRAPHY*
Europe and Asia with emphasis on the economic and cultural developments. Strong unit on Russia. *
Concepts for Emphasis
1. Democracy fosters rights of man Men have struggled for democratic principles in every era
2. Government of laws ant i-tyrannical
3. Sense of Justice Democracy triumphs when each individual assumes responsibility for maintaining it
* TENTATIVE GUIDE FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCE. Georgia State Department of Education. pp. 56-57; 103-110

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4. Tyranny There have been and are many forms of tyranny, not just Communism

5. Peace Lost by failure to understand other nations' problems

6. Religious beliefs tend to influence type of government prevailing in a given area

7. Colonialism Contributing factor to appeal of communism

8. Change is inevitable but can be directed and controlled U. S. responsibility toward underdeveloped nations

9. Interdependence of world of nations has increa~ed until today it is basic in our understanding and our actions

* 7th Grade: Scope and Sequence SOCIOLOGY

Social institutions and the church.

home, school, government, business

Suggested to be used as introduction to: GEOGRAPHY**

Latin America and Africa with Southeast Asia included if not treated under Europe and Asia.

Concepts for Emphasis

1. National;i.sm

2. Revolution of rising expectations

3. Capacity of all groups for some degree of self-government

4. Interdependence

5. Social institutions are not ends in themselves but are instruments we employ in trying to attain an adequate and stable society

6. Similarities between peoples and their activities

7. We strive to meet the same needs through different methods and institutions

* TENTATIVE GUIDE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE, Ga. State Dept. of Education. p. 168
Tiegs, E. W. and Fay Adams, T~CHING THE SOCIAL STUDIES. Ginn & Co.,
Atlanta, 1959. p. 201. ** TENTATIVE GUIDE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE, Ga. State Dept. of Education. pp. 111
115 and 117.

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8th Grade: Scope and Sequence GEORGIA HISTORY AND U. S. HISTORY*
U. S. Survey, 1776-1876 as background for Georgia History and government from early to modern. Emphasis on the inheritance of Georgians from social, economic, and political history.
Concepts for Emphasis
1. Informed citizenry basis for capacity for self-government.
2. Appeal to Reason.
3. Search for and respect for truth as basic democratic principle.
4. Freedom is based on social responsibility. Individual constantly strives to preserve freedom.
5. Tyranny exists within a democracy when citizens do not accept responsibility for extension of precepts of freedom to all men
6. Equality of opportunity
7. Republican form of government
8. Interdependence basis for world cooperation
9. Competition and free enterprise basis for capitalistic democracy
10. Public education for all directly related to regional and national growth
9th and 10th Grade: Scope and Sequence
GEOGRAPHY **
World Regional
WORLD HISTORY
Emphasis on the total world and modern times. The treatment should be more than a political history
Whether through a two-year course or a one-year course Geography and History must be studied and understood together to understand a region. Penetration into several selected areas, with the "courage to exclude"
* TENTATIVE GUIDE SOCIAL SCIENCE. Ga. Dept. of Education. pp. 58 - 66. ** References: TENTATIVE GUIDE SOCIAL SCIENCE. pp. 118-123. pp 67-75
(See: Specific Aim).

-10will result in better comprehension of the History of the World.

1.

Similarity of problems of all peoples throughout history.

2.

Geography influences cultural institutions, the economic

structure and resulting political philosophy of each area.

3.

Land Hunger basic drive of man and has led to modern

conquest through tyranny

4.

Advance of scientific knowledge related to power politics

5. The cold war

6.

Sectionalism applied to ideologies has been a cause for

divisiveness

7.

Totalitarianism

8.

Check and balance system essential in a democracy

9.

Money economy, price mechanism and rewards commensurate

to risks and individual abilities in the free enterprise

system

10.

Exploitation leads to tyranny

II.

Revolution of rising expectations

12.

The right, the middle and the left philosophy

13.

Loyalty to the state

14.

Constitutional government

15.

Balance of Power

16.

Socialism

17.

Fascism

18.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat

11th Grade: ~cope and Sequence 12th Grade:
UNITED STATES HISTORY, ECONOMICS, POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND SOCIOLOGY

Emphasis on U. S., 1870 to the present including tremds movements and beliefs of the cultural, economic, social and political development of the U.S.

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Concepts for Emphasis
1- The free individual 1f-:Z. a. Importance as an individual b. Maximum freedom, consistent with the general welfare c. The right to be different do Respect for the rights of others e. The right and the necessity of competition and cooperation among individuals and groups f. Guarantees of freedom of religion, inquiry, speech, press g. Right of a public education h. Right to life, liberty of person, fair trial i. Freedom from slavery, unreasonable search and seizure, unjust laws j 0 Responsibility of the individual to develop personal integrity and act with moral courage k. Responsibility of the individual to develop his abilities and to give direct, unselfish service to his family, his community, and his nation 1. Responsibility of individual to restrain the exercise of his rights so as not to harm the general welfare or violate rights of others mo Responsibility to give direct, unselfish service to his family, his community, and his nation
20 The Free Government a. The power to govern belongs to and comes from the people and men have the ability to govern themselves b. Public officials are responsible to the people and the people have the right to reform, alter or change the government by lawful means c. Government has a responsibility to promote the general welfare and should be by law duly adopted, not by the whim of any man or group d. The church and the state should be separate eo The checks in the Constitution on the powers of the government must be in effect at all times f. The rights to influence the government by regular elections, offering for public office, freedom of assembly and right of petition g. Political responsibilities assumed by the people are basic to success of democracy
3. The Free Economy a. The right to private property bo The Constitution guarantees against deprivation of property without due process of law, against forced labor, the rights of eminent domain, and the rights of the people to tax themselves c. The privileges of individual enterprise and individual labor d. The privileges and responsibilities of economic organizations - corporate enterprise and organized labor

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4. ECONOMICS*

The Free World

a.

The people influence the making and carrying

out of foreign policy

b. We are a politically independent nation, and

we want to remain independent

c.

We are a peaceful people and we work to rid

the world of war and the threat of war

d.

We believe that all the peoples of the world

are entitled to freedom to develop in their

own way

e.

Through the U.N. we hope to play an active

and constructive part of the world

community

f.

We favor the free and uncensored flow of

ideas and information throughout the worlds

g.

We are a nation in which the individual is

allowed a large degree of freedom; we desire

to retain unimpaired our individual rights

and liberties; we believe that a large

degree of individual freedom everywhere in

the world offers the best hope of lasting

peace. *.:~ *.:~ These concepts are adapted from the

Columbia University Citizenship Project.

1.

Productive resources

factors of production

2.

Capital formation

3. Division of labor, specialization and exchange

labor productivity

4.

Government expenditures and taxes in allocating

resources

5.

Economic production

conversion of resources into desired output

6.

Profit and the profit incentive

7.

International specialization

use in the cold war

8.

Balance of payments and balance of trade

9.

Gross National product, national income and per

capita product and income

10.

Money

bank deposits and money creation through bank lending

11. Economic growth

12.

Underdeveloped areas of the world

*All of these concepts can be and should be interpreted from the viewpoint of the Free World economy. They can be woven into all the social science and history courses and should not be taught only in an economics course.

* TENTATIVE GUIDE SOCIAL STUDIES. Georgia State Department of Education. pp. 162-166. ECONOMIC EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS. Report of the National Task Force on Economic Education, Committee for Economic Development. 1961.

1

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GUIDELINE I: CLASSROOM PROCEDURE
There are several pertinent reasons why teachers find it challenging to instruct in the social science area. Among these are: difficulty of dealing with abstract terms, extensive required readings, need for both breadth and depth in knowledge, and in many cases, handling topics which involve emotions.
HOW TO HANDLE CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES
Criteria in the Selection of Controversial Issues for Class Study
What factors does the teacher have to consider in making a decision to study a controversial question brought up in his class? Taking for granted a permissive policy in the school, which is basic, he should consider seven criteria or possible limitations.
1. Is this issue beyond the maturity and experiential level of the pupils? Although problems can be studied even in the lower grades, teachers are wise to select those which the pupils are most likely to grasp in terms of their own background and readiness.
It is wise to handle those topics upon which young people can act directly. It is also important to realize that youth needs a sound introduction to the problems that confront the nation. Even if immediate action is impossible, it seems essential that young people on the threshold of citizenship should be aware of, and grapple with, aspects of unsolved problems. In many of these problem areas, as the study unfolds, the number and variety of opportunities which do develop for direct p~pil action outside of the schoolroom is surprising. Actually as the pupils and teachers purposefully and cooly analyze and discuss these chronic issues and then take the necessary mutual steps in agreeing upon their solution, the school is initiating one of the most potent forces for cultural improvement that education has presented to any society. The beginnings of such competencies need to be laid in the elementary school. Children of all ages can and should discuss appropriate controversial issues.
2. Is this issue of interest to the pupils? The study of controversial problems like all other learning experiences needs motivation. If pupils as a group do not perceive the value of studying a given issue or are lukewarm towards it, the wise teacher will think twice before foisting such a topic upon them.
Related to this limitation if the question of the teacher's stressing issues or stimulating interest in problems which have not been apparent to the pupils. Certainly the teacher is obliged to act in such cases. This is part of his responsibility as a leader. If the issue meets the other six requirements in this list, a few well-placed questions or merely brief statements are often all that are necessary to spark pupil inquiry. Pupils

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are bound to overlook certain important implications of their lessons; this is especially true when working with groups of very homogeneous backgrounds.
3. Is this issue socially significant and timely for this course and grade level? One of the greatest difficulties in teaching is the selection of proper course content. Out of the vast number of possibilities for inclusion in the curriculum, the teacher needs to realize that certain approaches to subject matter are much more appropriate than others. In selecting issues, the objectives of a given subject, as well as the overall educational aims, must be kept in mind.
4. Is this issue one which the teacher feels he can handle successfully from a personal standpoint? Some teachers may legitimately sense that they are unprepared to pursue a problem properly; for example, the teacher with little or no economics training who is faced with a discussion on the question of some complex labor legislation. A teacher may also feel that his own background has made him too biased to try to lead the class impartially in the study of a given issue.
There are some issues, however, on which the public does not expect the teacher to be impartial. The social studies teacher has been employed by society to maintain its basic values. He is not expected to hide continually behind a label of neutrality. His duty is to select and provide the learning experiences that are most appropriate in reading educational aims.
Elements calling for teacher reinforcement include a number of values ranging from simple honesty to the sympathetic consideration of minority views. This may pose a real dilemma, for although the teacher is acting on behalf of the core cultural values, he must at the same time be cognizant of alternatives and opposing views and allow for their appearance in class discussion and study. Yet, the teacher who has faith in the democratic way of life and who displays an understanding of the implications of this system in his class organization and teaching techniques can proceed successfully.
,In what manner shall the teacher take his stand? His position should be as a learner among learners. He is not to set himself up as an authority. He is not to demand pupil acquiescence. He is not to seek blind indoctrination. He is not to misuse his position of responsibility and leadership for the promotion of personal causes.

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In many cases it is best for the teacher to refrain from stating his beliefs, or even the "accepted" views he is to maintain. It is only normal that his maturity and position as teacher would influence certain pupils to the extent that they would not do their own thinking, If he has a dynamic or engaging personality, he often needs to check the extent to which he is influencing his students. When pupils come to view his opinion as they would one of their peers, and see his statement in the critical light with which they would judge any other source, the teacher, when called upon, can inject his views at most any point of the study. This healthy situation is not common, so if the instructor wishes to promote reflective consideration of significant issues it is often better to try to appear as a neutral leader or fellow investigator. Some teachers believe the best policy is to reserve their statements until the end of the discussion or the conclusion of the study. Then each teacher includes his opinion, with the reasons, in his summary account of the unit or project.
5. Is this issue one for which adequate study materials can be obtained? Especially when impromptu issues arise the teacher should make certain that adequate materials are available before starting a full scale study of the problem. A conference with the librarian may be in order. Materials should be used which are at the maturity and reading levels of the pupils. A variety of sources is preferred and, whenever possible, materials should be used which present all sides of an issue. Where materials are at hand which reflect only one view, the teacher must point this out and at times may need to explain the less common or unpopular cause in order to attain a well-balanced consideration. The danger is that pupils might interpret the teacher's balancing presentation as support for his own bias. This serves to point to the need for rapport in classrooms where controversial issues are to be discussed. There must be mutual confidence on the part of pupils and teacher, and proof in the teacher's leadership that he respects facts and acts accordingly in terms of his own value system. Where, however, enough pertinent materials are not available for a thorough study of a controversial issue, it is questionable whether or not the issue should be approached except as a "current event."
6. Is this issue one for which there is adequate time to justify its presentation? Just as pupil discussions of these issues should be much more than an exchange of opinions, so must there be adequate time provided for thorough study if sound conclusions and well-founded attitudes are to be formed. Seldom is it possible to conduct adequate study of a problem in a single week, let alone several class periods.

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7. Is this issue one which will clash with community customs and attitudes? Perhaps the most important limitations upon the school's freedom in handling controversial issues are the local mores and the immediate climate of opinion. Issues can be too "hot" (a bitterly contested election) or conflict so with community traditions (religious or moral questions) that the teacher is only "cutting his own throat" to venture into such problems. There may be legitimate local or pupil needs for such study, but until the teacher has administrative and school backing, the confidence of parents, and a mandate from the majority of the community he can only work to gain these by leading his pupils into less controversial areas. Eventually he may win the necessary support to tackle the more pointed issues.
The teacher should become fully acquainted with the community in which he is employed. Current issues, planned or incidental, should be calibrated by the teacher like the degrees on a thermometer. Those that register about 2120 in the local climate of opinion are usually best left alone. There are many valuable problems suitable for pupil exploration in the lower degrees of community temperature where no one is likely to get burned. The teacher knows that issues, like the weather, shift with the wind. Many, above the boiling point at one time, later drop to a more approachable position. Numerous questions, for example, cool considerably the day after an election. In other situations it may take a generation or longer, but the shift comes.
FOUR ASPECTS OF APPROACH
No universal set of rules can be listed for the successful handling of controversial issues. As with all methods, variations depend upon the instructor and school facilities, while at the same time the issue itself may alter the pattern of study. In general, however, the program for approaching controversial problems can be broken into four aspects; preparation, introduction, investigation, and culmination.
Preparation
Most of the preparatory duties have already been indicated. Such planning and organization is essential. Necessary attention to these initial factors will do much to insure a profitable venture into controversial areas.
------

Introduction

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The exact steps in the second or introductory phase will vary with class and topic. The teacher has, nevertheless, several important responsibilities in every situation. He must see that the class perceives the objectives in the study; that it really understands the issues involved and their implications. "Why should we study this problem?" "Where will this lead us, both as individuals and as a group?" These are two questions to be asked in all cases, once the problem itself has been clearly defined. The definition of words and of each point of view is of infinite importance. Problems of semantics are vital in controversial areas; meanings must be clear in order that topics can be managed. In this way all concerned will know what each is talking about. Often, after such clarification, pupils may realize that they are close to accord, and harmony may be reached with little further difficulty.

In this phase of the study the pro's and con's, the arguments underlying each point of view, should be listed by the group. The teacher or class chairman can run two columns down the blackboard and gather pupil statements under each heading. Original hypotheses will now crystallize. Challenges will be made and pupils will begin to realize the difference between opinion and fact and the need for substantiating evidence. With pupil-teacher planning, the class can next decide upon the specific methods and program to be used in studying the problem. The gathering of opposing views suggested above may preferably come during the third or investigation phase when individual pupils or committees report back their findings as they prepare to appraise the data they have collected.

During the introductory phase, pupils are led to try to answer two more basic questions; in addition to settling "just what is the problem", they become involved in "just why is this a problem."

Investigation

Much of what has been discussed here applies in the third phase of the study of controversial issues. This period of investigation is usually the longest, and it is here that the pupils carry out the research which leads to the culmination of the study.

Some of the greatest hurdles to overcome in aiding pupils to think through controversial questions lie in helping the pupils to gain an understanding of just why they hold a given position, the possible fallacies involved,

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and in aiding them to understand opposing views and their bases. The alert teacher regularly encourages his pupils to write frank answers to questions such as the following: "What are all the reasons behind my viewpoint?" "Why do I find this position most satisfying?" "How can I prove it best?" "What are the strong points of the other argument?" "Just why do my protagonists hold their views?" Such questions can also be the basis for valuable class discussions.
One of the most promising techniques for gaining an understanding of the other fellow is the use of role playing. Many individuals are surprised when they find how well they can cast themselves in the position held by the opposing camp when playing such a role in a sociodrama. A teen-ager can bring himself to see many points in the adult argument when, temporarily a parent, he defends sensible hours for sleep, nondrinking by minors, limitation in the use of the family car, or any other of the myriad of problems which can cause friction between youth and their parents. With the proper background reading and preparation, people can be just as effective in developing a mock political debate, a UN committee hearing, or a labor-management bargaining session. Regular skits and dramatizations can be used in these situations but are not believed to be as valuable as the sociodrama in gaining the understandings and changed attitudes which are desired.
During the investigation period with its ensuing discussions the teacher, in addition to being alert for evidences of incorrect thinking, loose generalizations, and outright errors in fact, has further responsibilities. He should help keep group discussion centered upon the point at issue, help maintain calm when emotions rise, see that all sides have equal opportunities to present their ideas, draw the timid into the discussion, and help plan or he himself should present fair summarizations of the class findings or conclusions. In all of this, he remains a director of learning but his leadership is inconspicuous.
Culmination
Probably no class should try to follow each problem or unit in the same manner. When the group assembles for the culmination--the final discussion and appraisal of the facts gathered concerning the issue--they and the teacher are faced once more with the problem of presentation. Again, a number of excellent and varied techniques for organization are availalbe; included are individual reports, committee reports of different types, panels, round tables, open class discussions, and audio-visual presentations such as graphic blackboard and photographic bulletin board displays. Student playlets, sometimes recorded on tapes, are also used.

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Some teachers report success with modified debate forms, while others stay away from that approach, feeling that some of the aims and techniques associated with debates are not conducive to the type of mutual thinking toward agreement which is necessary in resolving controversial issues. As with the techniques used by the class while finding the facts, similarly a combination of these approaches suggested above is often possible.
As the evidence is presented, final hypotheses appear or are suggested and the class in most cases should draw individual and group conclusions. Varied procedure is again possible, depending upon the issue. The real test comes in most cases in the resulting pupil action in school and community; this is what counts. The teacher should lead the group to test their conclusions by making this transfer and application as individuals. It is seldom the place for a class on behalf of the school to take group action in the community, by attempting to settle a controversial problem. However, in some open-minded localities where there are community-centered schools, or in situations where the pupils are dealing with a lowtemperature problem, direct school leadership towards solution or improvement of the condition is possible and has occurred with dramatic results.
When is Pupil Action Possible?
How and where is pupil action based upon their social studies possible? Most valuable are the adjustments in behavior and attitude reflected in the pupils' own immediate lives, whether the case be adjusted vocational plans or a new group policy toward admitting present out-group pupils into a hitherto restricted club. Throughout the school, evidence can be observed of the efficacy of attempting to resolve issues and of the value of experiences in rational thinking; in the student council, in class elections, in the cafeteria, and in the halls--here is where teachers must watch to find the real results of their teaching. More difficult are the observations of behavior in the community. Tests are being constructed and improved which can help the teacher measure some of the attitudinal developments that he has been seeking for his pupils. In some schools a practice is made of regularly holding assemblies where a class dealing with a particular issue can bring its work to a most valuable culmination by presenting a forum or a Junior Town Meeting related to the topic. Sometimes these are presented over local radio stations. Television now also provides an opportunity for pupils to bring their thinking to the attention of the community. Wherever practical, pupil follow-ups upon their decisions outside of the school are most worthwhile. These

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may vary from writing a letter to a congressman to trying, during a family discussion, to gain parental understanding of a viewpoint which is different from their own. Pupil interest remains high when issues are studied which allow them to make social contributions--resulting in more satisfactory lives for themselves. It is also beneficial when the pupils' attempts to resolve the question help them gain an understanding of the greater problems involved as well as pointing out the next or possible further areas of investigation for their class. Whether this follows immediately or is reserved for some future date or even a higher grade level depends .upon the issue and the flexibility of the school program.
Certainly pupils cannot solve or even act upon all of the issues they consider. In connection with chronic issues, they can learn to gain satisfaction from having come to a fuller knowledge of the conditions. In working with such questions, the knowledge of having tried their best must suffice on some occasions. Often from such studies' pupils come to believe that, if only the adults in the community had tried harder, many more sa~isfactory solutions would have been reached. They should also emerge from xhe study of controversial questions with more of the skills with which they may resolve these and other such issues and with a concern for, and the desire to share in, the tasks of their age.
These fundamental statements were selected from, How to Do It Series. No. 14. Published by the National Council for Social Studies N.E.A. Building, 1201 - 16th Street, N.W., Washington 6, D.C. The bulletin may be purchased for 259.

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TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING
Children's thinking can be improved by good teaching procedures. The elementary school period is most important for the development of good thinking procedures on the part of children. Inconsistency in the thinking of children results from the lack of maturity, from meager life experience, and from contact with improper teaching procedures. The following are likely to be characteristic of children's thinking:
Absolute judgments dominate.Things tend to be right or wrong, black or white. Differences in degrees within a total event are not recognized. As a child grows older, absolute judgments begin to give way, with increasing discrimination of degrees and differences of opinion. This movement away from absolute judgment takes place as the child begins to see more elements which need to be considered in a situation. This is really a slow process of enlarging a child's perceptions of the situation.
The "I" dominates. Little children are intensely partisan. As a child becomes increasingly sensitive to others and to the group, ego and the purely subjective basis for. reasoning begin to disappear. The beginnings of sensitivity to others and the group can be accomplished in the primary grades.
Ability to abstract and generalize the present at an early age develops very slowly. This ability does exist in kindergarten children and needs constant encouragement. Questions which lead to revealing relationships are helpful. Children are greatly influenced by accidental associations in time and space. Too often children deal with analyzed whole situations; others they cannot seem to think beyond specific parts and put the whole together. This is constantly a problem throughout the elementary school.
Not all adults are logical, and not all children are illogical. Often the child's illogical answer can furnish the teacher with a cue as to the inadequacies of of the way he perceives the situation. Once the way the pupil is looking at the situation can be determined, the teacher, through questions, can often help him see the situation differently. I.
The real is not distinguished from the unreal, the objective from the subjective, what happens in the child's mind from what actually happens in the world. As a child grows older, increasing references are made to the real world. The real is discriminated from the unreal. Increasing this discrimination is a responsibility not only in the primary grades, but in the intermediate grades. Social studies can make a definite contribution to it.
1. The above has been freely adapted from William H. Burton, Ronald B. Kimball, and Richard E. Wing, Education for Effective Thinking, pp. 336-338. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., Copyright 0, 1960.

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Children's questioning. Children are full of questions. Our problem is to keep alive and encourage the questioning attitude, not to discourage it. Actually, curiosity and a desire tO'find out are the root of all thinking. Some general guides for thinking may be of help to the teacher.
Situations calling for thinking must be of concern to the children. Where they can deal with children's purposes, concerns, and activities, they are more meaningful. Imposed situations are not as effective for developing thinking.
If the situations are meaningful to children, they will be related to the learner's maturity, experience background, and readiness. Children in anyone class will differ widely in relation to these factors. Set pattern of procedures are to be avoided. Problem-solving will be more successful if a variety of approaches is used. Children need to be helped to see a problem in a variety of ways.
Assistance on helping children to solve problems should be through questions, the development of possible alternatives, and aid in helping children to see the problem differently. Supplying right facts, processes, and answers will not encourage thinking or questioning.
Children need to observe and read wisely for background. Without background, questions cannot be raised nor problems identified. However, the teacher needs to be aware that knowledge of facts alone will not lead to thinking or problem-solving; therefore, after reading, children must be encouraged to raise problems and clarify them.
Thinking can be affected by numerous factors: motivation, the nature of the problem or situation, social-class mores, peer-group values, teacher personality, the emotional climate of the classroom, learner's own emotional nature (insecurity, cocksureness, perfectionism, cdmplacency, satisfaction with mediocre work), and other personality factors. 2.
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND THINKING
If the problem is important to the child, the solution is the goal that the child wants to reach. He is unable to reach this goal through his habitual pattern responses. He has to tryout new responses to see whether they will work. The process of problem-solving involves five steps:
1. Becoming aware of the problem. The child must realize that a problem exists. A rich and varied background is needed.
2. Ibid, freely adapted, p. 343.

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Also a questioning attitude is necessary. If the child accepts what is read without raising any questions about it, no thinking will take place. Questions raised may seem wild, but they will give the teacher an insight into the way the child perceives the problem.
2. Clarifyingche problem. The child moves here from sensing the problem in broad general terms to seeing more elements in clear detail -- just what is known, what resources are available, what is the goal. This step may need to be returned to several times before the problem is clear and clearly stated.
3. Proposing hypotheses as solutions of the problem. During this phase specific proposals are suggested and elaborated as possible solutions. This is a period during which children feel uncertain, but they are growing rapidly in their ability to suggest solutions to problems. Some of the suggestions may be brilliant; some, stupid. Here again the teacher must be aware that the quality of the hypotheses gives a cue as to how the child perceives the problem. If the hypotheses appear stupid to the teacher, more time should be spent on helping the child to look and see the problem differently.
1. Burton offers some specific suggestions as to how the teacher may help.
Call attention to one factor at a time. Divide the problem into parts. This may serve to focus attention on some important or significant characteristic, to elim~nate misleading or irrelevant qualities which may be unduly spectacular or otherwise unusual.
Warn against being blocked by a verbal or an imaginary whole; select parts for scrutiny when such a blocking appears.
Attending to one factor at a time is what is meant by analysis in the psychological sense. Analysis is not "picking to pieces." We can, however, focus upon one feature after another, each exclusively for the time being. This usually stimulates suggestions, guesses, leads. Unskilled thinkers often sit and stare at a problem in apparent bafflement. They seem almost to expect the solution or a hint toward a solution to appear magically. Training enables a pupil to break up the problem, to look first here, then there, and so on. The more aspects that are consciously considered, the more connections are possible; hence, more recall and suggestions are likely.
1. The above has been freely adapted from William H. Burton, Ronald B. Kimball, and Richard E. Wing, Education for Effective Thinking, pp. 336-338. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. Copy right 1960.

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-

---aS-nuaglgoegstierse, l

ated and persons,

comparable experiences or other sources which

and problems, might stimulate

thinking on the problem.

___Deliberately encourage pupils to "take a chance," encourage "hunches',' controlled guesses, partial insights. Get as many reasonable hypotheses as possible. Pupils may sometimes be encouraged to make and to follow for a time, seemingly wild shots. Successful or unsuccessful, these guesses or hypotheses are likely to lead to fresh angles and new data. At any rate, pupils should be made secure from fear of "being ridiculous." If an idea is ridiculous enough, this will soon be apparent. Many very valuable results have stemmed from suggestions which were laughed at when first produced.

Write down hypotheses as given, and then consider each --systematically. This often changes the conception of
the problem.

4. Reasoning about implications of the hypothesis. Here the child takes one hypothesis at a time and the relevant facts which are known to him. He decides on the basis of his facts whether or not the hypothesis holds up and has a possible solution. The teacher can be of help to this point in determining whether he has adequately selected the facts he needs and whether his reasoning follows from his facts.

5. Testing the chosen hypothesis with experience. The selected conclusion is tested to see whether it is valid. The poor problem-solver seldom makes this check. If the hypothesis is not correct, the child repeats the process, attempting to arrive at a satisfactory solution.

Actually, of course, in solving a problem, a child does not ordinarily progress through each of the five steps. He may see only one phase of the problem, develop a hunch, and try to come up with an answer. When this does not work, he will go back and take another look at it.

To make the whole problem a little clearer, the following chart on steps and skills in critical thinking is included. Keep in mind that in the child's thinking the steps do not follow in logical order. Steps one, two, and three are apt to occur together, as are steps four through seven. Seven and eight will also occur together. Oftentimes while the child is working with the data as represented in steps four, five, and six, new hypotheses and new issues may occur; and steps one, two, and three will again be utilized.

Adapted freely from the Teaching the Social Studies. Illinois Curriculum Program.

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-25OUTLINE OF STEPS AND SKILLS IN CRITICAL THINKING

STEPS IN STUDYING ISSUES
Defining the Issue. Once it emerges, the issue must be narrowed and defined to leave no question about its meaning.

SKILLS NEEDED BY PUPILS
Recognize when issues arise. Define and state an issue or problem clearly.

Exploring the Issue. The issue must be broken down into its various aspects so that students can clearly see what is included in it.

Analyze or break down a subject into its component parts. Remember and make use of what has been learned.

Suggesting Hypotheses. Once the limits of the issue have been agreed upon, the group must set up a number of hypotheses or possible solutions.

Suggest a number of possible solutions to a stated problem.

Collecting and Recording Data. Since data collected are to be available to the whole group, all facts must be recorded in a form usable by the group. Agree on data required and a form for recording them.

Find data. Collect and record data so that they may be used in the consideration of an issue. Interpret maps, charts, and graphs so as to extract the data they may contain.

Presenting Data. Methods of presentation are needed which will get the data across in the clearest fashion and in a form best adapted to the group's needs.

Arrange data in an orderly and logical sequence. Present data clearly and without distortion.

Appraising Data. All data must be appraised before they can be used for testing hypotheses. This sifting process leaves a residue of data for use in the final steps.

Detect errors in data. Find inconsistencies in data. Evaluate data and determine their proper weight as evidence.

Testing Hypotheses. Each hypothesis must be considered in relation to the data. Students must balance all the data and determine whether or not the evidence supports the hypotheses.

Synthesize, or put parts together into a related whole. Hold in mind a number of facts and draw conclusions from them.

Determining Possible Conclusions. Having tested all hypotheses, the students must decide whether or not any conclusions are possible. If any conclusions are accepted, they must be carefully stated with supporting evidence.

Spot false analogies. Recognize when data are inadequate for reading a conclusion. Recognize the validity of conclusions
which may conflict with the students' views. 2.

2. See Brochure on Critical Thinking in Current Affairs Discussion," p. 20 Middletown, Conn.: Junior Town Meeting League, 1956.

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SUMMARY
The suggestions on thinking can be utilized in some degree with children of all ages. The materials and problems must be at their age level.
Some guidelines for the teacher as he stimulates and directs the growth of pupils toward these desired ends are:
1. Critical thinking is one aspect of the total thinking process; its development is based, in large part, upon the more generalized thinking process which is the concern of the teacher.
2. Effective thinking and the effective solution of problems is in part dependent upon the ability of the child to reconstruct parts of many experiences into a new thought unit, a "concept."
3. The development of concepts, and their use in the solution of problems, appears to be highly dependent upon the ability of pupils to verbalize these re-formed or re-grouped.experiences.
4. The development of verbal facility in pupils is one of the most important tasks facing the teacher.
5. A problem must be recognized as such by an individual pupil.
6. Problem solving involves five rather broad steps: identification of the problem; comparison of the present problem with previous experiences; formulation of a tentative solution; testing the tentative solution; and acceptance or rejection of the solution.
The solution of problems in the classroom should be continually approached through this procedure in order that pupils may have the opportunity to develop the habit of such an approach.
7. Pupils need to be challenged; however, they need to know that their inevitable failures will be met with understanding on the part of the teacher and of their peers. (The Teacher should continually be aware of the danger of developing anxiety in pupils.)
8. The teacher should be aware of the importance of the sequence in the development of the study skills so that careful guidance may be given to pupils at all times. 3 .
3. Social Studies in Elementary Schools. Thirty-Second Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies. Chapter VI. p. 174.

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DEVELOPING THE SKILLS OF RESEARCH
As our world becomes more complex, and knowledge included in the social sciences multiplies, it becomes apparent that no person can learn in school all of the material he needs for out-of-school living, either as a twelve-year-old or the thirty-year-old. Instead, the person must know how to obtain the information he requires with sufficient ease to make it likely he will actually take the time to do so. Teachinglearning programs, in which the learnings of one year provide the basis for additional development the following year, are needed if pupils are to develop their ability to utilize information from references.
Developing the Habit of Using References
Concept
Information and ideas are needed to reach a valid conclusion, to state a good hypothesis or assumption, or even to express an intelligent opinion. The purpose of instruction is to discover the truth, and sufficient reading must be done to insure that all major aspects have been studied; also that the material used has approached the subject from varied viewpoints to correct for bias. The textbook should be regarded as a reference book.
Skills in Using Reference Materials
Pupils should learn how to discover, organize, and record material obtained from a reference.
Knowing Where to Look
1. Under what category would the information needed be classified? 2. What uses do the index and the table of contents serve? 3. Which of the available sources will yield the most "pay dirt"?
Knowing What to Record
1. Shall all important facts found in a reference be recorded? Usually one should not record material exactly as it appears in a reference book, copying it word for word. An exception would be recording needed figures, dates, or the statements of some famous person.
2. Should the reader begin recording information as he begins to read the reference being consulted? Usually one should read the section or pages over before recording. In this first reading the main ideas should be identified. They should then be recorded in the form in which they will be usable for whatever purpose they are intended.

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~bility to Evaluate the References Used
References are not infallible sources of information. They must be evaluated on such criteria as -- (1) the recency of their information, (2) the knowledge, background, and general ability of the authors, (3) the degree to which the information is specific and detailed enough to admit of appraisal, (4) the desire of the authors to be objective, (5) the pertinence of the material to the subject to be studied.
It is often desirable to use references which are not in agreement with each other. And the fact that major writers take opposing views does not indicate that either of them is wrong, or unscrupulous.
However careful the student of the social sciences may be to use the best facts available, there is always an element of judgment involved which will result in variance of so-called authorities. Truth is the best conclusion that can be reached from the information available, and it may change as more information is collected.
Conclusion
A pupil who has completed the twelfth grade should turn to the appropriate reference whenever further information appears to be desirable. He should be able to determine what source will be most useful, and he should be able to locate the information needed without undue expenditure of time and energy. After reading or listening to the information the pupil should be able to decide what he should record for later use.
Even more important than such skill is the pupil's need to be aware of the nature of truth, and the responsibility each person has to verify his ideas by testing them through use of the best data available. Developing a critical attitude towards knowledge is a major goal of the social studies. Time spent in educating pupils to use and evaluate reference materials will be time well spent, profitable both to the individual pupil and to our society. .
To be more specific, below you will find listed definite skills and grade levels:
Library Skills
I. Primary grades, 1 - 3, The Child:
1. Identifies the letters of the alphabet and learns their proper sequence (as a preliminary skill essential in using dictionaries, encyclopedias and other materials which are alphabetically arranged).
4. Adapted freely from the Teaching the Social Studies. Illinois Curriculum Program. pp. 145 - 150.

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2. Arranges simple words or names by the initial letter. 3. Uses alphabet books and picture dictionaries. 4. Handles books carefully in removing them and returning
them to the shelves. 5. Holds books properly (e.g., large picture books flat on
the table). 6. Turns pages correctly (e.g., by upper right hand corner of
page) 7. Uses a book mark to mark his place in a book. 8. Understands a simple classification of books on the library
shelves (e.g., "Easy," "Picture," "Easy Fiction," and "Fairy Tales"). 9. Locates these books on the shelves by the classification number on the spine of the book (e.g., E,P, EF, 398). 10. Recognizes the title page in a book. 11. Identifies pertinent information on the title page (e.g., author, title, illustrator, publisher). 12. Demonstrates good citizenship by sharing books, respecting the rights of other children and by assuming his share of responsibility for making the room a pleasant place in which to read and work.
II. Intermediate grades, 4 - 6. The child: 1. Applies his knowledge of the alphabet to facilitate the use of reference books. 2. Identifies the parts of a book (e.g., the table of contents, index, glossary, list of illustrations and maps, appendix, preface, and introduction). 3. Uses the foregoing information as he seeks material for assignments from his classrooms. 4. Uses the dictionary to obtain information about words (e.g., definition, spelling, syllabication, and pronunciation). 5. Shows a growing understanding of the special features of the dictionary (e.g., gazetteer, special plates, obsolete words, foreign words, biographical dictionary, abbreviations, and phrases). 6. Begins to use the Dewey Decimal Classification scheme to locate books in the library (e.g., all ten general classifications, with some specific sub-headings such as: 910 Geography, 973 U. S. History). 7. Locates entries in the card catalog and interprets them correctly (e.g., author, title, subject, "See" and "See Also" cards). 8. Begins to use the classification number on the catalog card to locate books on the shelves. 9. Uses children's encyclopedias efficiently in locating and gathering information (e.g., becomes familiar with arrangement, scope, contents, illustrations, indexes, -eroffreferences, letter-guides, and special features). 5.
5. Social Studies in Elementary Schools. 32nd Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies. pp. 183-184.

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10. Consults more than one encyclopedia to compare material on the same subject; notes the copyright date whenever up-to-date information is sought.
11. Assumes greater responsibility in the care and maintenance of library resources.
12. Learns to use some of the resources of the public library.

III.

Upper Grades, 7, 8, 9. The Child: 1. Locates place names and statistical information in atlases and gazetteers. 2. Understands the arrangement, scope, and use of different kinds of atlases (e.g., geographical, political, historical). 3. Uses the glossary of geographical terms. 4. Uses specialized maps and charts (e.g., airways, world explorations, tables of oceans, mountains, climate, races, resources). 5. Uses the index or lists of maps in an atlas to locate the required map. 6. Uses reference books that supply concise information about places, things, events, people, and progress (e.g., handbooks, almanacs, yearbooks, and manuals: The World Almanac, Information Please Almanac, Statesmen's Yearbook, Statistical Abstract of the U.S., municipal manuals, state manuals); notes whether material is up-to-date. 7. Uses special indexes to locate poetry, plays and short stories (e.g., Brewton's Index to Poetry and Subject and Title Index to Short Stories for Children, published by The American Library Association). 8. Consults current materials as sources of information (e.g., newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, clippings, pictures, bulletins). 9. Uses lists and bibliographies on current subjects.
10. Discovers sources of free and inexpensive materials. 11. Examines and evaluates newspapers as source of information
(e.g., compares several newspapers; learns to evaluate coverage, editorial policy, special features, propaganda, sources). 12. Consults a variety of magazines for reference (e.g., pictorial, scientific, news, literary, special). 13. Locates needed material in magazines through use of the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. 14. Consults many different sources of biographical information (e.g., books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, directories, yearbooks, Webster's Biographical Dictionary, Current Biography, Who's Who in America). 15. Selects information pertinent to a problem (e.g., makes a plan for selecting information before starting to read; decides how information is to be used; reads material through quickly to see if it is appropriate, re-reads the material and takes selective notes). 16. Records information efficiently (e.g., identifies topic sentence in each paragraph; identifies key words that support topic sentence; records only pertinent ideas).

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17. Demonstrates maturity by his consideration of others and

his independence in finding and using a wide variety of

materials.

5

18. Uses the resources of the public library intelligently ..

IV. Senior Grades 10-11-12

Throughout the secondary schools it becomes the responsibility of the classroom teacher to require and supervise the development of these basic library skills.
This will necessitate definite assignments which should challenge the student to a high quality of efficiency in the use of the library. The value of the constant use of the brief research paper, and oral research, should not be minimized.

5. Social Studies in Elementary Schools. 32nd Yearbook of National Council for the Social Studies. John U. Michaelis, Editor. P. 185.

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RECOGNITION OF PROPAGANDA AND SPECIFIC PROPAGANDA SERVICES
Today one of the "musts" of social science instruction is an exploration and evaluation of propaganda. Many of our enemies are masters in the use of this technique and it behooves the classroom instructor to become efficient in both the recognition of the many phases of propaganda and to develop the ability for directing studies within the classroom. People are in business to create a world for us, and it is not always a world that equates with reality.
A Unit on Propaganda, published by the School of Education, University of Oregon, takes the position that:
"Students can be taught to see, feel, and understand words and ideas in their most meaningful context in something as pervasive morning, noon, and night as the propaganda to which they are exposed. They need to recognize it in their daily newspaper and weekly magazine as well as in conversation and through radio and television. Until their attention is focused on the diverse for~s it may take, the chimeric disguises it can assume, we cannot be satisfied that we have given them training in an essential everyday experience in critical thinking.
As a working definition, the following may have merit for you; propaganda is opinion expressed for the purpose of influencing the actions of individuals or groups. Ask yourself then this question. Where do we find opinion in a newspaper? The answer is that it should be confined to the editorial page or to personal columns. The tendency in modern journalism, you will find, is to try to make even the editorial side of a newspaper objective. Propaganda, in other words, is something for which you're going to have to search. It will usually advertise itself by one of seven common devices: name calling, glittering generality, transfer, testimonial, plain folks, card stacking, and band wagon.
Name calling - smybolized by the ancient sign of condemnation used by the Vestal Virgins in the Roman Coliseum, a thumb turned down - is giving an idea a bad label. It is a device used to make us reject and condemn the idea without examining the evidence. Can you think of instances of name calling in current history?
Glittering generality - symbolized by a glittering gem that may or may not have its apparent value - is the association of something with a "virtue word" or concept. An amusing example was a recent fullpage father's day advertisement by a Macy store emblazoned with pictures of George Washington and Whistler's Mother.
Transfer - symbolized by a mask such as was worn by ancient Greek and Roman actors - carries the authority, sanction, and prestige of something respected and revered over to something else in order to

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make the latter acceptable. The Institute book, The Fine Art of Propaganda, gives as an example Father Coughlin's use~the ritual, symbolism, and music of the Catholic Church as a setting for his speeches, which, upon analysis, were found to be filled with Nazi propaganda.
Plain folks - symbolized by an old shoe - is the device by which a speaker attempts to ingratiate himself with his audience.
Testimonial - symbolized by the stamp of authority, a seal and ribbons - consists of having some respected or hated person say that a given idea, product, program, or person is good or bad.
Card stacking - symbolized by an ace of spades, the card traditionally used to signify treachery - involves the use of illustrations, distractions, logical or illogical statements in order to give the best or the worst possible interpretation of a person or event.
Band wagon - symbolized by a bandmaster's hat and baton - urges the theme, "Cqme on, get in the act; all of us are doing it."
How do we combat these devices? First of all, by identifying them; by realizing that there are assorted techniques that travel under other names, as scapegoating, the big lie, the stereotype, hot potato, stalling, Hitler's favorite device - the least-of-evils, appeasement; by understanding that often we will find a variety of strategies used, the Big Tent device. Once an idea can be assessed on its own merits - the propaganda device or devices segregated - critical thinking can set in.
Here are the seven ABC's of propaganda analysis, outlined by the Institute, are helpful:
(1) Ascertain the conflict element - propaganda is always for something and against something else.
(2) Behold your own reaction to this conflict element. Above all, be aware of your own prejudices.
(3) Concern yourself with today's propaganda associated with tOday's conflict. Suspend judgment until you can consider both sides of an issue. Notice how often propaganda is associated with pressure, as in advertising, with its reiteration of the idea, "Buy now."
(4) Doubt your opinions are "your very own."
(5) Evaluate;your own propaganda.
(6) Find the facts; another way of saying again "Suspend judgment."
(7) Guard against omnibus words, the "flood of words and other symbols with which we are constantly assailed in efforts to change our attitudes and modes of living."

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If we can learn to think for ourselves, giving up our certainties and our prejudices in favor of a weighing of evidence, we can begin to achieve victor~es in what has been called the struggle for our mind." .
6. Ibid., pp. 2 - 3. 7. This resource unit, (Bulletin 213) develops the following content
and may be purchased from Curriculum Bulletin, School of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, Price: $0.70.
Subject Matter
1. Background
a. Propaganda in history, biography, current and science fiction
b. Propaganda 'devices c. Words and ideas in propaganda d. Business of propaganda
20 Personal influence of propaganda
a. Popularization of issues such as women's smoking b. Blue with the connotation of clean c. Teen appeal d. Specific individual experiences with propaganda
3. Propaganda in journalism
a. Advertising b. Headlines co News stories d. Editorials, columns, and features
4. Specific coverage - political campaign
a. Use of meaningless phrases b. Cartoons c. Examples from Democratic convention d. Current illustrations from press, magazines, radio,
and television
,5. Exercises in objective writing and reporting.

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GUIDELINE II. THE PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FREEDOM GRADES K - 12.
"Ideals, the system of values by which men live, are of supreme importance in the life of the individual and in the life of the nation. Ideals are practical. Woven into the personality structure of the individual citizen, they give him a map of life, a sense of direction, a standard by which he may judge his inner impulses and his overt behavior. The terms of human association, the worth and dignity and respect men accord one another, the sense of justice they entertain, their Willingness to cooperate and sacrifice for the common good -all these are rooted in and grow oUi of the ideals that lie at the base of a particular way of life." .
The philosophy of the social science program for Georgia, as stated in the "Tentative Guide - Social Science for All Grades" indicates that
"The most inclusive aim of social science as a part of general education in the United States is to help young people learn to carryon the free society they have inherited, to make whatever changes modern conditions demand or creative imagination suggests that are consistent with its basic 'principles and values, and to hand it on to their offspring better than they received it. A free society is one in which the people have effective control over decisions affecting their welfare ..... Hence we cannot indoctrinate, in the sense of teaching them specific answers to specific problems, but this objectionable word must not stand in the way of teaching them the central principles and values of a free society. The very principle that it is their right and duty to think for them~lves is a doctrine that has to be i~culcated, as well as competence that has to be developed." .
I .. American History should be taught for other ends than the knowledge of facts alone. Important as the facts of the subject matter are, they serve primarily as a basis for understanding the civilization, for providing experiences in the development of skills, and as aids in the formulation of valuable attitudes. No purpose is served in the memorization of facts as ends in themselves.
I. 'American History should be taught in terms of the age old tenets and values of democracy.
1. "Worth of Persons: We hold that respect for the dignity and worth of human personality is the basic concept of American democracy.
2. Freedom of the Individual: We hold that men can and should be free. 3.
Educating for American Citizenship. AASA Thirty-Second Yearbook. P. 51, Chap. III. 1954 Tentative Guide-Social Science for All Grades. Georgia. 1961. Educating for American Citizenship. AASA. 1954. Chap. XIII. P, 336.

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3. Government of Laws: We hold that freedom under law is essential condition of a free society.
4. Sense of Justice: We hold that in dealing with one another we should be governed by a sense of justice, good conscience, equity, and fair dealing.
5. Capacity for Self-Government: We hold that men have the ability to govern themselves.
6. Civic Participation: We hold that the individual has a right to participate in decisions affecting himself.
7. Love of Truth and Appeal to Reason: We hold that men must entertain love of truth supported by a rational evaluation of the evidence.
8. An Informed Citizenry: We hold that the citizen must be informed.
9. Social Responsibility the Counterpart of Freedom: We hold that "the price of freedom is its responsible exercise."
10. Equal Opportunity: We hold that each individual should have equal opportunity for self-realization.
11. Brotherhood of Men: We hold that men have the capacity to associate on a fraternal basis.
12. The Right To Be Different: We hold that men have the right to be different."
If any course should reflect the standards which have come to be looked upon as fundamental in our society, the United States history class is that one. These ideals should serve as one basis for the content selected and emphasized. The teacher has the grave responsibility of selecting for detail study the events and people which will develop these themes. Attempting to cover the waterfront will result in a jungle of facts with confused and many times false conclusions.
Although there is need for the students to adhere to the basic principles of our country, the atmosphere of the classroom must be one of freedom of thought. Any program which deals with values or beliefs presents a challenge to the teacher first, he must establish the concept of values. A value is an ideal, a parodigm setting forth a desired and esteemed possible social reality. In essence values are beliefs and as such they serve to inspire the members of the society to act in the approved ways. The world situation demands that our youth have strong conviction -- "This I believe, this is what I want and need."

III.

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"American History should be taught through a democratic methodology. Aside from the content which we would select to point up our premises of liberty, the American history teacher is challenged to practice these procedures in democratic living which are indicated by our national ideals -- an authoritarian teacher or class gives no promise of developing students who regularly display the democratic attributes. However, in the concept of teacherpupil planning there is also no room for abdication of instructional leadership -- the teacher must remain the most important individual in helping shape the program of learning. In teacher-pupil planning, the responsibilities which accompany pupil rights need to be fully understood and agreed upon by all concerned. Also, in such mutual decisions-making, the American history teacher does not have to suddenly institute a complete program of teacher-pupil planning in all areas at one time. This approach is well exemplified in the film Practicing Democracy in the Classroom, (Georgia Film Library), which portrays the means used in an American History class to develop the competencies of democratic citizenship.

IV. "American History should be taught in terms of the continuing democratic struggle. Students need to realize that democracy is never a finished product. Here the problem which so frequently rises to plague the teacher is the controversial element. What can be said for a course in American history that neglects the continuing and fundamental struggle between Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians, the American spirit of revolt and nonconformity from Bacon's Rebellion to the still imminent conflict over the extension of full civil rights to all. An American history course without adequate attention to the ideas and ideals of Roger Williams, Sam Adams, and Tom Paine or to Jane Addams and Lincoln Steffens -- or any number of others who could be mentioned -- may still contain enough names, dates, and events to merit its title. Such a class, however, will not bring the students to the basic sense of the quest for freedom and improvement which has always marked the American way.

V. ';American History should be taught in terms of the structure and demands of society, with an eye on the current scene. Realistic instructors realize that they can never come near to teaching a complete course in American history at any level. They also believe that teachers must plan their courses around the basic traditions of western civilization and that as partisans for democra~y they are more than detached scholars. Remaining openminded and objective, the instructor must serve as a positive force in promoting social progress and the further extension of democracy. Thus, the instructor must ask, "Does this meet a real want in the lives of my students today?" History will be most effective as a course of pupil learning experience when, each day, instructor and class, having selected their history with an eye on today, search the past for light on this present. In this manner the student is helped to understand the seamless tie between history and the current scene.

'"'!i

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VI. ':American History should be taught in terms of its world setting. Developments in the modern world seem to demand that the students of American history view events with a realization of the implications of the evergrowing, planetary interdependence. America, however, has never been isolated. It has been a mistaken concept to limit the importance of world affairs to accounts of recent American history. Unfortunately few books are arranged in a manner to help teachers reveal the international setting Whereby the student can easily recognize cause and effect relationships moving in both directions across the Atlantic and Pacific. It is just as difficult to find materials which aid the teacher in presenting United States history in its full western hemisphere setting. Americans will benefit from an "outside" point of view.

VII.

"American History should be taught in terms of the needs, abilities, and interests of the pupils. Increasing numbers of instructors are coming to recognize the implications of the great variety of differences which mark their pupils. Each of the guidelines previously enumerated is aimed at helping teachers produce a program which meets the demands of society and the needs of yo~ng citizens in our time. Guideline VII indicates particular emphasis on the need for individualization in American history units. This guideline underscores the reason behind asking when selecting content and emphasis, "Will this serve a purpose for these young people in today's world1" A second questi.on perforce follows the first, "How can I make sure that each of these differing young persons gain the fullest amount possible from his study of this unit?" To stop with the first question has been the mistake of. far too many history instructors who have experimented with new approaches.

VIII.

;'American History should be taught in terms of the critical method and the historical approach. One particular need of youth is the ability to think clearly and rationally. This is a basic attribute which must mark the citizen of a free society. American history courses can make a three fold contribution to student proficiency in this area by: (1) aiding pupils to see the historical genesis of present problems (2) providing opportunities for source readings and analysis; and (3) presenting history in terms of historical problems. The average pupil can be introduced to the sources and can use them profitably, along with a variety of secondary accounts, when the teacher poses a number of commonly accepted historical statements for validation. During any unit pupils and teachers can collect a number of common beliefs which can often be found to conflict with the facts as stated in their textbooks. While such comparative experiences lead some students into historical detective work, they also help the class in general to read more critically and with less blind acceptance of the printed page. So many teachers are contented with teaching the "what" of history; probably much more important in many instances is the "how". Understanding cause and effect relationships, so important in problem solving, is a valuable contribution of history taught with a "why" and a "how".
If students, through source reading and analysis of secondary accounts, come to reject the theory of a single cause in human

-39-
affairs, their experience in American history will have been of some real benefit. There is no excuse for the American history course to fail in providing frequent opportunities for the development of the facility of critical thinking.
IX. ;'American History should be taught through a broadened consideration of the geographic, economic, and social factors, in addition to the traditional political aspects. Only by understanding the major movements which mark his era will the student be able to help resolve the vital problems presented by these trends. There are many important economic learnings concerning the tariff, international trade, deficit financing, the money system, taxation, price support, and other such necessary understandings for twentieth century living that the teacher must supply above and beyond the regular political history text. This requires both a well informed teacher and adequate library facilities. How American history can be made intelligible without almost daily reference to geography is difficult to comprehend. Naturally, care should be taken not to use geography deterministically; the geographic factors need to be recognized as just one of a number of contributing influences in a given incident. On the other hand, history can be used to reveal the manner in which man has altered or capitalized upon geographical conditions. Historical Geography of the United States, Brown is valuable reading. Units and lessons on cultural or social developments have been about the most sterile aspects of history offered in high schools. Again the resourceful teacher must meet the challenge of changing the endless array of authors, composers, and inventors; and the names and dates of their products and inspirations into something vital and colorful. Sad to say few written materials exist for use in the secondary school which will make social history interesting and readable.
X."American History should be taught in terms of the rise of the people. These keys to the American tradition are revealed in studying the responses of freedom-loving individuals to the challenges which have marked our past. It is to be expected that certain men will stand out in any period of history; however, in the American story the leaders come from the people and it would seem wise to emphasize how they reflect the values and ways of their brethren. We need to give recognition also to the role of average individuals in the historical decisions and events which have marked our past. In a democracy the future really rests upon average men who through intelligent, co-operative action can rise to surmount the problems of the day. America's progress can be told also in the saga of American families. It is important for youth to recognize that in this nation an indentured servant could beget a blood-line which could produce a president. It is good for them to see the mixture of peoples, of different nationalities and creeds, who settled together and who produced in many cases a great state commonwealth. It is

"""
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well for pupils to gain the feel of the spirit that marked house raisings, and the building of the community church or hall. Out of such studies exists the hope of fostering the democratic mind and the democratic spirit which needs to continue to mark our citizenry if the sovereignty of the people is to prevail."
Adapted from: Educating Citixens for Democracy - Gross and Zeleny
ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT ON AMERICANISM*
The Georgia Program for teaching the American way of life is not limited to a single course, but is a continuous study from the primary grades through the senior class. The State program, as given in the Tentative Guide for Social Science, is built on the assumption that the teachers will select content from the disciplines of the social sciences which will build certain concepts.
As previously stated under Implications for the Scope and Sequence, certain concepts were suggested which will build three themes: (1) the appreciation of the American way of life, (2) the nature of the forces of conflict, and (3) an awareness of the complexity of world interdependence. If the schools are to equip the students to live in today's world, it is the firm belief of the members of the committee that each of these themes are of equal importance.
Although the students will not have had a course in United States History until the fifth grade, the study of great people and events, current affairs, and democratic classroom procedure will have introduced the child to the basic values of our country. Fifth graders study extensively the history of the United States - 1492 - 1790; sixth graders learn how our heritage has grown out of old world backgrounds; eighth graders have the opportunity to study what Georgia has contributed to the greatness of our nation, - 1776 - 1876; eleventh and twelfth graders analyze the political, economic and social theories of our country and gain some insights into the issues facing our country as a world leader.
The commitee strongly urges the curriculum studies at the local level to utilize the suggested content and emphasis as given in the state guide.** For the educational handicapped child, the State Guide contains a course in practical economics and politics at the ninth grade level.
*Teaching Americanism includes instruction in history, economics, political science and sociology.
** State guides may be secured from the Curriculum Development Unit of
the Division of Instruction, Georgia State Department of Education, Atlanta 3, Georgia.
Bibliography:
United States History - Richard E. Gross, Stanford University Social Studies Instruction - Moffatt The Studying and Teaching of American History - Thursfield American History in School and Colleges - Wesley Educating Citizens for Democracy - Gross and Zeleny Interpreting American History - 31st Yearbook, National Council for
Social Studies, 1961.

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GUIDELINE III: CONFLICTING IDEOLOGIES.
In establishing the program of instruction for combating conflicting ideologies, one should be concerned with the broader subject of tyranny; yesterday it was Nazism, today it is communism, tomorrow it may be in another form. The important question is: "Will the student be able to recognize tyranny regardless of its form or setting?" In designing a program, the first principle is a rational rather than an emotional approach, providing the individual with the insight that will enable him to discern the menace of communism.
J. Edgar Hoover, Director of Federal Bureau of Investigation, has stated:
"I am fully cognizant of the importance of informing factually all students and adults concerning the real nature, purpose, methods, ojectives, and dangers of Communism to our free so~iety." .
Understanding the nature and purpose of communism is rendered difficult by the fact that communism presents itself to the outside world in a guise of apparently normal institutions, such as that of a national government, that of a poiitical party, behind which guise hide profoundly irrational attitudes and thoroughly destructive purposes. The nature of communism can therefore not be understood if one merely describes the external facets; one must penetrate to the und~rlying motivations through a study of the communist way of thinking.
Frank S. Meyer maintains that:
"The fight against Communism is not benefitted by the kind of understanding which insists on reducing the reality to categories with which we are comfortably familiar. That way we misread both the range of human nature and the potentialities of communism for evil. Rather, the imaginative effort must be made to apprehend the profoundly different character of communist consciousness with which we are acquainted ... "For the communist is different. He thinks differently. Reality looks different to him. He is not s~mple -- and this is where many painstaking analysis go wrong . "
Meyer has identified the basic understanding that must be gained by one who wants to combat communism effectively, as the realization that communism in all its facets must be thoroughly understood, and acknowledged.
J. Edgar Hoover in his bulletin, "Communist Illusion and Democratic Reality" points up another basic understanding that must be achieved

I.

Hoover, J. Edgar. Communists Illusion and Democratic Reality.

Washington, D. C., U. S. Dept. of Justice, Federal Bureau of

Investigation. 1959. pp. 5 - 7.

2.

A Resource Unit Americanism vs. Communism. Fla. State Dept. of

Education. 1962.

3.

Meyer, Frank S. The Moulding of Communists. New York: Harcourt-

Brace.

..,

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by individual citizens in order to be effective in the fight against communism. He states:
"Knowing what communism really is and how it operates will also help us to avoid the danger of confusing communism with legitimate dissent on controversial issues. Communism feeds on social ferment, on both the local and national levels; the Communist Party, U.S.A. is continually exploiting social, economic, and political grievances for its own tactical purposes. For this reason the 'party line' will frequently coincide with the views of many non-comformists on many specific issues. We must not, therefore, indiscriminately label as communist those opinions on a particular question which may, on occasion, parallel the official party position. We must also guard against the tendency to characterize as communists those who merely disagree with us or who advocate unorthodox or unpopular beliefs ... Knowledge of communism is only one phase of the battle. This knowledge must be augmented by continuous revitalization of our inherently superior strength through the practical, daily exercise and development of our democratic' principles." 4.
There has been much careful study and discussion concerning the question, should a comparison or contrast of communism and democracy be the approach that is used in the public school classroom. Fear has been expressed that either the study will be superficial or the class will become so involved that the students will become confused.
Dr. Stanley Parry of Notre Dame University points out that the study of communism:
... "naturally leads us to look at the Soviet Union, in a comparison between it and the United States. Thus, insensibly a study of communism falls into the form of a comparative government approach. And almost of necessity the phenomena of communism are interpreted in terms and categories elaborated to explain the ideas and organization of western civilization. Whereas the truth is that phenomena of communism cannot be explained in such terms and categories. For it (communism) presents itself precisely as the negation of the life for which they are relevant.
The right understanding of communism begins with the awareness of this fact: That communist ideas and organizations are built on a picture of reality that has no resemblance to the Western understanding of reality. As a result, on the showing of communists themselves, the communist system cannot be compared with ours. It can only be considered as its antithesis."

4.

Hoover, J. Edgar. Communists Illusion and Democratic Reality.

Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of

Investigation, 1959. pp 5 - 7.

-43To teach about the menace of communism merely in conjunction with teaching of the principles of democracy one often fails to identify an important aspect of the communist movement -- its methods. Robert Strausz-Hupe states:
"So absorbing has been the search for ideological consistencies or inconsistencies of communism that . not enough attention has been given to communism as a method.
He maintains the failure to study about the methods used by the communist is due to many causes:
"Some of these (causes) are inherent in the communist method itself - to deceive the opponent as regards the nature of the method i$ part of the method . "
Based upon the recommendations of nationally recognized authorities who have spent their lives studying the communist conspiracy, it is suggested that the critical analytical approach be used. This type of study is similar to that of a scientist who examines the poison in order to offset its evil effect. 5.
Methods of teaching cannot be automated. They achieve only what they are programmed to achieve by the teacher. A depressed teacher may not have the spontaneous enthusiasm required for truly effective work; a chore-ridden teacher will not have the time for reflection and an unprepared teacher will not have the judgments which teaching about communism demands.
Some of the basic concepts that should be understood by the students are:
1. The Communist Party is a combat organization and should not be confused with a legitimate political party. The party is kept small for the sake of discipline to rule the masses ruthlessly through the dictatorship of a small, well-disciplined group.
2. The Communist Party's aim is to conquer the world through the use of any means that will further this objective. Their favorite methods are subversion and violence. By deceit, terror, propaganda, and military conquest the communists have absolute rule over approximately one-third of the people in the world. Thus, the Soviet Union is the greatest imperialistic state today.
3. The ideology of the Communist Party provides the communist with a false belief about reality.
5. Freely adapted from: A Resource Unit Americanism vs. Communism. State Department of Education, Tallahassee, Florida. 1962.

c

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4. The communists deny emphatically the supernatural realm; for them, God, therefore, does not exist. Matter is the only reality there is. The dialectical principle is used to explain the movement of history. Faith in God is merely an "opiate for the people."

5.

Communists reject categorically the fundamental principle

of the diffusion of power. Communist rule as practiced in

the Soviet Union today is not merely an alternative

economic system, nor is it merely a dictatorship. It is a

totalitarian state that controls every phase of life --

politics and economics, as well as literature, painting,

sculpture, architecture, music, press, and religion. There

is only one employer - the communist state. Trade unions

and all other organizations among citizens are a part of

this state and are subservient to the Communist Party.

6. The power of the state recognizes no limits. The state has rights; the individuals have duties. Individuals are to identify their interests with the good of the state, if not the individual must be sacrificed.

7. A small group of leaders of the Communist Party does all the thinking and makes all decisions. All individual opinions must conform to the "Party Line."

8. The internal control of the communist party depends upon three factors for its basic support, namely; those who occupy strategic positions in the society; members of the Party and its repressive element, the secret police. One of the strangest paradoxes of Soviet totalitarianism is that it cannot trust those upon whom it most strongly relies.

9. In some communistic countries nearly four times as many people percentagewise work on the farm as in the United States. Yet the Communist collective system cannot or will not provide a decent standard of living for its people.

10. By strictly limiting consumer goods, the Soviet Union can concentrate on heavy industry and military production and can occasionally forge ahead in certain areas faster than a free enterprise economy. Furthermore, the Soviet citizens must do without or pay an exorbitant price for the necessities of life.

11. The Communist Parwof the United States has been in the past6 . and is at present a willing instrument of the Soviet Union.
12. Communism today has evolved from the interpretation and adaptation of the men who have held positions of party leadership. Marx, Lenin, Stalin, Khrushchev, Mao Tse-tung, and other leaders, have added their personal convictions to the original theory of communism, seasoned by the culture of the people they represent.

6. Freely adapted from: A Resource Unit Americanism vs. Communism. State Department of Education, Tallahassee, Florida. 1962.

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WHAT TO TEACH ABOUT COMMUNISM
"So emotionally enmeshed are we in the heat of the cold war that
1 we often attempt to immerse the student in attitudes wi hout imparting
a body of knowledge that makes attitudes significant." . Time must be found in our social science courses for a fuller treatment of the subject at hand. We shall then be reaching out more effectively for our desired objectives.
The committee recommends the following seven points for the teachers consideration to form the basis of what to teach about communism:
1. The Russian Revolution: A case-study within the framework of history. In studying the Russian Revolution, parent of modern totalitarian movements and of the consequent Soviet systems, the student will acquire an understanding of all totalitarian systems. This is not to say that there are no variations among the different dictatorships. But their differences are not those of principle. Nor do we mean to imply that they are less hostile to democracy.
2. The Bolshevik Revolution, Not a Mass-Generated Movement. The collapse of the incompetent and decadent Russian oligarchy in the stresses of war did arouse widespread disgust throughout the defeated country. What followed in the ensuing chaos was, an expression of the democratic liberalism that had been evidenced in the aborted Dumas. But the failure of the Kerensky government to stop the war in the face of a warweary nation and the slowness with which it tackled the problems of the land-hungry peasantry played into the hands of the small Bolshevik minority. Added to these advantages was the fact that the Bolsheviki had an astute leader in Lenin.
3. Marxian Dialectics. Marxian dialectics must not be presented as a body of abstract philosophical principles. Marxian dialectics is significant for high school students only when it is shown how the revolutionary leadership used it as a propaganda technique with which to further its revolution and when it is compared with our democratic assumptions. Otherwise, the Communist abstractions become, for the innocent student, a blueprint of an earthly paradise.
Communists blueprint:
(1) Doctrine of the Communist economy with its nationalization of all productive wealth and the abolition of private capitalism
(2) Doctrine of internationalism, opposing the primacy of the nationalist state and its imperial corollary;
7. Dr. Samuel Steinberg, Head of Social Studies, Stuyvesant High School, New York City, New York.

<
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(3) Doctrine of equality - "democratization of social life" - with its denial of advantage to any class of interest;
(4) Doctrine of democracy, making the people's will the source of the states' authority, but with a "dictatorship of the proletariat" during the transformation;
(5) Doctrine of cultural autonomy for regional groups within the federation (according to Marxists, ethnic and racial differences are mere environmental variations and are not significant; but political and economic differences are taboo);
(G) Doctrine of the "withering away of the state," that suggests a future in which the state as a political power would disappear and the classless society would function under freedom;
(7) Doctrine of inevitability, whereby modern history is a sort of telic process through which the above changes must take place in the manner of day following night.
4. Marxian Dialectics Is Transformed into Soviet Ideology and the Dictatorship of the Proletariat Becomes Dictatorship Over Everybody. Once in power, the Bolsheviki used Marxian dialectics as so much propaganda. The Soviet system was the result. As with every other system that is the result of a doctrinaire leadership and a particular situation, the new order took on a form very different from the great expectations.
5. Soviet Ends Not to be Divorced from the Means Used. The highlights of Soviet political and economic history under Stalin, and since, are to be found in any good text. Unfortunately, necessarily telescoped treatment often has the effect of accenting Soviet accomplishments (military, scientific, economic) without adequate treatment of the means used (the cost in liberty and human dignity);
G.a. Communism in Other Foreign Countries. We have already made the point that the Soviet system furnishes us a pattern by which we can study communism in other foreign countries; for that matter, a pattern for the study of all modern totalitarian systems, past and present. Let us distill six chief, interrelated traits in review. They are: an ideology; a single mass party; a terroristic police; a monopoly of all means of communication; a monopoly of weapons; and a centrally planned economy.

6. b. 7.

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In studying the communist movement, recognition should be made ,that the leaders and countries may develop different objectives for world conquest. These leaders and countries may utilize different means of world conquest.
Communism in the United States. We have dealt with what to teach about communism as a world movement. Now let us turn tocommunism as a movement within the United States. The following are salient points:
a. Fundamental reasons why communism has not become a mass movement in the United States: (1) American political traditions; (2) the nature of our democratic, federal republic; (3) salutary economic conditions; (4) the communist party in the United States, not an indigenous political party. Attracts troubled souls and second rate minds. No Lenins, supported by a large following, have as yet emerged.
b. The rise-of the Russian colossus following World War II and the danger of internal subversion, though small, emphasize the conspiratorial nature of Communist parties outside the U.S.S.R.
c. Steps taken by the Executive Branch to check subversion: (1) the Loyalty Review Board of 1947 as an arm of the United States Civil Service Commission and its abolition in 1953 by Executive Order gave way to responsibility of each department head for the selection and loyalty of personnel; (2) power of the Attorney-General to list subversive organizations; (3) work of the F.B.I.
d. Anti-Communist work of Congress: (1) Smith Act of 1940; (2) Internal Security Act of 1950; (3) investigating committees; (4) three laws of 1954--one, outlawing of the Communist Party; two, death penalty for peacetime sabotage; three, revocation of citizenship if convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government.
e. Related decisions of the Supreme Court.
f. The cold war launches a new American foreign policy that rests on physical power coupled with ethical consideration. We attempt to build walls of defenses as well as bridges to understanding.
g. The United States, Leader of the Free World in the United Nations: (1) work in behalf of political security, (2) the Korean War; (3) work with the Specialized Agencies; (4) U.N. 's technical assistance program and our participation in it; (5) the disarmament movement.

Q

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h. Science and technology in the cold war: (1) U. S. technological leadership. Clyde C. Hall,

Public Information Officer for the National Science

Foundation writes, "With each decade of improving stability, the United States acquire~ respect through-

out for

the the

world
sizg

~ndnoitngfoernutihtye

depth of lts culture, of its technological

but

know-how. .

ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT FOR COMMUNIST STUDY

The course outlines as given in the state guide will need to be rearranged and expanded to adequately cover the seven points discussed above. With this reorganization, which includes the teaching of the nature, purpose, and methods of communism, the following precautions should be observed:

1.

Instruction on this topic is complex and requires mature

thinking on the part of the student and adequate pre-

paration on the part of the teacher.

a. Adequate teacher preparation must include recent study (1) contemporary world history and (2) comparative governments and economic systems;
b. Adequate knowledge for the student must include (1) knowledge of the history and the geography of the countries where communism has gained control or is currently a threat, (2) knowledge of American thought and American foreign policy.

2.

The nature of this study demands adequate materials

a. Critical thinking will be hampered if one relies heavily on the teacher lecture method.

b. Adequate material should meet the criteria of: reliable authorship, objective presentation readable for age group, documentary, and an ample supply to meet the needs of the class.

The committee feels firmly that the above precautions must be observed. A further consideration should be given to the selection of courses included in the student's program of studies in order to give him adequate understanding of the nature, objectives, and methods of communism.

8. Samuel Steinbel'g. TEACHING ABOUT COMMUNISM. Soc ial Education. Vol. XXII. April 1958. pp. 199 - 206.

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GUIDELINE IV. COMPLEXITY OF WORLD INTERDEPENDENCE
Throughout this bulletin the reader has perhaps noted the numerous references made to the need for social science programs to include those knowledges, attitudes, and skills which enhance, foster, and build the student's ability to understand some of the global relationships in the modern world. The increased attention given to the need for teaching world understanding is perhaps motivated by (1) reasons of fear, (2) economic reasons, and (3) humanitarian reasons. .
Americans have a sincere desire to help all people of the world obtain for themselves a full measure of personal liberty, freedom, dignity, and respect, as well as a generous amount of the earth's bounty. There is a growing realization that problems of people everywhere have a profound effect upon the welfare of the entire world community. None of the world's people can rest comfortably when part of the world is free and part slave.
If a school accepts the education of boys and girls for worldmindedness as one of the primary purposes, a first step is to determine the specific concepts to be achieved. The Association for Curriculum Development states the concepts in terms of behavior changes and recommend that learning experiences be planned to help boys and girls:
I. Believe in the dignity of man and the equality of all people.
2. Understand and appreciate the likeness and differences which exist among racial, national and religious groups.
3. Recognize that peace is only possible when people and nations work together whole-heartedly in achieving common goals.
4. Understand the interdependence of the world, economically and socially.
5. Recognize the special responsibility of the United States because of its democratic heritage, wealth, and power to lead in building the peace and unity of the world. 2.
6. Appreciate the problems created by the revolution of rising expectations.
1. John Jarolimek, Social Studies in Elementary Education. The
Macmillan Company, New York, N. Y.: 1958. p. 287.
2. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Citizens of the World, Washington, D. C., National Education Association. 1947. Chap. 7.

9
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ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT FOR WORLD INTERDEPENDENCE
The geography program from the fourth through the ninth grades serve as a natural vehicle for building the concepts for world interdependence. This is particularly true for Grades 6-7-9, as outlined in the State Guide.
Concerning the topic of the world in transition, the upper grades are most suitable for an analytical study. This is imperative to appreciate how the communists are using underdeveloped countries as a springboard for world control.
BLUEPRINT FOR STUDY OF CULTURAL AREAS
I. Physical background
A. Land and water features: advantages or disadvantages of location, topography, size, and drainage system.
B. Climates: types, favorable or unfavorable to man and plants, and human adjustment.
C. Natural resources: types, adequate or inadequate, utilization, and degree of exhaustion.
II. People and cultures: various national groups and native characteristics, density of population, urban or rural, languages, religions, extent of education and development of scientific knowledge and skill, cultural contributions, influence throughout the world, and national leaders both past and present.
III. Economic life
A. Leading occupations, standard of living, extent of industrialization, development of transportation and communication, and the influence of geography on the economic development.
B. Economic relations with other countries: trade and travel.
IV. Political geography: nations, groupings and alliances, strategic importance, changing status, basic philosophies, and type of government.

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PROGRAM REVIEWS
PROGRAMS OR UNITS OF STUDY IN GEORGIA SCHOOLS SUBMITTED IN QUESTIONNAIRES DATED 5/21/62. GEORGIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION.
1. Atlanta Elementary School Program, Atlanta City System, Louise Bloodworth, Consultant.
These guide lines will be of help to any elementary school. The guide sheet gives the concepts, activities and sources of materials from kindergarten through the fifth grade.
2. Atlanta TV World History Program, This Is Your Heritage, Mr. Grady Randolph, Instructor, Atlanta Public School System.
3. Dykes High School, Mrs. H. Cecil Moon, Instructor, Atlanta, Georgia
This guide shee't has material to be interwoven on the twelfth grade level in American Government and Economics. The guide sheet is entitled DEMOCRACY AND ITS ALTERNATIVES. Does not contain a bibliography.
4. Cartersville High School, A. W. Baird-Instructor, Cartersville Georgia
Unit of study entitled WHAT WE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT COMMUNISM. This unit of work is designed for eleventh grade. A very good explanation on Dialectical Materialism is in this unit. Designed as an eight-week unit and does have a bibliography.
5. Fulton County Schools, Mrs. Ruby Crowe, Consultant, Atlanta Georgia
This bulletin developed by teachers under the supervision of consultant. Two units of study are included in the bulletin. INTERNATIONAL COMMUNISM AND GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF USSR are the titles of the units. Upper Grades Excellent bulletin.
6. Gordon High School, G. J. Post, Instructor, DeKalb County System
Unit of study entitled HISTORY OF COMMUNIST AND SOCIALIST IDEOLOGY. Brief - does contain a bibliography. This unit will need careful study by the teacher.

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7. Robert E. Lee Institute, Ralph E. Hogan, Instructor, Thomaston City System.

Unit of study entitled HISTORY OF RUSSIA. This unit is designed for twelfth grade - advanced students. Briefdoes not contain a bibliography. A reading list for students is attached.

Note:

Several instructors are in the process of preparing materials for a unit in the curriculum.

PROGRAMS OR BULLETINS ON THE SUBJECT, AMERICANISM VS. COMMUNISM, IN OTHER STATES

1. Dallas, Texas: Dallas Independent School System - Curriculum Bulletin Series.

a. Resource Unit - American History - eighth grade. PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FREEDOM IN CONTRAST TO THE TYRANNY OF COMMUNISM.

This resource unit contains objectives for teachers and students. Activities are included. List of materials and bibliography is included in the bulletin. Price: $1.00.

b. Resource Unit - Advanced Civics - twelfth grade. PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FREEDOM IN CONTRAST TO THE TYRANNY OF COMMUNISM.

Bulletin contains suggested activities for evaluation of learning by the students. Price: $1.00

2. State of Florida, AMERICANISM VS. COMMUNISM, 1962.

A resource unit of thirty hours of instruction to students

above the eleventh grade level. The unit focus on the

Communist Party, Its Ideology, and the System of Rule

the communists have established.

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3. State of Louisiana, Bulletin Number 928, 1961. Issues by S. M. Jackson, Superintendent of Schools, Baton Rouge, La.

This bulletin is prepared for senior high teachers of American history. The unit of study is taught in the last six weeks of instruction in the American history courses. Content of the unit is concerned with the period of the Russian Revolution, 1917 to the present. A good evaluation report of the first year of use of the above bulletin is in the April Issue of the AMERICAN LEGION MAGAZINE.

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4. Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, D.C., National Security Seminar - 1961-1962.
This bulletin presents several interesting outlines for presentations on Soviet Communism, Soviet Union plus additional outlines on Geopolitics, Geoeconomics, and Fundamentals of the United States Foreign Policy. An excellent bibliography is included for each presentation. Cost of bulletin not given. Excellent source of information.
5. Institute for American Strategy, 140 South Dearborn Street, Chicago 3, Ill. April 1961. Price: $0.50.
This bulletin presents Case Studies on TEACHING ABOUT COMMUNISM AND DEMOCRACY. The case studies are of unit of study developed in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Indianapolis, Indiana; Boston, Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois,; and State of Pennsy~vania. Bulletin may be ordered.
6. State of Oregon, Department of Education
a. Resource unit on DEMOCRACY VS. COMMUNISM FOR TWELFTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES. This unit has excellent list of references and activities for students and teachers.
b. American Heritage Resource Units for Grades 6 - 9. This bulletin contains excellent resource section. Price not given on bulletin.
7. San Diego County, Department of Education, San Diego 11, California.
DEVELOPING AMERICAN VALUES IN OUR SCHOOL, Bulletin No.5. An excellent pamphlet. This is not a resource unit for any grade level, but could be adapted to any grade level in relation to the American studies. Best grade level recommended - grades 5 - 9. No price given on book.
8. District of Columbia, Curriculum Bulletin: Freedom, A Comparative Study of Two Societies.
Unit No. 25. A resource unit for sixth grade. The material included is very good. The comparative chart and the list of objectives to guide the study of Russia will be a great help to the intermediate grade teacher.

SOCIAL SCIENCE BULLETIN
s. R. 105
DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT SERVICES