Georgia state school items [1932]

GEORGIA
Stale School Items
Published by the State Department of Education-

Volume IX

JANUARY, 1932

No. 1

CERTIFICATION

M. L. DUGGAN
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
Entered as second-cla^s matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.
UNIV. OF GEORGIA LIBRARIES

DIVISION OF CERTIFICATION
M. L. DUGGAN, Director MISS JANIE HEARN, Assistant Director MISS MARTHA CHAPMAN, Secretary MISS MARTHA HAMMOND, Certificate Clerk


TABLE OF CONTENTS
SYSTEM OF CERTIFICATION

TYPES OF CERTIFICATES

PAGE

College Certificates

... 4

Normal Certificates

.. 5

Junior College Certificates

__ 5

General Elementary A Certificate-

.. 6

Special Subject Certificates

_. 7

Vocational Certificates

_7

PROFESSIONAL REQUIREMENTS

.... 8-i)

ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 10

REGULATIONS GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS

11-12

HOW TO RAISE CERTIFICATES

14

HOW TO EXTEND CERTIFICATES

14

HOW TO APPLY FOR A CERTIFICATE

13

FEES

!5

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND ADDITIONAL REGULATIONS

16-17

TYPES OF CERTIFICATES
Permits to teach are of two kinds:
I. Licenses,
(1) All licenses are issued by County Superintendents on the basis of examinations. (See "Regulations Governing Examinations," page 11.)
II. Certificates, (2) All certificates are issued by the State Board of Education.
The following outline gives the types of certificates issued at present by the State Board of Education. The requirements, term, and extent (valid through what grades) of each are indicated.
Professional credit for all certificates must be earned in accordance with the plan adopted by the State Board of Education. It is important that "Professional Requirements," page 8, be carefully studied by all prospective applicants.
Teachers' Certificates may be secured in two ways: I. On the basis of Examination (See "Regulations Governing Examinations," page 11) II. On the basis of credits from standard institutions as follows:
1. COLLEGE CERTIFICATES: authorize holders to teach in elementary and high schools of the State of Georgia.
(1) NON-PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE CERTIFICATE:
a. Bachelor's degree, or requirements for bachelor's degree from a standard four-year college.
b. Less than three college hours' or six semester hours' credit in professional subjects.
c. Valid for one year. To be renewed for one year in case of emergency when approved by Certification Committee.
(2) PROVISIONAL COLLEGE CERTIFICATE: a. Bachelor's degree or requirements for bachelor's degree from standard four-year college. b. Credit for three or more college hours or six or more semester hours in professional subjects. The courses in which this credit is earned must be selected from the required or elective professional courses as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.) c. Valid for three years.

/ (3) \P_RPFESSIONAL COLLEGE CERTIFICATE:
a. Bachelor's degree, or requirements for bachelor's degree from standard four-year college.
b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.)
c. A minimum of twenty-one months' experience. d. Valid for seven years.
(4) LIFE PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE CERTIFICATE: a. Bachelor's degree or requirements for bachelor's degree from standard four-year college. b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.) c. A minimum of seventy months' teaching experience. d. Valid for life.
2. NORMAL CERTIFICATES: authorize holders to teach in elementary and high schools of the State of Georgia.
(1) PROVISIONAL NORMAL CERTIFICATE: a. Graduation from standard two-year Normal School. b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.) c. Valid for three years.
(2) PROFESSIONAL NORMAL CERTIFICATE: a. Graduation from a standard two-year Normal School. b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.) c. A minimum of twenty-one months' experience. d. Valid for seven years.
(3) LIFE PROFESSIONAL NORMAL CERTIFICATE:
a. Graduation from a standard two-year Normal School.
b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.)
c. A minimum of seventy months' experience.
d. Valid for life.
3. JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATES: authorize holders to teach in elementary and high schools of the State of Georgia. (1) NON-PROFESSIONAL JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATE: a. Graduation from a standard Junior College, or com-

pletion of two full years of collegtijvo/vk, in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school. b. Less than three college hours' or six semester hours' credit in professional subjects. c. Valid for one year. To be renewed for one year in case of emergency when approved by Certification Committee.
(2) PROVISIONAL JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATE: a. Graduation from a standard Junior College, or completion of two full years of college work, in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school. b. Credit for three or more college hours' or six or moi-e semester hours' work in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page S.) c. Valid for three years.
(3) PROFESSIONAL JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATE: a. Graduation from a standard Junior College, or completion of two full years of college work, in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school. b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester heurs in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.) c. A minimum of twenty-one months' experience. d. Valid for seven years.
(4) LIFE PROFESSIONAL JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATE:
a. Graduation from a standard Junior College, or completion of two full years of college work, in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school.
b. Credit for nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, as specified. (See Professional Requirements, page 8.)
c. A minimum of seventy months' experience. d. Valid for life.
GENERAL ELEMENTARY CERTIFICATE, CLASS A:
a. Graduation from a four-year accredited high school (with three or more teachers.)
b. Credit for three college hours or six semester hours in professional subjects.

c. Xtalid'for three years for teaching through the elementary grades.
5. SPECIAL SUBJECT CERTIFICATES: a. Graduation from a standard Junior College or Normal School, or completion of two full years of college work, in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school.
b. Credit for nine to twelve college hours or eighteen to twenty-four semester hours in the Special Subject. Note: The term and conditions for renewal of special subject certificates will be determined by the regulations governing academic certificates upon which they are based.
6. VOCATIONAL CERTIFICATES: Vocational Certificates may be obtained from the Division of
Certification. Applicants for these certificates must have their applications recommended by their vocational Supervisor, and official transcripts of college credits sent in to this Department. These certificates are issued only to graduates of standard Normal Schools and Colleges.

PROFESSIONAL REQUIREMENTS
The professional, or Education credit required for the provisional and professional certificates of college, normal, or junior college grade must be earned in subjects listed below, and in accordance with the following scheme:

1. FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS.

(1) Required Courses -- From nine, to twelve semester hours must be taken from the following four courses. Two semester hours' credit is the minimum requirement for any course, and, except for "High School Teaching and Management," three semester hours is the maximum credit allowed for one course.

a. History of Education: Two or three semester

hours.

b. Educational Psychol-

ogy or Principles of Education including the Psychological:

Two or three semester hours.

c. The Age of Adoles-

cence and its Prob-

lems:

Two or three semester

hours.

d. High School Teaching

and Management: Three or four semester

hours.

(2) Elective Courses--At least six semester hours must
be taken from the following list of elective courses, tivo semester hours being the minimum for any course.

a. Directed Observation and Teaching in the High School.
b. Methods of Teaching the Major Subjects. c. High School Organization and Administration. d. Educational Sociology. e. Educational Hygiene. f. Moral Education.
g. Philosophy of Education. h. Educational Tests and Measurements. i. The Junior High School.
j- Principles of Secondary Education.

4

,

%^_^J k. General School Administration and Supervision.
I. Introduction to Education.
m. Supervision of Primary, Elementary or Rural Schools.

2. FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS: (1) Required Courses -- From nine to twelve semester hours must be taken from the following four courses. Two semester hours' credit is the minimum requirement for any course, and, except for Technique of Teaching and Management, three semester hours is the maximum credit allowed for one course.

a. History of Education: Two or three semester hours.

b. Educational Psychol-

ogy or Principles of

Elementary Educa-

tion including the

Psychological:

Two or three semester

hours.

Child Study, PreSchool and Pre-adolescent:

Two or three semester hours.

d. Technique of Teaching and Management: Three or four semester hours.

(2) Elective Courses--At least six semester hours must be taken from the following list of elective courses, two semester hours being the minimum for any course.

a. Directed Observation and Teaching in Elementary Schools.
b. Methods in Elementary School Subjects. c. Educational Hygiene. d. Educational Sociology. e. Educational Tests and Measurements. f. Moral Education. g. Education in Health and Recreation, h. Principles of Elementary Education, i. Introduction to Education. j. Supervision of Primary, Elementary or Rural
Schools.

ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
COLLEGE CERTIFICATES:
(1) College certificates require a bachelor's degree, or the requirements for a bachelor's degree from a standard college requiring at least one hundred twenty semester hours of college courses.

(2) It is recommended that not more than thirty per cent of the one hundred twenty semester hours should be professional courses.

(3) The following are recommended to be included in

courses other than the professional, the hours as-

signed to each being a minimum of semester hours.

General Psychology

Three semester hours.

General Sociology

Three semester hours.

English

Twelve semester hours.

History and Civics

Twelve semester hours.

Natural Science-

Twelve semester hours.

A preferred teaching major subject should be specified and from eighteen to twenty-four semester hours taken in this major. A second preferred subject, minor, should be specified and from twelve to twenty-four semester hours taken in this minor.
NORMAL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE CERTIFICATES:
(1) Normal certificates require a two-year diploma from a standard normal school or normal college requiring for said diploma at least sixty semester hours of college courses with the prerequisite of fifteen standard high school entrance units. -(Professional requirement specified elsewhere.)

(2) Junior college certificates require graduation from a standard junior college, or completion of two full years of standard college work in addition to graduation from a four-year accredited high school. The junior college diploma, or the college work must represent a minimum of sixty semester hours' credit in college courses.

(3) It is recommended that of the sixty semester hours (for the normal or junior college certificate) at least forty should be in academic courses other than professional ones. As prerequisite to most of the professional courses, three semester hours in General

10

I
Psychology and three semester hours of General Sociology are recommended.
REGULATIONS GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS
The examination of teachers will be held annually under the supervision of the County Superintendents of Schools and County Boards of Education. Questions will be sent to each County Superintendent a few days before the examination.
1. COUNTY LICENSES (General Elementary) NOTE: Licenses are issued by the County Boards of Education.
(1) A general elementary license of the first, second, or third grade, limited to the county where issued, may be granted, as usual, by the County Board of Education to applicants who take the examination on the following subjects: Reading and Literature, Writing, Spelling, Arithmetic, English Composition, Grammar and Literature, United States History, Civics, Geography, Elementary Science (including Physiology, Health and Agriculture) Methods and Education.
(2) The papers of applicants for the General Elementary license will be examined by the County Superintendent, or some one designated by the County Board of Education and a county license issued on grades as follows: 85% to 100%, first grade general elementary county license, good for three years. 70% to 85%, second grade general elementary county license, good for twoi years. 60% to 70%, third grade general elementary, county license, good for one year.
2. TO RENEW COUNTY LICENSES: (1) If a teacher has a first grade general elementary county license which he desires to renew, he should present evidence to the County Superintendent of having attended at least one approved summer school of at least five weeks during the life of the license. In lieu of attendance upon summer school, he may take that part of the State elementary examination on Education and Methods and a renewal may be granted by the County Superintendent upon grades from 85% to 100%.
11

(2) If a teacher has a first grade covhft&Mgh school license (old form) which he desires to renew, he should present evidence to the County Superintendent of having- attended at least one approved summer school of at least five weeks during the life of the license.
(3) In lieu of attendance upon summer school, he may take that part of the State high school examination on Education and Methods and a renewal may be granted by the County Superintendent upon grades from 85% to 100%. The questions on Education and Methods will be based upon the Manual for Georgia Teachers and the following texts in Education:
Myers: Developing Personality in the Child at School--Greenberg, Publisher, 160 Fifth Ave., New York.--Price $1.50 postpaid.
Reeder: Business Administration of a School System--Ginn and Co., Atlanta, Ga.--Price, $1.92 postpaid.
Germane and Germane: Character Education-- Part I Program for Schools--Silver Burdett and Co., Atlanta, Ga.--Price, $1.80 postpaid.
3. STATE CERTIFICATES:
(1) General Elementary Certificate: a. In order to receive a State Certificate, Class A, the applicant must show by examination that he has the equivalent of a high school education and in addition thereto, must present credit for six semester hours' work in professional subjects earned at a standard institution.
b. For applicants who desire to try for a general elementary State certificate, there will be questions given of a general character on high school subjects, including Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, High School English, General History, General Science, Languages (Latin or French) Methods and Education.
c. The applicant making at least 85% on this examination may send his papers through the County Superintendent to the State Department, accompanied by an application properly filled out, and the fee of one dollar. If the State approves the marks given he will be granted an elementary
12

certificate of A grade in accordance with the above requirements as to professional work.
(2) Junior College.
a. This certificate will be issued to those who, by examination, can show that they have the equivalent of a junior college education. The basal examination for junior college certificates will be general in its character, including questions in English, History, Mathematics, General Science, Languages, Education and Methods. The object and purpose of the test is to1 show that the applicant has an education equivalent to graduation from a junior college.
b. Papers of all applicants for Junior college certificates will be sent through the County Superintendent to the State Department of Education, together with application blank, properly filled out, and fee of one dollar. To receive a provisional junior college certificate, the applicant must present credit for six semester hours' work in Education, earned as specified, see Professional Requirements for High School Teachers, page 8. Applicants for professional junior college certificates must show credit for eighteen semester hours in Education, as specified, see Professional Requirements for High School Teachers, page 8. Those applicants who pass the examination, but file no credit in Education will be granted the non-professional junior college certificate, see page 5.
HOW TO APPLY FOR A CERTIFICATE
1. Those persons desiring to apply for a State Certificate should write to the Director of Certification, State Department of Education, Atlanta, Georgia, for the necessary blanks. All applications must be made out in ink on the regular form. Blanks for high school, college and summer school records will be furnished also.
2. The application blank should be filled out by the applicant, giving all the information requested on it. This blank should be witnessed by a notary and recommended by a school official. The applicant should then forward it with the required fee of one dollar to the Director of Certification.
3. The high school and college record blanks should be sent by the applicant to the Superintendent or the Registrar of the institu-
13

tions attended for official copies of his credits. Transcripts should be sent by the registrars direct to the State Departme-at'of Education. An application is not complete until official transcripts of all necessary records have been filed.
4. Applicants are requested not to send in reports that have been sent them from the schools attended. Records upon which certificates are issued become the property of the State, and must be kept in the files of the Department.
5. If the applicant holds a certificate from another State, it will be necessary for him to follow the above directions when applying for a Georgia certificate.
6. Applications for the extension or conversion of certificates issued since 1924 should be made on the regular application blank.
HOW TO RAISE CERTIFICATES
Note: Certificates may be converted into higher ones in accordance with the regulations in force at the time of issuance of the original certificate.
Certificates may be raised: when the holder of a certificate fulfills the requirements for a certificate of higher grade. A general elementary A class certificate may be converted into a normal or junior college certificate; or, a provisional junior college or normal certificate may be professionalized or converted into a life junior college or life normal certificate; or, a junior college certificate or normal certificate may be converted into a college certificate.
In order to professionalize a provisional junior college, provisional normal or provisional college certificate, the holder must complete the required professional work, and must present evidence of having taught successfully for three years or twenty-one months.
When a certificate of one grade is converted into a certificate of higher grade (as an elementary into a normal, or a normal into a college) the requirements for the higher certificate must be met. This involves, principally, completion of additional academic work.
HOW TO EXTEND CERTIFICATES
The regular application blank should be filled out by the applicant, recommended by the proper authority, and forwarded to the Division of Certification, accompanied by the required fee of $1.00, the old certificate, and the additional credit.
The general elementary A class certificate, and all provisional certificates may be extended whenever the applicant can show credit
14

for at least six semester hours' additional work applicable to the certificate held. 'f hi* credit must be earned during the life of or after the issuance of the certificate.
The general elementary A class certificate may be extended upon a satisfactory examination on the state prescribed Reading Course, see page 12. The examination of an applicant! should be graded by the County School Superintendent and forwarded by him to the State Department of Education, accompanied by an application properly filled out by the applicant, the old certificate, and the required fee of . $1.00.
In selecting subjects for study for the extension of a certificate, the holder of the certificate should work either toward professionalizing the provisional certificate, or toward raising the certificate to the next higher grade. Until one has earned credit for the required nine college hours or eighteen semester hours in professional subjects, it is advisable to select for study, subjects in Education. After the professional requirement is met, study should be continued, but academic subjects of normal school or college grade should be pursued, in order to raise the type of certificate held.
FEES
The fee for the issuance of certificates, for duplicates, conversions, and extensions, is one dollar. This fee should accompany the application and both should be sent to the Director of Certification, State Department of Education. These fees shall be used to meet expenses incident to the issuing of the certificate.
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND ADDITIONAL REGULATIONS
1. A college hour represents the work done during one recitation a week for thirty-six weeks.
2. A semester hour represents the work done during one recitation a week for eighteen weeks.
3. A term, or quarter hour represents the work done during one recitation a week for twelve weeks.
4. Thirty semester hours, or fifteen college hours represent the minimum college year's work. One hundred twenty semester hours, or sixty college hours of work qualify for graduation.
5. An accredited high school is one that has been approved by the Accrediting Commission of this State.
6. A standard high school is one having at least two teachers, both of whom are certified to teach in the high school, and whose equipment is such as to warrant the approval of the state for State aid. 15

7. A high school unit means a year's study, one hundred twentyclock hours, devoted to the completion of an aSy.^ned amount of subject matter constituting approximately one-quarter of a full year's work.
8. A standard junior college may be defined as a school offering two years of college work above the high school taught by instructors of college grade.
9. A standard normal school may be defined as a normal school requiring for admission graduation from an accredited high school, and requiring for graduation an approved two year course.
10. A standard college may be defined as an institution requiring for admission graduation from an accredited high school, and requiring for graduation approximately one hundred twenty semester hours.
11. In regard to the ratings of out-of-State institutions, as these affect certification, this Department will be guided by the rating of the Department of Education of the State in which the institution is located places upon that institution, or by the rating of other standard accrediting agencies such as the Southern Association, etc.
12. Academic requirements include such subjects as do not relate directly to teaching.
13. Professional requirements include such subjects as have a direct relation to teaching. They include information with reference to the Science and Art of Teaching, and Educational Psychology.
14. Professional credit to be applied on a college certificate should be earned at a standard four-year college; professional credit to be applied on a normal or junior college certificate should be earned at a standard college, normal school, or junior college.
15. If an applicant wishes to qualify for a college, or junior college certificate on the basis of completing "the requirements for a bachelor's degree," or completing "two full years of college work" (for junior college certificate), the recommendations under "Academic Requirements" will be used as a guide in evaluating credits earned at summer schools, through extension courses, correspondence courses, etc.
16. All applications for certificates must be based on credentials from standard educational institutions (except where application is based on examination.)
17. All applicants for certificates must show teaching experience, attendance upon summer school, or other evidence of professional growth within a period of three years preceding date of application.
18. No certificate will be issued to any applicant who is not eighteen years old.
GENERALejLIBRARY
SEP 14 1946
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y4'k* o^pState School Items
or \ Published by Hie Stale Department of Education

Volume IX

FEBRUARY, 1932

No. 2

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
AND
SUGGESTIONS TO PUBLIC SCHOOL OFFICIALS
M. L. DUGGAN
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS

Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.

2-10286

(S)

ATLANTA, GA.

FOREWORD
There are about 1000 members of county boards of education and about 7000 trustees of local schools in Georgia. These county board members serve for very little pay and trustees for no pay whatever. They are called into this service and accept the sacred trusts with no hope of financial gain. Their opportunities for far-reaching services are in proportion to their grave responsibilities. Verdicts by future citizens of the state of "well done" for services rendered constitute their only hopes of reward. The state and taxpayers of counties and districts place in their hands annually limited funds to be used by them for the proper education and training of the children. This is a sacred trust fund committed to them for a definite purpose. It is expected of them to administer these trust funds so as to secure the greatest and best returns to the state's children in the matter of their education. The strength and prosperity of the state depends upon how wisely and well this trust is administered. The State Department of Education desires to cooperate with local school officials and to aid them in every possible way in the discharge of their important duties. To this end we have recently held personal conferences with several thousands of them at about twenty convenient places in the state at which we have attempted to point out and discuss ways and means of securing better educational results from the funds appropriated for the education of the children. Without exception these conferences have been interesting and successful beyond our expectations. For a similar purpose we are now sending this bulletin to all board members and local trustees whose names and addresses have been furnished us by their superintendents. We commend the information and suggestions contained herein to their careful and earnest consideration. From time to time we shall hope to serve you further in every way that we can in the interest of the proper education of all of the state's children.

Some of the children going to Mount Zion School, Carroll County, on opening day. Trfere are 867?995 children in Georgia Who want the schools to stay open lor them.

FINANCIAL STATUS.

For the past few years we have been confronted with more difficulties in the successful administration of our public schools than in any other similar period in the history of our public school system. These serious difficulties and handicaps have resulted from the failure of the state to pay legislative appropriations for the maintenance and support of the common schools. The payment of the legislative appropriations for the common schools has always been delayed, but generally eventually paid in full until 1928. The General Assembly of 1927, in making its appropriations for 1928 and 1929, gave in-

creases to all of the state's public interests except to the common schools, but did not provide correspondingly increased revenues. In 1928 all appropriations were paid in full except the legislative appropriations for the "support and maintenance of the common schools", which suffered in unpaid ap-

propriation to the extent of.

$1,549,884.85

The appropriation for 1929 was unpaid by... The appropriation for 1930 was unpaid by The appropriation for 1931 was unpaid by

1,691,963.00 498,300.54
1,049,334.81

Total unpaid appropriations for 1928, 1929, 1930 and 1931 Less amount paid October, 1931

$4,789,483.20 $1,048,681.20

Balance still unpaid

$3,740,802.00

LOSS OF CONFIDENCE.

Thus it is seen above the extent to which our public schools suffered by reason of the state's failure to pay its promises of support as expressed in dollars and cents. But the extent to which the cause of education suffered by reason of the shortening of school terms and otherwise reducing educational opportunities of the state's 900,000 children cannot be expressed in terms of dollars and cents. The delay and disappointment to unpaid teachers and to local banks who had made loans to their school officials against the state's appropriation and to the trustees and school officials who indorse such notes as well as the embarrassment of being under the necessity of prematurely closing their schools, all tended to impair public confidence in the state's intention to discharge the unpaid promises for the support of the schools. Such general loss of confidence in the state's interest in and intention of supporting its public schools constituted a situation of great difficulties in the successful administration of the public school system. A general loss of confidence constitutes the greatest menace to the success of any institution. To increase and complete this loss of confidence it was declared by high authorities that unpaid appropriations to the common schools was not a legal debt against the state. Hundreds of rural schools closed their terms prematurely, and many thousand children could not complete their grades. The state's greatest public interest was threatened with disaster.

THE RESTORATION OF CONFIDENCE.

When the State Democratic Convention met at Macon in the fall of 1930 a resolution was unanimously passed recognizing the legality of all un-
3

paid appropriations. In the Governor's inaugural address to the General Assembly in the summer of 1931 he boldly declared that "all unpaid legislative appropriations were as legally binding against the state as any bond issue authorized by the constitution." The General Assembly also by joint resolution recognized the legality of these unpaid appropriations and directed that they should be paid in full. These very important and many other minor reassurances constituted the beginning of the restoration of confidence in the state's interest in and determination to support its common schools; and it was even more encouraging when the General Assembly of 1931 made provisions under which the Governor was authorized to sell future rentals of the W. and A. Railroad to be applied towards the payment of the accumulated debts. In October following the Governor did sell future rentals of the state's property and did actually pay to the public school system the large amount of $1,048,681.20, which reduced the aggregate unpaid balances of the past four years down to the amount of $3,740,802. Under the authorization Act of 1931 the Governor can and will make three further payments in April, October, and April, 1933, which will total $900,000.00. When these further amounts are paid there will then still be a balance due, unpaid and unprovided for amounting to $2,840,802.00. Before this balance can be paid further definite provision must be made by the Legislature. The responsibility therefore will rest upon the legislators to be elected this year. If properly informed we believe they will certainly provide for full and speedy payment of the entire amount. The situation will be kept constantly before them--"lest they forget."
THE DEPRESSION.
Financial or economic depressions come and go. While they last they have discouraging effects. Their results in so far as they slow up or retard private or public material construction and progress are temporarily inconvenient and embarrassing, but often promote wisdom and thrift in business policies. But in so far as an economic depression is allowed to lower standards in education the effects are much more serious and far-reaching. Material progress can wait awhile without serious or permanent hurt to the state; not so with the education and training of the future citizens of the state. The future strength and potential prosperity of the state depends upon the schools of the present. Such thoughts are provoking wide-spread discussions and beginning to influence policies in nearly every state. In so far as it is at all possible there should be no "depression" in educational opportunities to Georgia's nine hundred thousand children.
DON'T CLOSE THE SCHOOLS.
II it is at all possible without incurring further debts by all means complete the regular school year. The premature closing of the schools will generally mean that the children will need to repeat their grades next year or forever suffer from a lack of thoroughness. Repeating grades will involve tremendous extra costs to the state and loss of time and opportunity to the children that cannot be estimated in terms of dollars and cents.

School officials should do everything within their power except the creation of further debts to keep the schools open to the children to the end of the term. This is a serious matter.

APPROPRIATIONS FOR 1932 AND 1933.
It is earnestly hoped and reasonably expected that revenues of 1932 and 1933 will be sufficient to pay in full all appropriations for these years. Notwithstanding a ten per cent reduction in the common school appropriations for 1932 and 1933 if these are paid in full as expected the schools will receive more than was actually paid to them during each of the past four years. However, all appropriations will by the terms of the General Appropriation Act be limited to the revenues of the year for which they are made. If scaling does become necessary all appropriations will be scaled alike. If such policy had heretofore prevailed the schools would have suffered only their proportional share of the unpaid appropriation, and that is just what we have so strenously insisted upon all along. This is a distinct victory.

EXTRACT FROM THE APPROPRIATION ACT.

Section 8. "In the event the revenue for either of the years 1932 and

1933 shall not be sufficient to pay all said appropriations in full for said year,

the appropriations herein made for such year

shall be reduced

and the same are hereby reduced in the ratio that the amount of any such

appropriation bears to the amount of the deficit for either of such years..

Such reduction shall not constitute a claim against, or obligation of,

the State of Georgia."

OBSERVATIONS ON SCHOOL ATTENDANCE
By J. I. ALLMAN, Supervisor of School Administration.
Public schools exist for one purpose and one purpose only--to provide educational opportunity for the state's future citizens. It would be foolish to make such a statement if it were not for the fact that all about us there is so much evidence that many people have lost sight of the fact. All about us there is evidence that both officials and patrons are using or are attempting to use the schools for purposes other than providing the best educational opportunities that can be obtained with the resources in hand for the children under their care. It is not charged that these patrons and officials are intentionally and maliciously misappropriating funds. They have simply lost sight of the real purpose of the school.

To maintain an effective school system many factors are involved. There

are three major factors around which all others center:



1. An effective school system must have the pupils in attendance. It makes no difference how modern the building, how complete the equipment, how excellent the teachers, if the children are not there the school is not functioning.

2. Competent trained teachers must be employed. All the children may be in school daily under the most favorable conditions otherwise, but if the teachers in charge are incompetent the educational program for that school is ineffective. No person can teach another what he himeslf does not know nor can he present his program according to the most effective methods if he is ignorant of those methods.
3. The term must be of sufficient length to make the educational program effective.
The length of term is largely a matter of finance and since this problem is dealt with elsewhere in this bulletin no further discussion of it will be engaged in here.
In discussing (2)--the employment of competent teachers--it is a common experience of superintendents and boards of education to have trustees and patrons come forward with the demand that certain individuals be employed to teach the local school advancing no other argument and presenting no other claim of qualification than that the individual is a home product, is in financial straits and needs help. Nothing is said of the needs of the children. The fact that schools exist only for the education of the children is not considered. Only the fact that a neighbor needs help is taken into consideration. Sometimes, thrifty men of means use their financial power to force their untrained offspring into teaching positions. There is nothing to be said against employing "home" teachers; there is nothing wrong in giving a position to a teacher who is in need; there is no objection to the offspring of influential parents teaching. Only, they should never be employed because they are "home folks" or in need, or have influence. Teachers can be legitimately employed only because they are the best teachers that can be had for the position in question. For officials to employ teachers on any other basis is a prostitution of the functions of the office with which they have been honored.
For many years the idea that just anyone can teach primary grades has wrought untold injury to the cause of public education. The most important grades in any school system are the first three grades and no grade requires more skill and ability to teach successfully than do these grades.
The drive to standardize high schools in recent years without a corresponding effort to do the same for primary schools has served to concentrate attention on high schools with the resultant public demand for high school facilities, better trained teachers in high school with better salaries paid. These improved high school facilities have been made in many instances at the expense of the primary school. No fault is to be found with those in charge of the campaign for improvement of high school facilities. They have done a wonderful job and have done it well. Every child is entitled to and should have access to an A-l standard high school. But there are many so-called high schools in Georgia today that are practically worthless. The sponsors of the high school program refuse to recognize them. About all these schools

accomplish is to fool the child who fancies that he is getting that which he is not getting and to weaken the opportunities offered in the primary grades. In 1929-1930 there were enrolled in the high school grades 75,904 pupils. Of these 20,948 or 27.7% were in non-approved high schools.
Employment of incompetent teachers is indefensible with the present supply of capable, well-trained teachers. But if incompetents must be employed, by all means put them in the upper grades where children have already developed the ability to help themselves and not in the primary grades where the children are helpless and dependent entirely upon the teacher for all they get.
The state is spending hundreds of thousands of dollars annually to educate and train teachers lor its public schools and yet to-day there are hundreds of these trained teachers, educated at the expense of the taxpayers of the state, engaged in other lines of endeavor because they were unable to find a position to teach; while hundreds of schools are being taught by incompetent and untrained teachers. And the children of the state are the sufferers.
A study of the tables and comments included in this article reveals the fact that the children of Georgia are not deriving the benefits from the public schools that they should. It will be seen that:
(1) The percentage of census enrolled in 1930 is less than in 1921(Table IV).
(2) There is wide variation in the per cent of census enrolled in the various counties (Table IV).
(3) There is a falling off in average daily attendance in 1930 over 1921 (Table IV).
(4) There is wide variation in average daily attendance from county to county (Table IV).
(5) The average daily attendance varies widely from school to school in the same county resulting in great loss in educational opportunity for the children and in large sums of money to the taxpayers (Table III).
(6) The holding power of the schools, as evidenced by the per cent the enrollment in each grade is of the enrollment in the first grade, is low (Table I).
(7) The holding power varies widely from county to county (Table I).
(8) The holding power for grades one to five shows practically no improvement for 1930 over 1921 while the improvement in grades seven to eleven is remarkable (Table I and Chart A).
(9) The distribution of the enrollment among the grades shows an excessive enrollment in the primary grades, particularly the first grade compared with enrollment in other grades (Table II).

(10) The distribution of the enrollment among grades shows wide variation from county to county (Table II).
RECOMMENDATIONS.
I. That special attention be given to primary grades with a view:
1. To the arousing of public consciousness to the extreme importance of these grades.
2. To employment of better qualified teachers. 3. To improving enrollment and attendance. 4. To reducing the amount of retardation. 5. To showing progress approaching that in high school grades.
II. That at the beginning of each school year an unofficial census be taken by school districts and special effort put forth to enroll every child of school age.
III. That attendance in the schools of each county be studied with a view to improving those schools where attendance is unnecessarily low, thus reducing educational and financial loss to a minimum.
IV. That each county study its achievements in comparison with neighboring counties with a view to discovering its strong and its weak points and planning improvements.
V. Remembering that the school exists solely for the education of the children, that teachers be employed only on the basis of merit.
VI. Before permission is granted to teach high school subjects in schools with only a very few children in high school grades and an insufficient teaching force:
1. Investigated effect that teaching such grades and classes to a very few children will have upon the efficiency of the work in primary grades composed of a large number of children.
2. Determine the cost per pupil of teaching these pupils in high school grades.
3. Enquire into the effectiveness of the instruction given in high school grades, remembering that it takes more than a few facts peddled to pupils in a disconnected way to constitute effective high school education.
4. Look into the possibility of having these children taught in an accredited high school.

CHART A. Per Cent Improvement in Holding Power of the Grades in 1930 over 1921. 233%
Grade Holding Power--1921--100% for each grade COMMENTS CHART A.
Chart A shows that the holding power for the second grade in 1930 was not quite so good (--1.6%) as that for 1921. While for grades three, four, and five there was only slight improvement (6.1%; 5.8%; 7.2% respectively). Grade six shows more improvement (16.6%) and grade seven still more (21%). When high school grades are reached the improvement is rapid--40.9% for the eighth grade; 70.5%
9

for the ninth grade; 103.6% for the tenth grade; 148.9% for the eleventh grade; and 233.3% for the twelfth grade.
Would not special attention to improving the weakness in the administration of primary grades result in showing greater improvement there?
Are any grades of as great importance as primary grades?
Would not improved work in primary grades result in a larger number continuing their education into high school?

TABLE I* THE PER CENT THE ENROLLMENT IN EACH GRADE IS OF THE ENROLLMENT IN THE FIRST GRADE [TO NEAR-
EST INTEGER] (HOLDING POWER OF THE SCHOOLS).

GRADE

State Average 1921-%

xState Average 1930--%

zCounty A
1931--%

zCounty B
1931--%

I

100

100

100

100

II

64

63

33

83

III

57

61

35

77

IV

53

57

36

87

V

47

51

30

71

VI

38

44

27

56

VII

33

40

27

54

VIII

21

29

5

49

IX

13

23

4

39

X

8

17

3

29

XI

5

12

3

24

Statistics apply to white schools only and do not include kindergartens. ^Includes all public schools.
zDoes not include pupils of independent systems.

Table I should be read thus:

For each 100 children enrolled in the First Grade in County A during the year 1930--1931, there were 33 enrolled in the second grade, 35 in the third grade, 36 in the fourth grade, 30 in the fifth grade, etc.

10

COMMENTS ON TABLE I.

Do the children who are enrolled in school make satisfactory progress from grade to grade? Notice that for every 100 children enrolled in the first grade in the state as a whole there are only 63 enrolled in the second grade. 37 out of the 100 are lost somewhere. This seems bad, but look at County A where there are only 33 in the second grade for each 100 in the first grade. Here the loss is appalling--67 out of 100. Can't something be done about it? County B seems to be doing a much more satisfactory job. Here there are 83 in the second grade for each 100 in the first grade--a loss of only 17. This is 20 better than the state as a whole. Following the figures through the grades, it will be seen that by the time the eighth grade is reached, the 100 in the first grade under state average, is reduced to 29 and by the time it reaches the eleventh grade it is reduced to 12.

In County A the 100 is reduced to 5 in the eighth grade and 3 in the eleventh grade.

County B makes a much better showing. Here of the 100 in the first grade, 49 reach the eighth grade and 24 reach the eleventh grade. This is practically twice the average for the state.

If superintendents, boards of education, teachers, trustees, and patrons

will look into the matter in their respective schools with a view to discover-

ing the reason for the tremendous loss from first to second grade, if they will

try to discover why so few children continue into high school it will not be

difficult to overcome many of the obstacles now blocking the successful prog-

3

ress of pupils. Instead of losing approximately one-half of the children

from the public schools before they enter the fifth grade, a much larger per

cent will continue to take advantage of the maximum opportunity offered

by the state for the training of its future citizens. Georgia will cease to be a state of fourth graders.

11

TABLE II* THE DISTRIBUTION BY GRADES OF PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR YEAR INDICATED.

GRADE
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI

Of Each 100 Enrolled In:

xState Average 1930--% 20 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 3 3

zCounty A 1931--%
33 12 11 11 11 8 7 3 2 1 1

zCounty B 1931--%
15 12 12 13 11 8 8 7 6 4 4

*Stalistics apply to white schools only and do not include kindergartens. xlncludes all public schools. zDoes not include pupils of independent systems.
Table II should be read thus:
Of each 100 enrolled in the schools of County "A" during the year 1930193L 33 were in the first grade, 12 were in the second grade, 11 in the third grade, 11 in the fourth grade, etc.

12

COMMENTS ON TABLE II. Table II shows how the enrollment of the schools is distributed through the grades. In an eleven grade school system an ideal distribution but one. which is, under present conditions, for many reasons impossible of attainment, would be approximately 9% to each grade. (In a seven-grade system the distribution would approximate 14% to each grade.) However, it is a situation from which too wide variation would be a cause for investigation. In the schools of the state as a whole, it will be seen that of each 100 enrolled, 20 are in the first grade; 13 in the second; 12 in the third; .... 3 in the tenth, and 3 in the eleventh. In County A, of each 100 there are 33 in the first grade; 12 in the second; 11 in the third; . . . . 1 in the tenth; and 1 in the eleventh. County B makes a much better showing than either the state as a whole or County A. Here we have 15 in the first grade; 12 in the second; 12 in the third; . . . . 4 in the tenth and 4 in the eleventh. It is also evident from this table that for the state as a whole 17% of the enrollment is in high school grades. In County A only 7% is in high school grades, while in County B 21% is in high school grades. Under the ideal standard set up above, not more than 36% of the enrollment could be in the high school grades. (This last statement would not apply to individual schools that receive pupils into their upper grades from other schools.) A comparison of Counties A and B shows that the progress through the grades in County B is very much more uniform than through those of County A. The difference in enrollment in grades one and eleven in County B is only eleven, while the corresponding difference in County A is thirty-two, almost three times as great. County B is doing much the better job with its schools. Superintendents, boards of education, trustees, and patrons by analyzing the distribution of the enrollment of their respective schools can determine how effectively the school is serving the community and at what point it is failing to function properly.
13

TABLE III*. THE PER CENT THE AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IS OF
THE ENROLLMENT IN WHITE SCHOOLS OF A GEORGIA COUNTY--1930-1931.

School No. Enroll- A.D.A. Teachers ment

Per Cent.

A

58

55 94.8

B

259 229 88.4

C

6

165 138 83.6

D

4

115

94 81.7

E

4

157 122 77.7

F

4

114

84 73.6

G

5

103

72 69.9

H

1

32

22 68.7

I

5

152 100 65.7

J

1

28

18 64.2

K

4

118

75 63. f

L

2

101

62 61.3

M

71

42 59.1

N

60

34 56.6

O

1

34

19 55.8

P

1

49

26 53.0

Q

1

41

21 51.2

R

1

50

25 50.0

S

2.

91

44 48.3

T

1

56

26 46.4

U

2

79

35 44.3

V

1

56

22 39.2

w

1

53

20 37.7

X

1

28

9 32.1

This

blank

space represents a

loss in average

daily attendance

of 1118 pupils,and

an economic loss

of $26,060, or 27%

approximately, of

total expenditures

for education.

Y

1

46

13 28.2

*This is a partial list of the schools of this county but one which gives a true picture of conditions in the county.

14

COMMENTS ON TABLE III. Enrollment in this county for 1930-1931 was 4384 or 85.4% of the census. This means that 15 out of each 100 children of school age in the county were not enrolled in any school. Fifty-seven out of each one hundred of school age were present in school each day and 43 were absent. From the standpoint of attendance School "A" was the best school in the county. Here 94.8% of the children enrolled were present every day. This is a very excellent showing. If all the schools in the county had done as well as School A, the average daily attendance would have been 4056. The actual average daily attendance was 2938. If all had done as well as School A there would have been 1118 more children in school every day. Since teachers were employed to teach every child enrolled, teachers were employed and paid to teach these 1118 children. On the basis of cost per pupil in average daily attendance for 1929-1930 in this county, that is $23.31, these children represent an expenditure of $26,060 or about 27% of the total expenditure of the county for school purposes. This is an educational expenditure from which no one derives any benefit. One dollar out of each four spent is rather an excessive loss. These figures do not include the 15% of children not enrolled nor the 5% absent daily presumably for unavoidable causes.
If teachers, trustees, and patrons will get together and study the causes for absence in their respective schools, they will find much of this absence is unnecessary and avoidable and can be prevented by a little thoughtful planning.
Improved attendance means better work on the part of the teacher, more rapid and intelligent progress on the part of pupils, more education for each dollar expended, a higher school morale, and an improved community outlook' in general.
15

TABLE IV* PER CENT ENROLLMENT AND AVERAGE DAILY ATTEN-
DANCE ARE OF THE SCHOOL CENSUS.

Enrollment
Average Daily Attendance

State Average 1920-1921
%
96.7

xState Average 1929-1930
%
87.9

zCounty A
1930-1931
%
72.4

zCountv B
1930-1931
%
84.5

76.0

68.2

47.9

65. 3

Statistics apply to white schools only and do not include kindergartens. xlncludes all public schools.
zDoes not include pupils of independent systems.

Table IV is to be read thus:
72.4% of the children of school age in County A were enrolled in school during the year 1930-1931.
47.9% of these children were in attendance daily throughout the term

COMMENTS ON TABLE IV.
Table IV shows that for the state as a whole approximately 88 children out of each 100 of school age are enrolled in the schools while only 68 on an average are in school daily.
In County A, only 72 out of each 100 of school age are enrolled and only 48 on an average attend school daily. This means that for every day of the school term more than one-half of the pupils of County A are absent. Schools are of no benefit to children who do not attend.
County B, while doing a better job than County A, is not doing all that it should. Here 85 of each 100 of school age are enrolled but only 65 on an average are in school daily. One-third of the children of a school system absent daily is too large a per cent.
Unnecessary absence from school costs the taxpayers of Georgia hundreds of thousands of dollars each year and lowers the effectiveness of the schools in many ways. (See comments on Table III.)

16

THE PRIMARY SCHOOL GRADES By
J. O. MARTIN, State Supervisor of Schools. The condition of the first three grades of our public schools constitutes our most important problem in the state's educational system. The teachers of these grades should be normal trained and they should be supplied with every article of equipment necessary to the end that the best results may be attained in the prosecution of their work. A large number of supplementary reading books should constitute the greater part of the equipment and the children should be required to spend at least one-half of their recitation periods in reading. For it is understood that the children spend their time in these grades learning to read--building a vocabulary, and with this vocabulary they spend their time in the following grades reading to learn. Every effort should be made by the proper authorities to keep all normal children enrolled in school until they at least complete these grades. To do so would vouchsafe every child the ability to read and write, which would safeguard all against the all powerful blight of illiteracy. All children who enroll in the first grade should do so on the opening day of the school, as it is unjust and unsatisfactory to have beginners and "left overs" enrolled at will during any week of the term. Nor should under age children be permitted to enroll, too often only "to learn the ways of school." These irregularities are in a large measure responsible for the congested conditions that exist in the primary grades of our schools and which ultimately eventuates in the shameful fact that a large percentage of the children leave school before the age of self-reliance and independent thinking is reached. It is a God given heritage that a child should rise higher than the animal level by being able to think for himself and to transmit thought; and, hence, no barrier should come between him and this birthright.
This has been a gloriously favored school year from a standpoint of weather. A cool dry fall enabled the farmers to gather their crops early, and to enroll their children in school. A mild spring like winter has enabled the children to attend without the usual handicaps of communicable diseases and other sickness. This should encourage all parents to make every effort to keep their children in school until the term closes.
17

SUGGESTIONS
By PAUL ELLISON, State School Supervisor.
Local trustees should give more attention to the matter of seating heating general repairs to buildings, and real teaching equipment. In'many rural schools teachers and pupils have to repair heaters, pipes, replace broken window panes and do other needed work on buildings. Trustees and patrons should look after all these details very closely.
In many cases wood is hauled in large blocks or logs, and some of the larger pupils lose a great deal of time cutting it on the grounds. Put all fuel on the grounds ready for use.
Many rural schools use water from open wells, and in some instances hogs wallowed ,n the water accumulating, and thus creating a very unsanitary condit.on. Sufficient drainage should be provided to obviate such conditions.
Toilet conditions are very bad in many instances, and these should be looked after very closely. Sanitary toilets are easilv built, and the Department will gladly furnish plans, and specifications.
The duties of local trustees are defined in their commissions, and these do not authorize them to elect teachers. They have the right to recommend teachers to the county board for election, but only the board has authority to elect This authority should be delegated to the county superintendent, and he be held responsible for results. In many instances this is now being done, with good results.
Numbers of teachers with two or four years training at the state's expense are unable to secure positions, while many teachers with very limited training are annually elected by trustees. Many communities use poorlv trained teachers in their own schools, but pay for better trained teachers for other commun.t.es who set higher standards. Since the teacher training institutions are state supported, all contribute to this expense. Why not use the best trained teacher, and get your money's worth?
County board members should visit all the schools in the county see ;ust how they are operated, and how the cost is distributed. Some instances in which the monthly per capita costs are entirely too much. These are occasioned by patrons demanding that high school grades be taught for one or two pupils, regardless of the number of teachers or elementary pupils. To remedy this the county board has the authority to limit the number of grades taught in any school, provided transportation is furnished for those pupils not cared for. This plan will not be popular with all patrons, but will give many pup.ls much better opportunities than they are now receiving
18

OBSERVATIONS.
By I. S. SMITH, State School Supervisor.
There are three phases of school work in Georgia that challenges the consideration of every citizen-The proper financing. Getting the children into school. The work the child does in the schoolroom.
Education of our children is the function of the state rather than that of any countv or district. Every child in the state is entitled to a practical education.' This privilege should not be dependent upon the wealth or poverty of the school district, nor the county in which he lives, but more largely upon the state.
A study along the line of school financing in Georgia will reveal that the state is paying about one-third and the counties and school districts are paying about two-thirds of the entire cost.
A studv of the ways and means by which the state raises its finances will reveal the fact that a very small per cent comes from ad valorem taxes, and that all the school funds for the county and district comes from ad valorem taxes.
If this is true, the question naturally arises: Is it good business or practice to depend upon the ad valorem taxes upon the real estate and personal property of the counties and school districts of the state for two-thirds the cost of our schools?
Let us see what other states bordering us are doing along this line.
Florida, with a population approximately one-half that of Georgia, is paying $7,500,000, for 1932.
Alabama, with a population of 400,000 less than Georgia, is paying $8,500,000, for 1932.
All the other states bordering Georgia, with the exception of one, are paying about the same per capita cost as above for the operation of their schools for 1932.
Georgia is paying $6,500,000, including the state appropriation and equalization fund, for 1932.
Our neighbors are not depending upon ad valorem taxes of the counties and districts to bear the major burden for the operation of their schools. Georgia does. Is Georgia right?
In another article in this issue of the items you will find a splendid discussion on the importance of getting and keeping our children m school, and I shall not take time here to discuss that phase of the subject, but will say, in passing, that however good the building, equipment or teaching might be in a school, it is of practically no value to the child who does not attend.
We can't lay too much emphasis upon the importance of getting our children in school and keeping them there.
19

* Whaf is being done and what can be done about the type of work the child is doing in the schoolroom is a question due careful and deliberate consideration.
I am convinced that teaching is a profession that requires just as definite technical professional training as the profession of medicine, dentistry, or banking. Academic training alone is not sufficient in any profession.
The profession of medicine and dentistry are so closely affiliated with the health of our citizenship that we readily comprehend the necessity for professional training in addition to academic training.
The teaching profession has much to do with the mental and physical development of our citizens, yet it is so often true many of our citizens and school officials think academic training alone is all that is necessary for the teacher.
As a result of this way of thinking too many of the schools spend too much time in the schoolroom hearing recitations and too little time directing the study of the child.
If the child is not taught to study in the schoolroom, where proper lighting, heating, and ventilation is provided when the schoolhouse is built and equipped] then he must teach himself or call upon his parents or older brothers and sisters to do the teaching at home. In most of the homes the equipment, lighting, heating and ventilation is not conducive to the best study, nor the pupils' parents, older brothers and sisters are supposed to be as well trained professionally as the teacher to do the teaching.
With a five and three-quarters hour day's work as a minimum, exclusive of all recesses, it is possible for the normal child who is properly graded to do all the studying and reciting in the subjects taught to make his grade. Most children fail because they do not know how to study to the best advantage. Most parents, older brothers and sisters do not know or do not have the time to teach them how to do this.
The trained teacher does, and is willing to do it. Will you let them?
CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE It is recommended that the week of April 1st to 7th be properly observed in the interest of the conservation of wild life. For detailed information and important suggestions write to the Georgia Department of Game and Fish, Atlanta, Georgia.
20

rStafe SchoolTlems
Published by the State Department of Education

Volume IX

JUNE, 1932

No. 3

CHEAPER SCHOOL BOOKS SCHOOL CODE REVISION Department of Education Audit A "Joker" in the Constitution Childhood Versus the Depression
M. L. DUGGAN
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.

CHEAPER SCHOOL BOOKS
Under authority of the new Stanton Textbook Law the State Board of Education organized as a Textbook Commission in the office of the State Superintendent of School, on Saturday, April 9, 1932, so as to begin to carry out the provision of said law. Authority and instruction, were given to the State Superintendent of Schools to advertise, as the law required, for bid, and proposal, for textbook, (or plate, or manu.cript,) with .ample, to be ,ubmitted at hi, office on Wedne.day, June 8, 1932. On that date (June 8) more than forty bid. were submitted by various publisher, and author,, accompanied by .ample,. On the same date the sub-committee of nine educator., Who had been .elected a. required by the Bill, organized and began their arduou. ta.k of examining and .electing textbook, for the even elementary grade, in all the subject, required by law to be taught. Thi, committee con.isted of the following well known educator,:
Supt. J. Marvin Starr, Newnan; Supt. W. W. Stancil, Fitzgerald; Supt. John P. Ca.h, Canton; Asst. Supt. W. W. McCune, Savannah; Supt. W. J. Andrews, Toccoa; Supt. J. F. Lambert, Ft. Valley; Miss Bessie Singleton, Monroe; Miss Mae Woodward, Dougla.; W. O. Cheney, Atlanta.
The new law require, a .election by thi. .ub-committee of three textbook, in each .ubject for each of the seven grade, and from different publisher.; and the Textbook Commission (the State Board of Education) will be limited in their adoption to one of the three recommended for each grade as the basal text to be used in the schools. The sub-committee is required to make their recommendations within sixty days, and the Textbook Commission will not unnecessarily delay their adoptions.
Thus it is seen that every effort is being made to carry out the provisions of the new Textbook law with the view of securing STATE UNIFORMITY AND LOWEST POSSIBLE PRICES ON SCHOOL BOOKS. From the many bids submitted it appears that much lower prices will bo obtained on books in the very near future. Prices on school books .hould be in conformity with the low prices prevailing on other commodities. The State Department of Education, is doing everything within its power to carry out the wishes of ttie Legislature and the people a. promptly a. possible.

SCHOOL CODE REVISION
ACTS OF 1931
Resolution No. 36
Whereas the School Code of Georgia is vague, indefinite, complicated, and in many respects weak and uncertain in interpretation and application; and
Whereas, it is apparent that said School Code should be revised, simplified, and rewritten in its entirety,
Therefore, be it resolved by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring, that a Committee, to be composed of three (3) members of the House and two (2) members of the Senate, be appointed by the Speaker of the House and the Presiident of the Senate, respectively, to revise, simplify, and rewrite the said School Code of Georgia, and to submit their report with such recommendations as they deem proper to the next General Assembly of Georgia.
Under above Resolution passed by the last Legislature the committee appointed and assigned to this important duty consists of Hon. J. Scott Davis, Chairman, of Floyd; Hon. Warren Mixon, of Irwin county; Hon. C. S. Hubbard, of Habersham county; Senator Guy Jackson and Senator Hamilton McWhorter.
This committee has been supplied by the state superintendent with much information regarding school legislation in other states such as State School Codes, reports of revision committees, etc., etc., all of which have been carefully studied by them. Much information, aid, and advice also have been given the committee from Peabody College. The committee has had hearings and conferences in the office of the State Department of Education from time to time since their appointment and have given much of their time and thought to this important assignment. Progress has been very encouraging so far and many more conferences and discussions will yet be had. It is safe to say that the School Code Revision Committee will be prepared to present for the consideration of the next General Assembly a revised and modernized School Code calculated to take the place of the antiquated and complicated school laws under which we have been struggling to make progress too long already. The committee is working earnestly in the interests of Georgia's public school system, and the next General Assembly as well as the general public will commend their faithfulness.

THE MOST URGENT NEEDS OF OUR SCHOOLS
1. Provision for the early payment of the unpaid balances on Legislative appropriations to the common schools for the past four years (nearly three million dollars).
2. Provision for "as prompt payment of salaries to public school teachers as to any others who serve the state."
3. Larger appropriations by the state from indirect taxation in order that the proportion from local taxes against property can be reduced. (Support of the schools from local taxes is about double that received from the state.) Such proportions were never contemplated. A state function.
As the basis for permanent remedy of most of our troubles of support there should be a constitutional prohibition against all allocations.
4. A new school code. (This is being written now by a very efficient Legislative committee.)

AUDITOR'S REPORT

State Auditor Tom Wisdom has submitted his report "of an ex-

amination of the accounts of the Department of Education for the

year ending December 31, 1931". This comprehensive and detailed

audit covers seventy-nine large pages and "shows the income re-

ceipts from every ascertainable source and the payments for all ser-

vices from the funds under control and direction of the State Depart-

ment of Education". The report recites that "we were given every

facility of the Department in making our examination and we wish

to compliment those in charge for the fullness, neatness and accur-

acy of the records." All funds are listed as received from "Legislative

appropriations for Common Schools, for Summer Schools for Teach-

ers, and for the Alto School Maintenance for Tubercular Children;

from the Julius B. Rosenwald Foundation; from the General Educa-

tion Board Fund; from the Anna T. Jeanes Fund; from the Slater

Fund; from Certification Fees; from the Gas tax for equalization; and



from private subscriptions. Likewise the report itemizes every amount

paid out from these various funds as indicated. The complete and

comprehensive audit is entirely too long to publish in detail, but a

few brief extracts from the report will be of general interest.

From "Common School Fund and Equalization Fund total pay-
ments to county and city systems and consolidated schools in 1931 amounted to $7,161,138.86."

The report further states, "Comparison with payments in former years follows

Common Schools Equalization Fund

Total

"Year 1931 Year 1930 Year 1929 Year 1928

$4,810,889.76 $4,322,615.10 $3,134,000.00 $3,712,650.00

$2,353,249.10 $2,407,804.00 $2,134,157.30
None

$7,164,138.66 $6,730,419.10 $5,268,157.30 $3,712,650.00"

As of December 1, 1931, the report also shows:

"Unpaid Appropriations, Year 1928 Year 1929 Year 1930 Year 1931

$ 869,360.53 - $1,301,454.45
$ 462,500.00 $1,107,487.02

$3,740,802.00"
"There are no automobiles owned by the Department. Those employees of the Department travelling on official business of the Department operate personally owned cars on a mileage allowance."
"Ratio of administration expense to the total payments Common School and Equalization Funds year 1931 was .92% (Ninety-two hundredths of one per cent.)"
"Gifts. These gifts are for specific purposes. The funds have been used for these purposes to the full approval and satisfaction of the donors. They are in the nature of public trust funds."

IS THERE A "JOKER" IN IT?
The Constitutional Amendment No. 154, proposed for ratification at the November elections, provides for what appears to be a worthy "Classification of Properties" for taxation. However, the last clause in the last sentence of section 2 of this Constitutional Amendment reads as follows :"but no tax shall be levied or collected on intangible property including money, except by the State." Would not this limit taxation by counties or municipalities to levies solely upon ad valorem property which is already overburdened? Many people vote in favor of ratifying all Constitutional Amendments proposed by the Legislature without a careful reading of the texts.

CHILDHOOD VERSUS THE DEPRESSION
Because of the economic breakdown, schools today are being pinched between two opposing forces-increased responsibilities and decreased resources. Unemployment and depressed business conditions generally are bringing children into the schools by the thousands. Almost every school system in the country is struggling to adjust itself to an unexpected increase in high-school enrollments. Climbing enrollment figures have always characterized American education but the depression has accelerated this tendency and flooded the schools with an eager horde of children, youths and even adults.
The other side of the nutcracker is the insistent demand for governmental economy. The archaic tax system which characterizes most of our states is threatening to break down entirely under the severe pressure of bad business conditions. Governmental budgets must be scrutinized for every possible economy. Grave danger exists that hysterical retrenchments may penalize the children. The school budget represents a tempting target for the first broadside from the
defended *"*' " *" * ***** ^^ "^ and' n the whole> poorly

Certainly no group of our citizens is less responsible for current economic conditions than the children. No group is less able to defend its own interests. No group is more likely to be imposed upon when short-sighted governmental economies become the order of the day. One body of our citizenry," says Director Gifford of the President s organization on Employment Relief, "remains immune from all blame and responsibility in the difficulties with which we are faced ... I refer to the children. Public machinery directed to the protection of childhood should be the last to be affected by measures of economy. Let us everywhere be on guard against any retrenchment which pinches the youth."

On guard, is indeed the proper watchword. It is high time for

American parents to look to the foundations of their public schools.

School terms are being shortened. School budgets are being reduced,

not by small amounts in many cases, but by drastic and ill-considered

slashes. Too many children are being crowded into a single classroom.

The teacher s load is being increased. Experienced teachers are being

alienated from the profession by arbitrary, ill-considered and often

unnecessary new books.

reductions

in

salaries.

School

libraries

are

ordering6

no

What can be done? Every parent should make his influence clearly and strongly felt against unnecessary reductions in school budgets. Every parent should discuss the schools with his friends neighbors, not as a political or financial issue but as one of the major responsibilities of the community. Parent-teacher associations must
6

face this issue squarely. The children are bound to lose unless you and the other parents of your community come to the assistance of the school leaders. You must do so quickly and vigorously if you wish to maintain school efficiency.
You will be told that schools are costing too much. How much is too much? Is five percent of the national income too much to spend for the schooling of your boys and girls, the development of a trained citizenry and the conservation of the Nation's human resources? The schools do not absorb as much as five percent of the national income even in this time of restricted economic activity. Exact figures for recent years are not yet available, but we do know that in 1928 the cost of all Rublic schools, elementary, secondary, and collegiate was less than three percent of the national income. Furthermore, this percent is not "rapidly increasing." It remained practically constant for a decade prior to 1928.
The school bill and the tobacco bill are about equal. The bill for passenger automobiles is five times the bill for public schools. All the public schools of America could have been run from 1776 to 1932 for less than the World War cost us. Parents and others who believe sincerely in the need for good schools are not likely to put much stock in the cry that schools are too expensive.

SUPPORT OF EDUCATION BY SOUTHERN STATES
(From Georgia Education Journal)

The following table shows the appropriations for the year 1930 and the promised support by recent legislatures. The table also shows the amount per capita given by each state. Texas makes her appropriation on a per capita basis. It is $17.50 per child. All of these

funds are supplemented by local communities.

Appropriations

for 1930 all Promised

Per Capita

sources by State for 1932 Enr'lm't paid by State

Alabama

$7,991,000 7,991,000 675,000 $11.83

Arkansas*

4,280,000 4,600,000* 485,110

9.48

Florida

4,116,207 7,500,000 347,000 21.55

Georgia**

6,852,320pd. 6,511,250 723,000

9.24

North Carolina

6,755,925 17,500,000 856,000 20.42

Louisiana

4,918,053 5,918,053 447,000 13.22

South Carolina

3,794,504 3,794,504 469,000

8.09

Arkansas with a drought increases her support to schools. Her

drought was so bad that the government had to come to her aid and Will Rogers went to help. But they believe that schools will teach them how to overcome the evils of the drought. Georgia cut her ap-

propriation to schools. Georgia gives the least per capita of her neighbors but one. Is

that fair to Georgia boys and girls?

7

WHERE OUR MONEY GOES
As a matter of general concern we publish below some information from State Auditor's Report for the calendar year 1931.

STATE OF GEORGIA

TREASURY PAYMENTS YEAR 1931

From State Income

(1) Highways, Construction and

Maintenance (2) Common Schools, Higher

: 515,148,547.07,

and other education _ State Institutions Confederate Pensions Departmental (3) Protection of Life, Foods,

8,547,293.09 1,794,192.80 1,520,314.22 1,246,711.43

Drugs, Fertilizer and Seeds ... Debt Redemption and Interest Legislature Judiciary
(4) Economic Development, Agri-

520,911.48 440,247.59 356,287.68 347,572.34

culture, Geology, etc. Public Health _

265,548.89 165,000.00

Total payments as per

30,352,626.59

Treasury Audit 1931

Less items not included in above Loans repaid

W. & A. Railroad

Rental Discounts

Total as shown above (1) Highway Department
Grants to Counties

From Discount

Total

W. & A. Rentals Payments

1,430,477.51 248,440.12 144,210.00
$1,823,127.63 $3,900,000.00
540,000.00

$15,148,547.07
9,977,770.60 2,042,632.92 1,664,524.22 1,246,711.43
520,911.48 440,247.59 356,287.68 347,572.34
256,548.89 165,000.00
$32,175,754.22
$36,615,754.22
4,440,000.00
$32,175,754.22 12,933,751.01 2,214,796.06

(2) Common Schools

$ 6,254,702.91

University System

1,891,264.97

Vocational Education--State

158,138.61

Vocational Education--Fed. .. 243,186.60

1,036,685.76 393,791.75

(,8,i) A gricu,ltture Dept. Fertilizer, F*ee8d,,54F7r,u29it3.I0n9spec$ti1o,n430,477.51

Veterinarian Tick Eradication

rG,aTMm,,e ,,a,,n.d) IInndduussttrriiaall

CfF'r,>o,i-TMmshu,,m,,'iD_,s..P s,e:irpofntv..e..n. tion

of

Conta_gious

Diseases,

etc -

-

$15,148,547.07 7,291,388.67 2,285,056.72 158,138.61 243,186.60
$ 9,977,770.60
$3,1i4,'5!07,,8,7 l^d,09d.22 83,310.39

(4) Entomology Dept. Forestry Dept. Geology Dept.
Agriculture Dept.--Bureau of Markets Fuel Oil Inspection

$520,911.48
.--$ 75,079.68 - 28,809.81 _ 20,646.96 - 93,110.10
47,902.34

Balance of W. & A. Rental Discount Funds of $78,984 57

was disbursed in 1932.

'

'

$265,548.89

GENERAL LIBRARY
8
SEP 14 1946
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA

&A
3 oo
. ri
<!3
v< 1
ywi f-

*T
GEORGIA

State School Items
.< Published by the Stale Department of Education

Volume IX

AUGUST, 1932

No. 4

'COURSE OF STUDY
FOR
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

y STATE SUPERINTENDENT OP SCHOOL!

Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.

10895

(S)

ATLANTA, GA.

Further acknowledgment for many suggestions and ideas, and for some of -tual material is hereby made to the following individuals, publishers, and
tfnn A-.^,,:'V- *T '
COURSE OF STUDY
FOR
ELEMENTARY
H
SCHOOLS

I

Further acknowledgment for many suggestions and ideas, and for some of the actual material is hereby made to the following individuals, publishers, and publications:
California "Manual of Physical Education Activities,"--Neilson and Van Hogen.
A Guide to the Use of the Adopted Texts for the Elementary Schools of Alabama, 1929-1930."
"State of Missouri, Department of Education, Courses of Study for Elementary Schools, 1929."
"Arithmetic Course of Study for Grades Four, Five and Six, City of Baltimore, Department of Education, 1924."
"Elementary School Supervision"--Gist.
"The Elementary School Curriculum"--Bonser.
"The Junior High School"--Briggs.

r

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Reading Writing Arithmetic Language and Grammar Social Sciences:
History. Civics Geography Spelling Health Physical Education Agriculture Dictionaries Industrial and Applied Arts Legislation (1929) affecting the curriculum Course of Study for the Elementary Grades-- Georgia Schools 1929-1934 Books Adopted for the Elementary Grades, Georgia Schools 1929-1934

Page g
96 104 132
172 210 216 ..266 278 316 322 328 337 349
351
352

INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE OF THIS BULLETIN
This bulletin is not a detailed course of study for the elementary grades but is rather an introduction to some of the new text-books and materials and a suggested outline. It gives the plan of some of the new adopted texts, offers brief suggestions for their use, and attempts to help the teacher in adjusting the State Course of Study to the newly adopted texts.
GENERAL STATEMENTS
ADAPTING THE COURSE OF STUDY TO THE LENGTH OF TERM:
(1) Nine months' term: This length of term provides ample time for enriching the courses of all
the grades. Each division, or unit, of the work may be studied more intensively and thoroughly through the use of supplementary material and related activities. Particularly should the superior pupils do additional projects. Suggestions of the texts and manuals relative to extra work should be considered. Children should read the supplementary readers and other adjusted material in each
(2) Eight months' term. Even with this short term the majority of the pupils should complete the
work requirements of the grade. Special effort should be made to see that the achievement requirements of each subject in each grade are sufficient for promotion.
Some enrichment of the work with extra materials and related activities should be accomplished. The superior children, particularly, should do much of this. The slow readers should complete, for example, the basal adopted text and probably two or more of the supplementary readers; the average pupils should complete the basal texts and probably three or more of the supplementary texts; the superior pupils should read the basal and probably all of the supplementary texts.
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT:
(1) Promotion and classification. Promotion and classification should be based on two factors--ability and
achievement. (For a thorough discussion of this the teacher is referred to "The Principal and his School," Cubberley, and "The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School," Morrison and others. (Available from Georgia Library Commission, State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga.)
(2) Entrance of Beginners: Superintendents are urged to have their school boards pass a regulation to
the effect that beginners will not be admitted to the schools later than two weeks after the opening of the school to be attended, except in schools having semi-annual promotions. Beginners may be admitted also at the middle of the year (children who are not six years old should not be allowed to enter

unless mental tests show them six or more years old mentally and unless they are as mature socially and otherwise as six-year-olds).
(3) Daily schedule This should be formulated to provide for study periods under the super-
vision of the teacher. This will be observed closely by school officials and supervisors.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS AND LIBRARY AID:
(1) Use of adopted supplementary books. The supplementary text-books which are to be used following the adopted
texts can be secured in sets and, unless the children secure them, should be made available through the library. These can be kept in the school and this furnishes an excellent plan for a continuing increase in the amount of reading material at the disposal of pupils.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING NEW TEXTS:
Every teacher should have copies of these and should study each carefully before attempting to use them. Note carefully the following:
(1) The foreword or introduction to determine the author's claims, purpose of the book, and explanations.
(2) The organization of the book. (3) How and wherein it helps to attain the objectives set up in the course of study.
A MOST URGENT NEED IN ALL TEACHING:
(1) Thoroughness. While it is desirable to cover the requisite subject matter this should not
be done at the expense of thoroughness and even mastery. The mechanics of reading, reading ability, the ability to use good English, the mastery of the principles of elementary mathematics--these are the things to be achieved. The amount of subject matter covered is important but not more so than the principles conveyed in the subject matter.

READING
GENERAL STATEMENTS*
"All reading activities may be classified under two types--work reading and recreational reading. Work reading may be considered as synonymous with study reading. Recreational reading is motivated by a desire for entertainment, enjoyment, and vicarious experience, and is associated with the use of leisure time. Thus an individual's purpose for engaging in reading determines whether the reading is of the recreational or of the work type."--Course of Study, Minneapolis Public Schools.
To carry out a program in reading, the state has adopted readers, which contain material for oral and silent reading, both of which should be used in making a balanced program.
From the use of the work type reader the child should master the techniques of reading that have to do with recognition and pronunciation of words and phrases, and of thought-getting and thought-giving. From its use he should develop definite habits and skills in finding answers to thought questions, finding an important idea in a paragraph or selection, finding important points and supporting details, or making a summary in outline.
A classroom or grade library should be maintained in each room. Many teachers find it advisable to have one set of supplementary readers and single copies of many other books. Each teacher is urged to secure materials for wide reading on the part of the pupils. The readers that were on the adopted list last year (if not readopted) should be collected from the community and placed in the school library. A set of supplementary readers for each grade
ay be secured in this way. In the new supplementary lists for the different subjects are many attractive books that can be used as supplementary readers.
Early in the year, time may very profitably be spent in testing children in reading and grouping them into two or three groups, according to their abilities or needs. If a teacher has more than one grade it is sometimes practicable to regroup, for the reading period, children of different grades for special work. Diagnosis of a situation may be made through observation of the oral and silent reading of children and through the use of standardized and informal testing. For suggestions for classifying children, see Supervision and Teaching of Reading, by Harris, Donovan & Alexanderf, Ch. 4.
General Objectives: To secure a rich and varied experience through reading. To develop strong motives for desirable attitudes toward, and a permanent interest in, reading. To secure economical and effective habits and skills in reading. To stimulate appreciation of, and an abiding interest in, good literature.
* "A Guide to the use of The Adopted Texts for the Elementary Schools of Alabama, 1929-30."
f Can be secured from Johnson Publishing Company.
8

Certain general objectives in reading should be kept in mind by all teachers. In addition, each grade should set up definite appreciations, habits and skills to be attained.
References for the Teacher:
1. Pennell & Cusack--"How to Teach Reading" (Houghton-Mifflin Co.) 2. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I--Public School Publishing Co.,
Bloomington, 111. 3. Reading Objectives--Anderson & Davison (Laurel Book Co.) 4. The Supervision and Teaching of Reading--Harris, Donovan & Alex-
ander.
What to Read: "Literature of Knowledge" and "Literature of Power."
What is it that we mean by literature?* The most thoughtless person is easily made aware that in the idea of literature one essential element is, some relation to a general and common interest of man, so'that what applies only to a local, or professional, or merely personal interest, even though presenting itself in the shape of a book, will not belong to literature
In that great social organ which collectively we call literature, there may be distinguished two separate offices that may blend and often do so. There is first the literature of knowledge, and second, the literature of power. The function of the first is to teach; the function of the second is to move. The first is a rudder, the second an oar or a sail. (We might add an engine or a dynamo.) The second always speaks through affections of pleasure and sympathy.
What do you learn from Paradise Lost? Nothing at all. What do you learn from a cookery book? Something new in every paragraph. What you owe to Milton is not any knowledge; what you owe is power, that is exercise and expansion to your own latent capacity of sympathy with the infinite. All the steps of knowledge carry you further on the same plane, whereas the very first step in power is a flight.
If then we ask, "What should children read?" the answer would be "literature of knowledge" certainly, science, history, geography, books that "teach," but they should also come to know the satisfactions of contact with the literature that "moves" in its varied forms of poetry and prose, and progressively as their experience becomes enriched and their personality matures and ripens.
HOW TO READ "LITERATURE OF POWER"
Learning to Read and Reading are Parts of One Process. A two-fold harm has come in the primary grades from separating rather than coordinating the methods that belong to the two phases of reading. (1) Content of reading matter has been relatively neglected. (2) Oral reading habits have become established to the exclusion of efficient silent reading habits. Perhaps the educational loss and injury to pupils has been greater in the third than in the earlier grades, but the false notion referred to has been responsible very largely for the comparatively slight development of reading power in the middle and upper grades.
* "The Kendall Teacher's Manual," D. C. Heath & Co.
9

Reading Purposes:

1. We want to find facts. 2. We want to understand. 3. We want to give ourselves pleasure, or to be inspired or cheered. 4. To cultivate appreciation and liking for the following different types of

literature: Stories. Dramatizations. Descriptions. Humorous literature. Poetry (both lyric and narrative). Nature literature.
(Literature should be read primarily for enjoyment and appreciation, and it should never be used for any other purpose to a degree that will in any way diminish its enjoyment.--Bonser.)
5. To give pupils mastery over reading as a tool (the mechanics of read-
ing). 6. To provide a fund of material suitable for dramatizations and programs
for special days. 7. To furnish a starting point for new interests and activities. 8. To supply literature which will reinforce other school subjects. 9. To store the minds of pupils with bits of choice literature. 10. To develop methods of study suited to the different kinds of reading

a Intensive or study reading for a definite purpose, as:

To answer a question

To solve a problem

To follow directions To form a judgment

'I

b. Reading for information.

c. Use of reference books.

d. Cursory reading.

e. Reading for inspiration and appreciation.

f. Reading for enjoyment and recreation.

g. Oral reading:

To give pleasure to others To give information to others
11. To develop in children the habit of reading and a desire to read.

Mental Preparation for Reading:

'

1. The teacher may give a part of the story to the class, leaving the climax to be discovered in the reading.
2. The teacher may tell a similar story or describe a similar situation or experience, or may ask the pupils to do this after the reading.
3. If the story is located in a foreign land, the peculiar features of the country and of the life there may be recalled.
4. If the story is historic, something of the historic setting may be given.

10

5. Questions like these will predispose the mind of a reader. "What is a good name or title for this story?" "What passages are best for oral reading?" "Can it be dramatized? What are the characters, scenes, and so on?" "What illustrations might be made for the story?"
There should be large lesson or story aims and small paragraph or special thought aims.
The Place of Oral and Silent Reading. The foregoing illustrations of mental preparation for a reading selection on the part of the teacher and, with the teacher's help, by the children are typical of the desirable process for all reading.
Silent reading should be given more and more emphasis in the primary grades until in the Fourth Grade the time is about equally divided between it and oral reading. In the Fifth Grade there should be more silent than oral and in the Sixth perhaps the oral should be to silent in the proportion of one to three.
There appear to be but two reasons for oral reading. 1. One may read to others to convey the thought of an author. In this case the words must be familiar and the ideas must have been assimilated, at least in part. 2. One may read to a teacher as an exercise in learning how to read better. This exercise discloses words and passages that are not understood and faults in expression. In this case an audience, other than the teacher, is likely to hinder the learner, and the audience is pretty sure to be uninterested, if not bored. Even in this case more rapid progress will often be made if the pupil is allowed to read the passage to himself before he reads it aloud. In short, if there is no specific reason for reading a selection aloud, it should not be so read. If the meaning or the beauty of the selection is best revealed by an oral rendering, an interpretative reading should be given. There will be enough opportunities for purposeful oral reading to give all desirable training in it,--reading of a section now and then to support a judgment made in discussion, reading to call attention to a passage, reading by request of pupils, and so on.
Factors causing Reading Difficulties:
1. Differences in natural reading aptitudes. 2. Differences in the structure of the seeing organs and of the brain areas
that receive the seeing impressions. 3. Bad reading habits that have been acquired early which pupils carry
along uncorrected from year to year. 4. Narrowness of one's general and particular life experiences.
Ways to Stimulate Silent Reading and to Develop Effective Reading Habits:
1. Plan special day program. 2. Dramatize selections. 3. Memorize purposefully. 4. Compare selections.
II

5. State reasons for choice of selections. 6. Choose favorite stanzas or paragraphs. 7. Choose a new title for a selection. 8. Reproduce orally or in writing. 9. Find specified paragraphs or stanzas. 10. Follow printed directions. 11. Find answers to thought provoking questions.
Ways to Stimulate Oral Reading: 1. See that there is a real motive. 2. Interpret the selection. 3. Compete for a part in dramatization. 4. Entertain class or others. 5. Give information to others. 6. Prove a point or answer a question. 7. Motivate listening by: looking for pictures getting desired information finding answers to questions comparing interpretations striving to enjoy
Reading Skills and Abilities. If we analyze our own reading we shall find that our general reading ability is dependent (a) on our mastery of words, and (b) on our understanding, or what may be called our intelligence reaction.
OUT mastery of words is dependent on:
1. Ability to recognize and pronounce words readily and accurately. 2. Ability to recall known meanings and to select the appropriate one. 3. Ability to enlarge and to enrich the content meaning of our vocabulary.
Our understanding in reading is dependent on:
1. Ability to sense the large meaning, the main point or purpose of the writer, in a given whole by a hasty first reading.
2. Ability, by a second reading to note large divisions, characters, situations, steps in the progress of the story, poem, or argument.
3. Ability to judge the relative importance of parts or points. 4. Ability to compare what is read with one's own experience and with
similar or contrasting ideas met with in other readings. Ability to keep distinct what the author is saying and what the reader may think on the same subject. 6. Ability to note a pleasing and effective use of words. 7. Ability to note pleasing ways of expression, effective phrases, and sentences, and paragraphs--style.
Ability to note words and expressions or allusions whose meaning or special significance is not known--points at which the dictionary, or encyclopedia, or other reference book should be consulted.
12

9. Ability to read different kinds of writing--newspaper, magazine, poetry, fiction, science, history, biography, travel--together with the development of selective reading interests.
10. Ability to read to others, in a way to hold their attention, selections that are easy reading for the reader.
Growth in skill in these various lines does not result from just "reading." It comes only by way of specific training for specific selected ends. NO ONE SELECTION IS ADAPTED TO TRAINING IN ALL THESE PARTICULARS AND NO ONE LESSON CAN EMPHASIZE THEM ALL IT IS THE TEACHER'S TASK TO DETERMINE FOR EACH SELECTION ITS FITNESS FOR TRAINING IN THIS OR THAT ABILITY AND THUS TO DETERMINE THE EMPHASIS AND TO DEVISE THE METHODS OF STUDY FOR EACH LESSON
TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS
See manuals for adopted and supplementary readers.
CORRECTING DEFECTS IN READING
Purpose of Tests:
1. To find out where the class as a whole stands, in comparison with other classes of the same grade.
2. To find out the weakness of individuals.
Ways to Diagnose the Cause of Poor Reading: 1. Tabulate errors of the poorer readers. Isolate their faults. 2. Detect differences between good and poor readers. 3. Work with one child at a time. 4. Instruct the pupil how and get him to follow through his reading process. Take one difficulty at a time, as: Failure to observe punctuation. Lack of phonetics knowledge. Omission of title words. M ispronunciat ion. Apparent lack of knowledge of word meanings. Lip reading. "Word calling" rather than reading for meaning in content. 6. Study, criticise, and modify your own methods.
Ways to Improve Comprehension: A. Causes of Deficiency: 1. Lack in practice in silent reading. 2. Lack of a good method of reading silently (as, movement of lips, finger pointing, short eye sweeps). 3. Reading too difficult. 4. Lack of acquaintance with the vocabulary. 5. Failure to heed punctuation marks. 6. Lack of interest.
18

B. How to Correct Such Defects:
1. More opportunity for practice in silent reading. 2. More rereading and more easy reading. 3. More interesting reading. Give a pupil reading which is interest-
ing to him. 4. Exercises requiring careful reading. Many such suggestions are
given throughout the Study Helps and Manual notes. 5. Specific training in eye movement (discussed elsewhere). 6. Specific training in word study. 7. Frequent testing for comprehension. 8. Rouse pupil's ambition (as, by recording his scores, by pointing
out improvements which he himself can appreciate).
Note.--There is a high degree of correlation between intelligence and comprehension of reading. Know the ability of each individual pupil.
Ways to Increase Rate of Silent Reading: Causes of low reading rate:
1. The failure of the teacher to realize that the rate is important, and the common belief that, in order to read well, one must read slowly. In fact pupils are often directed to "read slowly and carefully."
2. Overemphasis on oral reading slows up the rate of silent reading, especially from Fourth Grade onward, at which time the average child reaches his maximum rate of oral reading for easy material. (Oral reading ability however improves steadily during intermediate and grammar grades).
3. Lack of comprehension.
How to Improve: 1. More opportunity for silent reading. 2. Less emphasis on oral reading. 3. Much reading of simple interesting material. 4. Greater emphasis by the teacher on rate of silent reading. 5. A motive for increased rate on the part of the pupil (as, to increase his score).
Ways to Correct Bad Oral Reading Habits:
1. Articulation exercises for mumblers or those with bad speech habits. 2. Breathing exercises for those who read jerkily, giving training in breath-
ing rhythmically at ends of phrases or clauses. 3. Increased vocabulary for those who are weak (as shown through tests
or teacher's observation) by-- (a) Word study with difficult words for
ready recognition pronunciation comprehension (b) Listing and analyzing words mispronounced. (c) Examining long words to see if any part is familiar.
14

(d) Looking through a sentence or paragraph and telling what words are not known.
(e) Building up lists of words having a common root or a common meaning.
4. Using simpler reading material from a lower grade. 5. Flash reading of phrases and directions. 6 Reading a page orally and counting errors. 7. Reading until there is an error, and counting number of lines read
perfectly.

Eye Movements in Reading: 1. Adults and children differ in the number of eye movements they make

2. Good readers make fewer eye-movements than poor readers do, (that is, their eye-sweeps are longer).
3. The eye movements of good readers are more rythmic than those ot

poor readers.

..

4. The number of eye movements is greater m oral than in silent

reading. 5 It is possible to train the eyes in reading to make fewer movements,
thus increasing comprehension and speed, and reducing fatigue. 6. The eyes see at the pauses between movements, not while they are

in motion.

.

,,

7. Pupils may be trained from the beginning to take m a group of words

at a glance. Flash cards, etc.

_

8 Eye movement and span not controlled by the will. Practice remedies.

9. Clear vision is absolutely necessary. Eliminate bad light and eye

strain, and correct defective vision.

10. Retrogressive movements retard rate.

Speech Drills: 1. Follow phonetics with brief, systematic, interesting drill in enunciation,

pronunciation and voice placement. 2. Correct nasality and harshness by frequent class or individual drills.

3 Call attention to errors as they occur.

_

4. Formulate class and individual drills to correct the most typical speech

errors. 5. Develop difficult oral drills to secure flexibility of speech.

AIDS TO READING
The Reading Table: 1. Good Light. 2. Comfortable chairs. 3. Change contents frequently.
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Pictures and Illustrative Material: 1. Picture collections. 2. Reflectoscope or similar instrument. 3. Collections and models.
Individual Word Books:
1. Each pupil should have one. 2. Should be alphabetized. 3. Teacher should examine books and often use for group study. 4. Making the book may be an Industrial Arts Project.
Typewriters, moving pictures, and all other such aids should be utilized

WAYS TO MOTIVATE READING Correlation With Other Subjects.

Dramatization:

1. Choose children who seem to fit the parts.

'

2. Demand clear enunciation, correct diction and good speaking voices.

3. Make corrections and suggestions impersonal.

4. Strike a balance between too little rehearsing and too much.

5. Always rehearse with space relations, exits, entrances, and so on, as

they will be when the play is given.

6. Let the children make or help in making the scenery.

7. Use simple and inexpensive costumes.

8. Use troublesome or unusual properties for several rehearsals.

Memorizing: (Refer to your manuals for proper use and application.)

The Teacher's Reading:
(Pupils imitate) The teacher should participate judiciously by setting an example.

Teaching the Use of Books:
Pupils should know the uses and location of the parts of a book--cover, title, page, preface, table of contents, and the body of the book.
Actually instruct children how to use a book intelligently. Teach care in the use of books.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING
School Libraries. The teaching of how to read that is not followed by the teaching of what to read and the creating of the reading habit lacks in effectiveness in the same way that the teaching of the theories of chemistry that is not followed by laboratory practice lacks effectiveness. Teaching reading with the aid of a library might be called the laboratory method, and its results are good or bad in proportion as the library, whether school, home or public, is well selected for school use, well administered, and properly used.

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Every grade should have a classroom library consisting of from at least twenty-five to fifty books selected with reference to the subjects under discussion in the classroom, and to the reading ability of the pupils. These may be supplemented by books which pupils lend or donate, and by exchanges with other classes of the same or a lower grade.
A classroom library gives point and objective to reading lessons, and by providing positive good does much to exclude from the life of the child unwholesome reading which is only too easily obtained outside the schoolroom. It has been said that young people of the present day are lacking in the refinement and richness of vocabulary which comes from the reading of good books; that they lack purpose in selecting books to read; that that love of books which leads to the ownership of those which bear rereading has not been cultivated; that the desire to read only the best and the most authoritative is not evident; that their reading is superficial and lacks independence; that their sense of humor is coarsened by too close an application to the "funny page" of newspapers and periodicals; that their thought power is undeveloped and their sense of values untrained. A wise and sympathetic teacher with the aid of a school library can do much to silence this criticism and to give to her pupils the love and the art of reading which will be invaluable to them in after life.
Ways to Stimulate Supplementary Reading:
1. Provide as large a lending library of suitable books as possible. 2. Provide current children's magazines. 3. Encourage drawing books from the Public Library. 4. Post a monthly list of worthwhile books. 5. Have a library day once a month, when favorite books are discussed,
and teacher makes new suggestions. 6. Post individual reading records, showing title and author of all books
read by each child in the class. In Grades V and VI, the pupil may pass in a card for each book read, giving title, author, what the book is about, his opinion, and remarks, with his signature at the bottom; cards for each book, or each child, to be filed separately. 7. Encourage children to form reading clubs, congenial reading groups which have club names and report good books to each other, as well as to the class.

READING, PRIMARY GRADES
The work in all other school subjects is dependent on Reading. Reading, therefore, may be adjudged the most important of all the elementary school activities; it is the medium of entry to the field of knowledge comprising the remaining elementary school subjects, and generally speaking, advancement in any other field of knowledge is impossible without it.
Probably one of the most important factors involved in reading is the matter of creating a discriminating consideration of the material of reading. Reading habits are fixed early. Children in the early grades should therefore come to know good literature and be made capable of choosing good literature by having it provided for them in these grades. Repetition of content material-- the telling of stories in one grade and the reading of them in the next--is a vital

r'\

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teaching factor at this age. The imagination of the child at this most impressionable age is easily stimulated and repetition of story material--material which meets the needs of childhood fancy and imagination--helps to fix and make permanent those desirable reading habits which are the ultimate aim of all teaching of reading.
The child in the primary grades of our school system cannot and will not assimilate material hurled at him in uninteresting masses. Eliminating at the present any consideration of the philosophy of mental discipline, we may truthfully assert that subject matter--either or both in content and method of presentation--should be interesting. The young child's interest is aroused most easily through his imagination and his imitation. Profitable reading is usually pleasant. The joy and pleasure in reading should always be paramount to the technique of reading. Usually, where the former are present, the latter will follow. The joy and pleasure in reading may be achieved by the teacher in her selection of material to read to the children. Fom this the child will unconsciously formulate ideas and ideals of good reading. The style or manner of reading should be simple, clear and dramatic, yet unaffected. Children should read for the same reason that adults read. To assure that this will be done, proper motives and procedures--those that will create a natural wholesome atmosphere--should be established and maintained.
Reading has for its purpose the interpretation of the printed page, and facility in reading is involved in accuracy and rate. In order that a child may read accurately and reasonably rapidly he must be able: (1) to control the mechanics of reading; (2) to secure the thought from the content of what he is reading; and (3) to transpose from the printed page to vocal utterance.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
The three broad general objectives in teaching reading are: I. Rich and varied experience through reading.
II. Strong motives for, desirable attitudes toward, and permanent interest in reading.
III. Economical and effective habits and skills. The attainment of these general objectives may best be accomplished by subdividing them into a number of specific objectives. The attainment and consolidation of these specific objectives will, in the end, bring about the achievement of the general purposes for which reading instruction is carried
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION
Experience through reading: a. Contributing useful knowledge. b. Providing pleasure and inspiration.
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II. Motives, attitudes and interests: a. Realization that books are interesting. b. Realization that books are valuable for carrying on many kinds of activities. c. Desire to read books. d. Desire to own books.
III. Habits and skills: a. Thought-getting. 1. Ability to comprehend meaning of word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, and longer units with accuracy and reasonable speed. 2. Ability to grasp organization of a selection. 3. Ability to outline a selection, placing major and minor ideas in order of importance. 4. Ability to understand and to use an adequate and growing vocabulary. 5. Ability to outline a selection in order of chronological sequence. 6. Ability to solve a problem, using reading material as a basis for reasoning. 7. Ability to evaluate the worth of ideas presented. 8. Ability to scan material rapidly to determine its general nature. 9. Ability to find specific information. 10. Ability to follow directions. 11. Ability to retain important ideas. 12. Ability to study with reasonable speed. 13. Knowledge of sources for various types of reading materials.
b. Mechanics of reading. 1. Recognition of units larger than a word at each eye-fixation. 2. Avoidance of finger-pointing, head-movement, lip-movement. 3. Use of clear enunciation and correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well-modulated and expressive voice in oral reading. 4. Correct posture and appreciation of proper light.
c. Handling of books. 1. Proper care of books. 2. Proper use of table contents, glossaries, indexes, cross-references, etc.
3. Appreciation of aesthetic value of books.
d. Ability to use facilities of school and public libraries.
Reading instruction is supposed to be developed physchologically. Naturally, then, much of the time devoted to reading in the early elementary grades should deal with the mechanics. This does not mean that expression of thought is eliminated (it should always be considered) but word study, so called, does and should receive much attention. In all instances, where possible, word mastery and thought getting should precede oral reading. Reading should always be considered as synonomous with a search for ideas and their ultimate interpretation.
This does not mean that in Primary Reading we should stress interpretation to the exclusion of the mechanics of reading. Phonetics, word drills,
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phrase drills, pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, exercises to secure speed and comprehension, though essential, should be subservient to interpretation.
Particular care should be exercised in selecting the supplementary, voluntary, or recreational reading material. It should be provided only from the best sources. Only through the medium of this type of material will the child be induced to read and only through reading will he learn to read.
TYPES OF READING
Silent Reading: In the final analysis most of the reading done by adults is silent reading. Other than in rare instances oral reading is seldom used by adults. Even at the beginning of a child's reading experiences silent reading has its place. The child should early become imbued with the idea of getting meaning from the printed page and in reproducing it orally. This can best be done by means of silent reading. Then, too, it assists materially in clearing up word difficulties. The child experiences his first training in how to study in his first contact with silent reading. This type of reading should be definite, purposeful, and the objectives should be recognizable. Silent reading usually permits of and assures more thorough mastery of subject matter than does oral reading; it furnishes the child with an indispensable tool which remains such throughout his life; it makes possible broader, wider reading and stimulates, through the medium of interest, unconscious attempts to increase rate; it establishes and fixes adult reading habits; and it is the surest medium through which home reading may be encouraged.
Oral Reading: Oral reading should have a place in the well balanced program for its socializing value, and because there are some life situations where good oral reading is desirable. Good oral reading may be stimulated and developed in the following ways:
1. Provide audience situations, where fresh interesting material is read to a class or smaller group; when either one child may read a selection, or several may read parts of a selection. Reading clubs, assemblies, or entertainments furnish such situations.
2. Use proper material, such as narrative, poetic, and dramatic material, anecdote, humor and interesting information.
3. Discuss with children characteristics of material suitable for audience reading, and allow frequent choice of material by children.
4. Pupils should be made conscious of the characteristics of good oral reading, and should be required to make careful preparation and to judge oral reading performance. Such characteristics include: (a) appropriate selection, (b) effort to interest audience, (c) understanding of material, (d) natural expression, (e) good posture, well-modulated voice, (g) clear enunciation, (h) correct pronunciation. Frequent oral reading by teacher presents pattern of good reading to class.
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6. Provide sufficient practice in oral reading. One method of giving pupils a large amount of practice is to divide class into a number of groups with six or more in a group.
7. Give practice in correct pronunciation and enunciation outside of the oral reading time. Listing the errors in notebooks is valuable.
References on audience reading: Gist and King "The teaching and Supervision of Reading," Chapter III, pp. 48-70.
Young children play and dramatize instinctively, and oral reading in the primary grades is necessary to meet the demands of this instinct. Words are made more than just words--they are vitalized and made real for the child through dramatization and oral presentation. Action, correlating with the thought of the printed page, creates a point of contact which the child could not otherwise achieve. The child becomes and is his interpretation of the thing he reads. Except for the effect of his character, his thoughts, and his past experiences on the thing he is doing, he loses himself in his interpretation and becomes self-forgetful.
Oral reading is the most facile means of securing an alert attitude and proper poise and position of the body, and through it happy social relations are easily developed.
There is, or should be, a definite purpose in all reading and no exigencies of teaching or of classroom should ever be allowed to eliminate the purpose from the procedure. Correction and criticism of reading should, and must be made, of course, both by the pupil and the teacher, but it should always be directed so as to avoid putting stress on non-essentials or aimless faultfinding. Criticism, unless it be constructive, is hard to defend. Commendation on the part of the teacher is just as vital and necessary as condemnation. Comments on the effort should be definite, pointed, and detailed and supported by reasonable experience or authority. Criticism should be properly timed.
Teachers of reading should be familiar with the standards which have been established in the subject. Individual differences should be taken into consideration, but maximum achievement should be secured in every possible instance. Vocabulary, speed, and retention tests have been published, and one may be selected which will meet the demands of the peculiar local situa-
tion. Individual instruction is always most important, of course, but the need for
group work should not be overlooked. It is invaluable in meeting the variation in reading ability found in a group of children. This group work often may take the forms of drills designed to correct known deficiencies, and it should be used only after these deficiencies are isolated and identified.
Much of the process of teaching the child how to read may be administered through means of seat work. By means of it he should be trained how to study reading. It should emphasize both form and thought content.
BUILDING PROPER ATTITUDES
Whether a child will realize the value of books as contributing to his pleasure and needs, and whether he will be actively interested in reading to the extent of reading widely and buying books, depends as much upon the kind of books
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with which he comes into contact as upon the actual inspiration and guidance winch he receives from the teacher. If children have access to material tnat is closely related to their pleasure-interests, they will begin to sense the recreational value of reading. If, also, they have been stimulated to go to books for the solution of actual life problems of many kinds, they will become conscious of the utility value of reading. Only as books meet an interest--or utility need--will they become vital to children.
Materials suited to the various grades will be discussed under the outline for each grade.
USE OF THE LAWS OF LEARNING
Attitude building goes beyond the mere exposing of children to vital material. Application of the psychology of learning has a share in building appreciation. In order that effective reading of any type, with its accompanying attitudes, skills, and knowledge, may be taught economically, the "laws of learning" must be utilized. These laws, and their operation in reading situations, are as follows:
1. Readiness: The child must be in a state of "wanting to read" the particular material. Such a condition exists when the teacher has: a. Chosen appropriate material. b. Assembled the child's ideas in the field. c. Related the new experience to the old. d. Brought clearly before the child's mind the purpose of reading the selection.
The child is then ready to read with enjoyment and also ready to think, for the assembling of ideas and statement of the purpose set up a readiness for thinking.
2. Exercise and effect: These laws require that there shall be practice with satisfaction if learning is to take place successfully. Opportunity should be given for pleasure-attended use of all the skills and habits to be developed. The pleasure in reading situations may come from intrinsic interest in the material, or from the satisfaction that comes from accomplishing what one sets out to do,--namely, solving a problem, answering a question, finding desired information, etc. Additional satisfaction may come from measuring up to a class standard, or bettering one's own record in doing effective study.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Children within any given grade differ greatly in tastes. They are also likely to differ greatly in abilities, unless particular attention has been given to careful grading. Differences in tastes are provided for by giving opportunity for extensive individual reading, by giving access to a wide variety of materials, and by allowing individual choice.
It is more difficult to deal with differences in fundamental reading abilities Some children, for instance, may be able to comprehend facts, yet may lack organizing ability; others may be able to organize facts, yet may be poor in
22

retention; others may be able to organize a sequence of facts chronologically as in telling a story, but may be unable to arrange facts in the order of their importance. These differences in ability may be provided for by grouping within the grade, by giving special assignments to the accelerated group, and by segregating remedial cases.
The first step in providing for individual differences is to make approximately homogeneous grouping on the basis of abilities. Both formal and informal tests are valuable in this connection. The formal tests reveal the general ability of the child. Informal tests are tests based on, and used in connection with daily lessons, and are designed to test specific abilities such as, ability to follow directions, ability to outline, ability to reason from given data, etc. These tests reveal more definitely the child's strength or weakness or particular study abilities. The informal tests serve not only as checks but also as practice exercises, and should be varied, purposeful, and pleasurable. They should be of such form that they can be given quickly without the use of burdensome paraphernalia. Readers which utilize informal tests in close connection with the lessons are desirable.
Five valuable types of tests which may be arranged to check any of the study abilities are:
1. True-false 2. Completion 3. Multiple-choice 4. Matching sentences 5. Classification
These types of tests are discussed in detail in the Denver Monograph "Five Types of Tests," published by the Board of Educaton, Denver, Colo., and will receive fuller treatment in the work outlined for each grade in this Course.
The second step in treating individual differences is to select materials which are organized in such a way as to give systematic training in the fundamental habits and skills.
Questions the teacher should ask herself concerning material are as follows: 1. Is the material organized into sections or units in each of which is a series of lessons that concentrate on the development of particular skill, such as selecting the main idea?
2. Do the lessons within these sections or units gradually increase in difficulty, thus promoting a growth in ability?
3. Does the material itself indicate to the child the necessity and means of acquiring the study technique in question?
Reading material which answers in the affirmative the questions indicated above, is most effective because the teacher, having discovered the individual or group deficiency, can immediately turn to the section of the Reader which furnishes practice in the particular skill needed by the pupil. Tests reveal occasional cases of extreme disability, which require special treatment.
The exceptional child or the above-average group, on account of the ability to cover a larger amount of material than the average slow child or group, also makes a problem. Suggested ways of providing special work for exceptional individuals or groups are as follows:
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1. Assign independent reading for reviews, reports, dramatization, etc. 2. Using same material as for slower group, give problems which are
more inclusive and more difficult of solution. 3. Allow better group to make tests for other groups. 4. Give wider reading references in the same field--poems, stories, ad-
ditional interesting information, etc.
DEFICIENCIES AND REMEDIAL WORK*
Deficiencies in reading may be classified as of two types: (1) deficiency in accuracy and fullness of comprehension; (2) deficiency in rate of comprehension. Certain causes tend to produce both kinds of deficiency, while other causes are only likely to produce one of the two kinds. One group of causes might be termed ''active disabilities," another group "wrong of inefficient teaching practices." Below are listed the causes which tend to produce either or both kinds of deficiency.
I. Causes of both slow and inaccurate reading:
A. Native disabilities.
1. Low intelligence. 2. Lack of life-experience for interpreting material. 3. Lack of a speaking vocabulary.
B. Wrong or inefficient teaching practices.
1. Unsuitable material (uninteresting, too easy or too difficult, not sufficiently varied), resulting in lack of interest and effort.
2. Failure to have children read with a purpose, failure to take fatigue factor into account, failure to encourage child, failure to interest child in improvement.
3. Neglecting to give balanced emphasis to development of reading skills and habits: a. Placing over-emphasis on oral reading. b. Over-emphasis on study of isolated works. (too much word drill). Over-emphasis on analytic method of attacking words (phonics). d. Failure to develop an adequate sight vocabulary or method of attack on words. e. Over-emphasis on speed. f. Failure to make children conscious of proper study habits and skills. g- Failure to give sufficient or properly distributed practice in study habits. h. Failure to check progress.
II. Specific Disabilities and Remedies: Disabilities affecting accuracy and amount of comprehension are treated in sub-topics A and B below; those affecting rate are treated in sub-topic C.
Courtesy of Charles E. Merrill Company.
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A. Disabilities affecting acuracy of comprehension of phrase and sentence.

:>

1. Tendency to read without a purpose. Remedy: Be sure child

reads with the idea of "finding out" something definite.

2. Lack of concentration on meanings. Remedy: Give exercise, and checks on the comprehension of words, phrases, and sentences, read. Use riddles, picture-pointing, completion exercises multiple-choice tests, matching sentences, following directions, etc.

3. Tendency to read fast without attention to meaning. Remedy: Throw emphasis on checking for comprehension.

4. Fixation on words instead of on longer thought units (phrases). See recommendations under C-2 below.

5. Vocabulary difficulties, such as a small stock of sight words, inability to recognize new words, inability to perceive familiar words, have a pronounced effect on accuracy of comprehension, and are fully treated under C-3, 4, 5, and 6 below.

6. Too great dependence on contextual clues results in inaccuracy in thought-getting. See suggestions under C-3, 4 and 6 below.

B. Deficiency in paragraph comprehension. The above mentioned causes of poor phrase and sentence comprehension also operate to produce defective paragraph comprehension. There are, however, additional deficiencies which particularly influence paragraph understanding.
1. Deficiency in the interpretation of whole paragraphs (the general idea). Remedy: Provide a variety of interesting material of increasing complexity, constantly checking comprehension; enlist pupil's co-operation and permit self-checking when possible. Select fresh material, using paragraphs that are well organized thought units. In checking, give questions that cannot be solved except by an understanding of the whole unit. Valuable exercises and checks on comprehending the whole unit include:
a. Riddles. b. Illustrating or picture marking. c. Problem-solving. d. Multiple choice, selecting the right topic sentence from a
group. e. Completion sentences. f. Giving a title to a paragraph. g. Giving a title to an illustration accompanying a paragraph, h. Making or selecting the topic sentence. i. Giving directions which necessitate grasp of whole paragraph
in order to be followed, j. True-false statements involving the main idea.
2. Inability to reason beyond the ideas of a paragraph.
Remedy: Give questions that require thinking beyond the mere

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grasp of the ideas in a paragraph, i. e., reasoning to find an answer that is implied but not stated, such as:
a. Reasons why the action occurred. b. Whether an action was wise or unwise. c. What may have happened before. d. What will be likely to happen next. e. What was the funniest thing that happened. (Multiple choice and true-false sentences, etc., may be adapted to check ideas implied in a unit.)
3. Inability to understand precise directions. Remedy: Give exercises in following directions which require pupils to select and retain every significant item and discard other items:--such as dramatizations, playing games, handwork, drawing pictures, following recipes, etc.
4. Inability to note details.
Remedy: Give exercises requiring search for and recall of significant details and exercises requiring the use of the details to prove some point, and require children to outline, using sub-topics.
c. Deficiencies resulting in retardation of rate of comprehension.
1. Excessive vocalization (lip movement, whispering).
Remedy: Reduce the amount of oral reading; have pupil make conscious attempt to improve; have pupil place fingers on lips; give training in silent reading where response is in terms of meaning; give training in reading for comprehension with a time-limit.
2. Short span of recognition, too many eye fixations to a line. Remedy: Increase sight vocabulary; encourage use of context clues; have child, using known vocabulary, pick out or underline thought units (phrases); use the same phrase-groups, repeating in various contests, as:
Jack lost his hat. He looked for it. He looked in the bedroom. He looked in the kitchen. He looked in the yard. He found it on a post.
Read to the child, indicating phrasing; use flash cards (limited use) or other material which utilizes action exercises, picturepointing from phrases, questions, multiple-choice exercises, completion exercises requiring the placing of a missing phrase, riddles, and exercises in matching parts of sentences. In case of too great attention to sounding of words, curtail work in phonics.
Possession of a small stock of sight words.
Remedy: First presentation of words should be effective; emphasis should be on meaning. Introduce new words by means of pictures, and in context; review words in a number of contexts; let child keep individual lists in single word and in context form;
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have child make a "dictionary" of illustrated words and phrases; play games which emphasize the meanings of words, such as picture-pointing, matching words or phrases with a picture, drawing word-meanings, or acting word-meanings.
Inability to recognize new words or inability to perceive familiar words.
Remedy: Encourage getting words from context; use material that facilitates use of contextual clues. Teach various methods of word analysis, not relying on any one method exclusively: i.e.,
a. Compare a word form with other words having similar form, and keep charts of words that look alike.
b. Use exercises which call for attention to details of words,-- multiple-choice, true-false, completion, etc., may be used, e.g. rat The cat ate the mouse bat
Note: These exercises should be in thought-unit form whenever possible.
e. Give a limited amount of phonetic work. d. Utilizes syllabification. 5. Slow grasp of ideas. Remedy: Give exercises in which pupil reads rapidly to get the general idea; give various types of comprehension exercises with a time-limit, checking the number and quality of ideas gained. See A, 2.
Teachers feeling the need for further guidance in remedial work will find aid by consulting the following:
Gates. "The Improvement of Reading." (Macmillan). Gray and Zirbes. "Primary Reading," from the Classroom Teacher,
Volume II. The Classroom Teacher, Inc., Chicago. The Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Chapter X of Part One. Gray. "Remedial Cases in Reading: Their Diagnosis and Treatment,"
in Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 22, June 1922, University of Chicago Press. Beeby. Chicago Schools Journal, February 1926.
USE OF TESTS*
The formal or standard tests, given about twice a year, reveal the ability of a class in comparison with the achievement norms of thousands of children. They also indicate comparative ratings of general ability within a grade. The information test, based on materials used in the particular grade, does not show the ratings of the class in comparison with other classes, but is most
*. Courtesy of Charles E. Merrill Company.
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useful in indicating specific abilities and disabilities. Following is a suggested list of tests for Grades I-VI:
Tests for Grades I-m
Haggerty's Achievement Examination in Reading, Sigma I (I, II, III)-- World Book Co., Yonkers, N. Y.
Gray's Silent Reading Tests (II and III) (Individual)--W. S. Gray, University of Illinois.
Gates' Primary Reading Tests (3 types)--Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University.
Tests for Grades, IV, V, VI. Burgess' Measurement of Silent Reading--Russell Sage Foundation, N. Y. Gray's Silent Reading Test--W. S. Gray, University of Chicago. Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma III--World Book Co., Yonkers,
N. Y. Monroe Silent Reading 1, 2, Revised--Public School Publishing Co., Bloom-
ington, 111. Thorndyke-McCall Reading Scale for the Comprehension of Sentences--
Teachers' College, Columbia University. Stanford Achievement Test, Reading Examination--World Book Co.,
Yonkers, N. Y. Starch Reading Test--D. Starch, University of Wisconsin. Sangren-Woody Reading Tests--World Book Co.
TEACHING OF POETRY*
Poetry should be taught with the ultimate end in view of arousing an active interest in an appreciation of good poetry. The following suggestions have proved of value in promoting the growth of appreciations:
1. The teacher must love, and be able to evaluate, poetry, as her attitude and choice indirectly affect the child's tastes.
2. The choice of material should include only excellent poetry related to child interests, and within the range of child experience. Various studies have been made to determine what poetry is suitable for children at the respective grade levels. A study by L. V. Cavins indicates the degrees of difficulty of many widely studied poems. This authority is of the opinion that unless 60 per cent of the pupils of a grade are able to find the central thought of a poem without aid, and unless 40 per cent are able to answer simple questions on the thought, the poem is not suited to that grade.
3. The teacher should read poetry well to the children, as much of the appeal of poetry is through the ear.
4. A large amount of poetry should be read to children.
Courtesy of Charles E. Merrill Company.
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5. The kinds of poetry chosen should have varied appeals, and overemphasis on any one poem or type of poem should be avoided.
6. Audience reading of poetry by members of the class, allowing children to make their own choice in many cases, is effective in building interest. Children should be allowed to choose the poems which appeal to them individually, for memorization.
8. Making anthologies of favorable poems is a valuable way of stimulating interest. Children should be instructed in the qualities of good poetry, and be encouraged to write original verse.
10. Poetry should be read in connection with content material of the curriculum for its value in building a wealth of vivid, colorful associations, and its influence in extending human sympathies.
11. The ultimate measure of a teacher's ability to teach poetry is the increased amount of voluntary reading, memorization, and creating of original verse in which pupils engage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson and Davidson--"Reading Objectives," Laurel Book Co. Brooks--"The Applied Psychology of Reading," D. Appleton & Co. Gates--"The Improvement of Reading," Macmillan. Gist and King--"The Teaching and Supervision of Reading," Scribners. Gray--"Summary of Investigations Relating to Reading," University of Chicago Press. Klapper--"Teaching Children to Read," D. Appleton & Co. National Committee on Reading--The Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part One, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. Pennell and Cusack--"How to Teach Reading," Houghton-Mifflin Co. Sloman--"Some Primary Methods," Macmillan. Terman and Lima--"Children's Reading," D. Appleton. Thomas--"Training for Effective Study," Houghton-Mifflin Co. Uhl--"Materials for Reading--Their Selection and Organization," Silver, Burdett & Company. Washburne-Vogel--"The Winnetka Grade Book List," American Library Association, Chicago. Yoakam--"Reading and Study," Macmillan.
Reference Books
Briggs and Coffman, "How to Teach Reading," Row, Peterson & Co. Huey, "Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading;" D. Appleton & Co. Klapper, "Teaching Children to Read," D. Appleton & Co. Chubb, "The Teaching of English," Macmillan Company. Sawyer, "Five Messages to Teachers of Primary Reading," Rand, McNally Co. Jenkins, "Reading in the Primary Grades,' Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Manual for Georgia Teachers.
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READING, FIRST GRADE
Basal Text: "The Child's World-Primer," published by Johnson Publishing Company. "The Child's World-First Reader," published by Johnson Publishing Company.
Supplementary Texts:
Moore-Wilson Readers, Book I, Grade I, "The Rainbow Fairies," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Moore-Wilson Readers, Book II, Grade I, "Fairy Helpers," published by D. C Heath & Company.
"Good Reading--Primer," published by Charles Scribner's Sons. "Good Reading--First Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons. "Great Pictures and Their Stories--Book I", Lester, published by
Mentzer Bush & Company. "The Elson Readers--Primer," published by Scott, Foresman & Com-
pany. "The Elson Readers--Book I" published by Scott, Foresman & Company. "Child-Library Readers--Primer," published by Scott, Foresman &
Company. "Child-Library Readers--Book I," published by Scott, Foresman &
Company. "The Open Road to Reading--Primer," published by Ginn & Company. "The Open Road to Reading--First Reader," published by Ginn &
Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text (or texts) to be Covered:
The basal Primer and First Reader and as many of the supplementary Primers and First Readers as the ability of the individual pupil will warrant using should be read.
(The Basal text should be mastered).
Manuals:
Basal Text:
"Teacher's Manual to accompany the Child's World Primer and the First, Second, and Third Readers," published by Johnson Publishing Company.
Supplementary Texts:
"Manual for the Elson-Runkle Primer (Revised Edition)" and 'Manual for the Elson Readers, Book I (Revised Edition)," published by Scott, Foresman and Company.
"Teacher's Manual for Grade I to accompany The Open Road to Reading," published by Ginn and Company.
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FIRST GRADE READING
Interesting material is probably the first requisite to good reading. The process, the mechanics of reading should be submerged in the material so that it is subservient to the things being read. As stated previously, conversation, dramatization, memorizing, and story-telling furnish an easy and adapted basis for first grade reading. In this connection reading then is simply another means of expression for the child. The teacher may, and should prepare and present all of her preliminary material--dramatization, story-telling, etc.-- with the definite idea of laying a foundation for the use of the text which is to be given the child later.
At the very beginning of the work in reading the teacher should stress one thing--reading for the thought, thought getting. In the instruction of the grade both oral and silent reading should be taught with the idea in mind that they depend upon getting the thought. Fluency in reading is tied up rather definitely to eye-span, which is discussed elsewhere under "Reading," Train the child from the very earliest possible moment to see more than one word at a glance.
Children vary widely in the degrees to which they may be appealed to through each of their senses. The same is true in the size of units to be presented and in the type of presentation. It seems, then, that in order to follow a rational levelopment, a combination of sentence, word, and phonetic methods might be used. The sentence, of course, does the basal thing--present the thought. It also contains the phrase; the phrase contains the word; and the word contains the sound. This last should by no means be overlooked.
Reading should always be tied up to the other subjects. In the early years of a child's school life there should be as much reading as possible--certainly two reading lessons, one word drill or phonetic lesson daily. The general and specific objectives stated previously apply to the entire period of instruction in reading. Achievement of them should be the outcome of a well-planned and well carried out program of instruction. Of course, it is necessary, however, to interpret these objectives at each grade-level. Differentiation from grade to grade is bound to be .gradual and, with reference to some points, almost imperceptible; yet differentiation must be made in the teacher's practice from grade to grade and in emphasis placed upon the degree of maturity in certain skills and the degree of elimination of certain bad habits.
OBJECTIVES*
(FIRST GRADE)
A. Attitudes: 1. Realization that books are interesting. 2. Realization that books are valuable in carrying out many kinds of activity. 3. Desire to read books. 4. Desire to own books.
* Courtesy of Charles E. Merrill Company.
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B. Skills, habits, knowledge: 1. Thought-getting. Ability to comprehend meaning of a word, phrase, sentence. b. Ability to select and classify ideas. c. Ability to use facts as basis of reasoning. d. Ability to follow directions. e. Ability to illustrate or dramatize a short selection. f. Ability to connect content of picture with printed matter. g- Habit of reading for meanings. h. Habit of looking for meanings in all reading in environment. 2. Vocabulary. a. Ability to recognize a sight vocabulary of recurring words and phrases. b. Ability to recognize words from either context clues, or through form-clues.
C. Mechanics of Reading: 1. Recognition of units larger than a word at each eye-fixation. 2. Avoidance of finger-pointing or head-movement. 3. Decrease of lip-movement. 4. Clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well modulated and expressive voice in oral reading. 5. Regard for correct posture and proper light.
D. Handling of Books: 1. Proper use and care of book in opening, turning pages, etc. 2. Proper use of table of contents, finding stories by page-numbers, cross referencing.
E. Library: 1. Use of school and public library.
AMOUNT OF MATERIAL TO BE COVERED
A basal Primer and three or more supplementary Primers, a basal First Reader and three or more supplementary First Readers, should comprise a minimum quantity of book work for the first year.
ATTAINMENTS FOR PROMOTION
Since the statement of objectives for each grade is very specific, these objectives should indicate desirable levels of attainment. Ideally, the attainments for promotion should coincide with the objectives, but with the group promotion system, it is often necessary to promote pupils on the basis of the more easily measurable attainments. The following chart indicates attainments on the Pre-Primer, Primer, and the First Reader levels:
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A. Attitudes:
Pre-Primer Interest in all reading in environment.

Primer
Interest in all reading in environment. Particular interest in books. Voluntary interest in independent reading of very simple selections, charts, bulletins, etc.

First Reader
Interest in all reading in environment. Particular interest in books. Voluntary interest in independent reading of Primers and First Read-
ers. Interest in owning, borrowing, and bringing books to school. Interest in public library.

B. Habits, Skills and Knowledge:

Background of experi- Ability to comprehend

ence.

words, phrases, sen-

Enlarged speaking vo- tences.

cabulary.

Ability to answer fact

Ability to use simple

questions on material.

sentences.

Ability to make multiple

Ability to use ideas in choice from 3 possibili-

conversation, drawing, ties.

constructing, etc.

Ability to guess a short

Ability to read or re- riddle.

spond to simple chart Ability to illustrate or

material of 4 or 5 lines. dramatize a selection.

(15-20 charts).

Ability to follow 3 or 4

simple directions.

Ability to read any of

the easier selections

from any Primer.

Ability to comprehend words, phrases, sentences. Ability to answer fact questions on material. Ability to make multiple choice from 3 possibili-
ties. Ability to guess a riddle. Ability to illustrate or
dramatize a selection. Ability to follow 3 or 4 simple directions. Ability to read fluently
at sight any of the easier selections from any First Reader.

C. Vocabulary:
Vocabulary of 50 words from a standard list. (Gates or MerrillKircher)

Vocabulary of 200-250 sight words from a standard list. Ability to use contextclues.

Ability to read without finger pointing, lipmovement, or headmovement. Vocabulary of 900-1000 sight words from a standard list. Ability to use context-
clues. Ability to recognize words through similarity to other words, and by use of phonics.

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TYPES OF READING FOR A WELL-BALANCED PROGRAM

The three essential objectives discussed previously call for a well-balanced and an integrated program of reading lessons of varied character throughout the first year. The following types of reading lessons are listed in the Twentyfourth Yearbook (pages 39-40, Part I), as suggestive of the varieties of procedure to be included:

a. "Silent-reading and oral-reading lessons based on Interesting experi-

ences and activities of the pupils and on stories and informational selections in Readers and other books, to insure rapid growth in habits of intelligent interpretation.

b. "Directed silent reading for information or pleasure, to establish habits of continuous, intelligent reading and study.

c. "Directed oral reading following silent preparation, to develop ability,

to recognize increasingly large units of thought at each fixation and

to read effectively to others.

d. "Dramatization exercises, to aid in mastering the thought of a selec-

tion, as a means of realizing experiences more fully, and as an opportu-

nity of giving to others one's interpretation of the meaning of a selection.

e. "Drill and exercises, to establish habits of accuracy and independence

in word recognition, and a wide span of recognition.

f. "Supervised seat activities, to train pupils in habits of independent

study and in the thoughtful interpretation of what they read.

g. "Self-directed seat activities, with appropriate check tests, to provide

opportunity for pupils to read independently and to secure training in careful, thorough work.

h. "Frequent tests of the progress of pupils and-diagnostic and remedial

steps

"

CHOICE OF BOOKS
In chosing basal Primers and First Readers, we must scrutinize carefully the content, method, and vocabulary used. These first books should contain a combination of factual and narrative material, but should provide for a gradual, systematic development of study habits and skills.
The content should be varied and related to and should expand the natural and wholesome interests of six-year-old children. Home experiences, school or community life, farm life, pleasure experiences, and so forth, provide desirable content Provision should be made for building indirectly desirable attitudes toward home and community, such as pleasant home relationships, courtesy and co-operation in the schoolroom, and so forth. Continuity, gained by using the same characters throughout a book, is a desirable feature. The content should be such that it can be easily used to develop systematically, without over-emphasis on any one, effective study habits and skills. Practice in answering questions, guessing riddles, following directions, drawing, etc., and informal checks should be included.
Definite provision should be made for the use of a standard vocabulary based on the normal child's speaking vocabulary, and for the systematic in-
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crease of this vocabulary. There should be enough repetition of vocabulary to fix the associations between word forms and their meaning. There should be arrangements of vocabulary (in meaningful exercises) that show the similarities and differences in word forms.
Especially should the child's basal book for intensive reading have these characteristics. Books containing only fanciful tales, folk tales, poetry, and other predominantly narrative material, should be used as supplementary books for extensive individual reading or for group audience reading. Such material is not suited to the development of study habits and skills.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS
Children who enter the first grade differ widely in training, experience, and ability. Some children, through experiences and training at home or in the kindergarten, are fully prepared and eager for instruction in reading. Others, owing to the limited experience, natural timidity, inability to speak or understand English, or low mental age, are far from being ready. It is a mistake to try to force these children to read. The mere fact that a child has reached the age of five-and-a-half or six years is no indication that he is ready to read.
The Twenty-fourth Yearbook gives six prerequisites to reading:--
a. Reasonable facility in the use of ideas. b. Ability to speak with ease and fluency. c. Wide, experience. d. A relatively wide speaking vocabulary. e. Clear enunciation and correct pronunciation. f. A genuine desire to read. The class should be divided into about three groups of approximately the same readiness for reading and the same learning capacity. The use of standardized mental tests, plus rating given by the kindergarten teacher, should be helpful in determining proper grouping. Following is a list of mental tests, any one of which may be given: Stanford Revision of the Biiet-Simon Intelligence Tests--Houghton,
Mifflin. Pressey's Primary Classification Test--Public School Publishing Company,
Bloomington, 111. Dearborn's Group Test of Intelligence, Series I--Lippincott. Haggerty's Intelligence Examination, Delta I--World Book Company. Otis' Group Intelligence Scale, Primary Examination--World Book Com-
pany. Cole and Vincent's Group Intelligence Test for School Entrance--Kansas
State Teachers College, Emporia, Kan. Detroit First Grade Intelligence Tests--World Book Co. Pintner-Cunningham's Primary Mental Test--World Book Company.
GENERAL PREPARATION FOR READING
In the Pre-Primer period (kindergarten and first four to six weeks of first grade) it is very necessary to build up a general readiness for reading,--that is, to have children sense that reading is necessary and interesting part of their
35

activities. Attitude, not number of words recognized, is the main goal of this period. The skilled teacher will seize every opportunity for reading in connection with all kinds of classroom activities. Some of the situations arising in the classroom which involve need of, and stimulate interest in reading are suggested below:--
1. In playing store, circus, train, etc., children need to make and read lables, tickets, price marks, signs, such as "ticket office," "This way to the tigers," etc.
2. When children have been on a trip to the florist's, the market, the engine-house, the bakery, etc., they will want to record their experiences on a chart (as a report, newspaper, or diary) to read to other classes or to visitors. These records should be short, 4-6 lines. (Manv classes "Publish" a daily newspaper.)
3. Children like to make records about their pets, toys, games, and their schoolroom experiences.
4. When children find attractive books and illustrated rhyme cards, etc., on the library table, they will wish to find out what is in the books, especially if the teacher frequently reads all or parts of stories from these books.
5. When other children bring books to school the children will wish to hear what is in the books.
6. If children from other classes are occasionally allowed to read in the first grade, interest is stimulated.
7. Sometimes children ask questions calling for additional information on some topic. The teacher should show children that this information may be found in books, and read it to them. Such information would be that concerning pets, community life, games, what to do for a party or entertainment, etc.
8. Children will find it necessary to read the bulletin board, especially if it contains notices of this type,--"Richard may water the plants today." Charts composed by the children may suggest the next day's activities and be read on that day. Interesting pictures stimulate interest.
9. Children will be interested in reading booklets of very short stories composed by members of the class.
The teacher should also in this Pre-Primer period be widening children's experiences by excursions, conversation, pictures; by classroom free activities, such as playing postman, store, milkman; and by constructive group activities, such as building a doll's house and dressing dolls, and so forth. She should be developing their vocabulary and ability to think by allowing much natural conversation, by cooperative planning of work, and by discussions after activities. Opportunities for extending and enriching the experience of children are fully described in the following:--
A Conduct Curriculum for Kindergarten and First Grade (Compiled by Teachers of the Horace Mann School)--Scribner's "Unified Kindergarten and First Grade Teaching."
Elementary School Journal (September, 1923 through March, 1924) pp. 13, 93, 173, 253, 333, 413, 493, etc.
Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, Parker, pp. 73-92--Ginn and Company.
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PREPARATION FOR READING THE PRIMER
In addition to other activities designed to build up a general readiness for reading, there must be lessons during the first four to six weeks which definitely prepare children to read the Primer. These build up a vocabulary of words and phrases which will be used during the early Primer reading. Some of the lessons should be based on children's experiences and composed by the class under the teacher's guidance, others may be stories written by the teacher.
One teacher used successfully the care of the class dolls as the basis for a number of lessons. The care of a schoolroom pet, such as a rabbit or canary, furnishes ample material. The activities of two imaginary children make an interesting group of lessons.
Materials: Charts about 18x24 inches, made by the teacher and containing i lustrated experience or story units of four to six sentences; sentence cards; wordl and phrase cards illustrated; word and phrase cards not illustrated.
Method: Different teachers are successful with different methods of beginning reading. A method is suggested below which many teachers have found satisfactory. It is based on work composed by the children themselves and combines memory reading with independent reading, allowing children to read from memory until a vocabulary of a few words and phrases has been learned.
Steps: a. Children and teacher compose the story line by line, which teacher prints on blackboard.
b. Teacher asks child to read whole chart, using a line-marker, and moving eyes from left to right.
c. Teacher asks children to find different sentences.
Helping Children with Independent Word-Recognition. If in reading a chart, children come upon the section "One day Peter ran away," and know the words "Peter" and "Ran", the teacher may say, "Whom is the sentence about?" "Peter." "Do you see something that tells what he did?" "Ran." "Well, the sentence tells that one day Peter did something. It begins "one day." Study by yourself and see if you can find out what he did. Guess the last word."
SEAT ACTD7ITIES
Seat activities have a definite function in the well-balanced reading program. They should be planned to give practice in the fundamental habits and skills, repetition for fixing vocabulary, and opportunities for the learning of new words through the use of context and pictures. The work should be built for the most part upon a known vocabulary, yet should provide new content. It should be varied, interesting, and pleasurable.
Many teachers mimeograph seat-work material. Others find that supplying the child with a work-book at small expense, saves them a good deal of labor. The work-books should contain a great variety of exercises, with numerous interesting illustrations, and should be carefully planned to give distributed practice in comprehension, in following directions, in guessing
37

riddles, and BO forth. They are also of service in indicating the individual strength and weakness of the pupils, and may be used by the pupil to check his own progress.
The following types of seat-activity are valuable:
Pre-Primer
(In the Pre-Primer stage, the seat-work is necessarily very simple on account of the lack of vocabulary and reading techniques.)
1. Matching pictures and phrases: animals, people, things in a house, things to eat, colors.
2. Drawing on paper or blackboard. 3. Making in clay characters from a story. 4. Making and labelling book of cut-out pictures, free-hand cutting, or
cutting pictures from magazines.

Primer and First Reader

Free illustration of thought-units of story length, by drawing, paper cutting, clay or in sand table.

2. Directed illustration of short units; e. g.

a. Draw three rabbits. Color one rabbit white. Color one rabbit black. Color one rabbit brown. Draw carrots for the rabbits to eat.

Draw the bears' bedroom. Draw three blue beds. Draw a little table. Draw a big chair. Draw a Baby Bear in bed.

3. Riddles to be completed by: (a) placing with correct picture, (b) placing with correct phrase, (c) drawing, cutting; e. g.,

I am black and white. I like milk. I say "Meow, Meow." Draw me.

(A number of these units should be assigned for one work-period.)

4. Rhymes or short stories to be placed with appropriate illustrations and titles.

5. Units accompanied by true-false, completion, multiple-choice or sentence-matching checks, e. g.:

Yip was a little dog. He was black and white. He liked to eat puppy cakes. He liked to drink milk. He liked to play ball.

Checks on the above selections might take the following form:

(True-false) Yip was a cat. He was black and white.

(Completion) Yip was He was black and

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He liked to eat bread. He liked to drink milk. He liked to play hide and seek.

He liked to eat He liked to drink He liked to play

(Multiple-choice)

Yip was a cat--rat--dog. He was black--brown--black and white He liked to drink tea--water--milk. He liked to play games--ball--hide and seek.

Note: For one work period, the child should either be given a number of short units with the same kind of checks, or a long unit with one check, plus the suggestion that he illustrate the story.

6. Making a story book, finding or drawing illustrations, and printing accompanying sentences; e. g., "The family," "This is Mother," "This is Baby," etc. Making only a few copies of each kind of work, and arranging some scheme of rotation is convenient, the following references

will provide helpful suggestions:

School Magazine May 1924. "Occupation Work in the First Grade," Sara M. Coonly. Reading in the St. Cloud Public Schools, Ruth Hilpert.
Purposeful Handwork, McKee. Primary Handwork, Dobbs. Journal of Educational Method, May, 1924. "How to Teach Reading," pp. 117-120--Pennell and Cusack. Course of Study in Reading, Buffalo, N. Y. 1926--Grade I, pp. 37-59.

USE OF SUPPLEMENTARY PRACTICE MATERIALS
The use of chart materials and in the Primer stage book materials, which are properly organized to provide distributed repetition of vocabulary, should take care of fixing the vocabulary. However, supplementary material, though not essential to the effective use of well-planned books will enlarge and enrich children's experiences by helping to establish a friendly attitude toward reading, as well as by furnishing additional means for thoughtful repetitions. Supplementary materials include:--
1. Reading Cards: The content, vocabulary, and method of these cards should be adapted to the experiences and interests of the first-grade child, and should, without repeating, be related to the book materials. They should provide definitely for practice in such skills as understanding of sentences and vocabulary development, using the following responses--action, verbal, yes-no statements, matching words, matching with pictures, completion of sentences. They are effective when used for repetition with specific sections of the books or charts being read. All the sentence cards in a group should be related to one central idea. Suitable units might be grouped around animals, toys, a breakfast experience, things in the home, etc. Following is an example of a flash-card exercise to be used after children have read about breakfast activities.
39

Get ready for breakfast. Sit down at the table. Play you are eating breakfast. Play you are drinking milk. Play you are helping the baby. Play you are feeding a puppy. Play you are helping mother.
2. Illustrated charts build upon the same general principles as the Reading Cards.
READING AS CONNECTED WITH CLASS ACTIVITIES IN THE PRIMER AND FIRST READER PERIOD
The use of reading in connection with classroom activities should continue in the period following the Pre-Primer stage. Situations similar to those previously mentioned, (see General Preparation for Reading in the Pre-Primer Period) should afford opportunity for reading. Other situations which may be utilized in this period are described below:
1. In constructing objects or in playing games simple printed directions may De used.
2. When children desire further information on any topic, such as stories of pets, etc., they will wish to consult books.
3. Children may wish to give an entertainment, play, reading, etc. Books should furnish some of the material for dramatizations, puppet shows, pantomine, tableaux, narrative readings, etc.
4. If children see posters containing descriptive remarks and an interesting picture, they will become interested in the book described.
5. Interest in children's magazines may be stimulated by placing attractive magazines on the library table, asking children to bring clippings from their magazines or the children's pages from an adult's magazine, or having children make a little magazine of their own.
6. At this stage more difficult material posted on the bulletin board will attract attention, e. g., illustrated magazine clippings, notices of coming events such as a party, etc.
7. Opportunity for children to report or dramatize or illustrate stories read independently, and opportunity for keeping a record of books read or owned will tend to stimulate wide reading.
Moreover, reading in addition to growing out of other activities should furnish leads and cues for additional desirable classroom experiences. Well chosen reading will lead out to activity in the following fields: (1) constructive activity, (2) art work, (3) poetry, (4) music, (5) reading of additional references, (6) dramatization, (7) original writing, (8) excursions.
GENERAL PRIMER OR FIRST-READER LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Introduction: Connect the book material with children's experience in a short introduction, using conversation, pictures or objects.
40

2. Purpose: Be sure children know just what they are to find out when they read. The more mature the children the longer the section they are able to read, to find the answer to a question. At first only a sentence should be read, then two or three sentences, and by the end of first grade a page or even a complete, though very short, story.
3. Vocabulary Development: Introduce on blackboard or by cards (in context) the new words and phrases. Be careful not to "give away" the book content, or the purpose for reading will not be strong.
4. Remind the children of what they are to look for. 5. Allow children to read silently (using markets in primer stage), giving them help with words they do not know. 6. Call for answers to questions. 7. Proceed with other sections of story, using steps 4-6. 8 Provide additional check-up means of questions, or one of several types of informal tests. 9. Review vocabulary, asking children to "find the sentence that tells what Tom drank for breakfast," etc. 10. Connect with further activity by discussing other work on the same topic. This might be in the form of poems, by constructive activity, or by mentioning other related interesting material in this book or other books.
DEVELOPING STUDY ABILITIES IN THE PRIMER AND FIRST READER STAGES
Although first-grade children are too immature to be conscious of the formation of study habits, abilities in work-type reading will be needed during this initial Primer and First Reader period of reading experience. The alert teacher will recognize this fact and will plan for the introduction of actual study initiated and guided by children's purposes, without making the learning tedious or irksome.
The success in launching a program of work-type or study reading during this initial stage of reading experience will depend upon a knowledge of aims and objectives, upon the choice of effective material of a factual nature, upon the conscious use of especially adapted techniques and procedures, and upon a definite standard of expected achievements. No rigid or dogmatic procedure should be defined for the use of work-type reading since it should be adapted to the needs and capacities of the children. The following are a few suggestions for the development of the study abilities listed under B-l and B-2, First Grade Objectives.
Skill 1-a. Ability to comprehend meaning of a word, phrase or sentence, or short unit of three or four sentences
How Developed
1. Give child a definite purpose or question that will compel him to concentrate on meaning.
2. Exercises which entail search for meanings. Any of the checks mentioned below are also practice exercises.
3. Constantly checking on comprehension by means of informal tests,--
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yes-no exercises, matching, multiple choice, riddles, completion, picture pointing, drawing. 4. Encourage child to get meaning of new words through context.
Skill 1-b. Ability to select and classify ideas.
How Developed 1. Ask questions or give directions which oblige child to organize, select,
and classify ideas: e. g. "Tell three things Bunny had for Breakfast." "Which of these three things did Bunny have for breakfast--tea, milk, cake?" "Draw what Bunny rabbit ate." 2. The types of tests mentioned above may be used to test and practice ability to select and classify ideas.
Skill 1-c. Ability to use facts presented, to reason, and to answer a question whose answer is implied but not stated in the material read. "What was tie most healthful food that Peter Rabbit had for lunch?" or "Read about Sally and tell us if you think she was a wise little girl," or "What should she have done?"
How Developed Give practice exercises which require such types of thinking--ask the kind
of questions mentioned above. Tests mentioned previously may be constructed for this purpose.
Skill 1-d. Ability to follow directions.
How Developed Give children written directions for drawing, playing a game, performing
classroom duties, or making very simple objects.
Skill 1-e. Ability to illustrate or diamatize a selection, with little direction from the teacher. Give opportunities for such interpretations.
Skill 1-f. Ability to connect content of story with pictures.
How Developed Discuss pictures with children, allowing them to guess probabilities from
the pictures and check themselves by referring to the text. Habits 1-g and 1-h--habits of looking for meaning in all reading in environment will develop as a result of attention to the several skills noted above. Abilities 2-a and 2-b. Vocabulary. The larger the sight vocabulary that a child has, the more easily is he able to interpret the printed page. Again, the number of ideas he is able to acquire from a selection is affected by his ability to understand new words from the context or to recognize words because of similarities to other words. In the early grades we develop a sight vocabulary of words whose meanings are already known to the child, and which are in the child's speaking vocabulary. It is necessary both to build a sight vocabulary and to give the child some means of recognizing unfamiliar words independently. Three important phases of vocabulary development are:
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1. Initial Presentation of New Sight Words.

a. A good way of introducing words early in the first grade is to use pictures, in order to make a vivid connection between a word-symbol and its meaning: e. g., a picture of a boy with the words printed under it.

Other words may be, and in fact nearly all words should be, introduced in context. In teaching "a good place," the teacher might say, "Who knows a good place to play?" and put on the board the children's re-

sponse--"My yard is a good place to play." A child may then be asked to "frame" or underline the part that says "a good place."

b. Attention to the form of a word in addition to its meaning helps to

fix the form: e. g., in teaching "a mouse" we might write on the board

"A cat caught

" and ask children to supply the right word.

Then the teacher might ask, "Does 'mouse' look like any word we have

had before?" When "house" is suggested, the teacher should list the

words together and have children point out their similarity and differ-

ence.

c. Care should be taken not to teach more than three or four new sight words in a lesson. Again, not all the new words in a lesson need to be taught. For the choice of words in a lesson which should become the basic vocabulary, reference should be made to such a list as Gates'. (See Gates' Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades, Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University.)

2. Retention of Vocabulary Learned.
Well-organized beginning reading materials should plan for enough properly distributed repetitions of vocabulary to fix the connections between wordsymbol and meaning. In case the materials are not so organized, or in case certain children need more repetition for fixing the learning, teachers may use supplementary materials in the form of charts, mimeographed material, short exposure (flash) cards, and seat-work reading games. (See seat-work activities.) The reading material itself may be used for word-finding and phrasefinding games. Whenever possible, supplementary exercises in vocabulary should be in context form: e. g.
Billy went to the farm. He saw the cows. He saw the horses. He saw the pigs. He liked the farm.
We may ask the child to find the phrase that tells where Billy went, to find the kind of animals that say "moo," to find the kind that children like to ride, and so forth.
Word-games with emphasis on meaning may be used with discretion. Such games are: picture-pointing, matching words to pictures, drawing or acting word-meanings.
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3. Recognition of New Sight-Words.
There are three methods a child may use to work out words independently. He should be taught all three:
a. The first way is to use the context as a clue to new words. If a sentence reads "Baby was asleep in bed," the word "bed" being a new sightword, children should be encouraged to guess the word "bed." Use of contextual clues requires thinking and concentration on meaning, but care should be taken to avoid over-dependence on this type of wordrecognition, resulting in hasty and inaccurate reading.
b. The second way is to inspect words for their similarities to other words. If a child sees the word "ball" in the sentence "Billy plays with a ball," he should guess from the context that some sort of a toy is meant, and he should notice that the word looks like "fall," which he already knows. By putting two and two together he gets the word "ball."
c. A third way is to "sound" words. Authorities are disagreed on the value of phonetic work. Gates, for example, on the basis of experimental evidence, would discard phonics entirely. Until there is a larger body of scientific evidence, however, to determine exactly the value of phonics, it is safe to say that a limited amount of phonic work is helpful. Recognizing words phonetically should never be emphasized in a lesson in such a way that acquiring the meaning of the reading material is hampered. It is far better to tell the child those words that he fails to recognize during a thought-getting period, than to delay progress and dull interest by insistence on the use of phonetic knowledge.

PHONICS

I. When to Begin Phonics:

As phonics deals with the classification of words into groups, its teaching should not begin until the child has some familiar words to classify. His ear may be trained from the beginning to listen for sounds in rhymes, but the classifying of words comes only when he knows so many that they tend to become confusing. If a child says, "That word (hill) ends just the way Jill does," he feels a need for classifying sounds. The teacher seizes this lead as a starting point for the adventures with phonics.
At some other time a child may say, "These words sound the same," referring to "tall" and "wall." The teacher may use these to start a list like the following:

wall

tall

call

stall

fall

ball

hall

all

Attention may be called to their common element, "all," and to their differing elements, the initial sounds. Thus, from two words, six more may be learned very easily; and in addition, an attitude may be established of being on the lookout for other words in the same classification.
The time to start, then, is after a need arises. Some investigators believe this time to be after a sight vocabulary of fifty words has been acquired; some,

44

after a sight vocabulary of a hundred words; and still others, after a sight vocabulary of two hundred words. The early ear-training of the group and its keenness to recognize and to be interested in sound classifications will determine the exact time in a given situation.
II. When to Teach Phonics: It is to be kept in mind that thought getting is the fundamental aim of the
reading period, and that phonics is but a tool to this larger aim. As a tool, it should receive special attention in a separate period. During the latter period, every effort must be to link the knowledge and skills practiced to the real reading period which has preceded it or which is to follow it.
III. What to Teach in Phonics: The most essential facts of phonics for first-grade children are: 1. Consonants: Most of the initial consonants, some final consonants, and a few import blends of consonants. 2. Vowels: short vowels and long vowels. (When there are two vowels in a syllable, the first is long and the second silent.) 3. Phonograms or "families;" rime words. In considering what to teach in phonics, the safest guide according to W. J.
Osburn in his study, "The Relative Value of Letter Sounds and Consonants," is "to teach first that which is most important." In the list which follows are given essential facts to teach, listed in order of importance:
1. Consonants--The list which follows contains those consonants and blends which, according to the Osburn study, are most frequently used. This list is only suggestive:
a. Initial Consonants,--s, t, c, p, d, f, b, r, m, 1, w, g, n, h, th, st, pr, ch. b. Final Consonants,--r, n, 1, s, t, d, m, p. c. Consonant Blends (final),--nt, re, ce, se, th, nd, st, ve, ng, te, ck.
2. Vowels. a. Short Vowels. Since short vowels occur more frequently than long ones, they are needed first. In a study called "An Analysis and Classification of the Sounds of English Words in a Primary Reading Vocabulary," by Anna D. Cordts, the following short vowels are listed in the order of their importance: a, i, e, o, u. Certain words may be used as keys for short vowels: can, sit, help, fun, hop. b. Long Vowels. Words which may be used as keys for "long vowels" are: a--ate, cake, name, gave, game, take, page, place, came, late, rain, tail, wait. e--eat, each, teacher, meat, read, cream, clean, leave, beat, i--ride, five, hide, like, time, write, o--home, hole, nose, boat, coat, loaf, road, u--use, blue. c. When using words with double vowels, the teacher should be careful to indicate the effect of the second vowel upon the first, as in ai, ea, oa, ue.
45

3. Phonograms or "families:" Rime Words. Ten important phonograms, or "groups of letters of one or more vowels followed by one or more consonants," are listed below with examples of words. In situations in which a teacher finds it desirable to do so, more phonograms may be added to the list here given.

ee
see seeds sleep peep sweet need seed

ing
playing eating drinking taking doing reading going

all
ball fall small

ay
play say day gray may

en
then hen when pen

et

ight

ick

est

un

pet

night

trick

rest

run

set

right

best

sun

met

nest

fun

IV. How Phonics May Be Taught:
There are two phases of the problem of teaching phonics, ear training and ear-and-eye training.

A. Ear Training. Since the recognition of similarities and differences in sounds is the basis for independent word recognition, ear training is essential from the beginning of the first grade. All sounds make a strong appeal to children. Throughout the early weeks of the first grade, the children can be led to listen for sounds and to imitate them.

1. Sound Reproduction. The sounds made by animals and by the toys with which the children play, and the common street sounds afford opportunities for ear training and for sound repetition. Poems reproducing the sounds of water, of wind, of rain, and of animals should be read to the group.

2. Riming Words. All children have a strong feeling for rhythm and rime. The recognition of riming words furnishes another sound basis for phonics. Some suggestions for developing the riming sense follow:

a. The teacher reads couplets exaggerating the rimes; the child

listens, and reproduces the riming words.

b. The teacher gives a couplet,--all but the riming words; the child

supplies the riming word. Mother Goose rimes like the following

may be used:

Jack and Jill

Went up the

c. The child or teacher makes up rimes:

"Look, look-

I see the

"

d. The child gives two riming words from a familiar jinlge

46

e. The child says a word and another child gives a riming word, such as: toy, boy; girl, curl; house, mouse.
3. Initial Sound in Names of Children. The teacher may say:--"There are two children here whose names begin with the same sound. Will they tell us their names?" The children think of other names that begin with the same letter, such as: Jill, Jo, Jenny, Jessie, Jeff.
4. Initial Sounds in names of Things in the Room. After a page has been read, the teacher may say, "There is something in this room that begins as Tom's name does." The teacher makes the sound of "t" several times clearly. The children touch something that begins as Tom's name does, such as: table, tool, teacher, top, toy, telephone.

B Ear-and-Eye Training. After the child has had some experience in ear training and feels the need of classifying the words which he recognizes at sight, he is ready to associate sounds with symbols.

1. Initial Consonant Recognition. The teacher says, "When May waa reading page 29 in her Reader today, she told me that many of the words began with the same sound. Look at the first word m line 6 on page 29. Sound the word. What is the first sound?" The teacher writes the word "some" on the blackboard, sounding the initial letter

clearly as she does so.

__

She then asks the children to tell her other words beginning with the

same sound. These need not be the words on the page of the text, since

the first list comprises words selected by the sound of "s", not by the

sight of the written "s". The teacher should list on the blackboard

any words the children give, pronouncing each carefully. Common

words the children may give are see, sing, song, six, seven, etc. If none

of the children seems to notice the fact that all the words begin with

"s", the teacher may call attention to the fact and emphasize two things- The appearance of the letter, and the sound it makes. When

the sound has been identified with the letter, the teacher may refer

again to the text and call on the children to find other words beginning

with "s".

Further drill on the "s" sound may be made through various ways:
a The teacher may take a number of word-cards and flash them before the children. When the word begins with "s", the children should say, "Yes." When it does not begin with "s", they should
say, "No." b The children may direct the teacher in making a list of things in
the schoolroom that begin with "s". During a seat-work study period the children may draw objects, the names of which begin with "s"; or they may make charts with pictures they have cut out from magazines to show words beginning with "s".
2. Final Consonant Recognition. The teacher may call attention to what the baby is doing in a picture of a baby drinking. Then she may say:

BUP, SUP, SUp,
From a cup.

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"What do you hear at the ends of the words 'sup' and 'cup'? Are the sounds
the same? Here are some more." Then the teacher may say, accenting the final consonant for the child to repeat:

stop

hop

top

jump

The teacher may then put the words on the blackboard, asking the child
to pronounce the parts of the words which look the same. The name and the sound of the letter may be given.

Procedures suggested for seat-work or study time with initial consonants may be used with the final consonants. Some teachers prefer the final consonant method, others the initial consonant. Either method may be used.

3. Short Vowel Recognition. The teacher may put on the board several
words with short vowels. These should be words which the children know by sight, such as:

can black flag

Sallie glad cat

ran
had
apple

The teacher may pronounce the words, asking the children to listen. She
may ask, "Can you hear the same sound in all the words? What letter is in every word? What letter must have made the sound?"

The teacher may show the symbol "a", asking for its sound. After a strong association has been made between sound and symbol, she may ask for other words that have the same sound. The following words may be put on the board so that the child will see that, in these words, the sound of "a" is "a"

fat Sam hat mat man can

Further drill may be had by using flash cards, the text, charts, and booklets as suggested for consonants.

4. Long Vowel Recognition. The teacher may say, as she puts the word "can" on the board, "Here is a word with 'a' in it. What does the 'a' say? Here are some more. What does the'a'say?" The teacher may then continue,' 'There is a letter which will change these words. Watch the words change." She puts "e" on the end of each word, pronouncing the long vowel slowly:
fate same hate mate mane cane
The child sees that the word is changed in sound and in meaning It is shown that the "e" makes the "a" long and that the "e" is silent, or does not sound. In a short while the child should be able to change from "a" to long "a" when he sees the "e" on the end of a syllable or a word. The teacher may proceed with the same type of practice suggested for consonants. The same procedures are used for the other vowels in developing the long sounds of e i, o, u When words like eat, coat, rain, clean, and leave, are used, the teacher may show that the second vowel, like the "e" at the end, keeps silent but makes the first vowel long.

5. Recognition of Phonograms, or "families;" Rime Words. The teacher may say, "I am going to say several words. Are there any parts that sound the same?" She then pronounces such words as:
playing drinking reading eating taking

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The children will diBcover the "ing" when the teacher writes the words on the blackboard. The children may say the words and may put a box around the family name; that is, around each "ing." Cards may be made with words familiar to the child. An "ing" card may be placed on those words which will take the "ing." As the child adds the "ing", he is to pronounce the word he has made. For seat-work, the child may write all the words he knows in the family. If he cannot write, he may cut from magazines words in which "ing" occurs. Other phonograms may be taught in this way.
STANDARD TESTS
Testing is not teaching, but testing is necessary in the efficient administration of a reading program. Both kinds of tests, informal and formal, are necessary. Formal tests tell the teacher where her group stands in relation to other groups in other places. They serve as standards to show what children are doing, but they are not to be used as goals. Standardized tests are not made for the Pre-Primer stage but may be effectively used in the latter part of the first year. The following standardized tests are available:
Silent Reading. Detroit Word Recognition Tests, by Eliza F. Oglesby. Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I, by M. E. Haggerty and Margaret E. Noonan, World Book Company. Gates' Primary Reading Tests-- Type 1. Word recognition. Type 2. Phrase and sentence reading. Type 3. Paragraph comprehension; Reading of paragraphs of directions. Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University.
Oral Reading. Gray, Standardized Reading Paragraphs and Oral Reading. Check Test, Set 1. Public School Publishing Company.
REMEDIAL MEASURES IN FIRST GRADE
The work in first grade should be more in the nature of prevention than of curing deficiencies, for the foundation of right or wrong habits is laid in this grade. The first grade teacher should know the general causes of deficiencies and particular disabilities that are likely to appear in her grade. See "Deficiencies and Remedial Work," particularly:--
Causes of both slow and inaccurate reading, page 24. Disabilities affecting accuracy and amount of comprehension, especially 2
and 4, page 25. Deficiencies resulting in retardation of rate of comprehension, 1, 2, 3, 4,
pages 26-27. At the end of this grade the child should have developed certain attitudes, habits, skills, and knowledge, and a vocabulary of certain words. Refer to "Attainments for Promotion."
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SECOND GRADE READING
Basal Text: 'The Child's World--Second Reader", published by Johnson Publishing Company.
Supplementary Texts:
"Moore-Wilson Readers, Second Reader," From Fairyland, published by D. C. Heath & Company.
"Good Reading--Second Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons.
"Great Pictures and Their Stories--Book II," Lester, published by Mentzer, Bush & Company.
"The Elson Readers--Book II," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
"Child-Library Readers--Book II," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
"The Open Road to Reading--Second Reader," published by Ginn & Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text (or Texts) to be Covered:
The Basal and as many of the Supplementary Readers as the individual pupil's ability warrants
Manuals:
Basal Text:
"Teacher's Manual to accompany the Child's World Primer and the First, Second and Third Readers," published by Johnson Publishing Company.
Supplementary Texts:
"Manual for the Elson Readers, Book II, (Revised Edition," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
"Teacher's Manual for Grades Two and Three to accompany The Open Road to Reading," published by Ginn & Company.
SECOND GRADE READING
Children's reading should be pleasant and volitional, not forced. They should read because they are interested and want to read, not because they are forced to do so. If they have mastered the first grade mechanics of reading, and if interesting books are furnished them, children will read volitionally, Worthless, poorly adapted, uninteresting reading matter should never be presented to a child. It destroys the motive and kills the joy of reading, and therefore, precludes to a large extent the chance he may have to learn to read. Presuming that a foundation for word mastery and for good reading has been
50

laid in the first grade it should be continued in the second grade, even though here more emphasis should be put on the mechanics of reading. Where heretofore he has, to some extent, done so unconsciously, under the guidance of the teacher, the child should now begin consciously to look for thought, for meaning. In this grade he should utilize the abilities, the knowledge, and the power he has previously developed. Let him locate sentences conveying a certain thought or meaning.
The teacher now should, by all means, begin to relate reading to the other elementary subjects. Teach reading--no matter whether the subject be reading, or history, or nature study.
Silent and oral reading may easily be taught in the same recitation and on the same selection (at times). Begin to pay attention to reading rate but do not overlook comprehension and retention. Give the child every possible opportunity to read good material and to hear good oral reading.
OBJECTIVES
I. Attitudes: 1. Greater interest in books and desire to read, as shown by voluntary library reading, bringing books to school, taking books home. 2. Realization that books are useful, as shown by habit of looking for information in them. 3. Increased desire to own books.
II. Skills, habits, knowledge:
A. Thought-getting. 1. Greater ability to comprehend word, phrase, sentence. 2. Ability to select and group ideas. 3. Ability to select main ideas (a beginning in evaluating ideas and in outlining). 4. Ability to use facts to solve a simple problem. 5. Ability to follow directions as in drawing and making objects, playing games, carrying out brief assignments, etc. 6. Ability to organize a sequence of events, as in dramatizing a story.
B. Vocabulary. 1. Increased stock of sight-words. 2. Ability to recognize a vocabulary of recurring words and phrases through both context and formclues. 3. Ability to recognize meanings of new words through context clues.
III. Mechanics of reading: 1. Increasing span of recognition, as distinguished from span of perception. Elimination of finger-pointing, and head or lip-movement. Improvement in enunciation, correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well-modulated and expressive voice in oral reading. Habitually correct pasture and consistent use of proper light.
51

IV. Handling of Books: 1. Appreciation of necessity for the care of books in opening, turning pages, etc. 2. Greater skill in use of table of contents, finding stories by page numbers; cross referencing.
V. Library: Beginning of the ability to locate books and, without guidance, to be-
come familiar with contents.
MATERIALS TO BE COVERED
The materials to be covered in the second grade should include the basal reader, the six supplementary readers, and four to ten other readers
Those pupils who have not the normal reading ability of the grade should review some first grade readers and read others they did not have in the first grade.
A class Library should be developed and made always accessible to the child. In the event this cannot be done for each school, the same ends may be achieved through means of a circulating library.
ATTAINMENTS FOR PROMOTION
Promotion should depend upon the attainment of a relatively high proficiency in the habits and skills listed as objectives. At the end of this grade children should read with ease from any of the basal and supplementary books, show reasonable thought comprehension, use phonetics skillfully in discovering new words.
Standard tests, the teacher's judgment, and whatever local practice obtains should be the guides in determining promotion.
THE READING PROGRAM
The type of lessons in the second grade should include: 1. Group lessons in silent reading for the purpose of developing fundamental habits and skills. 2. Independent silent reading, carefully checked. 3. Audience reading of prepared recreatory or informational material. 4. Independent reading of recreatory material, checked through brief reports, etc. 5. An appropriate amount of drill and exercises to establish habits of accuracy and independence in word-recognition, and a wide span of recognition. 6. Frequent tests of progress, and diagnostic and remedial measures. 7. Reading in connection with class activities.
CHOICE OF BOOKS
For choice of recreatory material see the discussion of Recreatory reading. Tests containing information about children of other lands, primitive life,
52

animals, pets, and community interests such as markets, fruit store, and so forth, are particularly valuable for expanding child interests in these grades. Relatively simple material is best for developing study abilities.
CLASSIFICATION
The class should be divided into at least three groups on the basis of needs. Three types of tests are recommended for this purpose.
1. Tests of ability to comprehend or interpret what is read (see Stanford Achievement Tests in Reading, and Haggerty Tests).
2. Measures of rate of silent reading (Courtis, Starch). 3. Tests of rate and accuracy in oral reading (Gray). Some schools have found it practicable to re-group (for the reading period) all the children of their second and third grades, according to special needs.
READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Reading should have a prominent part in carrying on classroom activities, and in supplementing the content matter of the curriculum. Library shelves should contain books which will enrich certain phases of history, geography, community life, etc. Reading lists on such topics may be made by children or by teacher and posted.
Reading should supplement the experience gained on excursions to the farm, the dairy, the bakery, etc. Reading material should be utilized in preparing entertainments, assembly programs, parties and dramatizations.
Printed board directions are useful in connection with care of materials, constructive work, free-period activities, games, study assignments in number work, etc. Book directions may be given for constructive work or games. Bulletin boards should regularly show letters from other groups, suggestions for before school work, lists of committees of coming class events, and so forth.
Reading should not only grow out of such situations but should be used to furnish points of departure for further reading, excursions, constructive work, and so forth.
STUDY IN SECOND GRADE
1. Ability to Comprehend. In this grade, it is still necessary to give attention to the comprehension of words, phrases, and sentences. Comprehension is developed by:
a. Giving the child a definite purpose which compels concentration on meaning.
b. Questions and exercises which entail search for meaning. (Any of the checks mentioned below are also practice exercises.)
c. Constantly checking on comprehension by means of informal tests of the following types: yes-no, multiple choice, matching sentences, completion, riddles, drawing, picture pointing, following directions.
d. Encouraging child to get meanings of new words through context.
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Ability to Select and Classify Ideas. i. Ask questions or give directions which oblige child to organize, select
and classify ideas; e. g., "Find three sentences that tell you the caveboys had a good time." "What kinds of food did Surefoot like to eat?" What two important things did Surefoot have to think of when he chose his home?" b. Require children to report very briefly on topics; e. g., "Tell us about Surefoot's home." "Tell one way the cave men built a fire." ;. Ask children to illustrate the part of the story which shows...
Ability to Select Main Ideas. Ask for title for a paragraph or story. Ask children to find the "key" word. Ask class to divide the selection into parts for reporting to class. Ask children to make a series of illustrations bringing out the most important ideas.
4. Ability to Arrange Ideas. a. Ask children to find all the statements that prove b. Ask children to report the details on a certain topic c. Ask child to illustrate a selection, centering attention on the main idea, but including all details.
5. Ability to Use Ideas in Solving a Simple Problem, as "In what ways were the cave-dwellers different from the tree-dwellers?" or "Why does a dog need a collar?"
6. Ability to Use Facts Presented as a Basis for Reasoning or for Making Inferences,--i. e., ability to answer a question whose answer is implied but not stated in the material read: "What was the safest way Surefoot played?" "What was the most dangerous way he played?"
a. Such questions as the above should be frequently asked in connection with the reading lesson.
b. Informal tests of the types mentioned above may be adapted for testing this ability.
7. Ability to Follow Directions--Give directions for games, plays, dramatizations, pantomime, drawing, etc.
8. Ability to Organize a Sequence of Events--(a) Give practice in dramatizing, (b) Reproduction.
VOCABULARY BUILDING
In the second grade, the following means of building vocabulary must still be employed:
Careful presentation of difficult new sight words. Repetition of vocabulary for retention. Giving the child the means for working out words independently.
54

1. Initial Presentation of New Sight Words:

All words should be introduced in context. In teaching "the rudder" the

teacher might say, "Who knows something that helps steer the plane?" and

put on the board the children's response,--"The rudder helps steer the plane."

A child may then be asked to "frame" or underline the part that says "the rudder." Attention to the form of a word in addition to its meaning helps

to fix the form; e. g., in teaching "worn" we might write on the board "Rub-

bers are

on rainy days," and ask children to supply the right

word. The teacher might ask, "Does 'worn' look like any word we have had

before?" When "torn" is suggested, the teacher should list the words to-

gether and have children point out their similarity and difference.

2. Retention of Vocabulary Learned:
Well-organized reading materials should provide for enough properly distributed repetitions of vocabulary to fix the connections between word-symbol and meaning. In case the materials are not so organized, or in case certain children need more repetition for fixing the learning, teachers may use supplementary materials in the form of charts, mimeographed material, shortexposure (flash) cards, and seat-work reading games. The reading material itself may be used for word-finding and phrase-finding games. Whenever possible, supplementary exercises in vocabulary should be in context form;

eg-, A dog should have a--strong leather collar.
He should have a--muzzle. If your dog is lost, go to the pound to see--whether--he is there.

We may ask the child to find the phrase that tells what a dog should wear

around his neck, what he should wear on his jaws in hot weather, and so forth.

Word-games with emphasis on meaning may be used with discretion. Ask-

ing children to give synonyms or antonyms, or the use of words in sentences,

helps to fix their meaning. (See "synonyms" and "antonyms" below.) The

types of tests discussed above (true-false, completion, etc.) may be used to

test understanding of vocabulary; e. g.,

"The

-helps to steer an aeroplane."

"The

were so heavy that Linbergh could hardly see."

3. Recognition of New Sight-Words:
There are three methods a child may use to work out words independently. He should be taught all three, as indicated in the outline for Grade I.

WORD STUDY
In the first grade the child repeated sight words selected from the lesson and used phrase and sentence work to increase reading pace by training the eye. Phonetics, drills for speech control, and spelling were utilized in this procedure.
In the second grade the type of work done in the first grade should be continued. Perception cards, blackboard lists, phrase, and sentence slips, phonetics and spelling, and exercises to gain speech control (involving pronunciation and enunciation) should be used abundantly.
55

GENERAL LESSON PROCEDURE
I. Introduction: a. Connect story with child experience by picture, object, anecdote, or conversation. b. Get children to assemble some of their ideas on the topic by questions and discussion. c. Give children a main purpose for reading the material.
II. Vocabulary: Develop in context a few words and phrases that are likely to be difficult and present them on blackboard. Take care not to "give away" content or plot of story.
III. Silent and possibly a little oral reading by class, directed by questions: a. Procedure--Ask a question which requires children to read a sentence, paragraph, or longer unit. b. Types of questions to ask. 1. Questions which call for the finding of one, two, or three facts that are stated in the text. 2. Questions which call for using the facts to infer something which is not stated in the text, as: ''Which was the 'safest' way the children played?" (The book does not tell what was the safest way; the children have to read the facts and judge in the light of experience which was the safest way.) 3. Questions which call for comparison: "In what way was the barn-swallow's home safer than the meadow-lark's?" 4. Questions which call for selecting the main idea: "What would be a good title for this paragraph?" 5. Oral reading, if necessary; e. g., "Read the part that proves
IV. Additional check-up on the material for several particular kinds of comprehension, such as (a) ability to follow directions, (b) ability to get meaning from simple facts, (c) ability to make inferences, (d) ability to select main idea, (e) ability to select from a number of facts those pertinent to a question or statement. Any one of the five types of tests, or drawing, may be used.
V. Review and vocabulary--for fixing word forms and meaning in context: VI. Leads to further activity:
a. To further reading of stories, information, poems, etc., in same field or related fields.
b. To excursions, etc. c. To home and classroom constructive activities.
POINTS TO EMPHASIZE IN A LESSON
Introduction--Connects with child's previous experience. Purpose--In dealing with each unit we give the child something definite to
look for in order to concentrate interest and attention and to have him approach the material with a thoughtful attitude.
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Thinking: 1. First we ask the children only to select simple facts. 2. Next, we ask the children to illustrate a section, getting them to attend to, select, and remember all the significant details. 3. In the next section, we ask the children to select and organize the ideas, and to think beyond the facts, connecting them with their own experience. (We might use a multiple-choice test here.) 4. In the next section we ask children to remember a chronological sequence of significant details. 5. In the last section we ask them to use their judgment.
Vocabulary development--By explanation, in place of formal definition.
Leads to other activities: 1. We interest the children in constructive activity. 2. We interest them in the further study of primitive life.

SEAT ACTIVITIES

Seat activities in these grades will largely be in the form of: (1) closely checked, independent reading activities for developing study abilities; (2) checked recreatory reading. Following are suggestions for independent work:

1. Provide children with cards containing story-length units and with a check in one of the following forms,--yes-no, completion, multiplechoice, matching sentences, making an illustration, etc. A unit should be used to practice and check some of the abilities,--ability to select ideas, to make inferences, or to comprehend facts.

2. Cards which contain references to informational articles in books, and

on which checks are valuable, e. g. "In the

Reader is an

article about a queer fish called the 'The Sea Horse.' Read it. Then

copy the number of these sentences on your paper, and put an X be-

side the wrong ones. a. The sea horse is a big fish. b. The sea horse swims upon his tail.

c. etc., etc."

3. Recreatory reading for reports, dramatization, etc.: "Read two dog stories, and choose one which you will prepare to tell

to the class." "Read the story of The Tailor and the Elves, and plan how you would dramatize it. Make a list of the characters and what they would wear. How would you begin the play? How would the stage look?"

USE OF SUPPLEMENTARY PRACTICE MATERIAL.
It is sometimes necessary, with certain groups of children in the second grade to use supplementary material in the form of flash cards. In this grade the chief value of flash cards is to increase the span of recognition. Phrase and sentence cards (When the response is in terms of meaning) may be used. All the cards in the group should relate to some central idea. Blackboard exercises or mimeographed sheets may be used for special supplementary work.
57

TESTING
See "Use of Tests" in preliminary material.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
In the second grade, deficiencies begin to show up clearly. They should be given special attention before they become habits. As the teacher conducts the reading lessons, especially the silent reading lessons, she should be watching for deficiencies such as lip and head movement, vocabulary deficiency, inability to comprehend, slow rate, and so forth. She should know the general causes of deficiencies, and particular disabilities likely to appear in the grade. See "Deficiencies and Remedial Work":
Causes of both slow and inaccurate reading. Disabilities affecting accuracy and amount of comprehension. Deficiencies resulting in retardation of rate of comprehension.
THIRD GRADE READING
Basal Text:
"The Child's World--Third Reader," published by Johnson Publishing Company.
Supplementary Texts:
Moore-Wilson Readers, Third Reader, "Across the Rainbow Bridge," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
"Good Reading--Second Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons.
"Great Pictures and Their Stories--Book III," Lester, published by Mentzer Bush & Company
"The Elson Readers--Book III," published by Scott, Foresman & Company
"Child-Library Readers--Book III," published by Scott, Foresman & Company
"The Open Road to Reading--Third Reader," published by Ginn & Company.
"Around the World with the Children," Carpenter, American Book Company.
Recommended in Addition to the Above: None.
Amount of Text (or texts) to be Covered: The Basal and as many of the Supplementary Readers as the individual pupil's ability warrants.
Manuals:
Basal Text:
"Teacher's Manual to accompany the Child's World Primer and the First, Second and Third Readers," Johnson Publishing Company.
58

Supplementary Texts: "Manual for the Elson Readers--Book III, (Revised Edition)," published by Scott, Foresman & Company. "The Kendall Teacher's Manual--Third Reader to Sixth Reader," published by D. C. Heath & Company. "Teachers' Manual for Grades Two and Three to accompany The Open Road to Reading," published by Ginn & Company.
THIRD GRADE READING
Reading should by now be a pleasure rather than a task for the child and every opportunity should be given him for this pleasurable activity. He should now be practically independent in his reading.
The process of learning should be mastered by the close of this year. The child should be provided with many different books in order that he may get experience in getting the thought of the printed page. He should further be trained in expressing or conveying the thought to others through conversation and writing.
Sight reading, which now will be stressed more than formerly, should be done with easy material. If too difficult it should have the same careful preparatory attention as any reading lesson. Less distinction should now be made between basal and supplementary reading.
In both silent and oral reading the teacher should strive to secure fluency. Children should now be fairly adept in recognizing and selecting words in phrases and sentences, in reading groups of words at a glance and, towards the end of the year, in grasping paragraphs through means of topic sentences. Dramatic or dialogue reading should now always be in an audience situation. The teacher here has the problem of considering both the reader and the audience. Oral reading during this period is still vitally important, even though more time is being devoted to silent reading, and it should indicate the power and will of the reader to give to his audience what the reader has gleaned from the text. Definite and careful attention should now be given to grouping children according to their reading abilities and disabilities. Variations in pupils' abilities will now become more apparent. Even after the ability grouping has been done the teacher should not lose sight of those children who need special help and particular attention should be centered on them during some special reading period. It will be necessary to do this if the desired uniformity of result is achieved. It may be desirable to use some second grade material with some of these pupils.
OBJECTIVES
Attitudes: 1. Greater interest in books and desire to read, as shown by voluntary
library reading, bringing books to school, taking books home. 2. Realization that books are useful, as shown by habit of looking for
information in them. 3. Increased desire to own books.
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II. Skills, habits, knowledge: A. Thought-getting. 1. Greater ability to comprehend word, phrase, sentence. 2. Ability to select and group ideas. 3. Ability to select main ideas (a beginning in evaluating ideas and in outlining). 4. Ability to use facts to solve a simple problem. 5. Ability to follow directions as in drawing and making objects, playing games, carrying out brief assignments, etc. 6. Ability to organize a sequence of events, as in dramatizing a story. B. Vocabulary. 1. Increased stock of sight-words. 2. Ability to recognize a vocabulary of recurring words and phrases through both context and form cities. 3. Ability to recognize meanings of new words through context clues.
III. Mechanics of reading: 1. Increasing span of recognition, as distinguished from span of perception. 2. Elimination of finger-pointing, and head or lip-movement. 3. Improvement in enunciation, correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well-modulated and expressive voice in oral reading. 4. Habitually correct posture and consistent use of proper light.
IV. Handling of Books: 1. Appreciation of necessity for the care of books in opening, turning pages, etc. 2. Greater skill in use of table of contents, finding stories by page numbers; cross referencing.
V. Library: Beginning of the ability to locate books and, without guidance, to become familiar with contents.
MATERIALS TO BE COVERED The basal, the seven supplementary, and other readers should be included in the material for this grade. The needs of the class for simple material which correlates with history, literature, geography, and nature study should be met by selecting it from second readers. A class library of supplementary material should be organized and made to function.
ATTAINMENTS FOR PROMOTION Promotion should depend upon the attainment of a relatively high proficiency in the habits and skills listed as objectives. Standard tests, the teacher's judgment, and whatever local practice obtains should be the guides in determining promotion.
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THE READING PROGRAM
The type of lessons in the third grade should include: 1. Group lessons in silent reading for the purpose of developing fundamental habits and skills. 2. Independent silent reading, carefully checked. 3. Audience reading of prepared recreatory or informational material. 4. Independent reading of recreatory material, checked through brief reports, etc. 5. An appropriate amount of drill and exercises to establish habits of accuracy and independence in word-recognition, and a wide span of recognition. 6. Frequent tests of progress, and diagnostic and remedial measures. 7. Reading in connection with class activities.
CHOICE OF BOOKS
For choice of recreatory material see the discussion of Recreatory Reading. Texts containing information about children of other lands, primitive life, animals, pets, and community interests such as markets, fruit store, and so forth, are particularly valuable for expanding child interest in these grades. Relatively simple material is best for developing study abilities.
CLASSIFICATION
The class should be divided into at least three groups on the basis of needs. Three types of tests are recommended for this purpose.
1. Tests of ability to comprehend or interpret what is read (See Stanford Achievement Test in Reading, and Haggerty Test.)
2. Measures of rate of silent reading(Courtis, Starch). 3. Tests of rate and accuracy in oral reading (Gray). Some schools have found it practicable to re-group (for the reading period) all the children of their grades, according to special needs.
READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Reading should have a prominent part in carrying on classroom activities, and in supplementing the content matter of the curriculum. Library shelves should contain books which will enrich certain phases of history, geography, community life, etc. Reading lists on such topics may be made by children or by teacher and posted.
Reading should supplement the experience gained on excursions to the farm, the dairy, the bakery, etc. Reading material should be utilized in preparing entertainments, assembly programs, parties, and dramatizations.
Printed board directions are useful in connection with care of materials, constructive work, free-period activities, games, study assignments in number work, etc. Book directions may be given for constructive work or games. Bulletin boards should regularly show letters from other groups, suggestions for before-school work, lists of committees of coming class events, and so forth.
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Reading should not only grow out of such situations but should be used to furnish points of departure for further reading, excursions, constructive work, and so forth.
STUDY IN THIRD GRADE
Ability to Comprehend. In this grade, it is still necessary to give attention to the comprehension of words, phrases, and sentences. Comprehension is developed by:
a. Giving the child a definite purpose which compels concentration on meaning.
b. Questions and exercises which entail search for meaning. (Any of the checks mentioned below are also practice exercises.) Constantly checking on comprehension by means of informal tests of the following types: yes-no, multiple choice, matching sentences, completion, riddles, drawing, picture pointing, following directions.
d. Encouraging child to get meanings of new words through context.
Ability to Select and Classify Ideas: a. Ask questions or give directions which oblige child to organize, select
and classify ideas; e. g., "Find three sentences that tell you the caveboys had a good time." "What kinds of food did Surefoot like to eat?" "What two important things did Surefoot have to think of when he chose his home?" b. Require children to report very briefly on topics; e. g., "Tell us about Surefoot's home." "Tell one way the cave men built a fire." c. Ask children to illustrate the part of the story which shows
3. Ability to Select Main Ideas: a. Ask for title for a paragraph or story. b. Ask children to find the "key" word. c. Ask class to divide the selection into parts for reporting to class. d. Ask children to make a series of illustrations bringing out the most important ideas.
Ability to Arrange Ideas: a. Ask children to find all the statements that prove b. Ask children to report the details on a certain topic. c. Ask child to illustrate a selection, centering attention on the main
idea but including all details.
5. Ability to Use Ideas in Solving a Simple Problem, as "In what ways were the cave-dwellers different from the tree-dwellers?" or "Why does a dog need a collar?"
Ability to Use Facts Presented as a Basis for Reasoning or for Making Inferences,--i. e., ability to answer a question whose answer is implied but not stated in the material read: "What was the safest way Surefoot played?" "What was the most dangerous way he played?"
a. Such questions as the above should be frequently asked in connection with the reading lesson.
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Informal tests of the types mentioned above may be adapted for testing this ability.
Ability to Follow Directions--Give directions for games, plays, dramatizations, pantomime, drawing, etc.
Ability to Organize a Sequence of Events- (1) Give practice in dramatizing, (2) Reproduction.

VOCABULARY

Beyond the first and second grades, vocabulary building is chiefly a matter of teaching new terms,--that is, new names for old objects and ideas,--as well as names for new ideas. For example, the child learns that "honest" may be expressed by "honorable," "upright," or "trustworthy." We may learn a name for a new object,--the "propeller" of an aeroplane. Ways of presenting and fixing these words include the following:
a. Having the child try to understand meaning through context. b. Explanation in place of formal definition. c. Classification. d. The use of synonyms. e. The use of antonyms. f. Having child use words in a sentence. Perhaps the less familiar methods need explanation. Classification of words focuses attention upon, and fixes memory of, their meaning.

Example 1. We might take a number of new words from a lesson on Lindbergh's flight, and ask the children to place in one column all of the words that have anything to do with an aeroplane, such as rudder, propeller, plane, etc.; in another column all those words relating to weather conditions, such as mist, fog, clouds, etc.

Example 2. In a lesson on various kinds of bread eaten in different countries we may ask the child to "write under these headings, the kind of bread you would expect to find in each of the countries: Sweden, Norway, Scotland."

Use of synonyms: We may give a child a word and ask him for another word which has the same meaning. We may place on the board a list of four or five words with their synonyms not in order, and ask the child to pick out and place together the words which mean the same, e. g.

finally declared grumbled difficult resented

was angry at hard at last complained said

antonyms: Asking children to give the opposites of words helps to fix their meaning; e.g.

arrive

small

mistrust

believe in

honorable

depart

spacious

deceitful

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Use of words in sentences: An interesting exercise is to require children to show their understanding of word meanings by answering questions on the content of a story read; that is, after reading a story about the value of safety matches the following questions may be asked:

"How are matches lighted accidentally?"

"What is a fire

extinguisher?"

"How could matches cause a

disaster?"

GENERAL LESSON PROCEDURE
I. Introduction: a. Connect story with child experience by picture, object, anecdote, or conversation. b. Get children to assemble some of their ideas on the topic by questions and discussion. c. Give children a main purpose for reading the material.
II. Vocabulary: Develop in context a few words and phrases that are likely to be difficult and present them on blackboard. Take care not to "give away" content or plot of story.
III. Silent and possibly a little oral reading by class, directed by questions: a. Procedure--Ask a question which requires children to read a sentence, paragraph, or longer unit. b. Types of questions to ask: 1. Questions which call for the finding of one, two, or three facts that are stated in the text. 2. Questions which call for using the facts to infer something which is not stated in the text, as: "Which was the 'safest' way the children played?" (The book does not tell what was the safest way; the children have to read the facts and judge in the light of experience which was the safest way.) 3. Questions which call for comparison: "In what way was the barnswallow's home safer than the meadow-lark's?" 4. Questions which call for selecting the main idea: "What would be a good title for this paragraph?" 5. Oral reading, if necessary; e. g., "Read the part that proves
IV. Additional check-up on the material for several particular kinds of comprehension, such as (a) ability to follow directions, (b) ability to get meaning from simple facts, (c) ability to make inferences, (d) ability to select main idea, (e) ability to select from a number of facts those pertinent to a question or statement. Any one of the five types of tests, or drawing, may be used.
V. Review of vocabulary--for fixing word forms and meaning in context.
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VI. Leads to further activity. a. To further reading of stories, information, poems, etc., in same field or related fields. b. To excursions, etc. c. To home and classroom constructive activities.
POINTS TO EMPHASIZE IN A LESSON
Introduction--Connects with child's previous experience.
Purpose--In dealing with each unit we give the child something definite to look for in order to concentrate interest and attention and to have him approach the material with a thoughtful attitude.
Thinking: 1. First we ask the children only to select simple facts. 2. Next, we ask the children to illustrate a section, getting them to attend to, select, and remember all the significant details. 3. In the next section, we ask the children to select and organize the ideas, and to think beyond tne facts, connecting them with their own experience. (We might use a multiple-choice test here.) 4. In the next section we ask children to remember a chronological sequence of significant details. 5. In the last section we ask them to use their judgment.
Vocabulary Development--By explanation, in place of formal definition.
Leads to other Activities: 1. We interest the children in constructive activity. 2. We interest them in the further study of primitive life.

SEAT ACTIVITIES

Seat activities in this grade will largely be in the form of: (1) closely checked, independent reading activities for developing study abilities; (2) checked recreatory reading. Following are suggestions for independent work:

1. Provide children with cards containing story-length units and with a check in one of the following forms,--yes-no, completion, multiplechoice, matching sentences, making an illustration, etc. A unit should be used to practice and check some of the abilities,--ability to select

ideas, to make inferences, or to comprehend facts.

2. Cards which contain references to informational articles in books,

and on which checks are valuable, e. g. "In the

--- Reader is

an article about a queer fish called 'The Sea Horse.' Read it. Then

copy the numbers of these sentences on your paper, and put an X

beside the wrong ones.

a. The sea horse is a big fish. b. The sea horse swims upon his tail. c. Etc., etc."

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3. Recreatory reading for reports, dramatization, etc.: "Read two dog stories, and cboose one which you will prepare to tell to the class." "Read the story of The Tailor and the Elves, and plan how you would dramatize it. Make a list of the characters and what they would wear. How would you begin the play? How would the stage look?"

USE OF SUPPLEMENTARY PRACTICE MATERIAL

The use of flash cards should not be necessary except with occasional cases

of special deficiency.

,

TESTING
See "Use of Tests" in preliminary material.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
^ In the third grade, deficiencies begin to show up clearly. They should be given special attention before they become habits. As the teacher conducts the reading lessons, especially the silent reading lessons, she should be watching for deficiencies such as lip and head movement, vocabulary deficiency, inability to comprehend, slow rate, and so forth. She should know the general causes of deficiencies, and particular disabilities likely to appear in the grade. See "Deficiencies and Remedial Work."
Causes of both slow and inaccurate reading. Disabilities affecting accuracy and amount of comprehension. Deficiencies resulting in retardation of rate of comprehension.

FOURTH GRADE READING
Basal Text:
"The Kendall Fourth Reader," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts:
Moore-Wilson Readers, Fourth Reader, "Father Time's Gifts," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
"Good Reading--Fourth Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons.
"Great Pictures and Their Stories, Book IV," Lester, published by Mentzer Bush & Company.
"The Elson Readers--Book IV," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
"Child-Library Readers--Book IV," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
"The Open Road to Reading--Fourth Reader," published by Ginn & Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
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Amount of Text (or Texts) to be Covered: The average fourth grade child should read all of the Basal and Supplementary materials.
Manuals: Basal Text:
"The Kendall Teacher's Manual--Third Reader to Sixth Reader," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: "Manual for the Elson Readers--Book IV, (Revised Edition)", published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
FOURTH GRADE READING
Much of the mechanics of reading is presumably mastered by the end of the third grade, but this does not mean that reading should not still be carefully taught. Unless the same careful teaching which has been done in the first, second and third grades is continued in the remaining grades of the elementary school the child will begin to slip or plod through sentences, paragraphs, and lessons unguided and will lose that degree of mastery he already has. Deterioration in reading ability will set in.
The teacher of this grade should make a particular effort to assure delight in reading through material and motive. If the selection is happily made the reading will most likely be mechanically correct and intellectually profitable. Interpretation should be stressed more than formerly. The progress of the reading lesson should be considered as an effort to conduct, control, and shape a process of thinking in the mind of each individual in the class. The teacher should help to forward this process.
Both oral and silent reading is continued in this grade but, as suggested earlier, the time in this grade should be about equally divided between the two. The child should now begin to work independently so that the recitation period may be devoted to testing the degree to which the thought is mastered and retained. Rate of reading should be observed and checked closely. Try to diagnose and eliminate the difficulties of the slow reader. Train pupils to listen as well as to read.
More voluntary reading will be done in this grade than has been done formerly. The child should be encouraged to read good books out of school and to discuss them. What he learns to read and what he chooses to read are highly important and to some extent reflect his former training and experience.
Group reading work should be specially emphasized in this grade. This is an excellent reading device but must be handled carefully and checked closely. The procedure should raise the standard of the class. Otherwise it is indefensible.
Pleasure in reading and knowledge of how to read or study a book so as to grasp its essential meaning--these are the two paramount objectives of the grade.
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At the end of this grade the child should have attained an abstract standard in reading which is measurable in such objective, concrete units as rate of reading, thought retention, voice control, quality and poise. His promotion should be based on definite units of these.
OBJECTIVES
I. Attitudes:
1. Increased interest in and desire to read books, as evidenced by regular borrowing of books from public library.
2. Realization that books are useful; frequent reference to books to answer questions or to carry on activities.
3. Willingness to spend a part of savings on books.
II. Skills, habits, knowledge: A. Thought getting. 1. Ability to follow, without hesitation, continuity of thought in successive sentences. 2. Ability to outline (evaluate and arrange thoughts according to sequence and importance). 3. Aoility to follow directions (interpret and execute according to written directions). 4. Ability to use ideas in solving problems; e. g., in making comparison, reasoning from cause to effect, etc. B. Vocabulary.
1. Ability to recognize meaning of words through context. 2. Increase of meaning vocabulary. C. Mechanics of reading: 1. Increase of recognition-span. 2. Elimination of any "hang-over" in mechanical deficiencies, lip-
reading, head-movement, or finger-pointing. 3. Clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well
modulated and expressive voice in oral reading. 4. Consciousness of the hygiene of reading. D. Handling of books: 1. Proper use and care of books. 2. Use of table of contents, cross-referencing, glossary, etc. 3. Ability in the use of reference books. E. Library:
1. Control of the technique of locating and borrowing books. F. Transfer of study to content subjects.
ATTAINMENTS
Skills, Habits, Knowledge: Ability to meet or excel grade standards for above objectives.
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THE READING PROGRAM
(At least half the reading should be silent reading) Types of lessons in this grade should include:
1. Group lessons in work-type silent reading, for the purpose of developing fundamental habits and skills (See discussion and procedure following).
2. Independent silent reading, carefully checked (See discussion and procedures following).
3. Audience reading of prepared recreatory or informational material (See Oral Reading).
4. Independent reading of recreatory mateiial, checked through brief reports, etc. (See Recreatory Reading).
5. An appropriate amount of drill and exercises, to establish habits of accuracy and independence in word-recognition and wide span of recognition.
6. Testing twice a year with standard tests (See use of tests). 7. Remedial Work.
CHOICE OF MATERIAL
For choice of recreatory material, see discussion on recreatory reading in the introduction. Texts which contain the following types of information are useful in this grade; plant and insect life, animals, homes in other lands, the history of homes, history and manufacture of foodstuffs, historical tales, and so forth. These furnish interesting and usable information and expand children's experience. Magazines and newspapers, encyclopedias and other reference books may be used for individual work-type assignments.
CLASSIFICATION
The class should be divided into several groups on the basis of needs. Three types of tests are usable for this purpose: 1. Tests of ability to comprehend and interpret what is read (Stanford
Achievement Test in Reading, and Haggerty Test) List of tests 2. Measures of rate of silent reading (Courtis, Starch). 3. Tests of rate and accuracy of oral reading (Gray).
READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
The variety of content matter in the curriculum for the intermediate grades leads into a wide field of supplementary informational reading. Advantage should be taken of these leads. Suggestive lists should be posted and well written, attractive supplementary books, letters, magazines, magazine articles, scrapbooks, pictures, and exhibits related to the topic under discussion, should be provided. Many libraries co-operate with schools in lending chosen groups of books, bibliographies, and other material related to a certain field of content.
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Reading should supplement experience gained from excursions, investigations with nature materials, etc. 3. Reading material should be used in preparing reports or illustrated talks, for assemblies, etc. 4. Reading may be used in preparing material for health, safety and other campaigns. Printed directions should be used in connection with constructive work, games, and study assignments in all work of the curriculum. The publication of bulletin board notices and a school paper or magazine necessitates reading in preparing the articles. Reading should not only grow out of such situations, but should lead into further reading, excursions, constructive work, campaigns of various sorts, and so forth.
STUDY METHODS
I. Ability to comprehend phrase, sentence: How developed:
1. By seeing that the child knows definitely what he is to find out in the reading.
2. By asking questions which compel concentration on meaning of various words, phrases, and sentences.
3. By constantly checking on comprehension through informal tests of the following types: yes-no, multiple-choice, matching sentences, completion, riddles, drawing, following directions.
II. Ability to outline (to evaluate and arrange thoughts according to sequence and importance).
Main Idea and Evaluating:
1. Ask questions which necessitate finding the main idea. 2. In checking* give questions that cannot be answered except by an
understanding of the whole unit. Give true-false tests that involve the main idea, multiple-choice tests involving the selection of the correct topic sentence from a group of possibilities; completion tests; riddles, directions, etc. 3. Have children make or select topic sentence. 4. Have children give title to a paragraph or to any illustration accompanying the paragraph. 5. Have children give reasons for choice of important ideas. Noting details:
1. Give questions which call for a group of significant details. 2. Give exercises requiring the use of details to prove a point or to solve
a problem. 3. Have children talk from an outline or a topic. Arranging Ideas:
1. Have children make an outline, showing arrangement of main ideas and supporting sub-topics.
2. Have children give reasons for evaluation of important sub-topics.
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III. Ability to follow directions (a) Where all details are to be used; (b) Where significant items are to be retained and other items discarded.
Give children exercises which require both types of ability. Dramatizations, playing games, handwork, etc., furnish both practice exercises and checking.
IV. Ability to study with an efficient rate. Rate is important in reading, since it determines the amount of reading an individual can do in any given time. It is necessary to think of rate as meaning "comprehension with a time limit," and not the number of words a child can read in a given time; otherwise there is danger of over-emphasizing rapidity of reading at the expense of comprehension. The rate varies with the purpose of reading, and the difficulty of the material. There are several
rates: 1. The rapid rate, used in reading narrative for pleasure and in reading
newspaper articles, or factual material that is not technical, with no need for reorganizing, summarizing, or evaluating with reference to some special question or problem. 2. The very rapid rate, used in looking over material for some specific fact, or scanning it to get the general trend. This might be called the skimming rate. 3. The careful rate used in reading to obtain details to support a statement, in weighing the significance of f icts to solve a problem, in carefully noting complicated directions for the carrying out of some project. Such reading is reflective or analytical, and is relatively slow.
It is possible to train readers so that even the rate of careful analytical reading far exceeds that formerly used. O'Brien in his experiments, improved the rate 31 per cent in a two-months period, at the same time greatly increasing the quality and amount of comprehension. The following methods may be used to increase rate:
1. Reading connected material for comprehension under a time limit. The check used should test both the number and quality of the ideas. Any of the five types of tests may be used in this connection.
2 Although there is some doubt about the value of short exposure exercises (flash-card drills), they may be used at the teacher's discretion.
3. Results should be charted, or improvement made evident to the pupil in such a way that his interest is enlisted in meeting a grade standard or in bettering his own record.
V. Knowledge of necessity for efficient study and of how to improve study
techniques. How Developed:
By using a text-book which states directly the value of study habits and provides the means for acquiring them.
VI Vocabulary--In the intermediate grades vocabulary building is a matter of teaching new terms,--that is, new names for old objects and ideas, as well as names for new ideas; e. g., the child learns that "honest" may
71

be expressed by "honorable," "upright," "trustworthy," etc., or, he may learn a name for a new object, e. g., the propeller of an aeroplane. Methods of presenting and fixing these words include: a. Having child try to understand the meaning through context. b. Explanation in place of formal definition. c. Classification. d. The use of synonyms. e. The use of antonyms. f. Having child use words in a sentence. g. Fixing vocabulary through repetition.
GENERAL LESSON PROCEDURE
I. Introduction: 1. Connect with child experience by picture, object, anecdote, or conversation. 2. Lead children to assemble some of their ideas on the topic by questions and discussion. 3. Give children a main purpose for reading the material.
II. Vocabulary--Develop by explanation and questions a few words and phrases that are likely to be difficult, and present them on the blackboard.
III. Silent reading by class, directed by questions. Ask a question which covers the main thought of a paragraph or longer unit; other questions may be asked after the reading. Types of questions to ask:
1. Directions which call for selecting a number of details to prove some point, as "Find statements in your book to prove that the dragon-fly is helpful;" or, "Be ready to tell what a cyclops looks like."
2. Questions which call for using the facts to infer something not stated in the text, as "Do you think these insects are helpful or harmful and why?" The book does not tell directly whether the insects are helpful or harmful; the children have to read the facts and judge them in the light of past information and experience.
3. Questions which call for comparisons, as "Tell three ways in which the water-tiger is different from the dragon-fly."
4. Questions which call for selecting the main idea: "What would be a good title for this paragraph?"
IV. Additional check-up on the material--For one or two particular kinds of comprehension,--(a) ability to follow directions, (b) ability to get meaning of simple facts, (c) ability to make inferences, (d) ability to select main ideas, (e) ability to select from a number of facts those pertinent to a question or statement, etc.,--any one of several types of tests may be used.
V. Review of vocabulary for fixing meanings--Use classification, synonyms, antonyms, and have children use words in sentences.
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VI. Leads to further activity: 1. To further reading of stories, information, poems, etc., in the same field or related fields. 2. To excursions, etc. 3. To home and classroom constructive activities.
TESTING
See "Use of Tests" in preliminary material.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
Deficiencies in the fourth grade are chiefly deficiencies in paragraph comprehension. See "Deficiencies and Remedial Work."
GROUPING
Differences in reading ability should be sought and found and specific remedial work applied. Klapper suggests the following groups:
I. Children who lack the power to recognize words. II. Children who lack the power of comprehension. III. Children who lack in expressive and convincing oral rendition. IV. Children who lack in clearness of speech, in articulation, and in enun-
ciation. Remedial work should be developed by the teacher for each group
FIFTH GRADE READING
Basal Text: "The Kendall Fifth Reader," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: Moore-Wilson Readers, Fourth Reader, D. C. Heath & Company. "Good Reading--Fifth Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons. "Great Pictures and Their Stories, Book V," Lester, published by Mentzer Bush & Company. "The Elson Readers--Book Five," published by Scott, Foresman & Company. "Child-Library Readers, Book V," published by Scott, Foresman & Company. "The Open Road to Reading--Fifth Reader," published by Ginn & Company. "Getting Acquainted with Georgia," Bloodworth, published by The Southern Publishing Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None. 73

Amount of Text (or texts) to be Covered: The average fifth grade child should read all of the Basal and Supplementary materials.
Manuals: Basal Text:
"The Kendall Teacher's Manual--Third Reader to Sixth Reader," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts:
"Manual for the Elson Readers, Book V (Revised Edition)," published by Scott, Foresman and Company.

FIFTH GRADE READING

This is the beginning of that period of a child's life when his development is not so rapid as it has been previously. His attention should now be more definite, active, and voluntary. Guidance is, of course, still necessary. Certain habits of reading and study and certain habits forming or indicating character receive, now or slightly later, those impulses or trends which likely lead to their fixation.

One writer refers to this period as "the golden hour of external and mechanical training, of reading, writing, drawing, number manipulations and geometric elements." If the teacher of the child of this period fails to take advantage of this golden hour, lets it pass unimproved, the assets and abilities mentioned above cannot be acquired later without a heavy handicap of disadvantage and loss. The method should be "mechanical, repetitive authoritative, dogmatic" and the automatic powers should be pushed to the utmost.

Interest in this period has a different value and import from that which it has had in the preceding grades. The material, by all means, should not be uninteresting but if the child, perchance, should find it so he should be required to master enough of the rudiments of the subject to furnish a basis for interest. When he has none, a will to do so must be supplied by parent and teacher.

The aim of the training of this period is fixation by drill and repetition Many of the reading activities and operations should be rendered as automatic as possible. In fact, as previously stated, the mechanics of reading must now be made habitual and the child who is not thoroughly trained in the reading techniques and details of previous grade work should have special provisions made for him.

Beginning with this grade the child should acquire the dictionary habit

An extensive list of books for home and extension reading should be com-

piled and as many as possible of this list secured and made available for the

child. The child will learn to read by reading; his reading will be controlled

by his interest in the reading matter, and interesting reading material can

and should be, furnished him.

'

Definite reading standards should be formulated and set up for the grade
and the teacher should tempt the reading appetite and reading effort of her class with interesting material.

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OBJECTIVES
Attitudes-Further development of the attitudes stated under objectives for Grade IV, indicated by forming of reading clubs, spontaneous Z euss.on of books etc., increased amount of voluntary reading, and reliance upon books as valuable sources of information.
II. Skills, Habits, Knowledge:
A. Further development of the abilities set forth under Il-a in Grade IV and also ability to scan material rapidly for a special point.
B. Vocabulary-Increased ability to recognize meanings of words through context, and expansion and refinement of passive and active vocabulary I vocabulary understood, vocabulary used). Mechanics of reading: 1 Silent reading with no vocalization. 2. Wide recognition--span. 3. Continuance of clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, proper phrasing, well modulated voice iTM oral reading.
1) Handling of Books: 1. Sense of responsibility for the care of books. 2. Use of table of contents, indexes, cross references, glossary, etc. d. Use of reference-books, encyclopedias, dictionary
E. Library-Ability to work in school and public libraries with considerable independence.
F. Conscious application of study skills in working with content subjects.
ATTAINMENTS
Attitudes--See "Objectives" above. Skills, habits, knowledge-Ability to meet or excel grade standards for above
objectives.

THE READING PROGRAM

Types of lessons in this grade should include:

1. Group lessons in silent reading for the purpose of developing the fun-
damental habits and skills listed under "Objectives." (See discussion
and procedures following). Increase the amount of silent reading to the ratio of 60-40.

2. Independent silent reading (closely checked). See discussion and procedures following.

3. Audience reading of prepared story or informational material. (See

Ural Reading).



v

4. Independent reading of recreatory material checked through brief

reports, etc. (See Recreatory Reading).

A provision for gioup or independent remedial work. (See Remedial Work.) 6. Testing twice a year with standard tests. (Use of Tests.)

75

CHOICE OF MATERIAL
(For choice recreatory material, see discussion of Recreatory Reading.) Texts which contain the following types of information are useful in this grade: pioneers, inventors and inventions, industry, insect and plant life, animals, community service such as the provision of light and water, historical tales, and so forth. Magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, government bulletins, etc., may be used for individual work-type assignments.
CLASSIFICATION
Children should be grouped on the basis of ability. Tests useful for this purpose include:
1 Tests of ability to comprehend and interpret (Stanford Achievement Test in Reading, and Haggerty Test (see list of tests.)
2. Measure of rate of silent reading (Courtis, Starch). 3. Tests of rate and accuracy in oral reading (Gray).
READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASS ACTIVITIES
1. In connection with content material--The ordinary content material should be made to furnish leads into wide and varied reading in the fields of history, science, life and customs in other lands, current events, etc. Annotated bibliographies in each field should be posted. Wellwritten, attractive books should be available in great variety. Letters, magazines, magazine articles, scrap-books, pictures, exhibits related to the topic under discussion, should be provided. Many public libraries co-operate with schools in lending books related to certain content fields.
2. Reading should supplement other types of study, such as experiment, investigations, excursions, etc.
3. Assembly-periods may call for the preparation of reading material for travel-talks, reports, etc.
4. Reading is done in connection with health, safety, and civic improvement campaigns.
5. Printed matter should be used extensively in assigning all types of activity. 6. Publications of bulletin-notices, a school newspaper, and contributions
to the children's sheet of the town newspaper call for reading in preparation of the material. 7. Reading should not only grow out of such situations but should lead into other interesting school activities.
STUDY IN GRADE FIVE
Ability to comprehend phrase and sentence: How Developed:
a. By seeing that child has a definite idea of what he is to find out. b By asking questions which compel concentration on meaning of words,
phrase, sentence.
76

c. By constantly checking on comprehension by means of information tests of the following types: yes-no, multiple-choice, matching sentences, completion, riddles, drawing, following directions.
2. Ability to outline (to evaluate and arrange thoughts according to sequence and importance).

How Developed. Main idea and evaluating.

a. Ask questions which necessitate finding the main idea.

b. In checking, give a question that cannot be answered except by an

understanding of the whole unit. Give true-false tests that involve

the main idea; multiple-choice involving selection of the right topic-

sentence from the group of possibilities; completion, riddles, directions

etc.

'

c. Have children make or select topic-sentence. d. Have children give title to a paragraph or to an illustration accom-
panying a paragraph.

e. Have children give reasons for choice of important ideas.

Noting Details:
a. Give questions which call for a group of significant details. b. Give exercise requiring the u=,e of details to prove a point or to solve
a problem. c. Have children talk from a topic or outline. d. Have children make questions.

Arranging Ideas:

a. Have children make an outline showing arrangement of ideas and supporting sub-topics,

b Have children give reasons for evaluation of importance of sub-topics 3. Ability to follow directions where (a) all details are to be used (b) sig-
nificant items are to be retained and other items are to be discarded Give children exercises which require both types of ability. Dramati-
sations, playing games, handwork, etc., furnish both exercises and checks.

4. Ability to study with an efficient rate. In this grade children may be

taught the different rates and the conditions under which each may be

used, and should learn to vary their rate in accordance with the nature

of the material. Through deliberate use of the various rates, time may

be saved. The standard rate for 5th grade is 180 words per minute Oc-

casional tests for rate, checking the number and accuracy of ideas gained

withm a time-limit are valuable, especially if the individual pupil

keeps some kind of graph or record upon which he records the number

of words per minute and the number of ideas. The pupil should know

whether or not he gets enough ideas. A detailed discussion of the im-

portance of rate and means of increasing it will be found in the fourth grade outline.

5. Knowledge of necessity for efficient study, and of means of improving

study techniques. A text which states the various kinds of study habits

and defines and gives children specific directions in improving them is

valuable in this connection.

'

77

6. Ability to scan material rapidly to find special points. Give children questions and checks that call for scanning.
7. Vocabulary. It is most important to continue building vocabulary and to fix this vocabulary by use of the words. The understanding of new terms depends to a large extent on the teacher's presentation. This topic is fully treated under Vocabulary in the Fourth Grade outline.
GENERAL LESSON PROCEDURE
The lesson procedure in the fifth grade is essentially similar to that in the fourth grade. A section showing the general development of a lesson will be found in the fourth grade outline. Transfer of Study Skills:
The content subjects of the curriculum call for the use of study skills. It is in these subjects that the skills learned in the reading period should be exercised. Work with content subjects should be as carefully planned as the basal reading lessons, with emphasis on the particular skill which was stressed in the reading lesson. A basal Reader which carefully develops lessons in the different fields of content, such as history, geography, etc., gives teachers cues for dealing with such materials. The assignments in these fields will be very similar to those worked out with the class when the basal Reader is used; the general lesson procedure, with slight alteration, applies in most eases.
The following suggestions may prove helpful in working with arithmetic content, for instance:
a. Arithmetic problems (the usual cause for errors in solving problems is the failure to understand the meaning of the problem.) 1. Check child's comprehension of the problem by having him write one thing the problem tells. 2. Ask child to underscore words which give the idea of "subtract," "multiply," or whatever process is involved. 3. Possible assignment--"Read the problem silently. Be ready to tell in two sentences what you will do when you work the problem." 4. Possible questions--(a) "What are you told in this problem?" (b) "What are you asked to do?" (c) "What tool, or tools, shall you use?"
Additional suggestions for working with history or geography: 1. In most oases use the problem approach. 2. Be sure that terms are understood. 3. Make frequent use of the multiple assignment for facts supplementary to those provided in basic text. 4. When generalizations are stated in the text, be sure that children understand by asking them to cite concrete illustrations as proof. 5 Develop outlines for evaluating, arranging and retaining important ideas.
78

TESTS
See the previous discussion of tests and the references to standard tests.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
Deficiencies in this grade consist chiefly of deficiency in paragraph comprehension and deficiency in rate. See section on "Deficiencies and Remedial Work."
SIXTH GRADE READING
Basal Text: "The Elson Readers--Book VI," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
Supplementary Texts: Moore-Wilson Readers--Sixth Reader, "A Review of Time," published by D. C. Heath & Company. "Good Reading--Sixth Reader," published by Charles Scribner's Sons. "Great Pictures and Their Stories--Book VI," Lester, published by Mentzer Bush & Company. "Child--Library Readers--Book VI," published by Scott, Foresman & Company. "The Open Road to Reading--Sixth Reader," published by Ginn & Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text (or Texts) to be covered: The average pupil should be able to cover both the Basal and Supplementary material.
Manuals: Basal Text: "Manual for the Elson Readers, Book VI (Revised Edition)," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
Supplementary Texts: "The Kendall Teacher's Manual--Third Reader to Sixth Reader,' published by D. C. Heath & Company.
SLXTH GRADE READING
The characteristics of this period in the child's development, the aims of his training, and the physical and spiritual changes through which he must pass are very similar to those discussed under fifth grade reading. The main difference, if any, is that some of them are more complicated and intricate because of the child's broader experience and more positive reactions.
79

Naturally, the extent of the reading of this period is much wider. From the ages of ten or twelve to the ages of fifteen or sixteen the impulse to more reading increases rapidly. Books of travel, adventure, and biography seem to appeal most to boys of these ages and books of fiction to girls.
This thirst for reading must be satisfied but parents and teachers should exercise great care in the selection of the material. "The longer and more complex literary master-pieces, given as complete selections should be used now for study. The time has come when much home study and collateral reading may be required and when children may be permitted and encouraged to read along lines in which they are specially interested."--Briggs and Coffman.
OBJECTIVES
Attitudes: 1. Greater interest in diversified reading. 2. Pride in school library and in owning books. 3. Growing appreciation of what can be gained by reading books without
the guidance of the teacher. B. Skills, Habits, Knowledge:
1. Thought-getting--bringing to a high level of efficiency the objectives set forth in detail for Grades IV and V.
2. Vocabulary--Further expansion of reading vocabulary, and conscious effort on part of child to augment speaking and writing vocabulary.
C. Mechanics of reading: 1. Silent reading with no mechanical deficiencies. 2. Wider recognition-span. 3. High degree of excellence in enunciation, pronunciation, phrasing and voice modulated in oral reading. 4. Habitual regard for hygienic conditions in reading.
D. Handling of books: 1. Well-established sense of responsibility for the care of books. 2. Skilled use of table of contents, cross-referencing, glossary, etc. 3. Ready and independent use of reference books, encyclopedias, dictionary.
E. Library--using the school and public library with self-assurance and in a business-like manner.
F. Independent ability to transfer reading skills to the study of content subjects.
ATTAINMENTS
A. Attitudes--see "Objectives" above. B. Skills, Habits, Knowledge--Ability to meet or excel grade standards for
"Objectives" stated above.
80

THE READING PROGRAM

Types of lessons in this grade should include: 1 Group lessons in work-type silent reading for the purpose of developing the fundamental habits and skills listed under "Objectives See discussion and procedures following. Increase the amount of silent

reading to the ratio of 70-30.

2 Independent work-type silent reading (closely checked.)

_

3. Audience reading of prepared story or informational material, (bee

Oral Reading.)

, , ..

4. Independent reading of recreatory material, checked through br ef

reports, etc. (See Recreatory Reading, procedures V VI and VII

5 Provision for group or independent remedial work. (See Remedial

Work.)

,,, ,

6 Testing twice a year with standard tests. (Use of lests.)

CHOICE OF MATERIAL For choice of recreatory material see discussion of Recreatory reading.

CLASSIFICATION Children should be grouped on the basis of ability.

READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASS ACTIVITIES

1 In connection with content material. . The ordinary content material should be made to furnish leads into wide and varied reading in the fields of history, science, life and customs in other lands, current events, and

so forth. 2 Reading should supplement other types of study. 3 Assembly periods may call for the preparation of reading material.
1 Reading is done in connection with health, safety, and civic improvement

campaigns.

,

. . ,,.

. ,,,,

5. Printed matter should be used extensively in assigmng all types of ac-

6 Publication of bulletin-notices, a school newspaper, and contributions to the children's sheet of the town newspaper call for reading in preparing

7. RelTnTnot only should grow out of such situations, but should also lead into interesting school activities.

STUDY IN GRADE SIX

1. Ability to comprehend phrases and sentences:

How Developed:

.

a By seeing that child has a definite idea of what he is to find out.

>

b". By asking questions which compel concentration on meaning of word,

phrase, sentence.

c. By constantly checking comprehension by means of informal tests.

81

2. Ability to outline (to evaluate and arrange thoughts according to sequence and importance.)

How developed. Main idea and evaluating.

. Ask questions which necessitate finding the main idea. b. In checking give a question that cannot be answered except by an

understanding of the whole unit. Give true-false tests that involve

the main idea; multiple-choice, involving the selection of the right

topic-sentence from a group of possibilities; completion tests; riddles-

directions, etc.

'

c. Have children make or select topic-sentence. d. Have children give title to a paragraph or to an illustration accom-

panying a paragraph.

e. Have children give reasons for choice of important ideas.

Noting Details:
a. Give questions which call for a group of significant details b. Give exercises requiring the use of details to prove a point or to solve
a problem. c. Have children talk from a topic or outline. d. Have children make questions.

Arranging Ideas:

a. Have children make outline showing arrangement of ideas and sup-

porting sub-topics.

H

b. Have children give reasons for evaluation of sub-topics. 3. Ability to follow directions-where all details are to be used, and where
significant items are to be retained and other items are to be discarded Give children exercises which require both types of ability. Dramatiza-

and checkTng Sam6S' handWrk> etc- furnish both Pra<*ice exercises

Ability to study with an efficient rate. In this grade children may be taught the different rates and the conditions under which each may be used and should learn to vary their rate in accordance with the nature of the material. Through deliberate use of the various rates, time may be saved. The standard rate for 6th grade is 220 words per minute Occasional tests for rate, checking the number and accuracy of ideas gained
within a time limit are valuable, especially if the individual pupil keeps some kind of graph or record upon which he records the number of words per minute and the number of ideas. The pupil should know whether or not he gets enough ideas. A detailed discussion of the importance of rate and means of increasing it will be found in the Fourth Grade Outline 5. Knowledge of necessity for efficient study, and of means of improving study techniques. A textbook which directly states the various kinds of study habits, and defines and gives children specific directions in improving them, is valuable in this connection. 6 Ability to scan material rapidly for a special point. Give children questions or checks that call for scanning.

82

Vocabulary--it is most important to build vocabulary and to fix this vocabulary by the use of the words. The understanding of new terms depends to a large extent on the teacher's presentation. This topic is fully treated under "Vocabulary" in the Fourth Grade Outline.

GENERAL LESSON PROCEDURE
The lesson procedure in this grade is essentially similar to that in the fourth grade. A sheet showing the general development of a lesson, and a specimen reading lesson will be found in the Fourth Grade Outline.

TRANSFER OF STUDY SKILLS
A detailed discussion of how to make study skills function in conducting arithmetic, history, geography, and science lessons, will be found in the Fifth Grade Outline, under the topic "Transfer of Study Skills."

ASSIGNMENTS IN INDIVIDUAL READING
In the fifth and sixth grades independent study should take several forms:
a. Intensive reading assignments from one book with a close check on the material. Such an assignment should be carefully worked out, using the same general plan and type of questions or checks as have been suggested in the "General Lesson Procedure" for Grade IV.
b. Another type of assignment may call for the reading of a number of references (from different books) on the same topic, for the purposes of listing all important facts, comparing various opinions and statements, verifying facts, making judgments on the basis of facts (as when collecting material for debates,) and so forth.

*

USE OF TESTS

See the Introduction for discussion of tests and list of standard tests.

REMEDIAL MEASURES
Deficiencies in this grade consist chiefly of deficiency in paragraph comprehension and deficiency in rate. See section on "Deficiencies and Remedial Work" in the Introduction, particularly:
Deficiency in paragraph comprehension-Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Deficiencies resulting in retardation of rate-No. 5. Disabilities affecting accuracy of comprehension of phrase and sentence, especially Nos. 1, 2, 3.
83

SEVENTH GRADE READING
Basal Text: "The Elson Readers-Book VII," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
Supplementary Texts: "Reading and Living, Book I," Hill and Lyman, published by Charles Seribner's Sons. "Great Pictures and Their Stories--Book VII," Lester, published by Mentzer Bush & Company. "Child-Library Readers--Book VII," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Manuals: Basal Text: "Manual for the Elson Readers, Book VII, (Revised Edition)," published by Scott, Foresman & Company.
Supplementary Texts : None.
SEVENTH GRADE READING
Seventh grade pupils should have acquired the mechanics of reading Some however, will not have done so and remedial work will have to be continued for them intensively. The major part of the work of this grade should be an effort to refine specific reading attitudes, habits, and tastes. Special attention should, therefore, "be devoted* to training in the specific study habits to developing to a high degree of efficiency all reading abilities, and to encouraging a fine discrimination and careful selection of reading materials for information and for pleasure."
READING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Refer to suggestions for previous grades.
The inability of pupils to read textbooks with skill and intelligence is one of the contributing causes of subject failures in the seventh and eighth grades In view of the fact that high school work is imminent, considerable time should be spent in teaching pupils how to use, how to read, and how to study their textbooks. In fact, the geography, history, arithmetic, science and other texts may serve as reading texts for these grades.
Missouri, "Courses of Study for Elementary Schools," 1929.
84

STUDY IN GRADE SEVEN
Pupils in this grade should have acquired the habits of independent study. Independent study may take the following forms:
a. Intensive reading assignments from one book with a close check on the material. Such an assignment should be carefully worked out and its results cheeked by informal tests.
b. The type of assignment which calls for the reading of a number of references, from different books, on the same topic for the purposes of listing all important facts, comparing various opinions and statements, verifying facts, making judgments on the basis of facts (as when collecting material for debates), and so forth.
"There are at least three important purposes in making supplementary reading assignments.
(1) To secure definite information on specific points assigned or questions asked, as for example, reading rapidly a chapter of Jane Addam's "Twenty Years In Hull House" to find answers to a few assigned questions.
(2) To find new or additional information upon a topic or problem, under consideration, as for example, reading Enos Mills' "The Story of a Thousand-Year Pine" to secure new and valuable ideas about the preservation of forests.
(3) To secure new points of view and new outlooks upon life as, for example, the reading of Hamlin Garland's "Son of the Middle Border" to learn of pioneer life on the American frontier of 185070; or to the reading of "Ramona" to learn of Helen Hunt Jackson's interpretation of the treatment of California Indians." --Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 67, 68.
c. Pupils in attaching a new book should learn to observe the following points.
(1) What is the author's problem? (2) How does he solve it? (3) What is his conclusion? (4) What application can be made of the conclusion?
ORAL READING IN THE SEVENTH GRADE
Oral reading in his grade should be confined mosly to the reading of poetry and selected bits of humor or of a literary selection to be read for the enjoyment of the group. Pupils should constantly strive for correct pronunciation, clear enunciation, 'a well modulated voice and expressive interpretation.
85

VOCABULARY BUILDING Attention in this grade should be given to a nice distinction in meaning of words and expressions. Continued use of the dictionary and books of synonyms and antonyms should be encouraged.
RECREATORY READING Read suggestions for fourth, fifth and sixth grades. "Special attention should be given at this time to the development of permanent interest in current events and of the habit of reading periodicals with speed and good judgment." "This period should stress the value of literature as experience and acquaint the pupil with the source of interesting, wholesome materials."
--Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 65-68.
A CHART FOR GUIDANCE IN IMPROVING READING DEFICIENCIES
For the convenience of teachers, the possible causes of some of the common reading deficiencies and some remedial measures for improving or overcoming those deficiencies have been put in tabular form. The items were gathered from published and unpublished case records and diagnostic studies. When a certain reading deficiency of a child has been discovered look in the first column headed "Deficiency" and find the one in question. Then read across the page and find the possible causes of the deficiency in the second column and suggested remedies for them in the third column. Then formulate exercises to carry out the remedial measures.
86

-^T

INDIVIDUAL DIFFICULTIES WITH THEIR CAUSES AND WITH REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR OVERCOMING THEM
(Directions for the use of this Chart are on the preceding page.)

Deficiencies

Possible causes

Remedial measures

Poor word recognition

Poor vision--Low mentality--Scarcity of reading material---Too little phonics-- Material too difficult--Defective teaching--Lack of knowledge of English

Much easy attractive reading material. Drill on common sight words: e. g., when, because, among--Emphasize groups of words. Much word and phrase drill

Narrow span of recognition

Poor vision--Low mentality--Too much phonics--Material too difficult--defective beginning methods--Too much oral reading--vocalization--Not enough eyespan work--Meager meaning vocabulary

Much eye-span work--Give no further attention to phonics--But very little oral reading--Correct physical defects--Break up habits of vocalization--Increase the meaning vocabulary

Improper eye movements

Poor vision--Nervousness--Meager vocabulary--Insufficient eye-span work--Poor beginning methods--Poor co-ordination of the eye--Excessive articulation-- Pointing to words

Correct physical defects--Eye-span work--Develop large sight vocabulary--Break habit of pointing to words and vocalization

Mispronunciations

Impediment in speech--Eye defect--Defective beginning methods--Too little phonics--Carelessness-- Over-dependence on context cues--Material too difficult

Word analysis---Phonic drills--Apply phonics in unlocking new words--Supply material which requires accurate recognition--Build up a large vocabulary

INDIVIDUAL DIFFICULTIES WITH THEIR CAUSES AND WITH REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR OVERCOMING THEM--Continued.

Deficiencies

Possible causes

Remedial measures

Small meaning vocabulary

Small speaking vocabulary--Lack of experience

A systematic study in relation to meaning--Study prefixes, suffixes, root words, synonyms, antonyms--Study meaning through context--Use the dictionary--Match words with pictures-- Much reading material suitable to abilityUse devices suggested for overcoming meager vocabulary

Reading word by word

Short eye span--Unable to get words through context--Material too difficult--Insufficient phrase drill--Too much phonics-- Too much oral reading--Defective beginning methods--Poor vision

Much eye-span work--Less oral reading--Much easy attractive reading material read under time pressure--Less oral reading

Inability to attack new and unfamiliar words

Wrong beginning methods--Lack of training in phonetics and word analysis--Insufficient training in getting words through context

Instead of pronouncing words for child show him how to work them out through context, phonics, word analysis and through the use of the dictionary--Give much drill in the use of each of the above devices that pupil is deficient in-- Have pupil keep a list of all words asked for-- Use these for drill

Depends upon others to pronounce words for them

Teachers and parents have pronounced words for him too often--Haven't sufficient training

Lead him to see his dependence on others--Create in him a desire to pronounce words independently--Give training for independent recognition of words

-=_

Pointing with the finger

Poor beginning methods--Material too difficult--Use as a crutch to aid in holding place--roor vision--Nervousness

Get pupil to see that it retards his speed--Set standard before reading that finger pointing won't be used--Read under time pressure--Easy, attractive reading material

Vocalization and lip movement during silent reading

Habit developed from first grade--Too much oral reading--Too much phonics--Poor vision

Phrase flashing--Speed drills--Lead pupil to see the disadvantage of it--Set standard before starting to read, of refraining from lip move ment. Place finger over lips

Failure to note care- Poor vision--Carelessness, reads too fast fully small words
or key words

Give material that requires exact close reading-- Set a premium on accurate reading--Keep a record from day to day of errors of this type made and let pupil see his progress in overcoming his deficiency--Follow exacting written or printed directions--Attach meaning to words by teaching in phrases or sentences. Give drill on pronunciation using the key words as aids

Inaccuracy due to carelessness

Poor vision--Nervousness--Low mentality-- Haste in reading--Defective beginning methods--Material too difficult

Correct physical defects--Check closely on material read and keep a record from day to day of all errors made--Give written or printed directions requiring exact reading--Accept nothing but accurate interpretation.

Failure to differentiate words somewhat different in spelling

Poor vision--Carelessness--Inaccurate perception--Short span of recognition--Lack of attention to meaning--Low mentality

Correct physical defects--(See remedies for inaccuracy due to carelessness). Drill exercises on phrases and short sentences--Phonic drills-- Place emphasis on interpretation of what was read--Drill exercises on words that are similar.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFICULTIES WITH THEIR CAUSES AND WITH REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR OVERCOMING THEM--Continued.

Deficiencies

Possible causes

Remedial measures

e. g., saw, was. First drill.on "saw," then "was," then "saw" and "was" presented in
succession. Drill in phrases and sentences and finally as isolated words.

Repetitions

Poor vision--Nervousness--Insufficient phrase drill--Material too difficult--Poor comprehension of what precedes--Poor reading vocabulary--Low mentality

Correct physical defects--Eye-span work suited to
ability of child--Much attractive reading material suited to ability of the child--Develop good sight vocabulary.

Substitutions or insertions that change meaning of content

Limited vocabulary--Lack of thoughtful attitude while reading

Use suggestions for overcoming a meager vocabulary--Adjust the material to pupils' vocabulary --Give material that demands accurate interpretation--Give printed and written directions to carry out.

Substitutions or insertions with no sig-
nificant change in meaning

Depends too much on context--Too much oral reading--Eye travels so much faster than voice that substitutions of equivalent words or phrases are made

Not so much oral reading--Ask questions which demand the exact word or words.

Omissions of portions

Poor vision--Nervousness--Irregular habits
of perception--Timidity--Embarrassment--Excessive ambition, inattention-- Trying to read too fast

Study before reading aloud--Do not stress speed-
Relieve self-consciousness as far as possible Flash card work--Written and printed directions to be carried out

--

Inability to break sentences up into proper phrases

Defective beginning methods--Speech defects --Inability to recognize thought units-- Short eye-span--In oral reading short eye-voice span--Unable to profit by punctuation marks

Overcome speech defects as far as possible--Flash phrase card work--Practice phrasing--Group words in sentences according to thought relationship--Increase eye-span--Give much attention to punctuation marks

Wrong accents

Poor hearing--Bad teeth--Nervousness-- Correct physical defects--Phonic drills--Word drills

Speech defects--Adenoids--Tonsils--Low

--Drill in pronouncing words he has most dif-

mentality--Insufficient word drill--Too

ficulty with.

little phonics--Poor home environment

Interested in hearing stories but not in reading

Material too difficult--Satisfied by parents or others reading to him

Give attractive reading material suitable for his ability--Motivate the reading for him--Assign work he likes to do and require reading to do it--Have contests to see who can read the most stories or books in a given length of time--Use charts to show number of pages--Stories or books read.

Cares only for material beyond his reading ability

Ability to read has not developed with his interests in reading because of being read to too much

Use same remedial measures as for the one just before this one.

Unable to form judgments on material read
Unable to reproduce what was read

Lack of training in it--Assignments do not require it--Lack of comprehension of what was read--No incentive for that type of work--Too much drill on getting mere facts--Low mentality
Slow reader--Lack of interest--Material too difficult--Too much attention to mechanics of reading

Give specific training to lead the pupils to form their own judgment--Every assignment should contain one or more judgment questions--See that the oral questions involve problems which will challenge the ability to think.
Eye-span work involving reproduction--Interesting reading material suited to the ability of the pupils--Overcome any deficiency in mechanics of reading

INDIVIDUAL DIFFICULTIES WITH THEIR CAUSES AND WITH REMEDIAL MEASURES* FOR OVERCOMING THEM-Continued

Unable to answer fact questions based on material read

Failure to direct attention to meaning--Read-
ing without a purpose--Material too difficult--Background inadequate for understanding what was read--Poor assignments

Use material that is within pupil's ability to understand--Give questions for pupils to find answer Have him read a paragraph and answer fact questions on it--Gradually increase the amount read before asking questions until whole selection can be read--Make good assignments which will develop this deficiency--Let pupils know that questions about the selection read will be asked--Solve riddles that are read.

Unable to make an outline or organize material read

Assignments do not call for it--Material too difficult--Lack of comprehension

Give definite training in this type of work--Make assignments requiring some form of organiztion--Begin with simplest form and gradually lead up to more difficult form--Use interesting material suited to the ability of the child

Unable to follow written or printed directions

Lack of comprehension--Vocabulary too difficult for them--Lack of training with that type of exercises--Doesn't read in terms of what is to be done

Give training in following written or printed directions using various types--Insist upon the pupil's relying upon his own responsibility for carrying out the directions--Make directions simple at first and gradually increase their difficulty--Use care in suiting vocabulary to the individual

Unable to find the cen- Lack of training--Lack of comprehension-

tral idea of what

Poor assignments

was read

Use material suitable to the ability of the pupilsGive drill work in comprehension if need be-- Demand some form of "finding the central idea"

in assignments--Start with a short unit (sentence or paragraph) for finding the central idea and gradually increase the length. (See suggestions for organizations.)

Unable to use table of contents

Lacks training in using it--Assignments do not call for it

Assign selections by titles and insist upon pupils finding them through table of contents--Teach him how to use the table of contents most economically and give much practice in using it--Give specific drills in using it

Unable to use the index

Lack of knowledge of its use--Lack of experience in using it--Unable to organize material to use it--Lack of knowledge of abbreviations and punctuation marks in index

Give specific drill in its use--Make assignments demanding the use of the index--Give much drill in determining the central idea in the thing to be looked up, e. g., in looking up "beneficial birds" will they look under "birds" or "beneficial"--Teach the punctuation marks and abbreviations used--Use telephone directory.

* Course of Study for Elementary Schools, Missouri, 1929.

WRITING
Basa.Text:
(1) ^.^700^; in ***-**" Published by
Supple^menPtaryuTSexts^: W-S^ZtcComCpaUnrSye. ^ ****--.
None. Recommended in Addition to Above:
None. Amount of Text to be Covered:
Complete. Manuals: Basal Texts-

BasaiText:

SECOND GRADE

(1) WASPZZ7ZZ* H^-nd, published by
(2) "Record Edition--A Progressive r,,,, SupplemenSteacryonTd/e>xtps:ublished by W.sTBennSso0nn&&rCl omSpe any'D. HandTMtinS-
None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: See First Grade.

; ^i ^*--^ ^2) WASPZrrCoCmpVn H'--^hird," p^hed by

su

ft

Supplementary Texts:

None.

Recommended in Addition to Above: None.

Amount of Text to be Covered:

Complete.

Manuals: Basal Texts:

See First Grade.

FOURTH GRADE
Basal Text: (1) "A Progressive Course in Handwriting--Fourth," published by W. S. Benson & Company. (2) "Record Edition--A Progressive Course in Handwriting-- Fourth," published by W. S. Benson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: See First Grade.
FIFTH GRADE
Basal Text: (1) "A Progressive Course in Handwriting--Fifth," published by W. S. Benson & Company. (2) "Record Edition--A Progressive Course in Handwriting-- Fifth," published by W. S. Benson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: See First Grade.
SIXTH GRADE
Basal Text: (1) "A Progressive Course in Handwriting--Sixth," published by W. S. Benson & Company. (2) "Record Edition--A Progressive Course in HandwritingSixth," published by W. S. Benson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: See First Grade.
97

SEVENTH GRADE

Basal Text:

(1) "A Progressive Course in Handwriting--Seventh," published by W. S. Benson & Company.

(2) "Record Edition--A Progressive Course in Seventh," published by W. S. Benson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: See First Grade.

Handwriting-

WRITING
Writing is a tool subject, a vehicle of written thought. While other subjects have properly won a place of honor and emphasis in the educational field, "the three R's" still remain the center or near the center of the elementary curriculum, and so writing is as important as ever. It is a needed skill in school life, and later in business and social life.

HOW TO HAVE GOOD WRITING
1. First, as in every other subject, the teacher must have some preparation for teaching writing. She should write easily and legibly both at board and at desk. A little enthusiastic practice each day will quickly improve the quality of her handwriting. Many teachers take a correspondence course in writing during the school term. Teachers should also read carefully and follow the directions in the Teacher's Manual of the text they are using. .
2. Have a writing lesson every day. Good writing should be a habit, and this habit will be more easily formed by pupils having a writing lesson every day even though a very short one, rather than a very long lesson once or twice a week. A little time allotted to writing on the daily program will be more than regained in legibility of pupil's papers.
3. Keep correct models before pupils for visualization and imitation. The entire alphabet and figures should be in front of the room where pupils may refer to them all the time (see suggested materials), and each child should have a writing text on his desk; and the letter, word or sentence he is writing should be compared with the copy again and again for the purpose of correcting poor work.
4. Create a desire on the part of the poor writer to improve his writing. Let him realize that his writing is not up to standard by:
(a) Grading his writing on the scale; (b) Showing him specimens of writing from other schools; (c) Seeing nothing but good writing from his teachers.
98

5. Each lesson should finish with at least one point thoroughly mastered. Suppose, for instance, the lesson is capital O. Proceed with the lesson something like this: "Show me you can take a correct position of body, arm and hand. John is right; he is sitting straight, his hips are back in the seat, his feet flat on the floor, the large muscle of his forearm is resting on the desk. His third and fourth fingers curve back naturally and serve as a rest for the hand as it glides on the desk. Let me see how many can keep position like John's throughout the lesson. Open your texts at page 10. Look at capital O on this page; notice the height of this letter. How tall, Sam? Notice the ending stroke. It tunn up like a little pig's tail. I will write it on the board. Now, turn your pens around and retrace it in your books. Place your paper correctly on the desk; dip your pen lightly in the ink and we will write capital O, watching the height and ending stroke." The exercise before the O will be made to count of six, and the O to count of two "Ready; write: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,--1, 2." When halfway across the page, "Stop, look at your books; look at your O's. How many made them the right height? How many have the right ending stroke? Let's try again. How many improved this time?"
Look at pupils' papers, and put up in room the papers of those pupils who mastered the points about O which you set as the objective.
HOW TO STUDY A LETTER 1. Beginning stroke 2. Ending stroke 3. Strokes peculiar to that letter 4. Height of letter or various parts 5. Width 6. Slant 7. Count 8. Speed
HOW TO STUDY A WORD 1. Beginning letter, capital or small. Study the letter 2. Beginning and ending strokes 3. Different letters in word 4. Heights of letters 5. Slant uniform 6. Count and speed
HOW TO STUDY A SENTENCE 1. Study the capital letters 2. Beginning and ending strokes 3. Letters in the words 4. Heights of letters 5. Slant uniform 6. Spacing

POSITION.
Correct position of body is healthful, restful, and protects the eyesight. While a slight variation may be permitted because of physical differences in children, yet almost all children should be required to keep the following position of body, arm and hand: the pupil should relax, sit well back in the seat, feet flat on the floor, head up--on a line with the spine--and at a comfortable distance from the paper, arms resting limply on the desk, allowing the hand to glide on the nails of the third and fourth fingers. The wrist and the side of the hand should not touch the paper. The pen or pencil should be held loosely between the thumb and second finger, with first finger resting lightly on the pen about an inch from point of pen. The eyelet of the pen should be as nearly as possible below the middle of first finger-nail, so both nibs of pen will touch the paper at the same time.
TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS
A pupil needs to know whether he is writing as well as he should for his grade, and whether he is making satisfactory progress. Standard tests and scales give this information, and it has been found that their use stimulates and encourages the pupils in their handwriting work.
Measuring Scale: For convenience and better comparison, use a scale with both primary and intermediate specimens on it. Explicit directions are furnished with these scales for their use.
Diagnostic Chart: Special and individual faults are determined and corrected by using a Diagnostic Chart with the Remedial Suggestions.
Graphs: Individual graphs provide an excellent means of recording each month the quality and the speed of the pupil's writing. The pupil will see as his grade is recorded, how many points he must raise his quality or speed to make the next higher grade on his card. It is a natural and most effective incentive.
PRIMARY WRITING
First Grade: The board should be used altogether for the first twelve weeks. The teacher writes the letter or word on the board, the pupils follow her movements by writing in the air, then they pass to the board and practice this lesson. Their writing should be on a level with their eyes and on horizontal lines which they draw themselves. Every day during the twelve weeks of board writing, the pupils should be given a short drill on correct position of body, arm and hand, and pencil holding. Be most diligent in teaching the pupil to rest arm on the desk from the beginning, and not to let the side of the hand touch the desk, for in doing this the teacher is establishing two valuable habits for good muscular writing later on.
The pupil's writing at the seat should be free, easy and natural. It should be larger than adult writing, but not extremely large.
100

During the board writing period, the pupil learns the relative heights of letters by watching and imitating the teacher. He will have no difficulty in following the same proportions when taking up his seat work.
Do not expect excellence from these beginners. Too much attention to detail is not necessary. Present letters, words and new material in same order as given in the text.
Second Grade: In second grade, teach new forms at the board first, then have class pass to seats and put same lesson on paper. Give special attention to all capital letters, words and sentences given in the text.
Third Grade: Give more attention in this grade to good position habits. Keep paper in correct position on desk and work for uniform slant. More skill in capital and small letter forms and figures should be developed. Specimens of writing should be taken at beginning of term for comparison during the year to note improvement. The last half of this year, let the use of ink be a privilege rather than a requirement.
GRADES FOUR THROUGH SEVEN
Correct position of body, arm and hand should become a habit in these grades. All written work should be done with muscular writing while sitting in a healthful position.
Have board lesson at least once a week to gain confidence and form and help the backward pupils. Aim to improve quality of all capital and small letters and figures. Give much drill on word and sentence work, striving for uniformity of size, slant, spacing, line quality and form. (Use Diagnostic Chart with Remedial Suggestions.)
The pupil's criticism of his own work is an important part of the writing lesson, and requires a frequent reference to the text on his desk for comparisons and discussions.
Have contests, use purposeful incentives to bring pupil's work to at least the grade level. (See Measuring Scale). Have pupils write selections on Measuring Scale at beginning of year; file these papers for reference to note improvement during the term.
If pupil is not using the Record Edition of the writing series, his progress can be shown by recording his grade each month on the graph.
SUGGESTED MATERIALS
Measuring Scales, Diagnostic Charts, Graphs for Handwriting, Teacher's Manuals and Correspondence Course for Teachers may be had from W. S. Benson & Co., Austin, Texas (publishers of State adopted text.) Alphabet cards to put in schoolroom may also be secured from this company, at 60c per set, postpaid.
Note: A Measuring Scale, Diagnostic Chart, Teacher's Manual and Correspondence Course will be furnished free to teachers by W. S. Benson & Co., if all pupils are supplied with the Graves Progressive Course in Handwriting. Ask your Superintendent for a copy. He can supply you.
101

ARITHMETIC
INTRODUCTION
The course of study in any subject is a determining factor in efficient teaching. If the course is incorrectly formulated both "teachers and pupils must spend valuable time on what has no social worth."* Unless this course is definite and concise, confusion of aims and principles .results. According to Klapper,* definiteness can be produced by:
1. "Definition of terms so that all active agents in the same school system may have the same conception of the exact requirements of the course of study.
2. Grade limits should be set up in the form of quantitative norms and concrete illustrations.
3. Suggest types of problems, solutions, and arrangements throughout the assignments.
4. Make limited assignments for each grade when a subject is to be taught through a number of grades.
"The first question that naturally arises in connection with the arithmetic of the first grade is as to whether or not the subject has any place there at all."*
"Not to put arithmetic as a topic in first grade is to make sure that it will not be seriously or systematically taught in nine-tenths of the schools of the country. The average teacher not in the cities merely, but throughout the country generally, will simply touch upon it in the most perfunctory way. Whatever of scientific statistics we have show that this is true, and that children so taught are not, when they enter the intermediate grades, so well prepared in arithmetic as those who have studied the subject as a topic from the first grade on."f Undoubtedly some of the difficulty experienced by school children in arithmetic results from the fact that the subject is not "begun until the second or third year." Usually this is understood to refer to "formal arithmetic" but it most often refers to all, since even the number experiences are neglected.
"A mastery of numbers will be acquired by children by giving them experiences which require actual uses of numbers in real situations."! Classroom and playground activities should and do furnish such situations, thereby offering opportunities to make the primary pupil's first experience with numbers concrete and definite. Beginning with these experiences and working into classroom work, going from the concrete to the abstract, "the final outcome will be the ability to think accurately in quantitative terms."
Those teachers who have not already done so should get away from the idea that arithmetic is taught because of the mental training it gives and recognize
*"The Teaching of Arithmetic," Klapper, D. Appleton & Company. f'The Teaching of Arithmetic," Smith, Ginn & Company. "The Teaching of Arithmetic," Brown & Coffman, Row, Peterson & Co.
104

its importance in the economic and social affairs of men. Probably more of our thinking should be quantitative. Certainly our schools and teachers should attempt to secure accurate quantitative thinking whenever possible. Do not transpose a young child's activities into arithmetic, but make them the basis for number work. Stress arithmetic in connection with its applications to life, rather than as a science.
Brown and Coffman, in their "The Teaching of Arithmetic" say: "Primary arithmetic has been restricted by common consent to a knowledge and mastery of the fundamental operations as expressed in integers and in easy fractions.
They are the intellectual tools which all must use in their later life no matter what occupation they choose."
The first grade teacher's job, then, is to provide the pupils with experiences in which number needs arise. Particular effort should be made by the primary teacher to teach number facts with those things with which the child may be concerned in life. Do away with the artificiality of it; throw away the stock teaching paraphernalia which is there simply because it's cheap. Let the children play store. They'll get number concepts there. Use the idea of playing to aid the child to fix number facts. Teachers are referred to "The Teaching of Arithmetic," Brown and Coffman (can be secured from the Georgia Library Commission) for an especially helpful treatment of this phase of the subject.
FIRST GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1. Ability to count by l's, 5's, and 2's, to 100. 2. Ability to read and write numbers from 1 to 100. 3. Ability to recognize the inch, foot, nickle, dime, penny, pint, and quart. 4. Ability to name and give number of days of the week. 5. Ability to tell the time to hours and half-hours. 6. Ability to recognize quantitative relationship expressed in 1st quarter. 7. Ability to purchase articles and make change with pennies, nickles, dimes.
We especially recommend that no teacher should attempt to teach arithmetic without sufficient equipment, such as foot and yard measures, weights, dry and liquid measures, and such other apparatus as will enable the teacher to make clear the problems she attempts to teach.
Much of this equipment may be made by the teacher with the aid of her pupils.
FIRST GRADE ARITHMETIC
Basal Text: None.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
105

SECOND GRADE ARITHMETIC
Basal Text: Morey's "Little Folks Number Book," published by Chas. Scribner Sons.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
In completing the work of the Second Grade, pupils should be able to work any of the exercises and problems in any topic in MOREY'S LITTLE FOLKS' NUMBER BOOK. The following essentials should be emphasized in the study of Arithmetic in this grade:
1. Minimum Content a. Reading and writing numbers to 1,000. b. Addition and subtraction combinations as given in text of MOREY'S LITTLE FOLKS' NUMBER BOOK. c. Addition of addends not involving carrying. d. Subtraction of three place numbers not involving borrowing. e. Multiplication: the tables through 4's; multiplying three place numbers by one figure. f. Division of two figure numbers by two without a remainder. g. Fractions: J, 1, i, i of one and two digits. h. Roman numerals through XII. l. Measures: Pint, quart, foot, yard, inch. j. United States money: penny, nickle, dime, quarter, half dollar, with exercises in making changes, k. Simple problems involving above processes and numbers.
2. Results to be Obtained a. Much number experience with real things in life situations. b. Experience in using , i, %, \, the signs plus, minus, multiplied by, and divided by. c. Ability to read and write numbers to 1,000.
3. Points for Emphasis a. Drill on the addition and subtraction combinations. b. Form correct habits of work.
106

SECOND GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1. Ability to count by 2's, 3's, 5's and 10's. 2. Ability to read and write numbers to 1000. 3. Ability to give the hundred addition and subtraction combinations. 4. Ability to add by endings involving carrying. 5. Ability to add single column addition of five numbers. 6. Ability to add double column addition with no carrying. 7. Ability to subtract three-place numbers with no carrying. 8. Ability to use liquid measure; to measure in inches, feet and yards and
to know the use of a pound. 9. Ability to make change to 25c. 10. Ability to read a calendar. 11. Ability to solve one-step problems involving the number facts for this
grade. 12. Ability to tell time.
ARITHMETIC--GRADES THREE TO SEVEN INCLUSIVE.
The purpose of the following brief discussion and outline of the Course of Study in Arithmetic for Grades Three to Seven, inclusive, is to aid the teachers of these grades in locating the essentials that should be stressed, and in establishing aims and skills for each year's work. As the order of the processes of the text has been developed systematically and scientifically, it is desirable to follow it closely. The teacher should not overlook the step-by-step development of the fundamental operations, the frequent cumulative drills, and reviews furnished to assist in mastering each new step, and the tests and problem scales provided for diagnostic purposes.
Recent investigations have displaced much of the aimless practice with numbers and have established a gradual process by which the pupil encounters difficulties one at a time.
The teacher should study and use this natural and logical order of development. Any new process should be built concretely upon what is known. As an illustration, the development of addition in the Triangle Arithmetic-- Book 1 is shown as follows:
1. Page 2, Set 1--Each combination involves a sum not greater than 6.
2. Page 8, Set II--The sum limit is increased from 6 to 10. 3. Page 9. Two-place addition is introduced. No carrying. 4. Page 13, Set III--The sum limit of the combinations is increased
to 12. 5. Page 15. Two-place addition involving sums of three digits. No
bridging. 6. Page 22. Set IV--The sum limit of the combinations is now in-
creased to 19, thus covering the 100 combinations.
107

Page 37. Single column addition involving three figures. Note that in adding up or down the first combination does not exceed 9. Page 39. Higher decade addition without bridging. 9. Page 40. Column addition with the first combination exceeding the number 9 to be added to the remaining unit. 10. Page 46--Carrying is introduced. 11. Page 50--Carrying is extended through two-place addition. 12. Page 78--Carrying is extended tlirough three-place addition.
It will be noted that the mechanics of addition are mastered when the twelve steps above are learned. The subtraction facts are similar to those of addition and should be developed in a similar way. Likewise, the step-by-step idea should be followed carefully in teaching the processes of multiplication and division. It is logical to develop these combinations with the reciprocal fractions of the numbers involved. This can be illustrated as follows: The quotients involving the divisor 2 should be taught along with the products involving 2 as a factor. This is also the logical time to develop the idea of the fraction J. The fraction J is naturally developed as soon as the products and quotients involving 3 are learned.
Although the text is a series of such logical developments as the examples given above, the listless teacher fails to observe closely enough to be able to use them to the best advantage. A wide-awake, resourceful teacher will have the entire procedure of each of the various fundamental operations in mind before engaging in teaching even the first step.
Once the mathematical processes are mastered, the second great objective of the arithmetic teacher is to develop in the child, the ability to apply these skills to problems such as will be met in real life situations. Some time should be devoted to developing the ability to think through problems. It is equally as valuable to spend a class hour in developing the reasoning process as to drill on the mechanical operations. Emphasis should be placed on oral work, and in estimating answers, since a large percentage of mathematical operations consists of approximating results. Provision should be made to locate the particular difficulties of the child. The teacher will find suggestions for this under the heading, "Provisions for Individual Differences" and "Most Common Faults in Fundamental Operations," in this course of study. These will be of great value to the teacher in diagnosing the pupils' needs.
Finally, the teacher should never lose sight of the fact that Arithmetic plays an important part in the development of the child for citizenship. The content of The Triangle Arithmetics lends itself to an easy and interesting correlation with Reading, History, Geography, Manual Arts, Home Economics, Health as well as the various activities of boys and girls.
OUTLINE BY GRADES
108

THIRD GRADE ARITHMETIC
Basal Text: "The Triangle Arithmetic, Book One," published by The John C. Winston Companj'.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: Ruch-Knight-Studebaker, "Work Book in Arithmetic," Pupils Edition Grade 3, Scott, Foresman & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Grade Three, Chapter I, page 1, through Chapter V, page 222.
Manuals: Basal Text: "A Teacher's Manual for the Triangle Arithmetic," The John C. Winston Company, (In course of Publication).
THIRD GRADE ARITHMETIC
1. Text:
The Triangle Arithmetic Book One.
II. General Objectives for the Teacher:
1. To secure accurate and unhesitating response to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division facts called for in this grade.
2. To develop the ability to use these facts in simple one-step problems that are within the pupil's experience.
3. To develop skill in written addition and subtraction. 4. To develop the habit of checking. 5. To develop mastery of written multiplication and division with one
digit multipliers and divisors. 6. To fix habits of neatness and accuracy.
Ill. Specific Skills for the Child:
A Child Should Be Able to: 1. Read and write numbers of four places. 2. Give accurately and without hesitation the 100 primary addition
and subtraction facts. Give multiplication facts through 5's from 0 to i) inclusive, with corresponding division facts including the meaning of 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 1/5, as developed from the division facts. Solve simple one-step problems that are concrete to pupils. Read and write Arabic numbers through four places and Roman numerals through twelve. Add, subtract, multiply, and divide simple numbers in dollars and cents.
109

IV. Content To Be Taught By The Teacher:
1. Counting. Count by 1, 2, 5, 10, to 100.
2. Addition. Develop the 100 addition combination by steps as shown on pages 2, 8, 12, 22 of text, bridging the tens so that they become automatic: single column addition, and column addition involving carrying.
3. Subtraction. Develop the 100 subtraction combinations by steps as shown on pages 5, 10, 8, 24 of tex , bridging the tens; two place subtraction without borrowing or carrying; three place subtraction involving borrowing in one column, two columns, zero difficulty, and empty spaces in subtrahend.
4. Reading and writing numbers. Read and write numbers through four places with special emphasis on reading and Roman numerals through twelve. Read the symbols +, --, X, +, =.
5. Multiplication. Develop the 100 multiplication combinations. Multiply by a single digit multiplier including carrying. Emphasize such multiple rs as 6, 7, 8, 9, the zero difficulty, and the short method of multiplying by 10.
6. Division. Develop the division combinations through the nine digits and the reciprocal of each divisor as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, 1/8, 1/9,; short division with and without remainder, with zero difficulties.
- 7. Measurements. Develop measures of time--second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year; linear measure--inch, foot, yard; liquid measure-- pint, quart, gallon; 12 equals 1 dozen; United States money.
8. Problem solving. Develop most of the problems orally. Problems should involve one step or process to solve. It is highly advisable to read problems and answer "How to do it" orally. Problems without numbers help to develop this reasoning.
9. Check all work 60 as to inspire maximum accuracy.
V. Suggested Activities:
1. Cost of a pet and its upkeep. 2. Earning and spending. School store. 3. Playing number games. 4. Planning a trip to a circus or having a circus. 5. Measuring distances and objects. 6. Telling time. 7. Planning a party at school. 8. Keeping individual or school records. 9. Farm work, as garden.
110

THIRD GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1. Ability to read and write numbers from 1 to 10,000. 2. Ability to give addition, subtraction, multiplication and division combi-
nations automatically. 3. Ability to add column of numbers with standard speed and accuracy. 4. Ability to subtract any two numbers for practical use with standard ac-
curacy and standard speed. 5. Ability to multiply accurately by two and three-place numbers. 6. Ability to divide any number in short division with no carrying. 7. Ability to check all operations.
Ability to solve two-step problems involving all number facts learned. Ability to take 1/2, 1/4, 1/6, 1/3, 1/5, 1/8 of multiples of their denominators. 10. Habits of neatness, and accurate work. 11. Ability to estimate answers to problems.
FOURTH GRADE ARITHMETIC
Basal Text: "The Triangle Arithmetics, Book One, published by The John C. Winston Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: Ruch-Knight-Studebaker, "Work Book in Arithmetic," Pupil's Edition Grade 4, Scott, Foresman & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Grade Four, Chapter I, page 223 through Chapter VI, page 420.
Manuals: Basal Text: "A Teacher's Manual for the Triangle Arithmetics," The John C. Winston Company, (In course of publication).
FOURTH GRADE ARITHMETIC
I. Text:
The Triangle Arithmetic Book One.
II. General Objectives for the Teacher:
1. To develop further accuracy and speed in the four fundamentals with special emphasis on multiplication and division.
2. To develop skill in solving two-step problems. 3. To establish the habit of checking work or proving results.
Ill

III. Specific Skills for the Child:
The Child Should be Able to:
1. Read numbers to millions and write such numbers as he finds need for in his work.
2. Give automatically and accurately:
(a) One hundred addition facts. (b) One hundred subtraction facts. (c) One hundred multiplication facts. (d) Ninety division facts.
Perform long division with two digit divisor including remainder and zero difficulties.
Solve two-step problems giving the process to be used.
Recognize and use the vocabulary of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
Check results accurately.
IV. Content to be Taught by the Teacher:
Addition and subtraction Test and find the difficulties of the children, then plan practice to remove them (See Provision for Individual Differences.)
2. Multiplication and division Test for and remedy any deficiencies in the combinations up to 9 X9 and 81 +9. Develop the combinations through 12 digits. Introduce the three digit multiplier including the zero. Develop division through the five steps (a) Of finding quotient figure, (b) Multiplying divisor by the quotient, (c) Subtracting, (d) Comparing remainder with divisor, (e) Annexing next figure in the dividend to the remainder. Provide much practice in estimating the quotient.
3. Common fractions Use fractions as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 2/3, etc. with practical applications involving addition, subtraction, reduction and simple multiplication.
4. Measurements Develop linear measure through the mile, liquid and dry measure, weight, and square measure using square inches and square feet! (Tables should be understood and used for reference.)
Problem solving
Continue the development of reasoning through two-step problems as shown on pages 247-49 of text. Use many problems without numbers and have children to make up problems about their experiences.
Reading and writing numbers Read and write numbers through millions and Roman numerals through ones, tens, hundreds.
Check all work.
112

V. Suggested Activities:
1. Buying and selling as school supplies. 2. Keeping accounts. 3. Estimating distances, weights, heights, cost. 4. Organizing clubs, as: corn, garden, pig, poultry, bird. 5. Building bird house. 6. Making and selling of toys. 7. Planning the cost of a lunch at school.
FOURTH GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1. Ability to read and write numbers of six places. 2. Ability to write Roman numerals from I to XXX, C, D and M. 3. Ability to add, limited to seven addends and three and four-place num-
bers, involving all difficulties. 4. Ability to subtract involving all difficulties. 5. Ability to multiply by two and three-place multiplier. 6. Ability to use short multiplication by 10 and 100. 7. Ability to divide by short division with carrying. 8. Ability to apply square measure. 9. Ability to find area of rectangle. 10. Ability to add and subtract simple fractions of unlike denominators
and take a fractional part of numbers. 11. Ability to find average. 12. Ability to solve two-step problems. 13. Ability to approximate results. 14. Ability to draw to scale.
FIFTH GRADE ARITHMETIC
Basal Text: 'The Triangle Arithmetics. Book Two," published by The John C. Winston Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: Ruch-Knight-Studebaker, "Work Book in Arithmetic," Pupil's Edition, Grade 5, Scott. Foresman & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Fifth Grade, Chapter I, page 1, through Chapter VII, page 228.
Manual: Basal Texts: "A Teacher's Manual for the Triangle Arithmetics," The John C. Winston Company, (In course of publication).
113

FIFTH GRADE ARITHMETIC
I. Text: The Triangle Arithmetic Book Two.
II. General Objectives for the Teacher:
1. To increase skill in computation. 2. To develop skill in the use of fractions. 3. To introduce the simple use of decimals in concrete problems.
III. Specific Skills for the Child:
The Child Should Be Able To: 1. Read numbers into the billions; Roman numerals through the com-
binations of I, V, X, L, C, D, M. 2. Add, subtract, multiply and divide with increased speed and ac-
curacy according to the standards given in the text. 3. Perform accurately all processes with common fractions. 4. Add, subtract, multiply and divide decimals of one or two places
by whole numbers. 5. Solve with increased skill problems involving whole numbers, United
States money, fractions and denominate numbers. 6. Check computation habitually. 7. Find the area of square and rectangle; the volume of a rectangular
solid.
IV. Content To Be Taught By The Teacher:
1. Fundamental processes. In addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, test and find the difficulties, then plan to remove them. (See Provision for Individual Differences). Drill and clinch long division through three place divisor and dividend of six places. Find averages; develop short cut in division by 10, 100.
2. Reading and writing numbers. Read and write numbers through billions; Roman numerals through thousands.
3. Common fractions. Review the equivalent fractions, vocabulary of fractions, and the two fundamental processes involving fractions learned in former grades. Develop multiplication of fractions by a whole number, by a fraction, and a mixed number by a fraction; division of fractions by a whole number, by a fraction, aliquot part of a dollar, and ratio.
4. Decimal fractions. Develop decimals through the United States money system. Add and subtract decimals. Multiply and divide decimals by whole numbers.
114

Me";te area of square and rectangle and one step reductjm Introduce volume and show through practical problems how it is

Continue the drill on common measures of length, liquid, dry,

time, weight.

6. Graphs.

,

Read and interpret the bar and line graph.

7. ftSrinueVitTe development of reasoning through the analysis as shown on pages 25-30, 54-6 in text.
8. Check all work.

V. Suggested Activities:
1. Hand work with paper as making calendars, silhouettes, mounting
pictures. 2. Making caps and aprons. 3. Building houses, boats, aeroplanes. 4. Girl scout and boy scout activities. 5. Planning menus for lunch, picnic, party.

FIFTH GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1 Ability to read and write Arabic numbers to billions. 2. Ability to read and write Roman numerals in common use, I to XXX,
3 AbiUtyTodperform the four fundamental operations with integers mixed numbL and fractions accurately and with a reasonable degree of speed.
4 Knowledge of tables of denominate numbers. 5~ Ability to find perimeter and areas of square and rectangle 6 Ability to analyze one-step, two-step and three-step problems 7. Ability to check work in computation and fundamental operations. 8. Ability to graph progress records. 9. Correct use of arithmetical language. 10 Up to standard in fifth grade.

SIXTH GRADE ARITHMETIC

BaSa,'?he: Triangle Arithmetics, Book Two," published by The John C. Winston Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
"^^l^Z^^^^ Book in Arithmetic," Pupil's Edition, Grade 6, Scott, Foresman & Company. 115

Amount of Text to be Covered: Sixth Grade, Chapter I, page 229 through Chapter VI, page 417.
Manuals: Basal Text:
"A Teacher's Manual for the Triangle Arithmetics," The John C. Winston Company. (In course of publication.)

I. Text:

SIXTH GRADE ARITHMETIC

The Triangle Arithmetics Book Two.

n. General Objectives for the Teacher

1. To increase speed and accuracy in the fundamental operations with

2.

whole numbers and with common and decimal fractions. lo develop skill in the use of decimal fractions.

3. To develop graphs as a picture relation of ratio

4. lo extend the knowledge of areas and volumes.

5. To develop simple business processes.

6. To increase the power to apply the processes to life situations.

III. Specific Skills for the Child:

The Child Should Be Able To:

Read integers through the billions and decimals to four places.
Perform the undamental operations with speed and accuracy according to the standards for this grade

Use fractions and decimals in the four fundamental operations, change

metS

^ USe th<J aliQUOt Parts 0f 10 in shor*

Interpret the meaning of "per cent" and write per cent as a decimal Find what per cent one number is of another and find a given per
cent of a number m a variety of business applications.

ttiTonosnU7nuitXed7S',tra?testhmreoen-Setye,P mPTeOasbulermemS einntvso,lTM decSim^aglse, rasn,dfrpace-r
cent in situations within his experience. 7. Keep simple accounts. 8. Check work habitually. 9. Plot graphs.

IV. Content to be Taught by the Teacher:

1. Fundamental processes.

s^gEr *-- *-" w tw (see the Test and find the difficulties, whole numbers and common frae-

*

116

2. Reading and writing numbers. Read and write large numbers. Make use of interesting facts in magazines, newspapers, and reports. Connect Roman numerals with dates on buildings, volumes of encyclopedias, pages in preface or appendix of books.
3. Decimal fractions. Review decimals learned in fifth grade. Read and write decimals to four places. Change common fractions to decimals. Express ratio as decimal. Change decimals to common fractions. Divide and multiply decimal by decimal.
4. Percentage. Introduce percentage and develop (a) any required per cent of a number, (b) The net price on an article on which a discount is given (c) What per cent one number is of another, (d) A number of which a certain per cent is given (e) Per cents of increase and decrease. Develop simple interest as a phase of thrift education.
5. Denominate numbers. Develop the four fundamental processes in denominate numbers. Know and use the common tables of measure in life situations. Review area of rectangle and square, then develop area of triangle. Review volume.
6. Graphs. Interpret and construct bar and line graphs. Use them to express ratio and per cent.
7. Problem solving. Give much drill on reading problems, seeing the relation existing, and deciding the steps necessary to obtain the desired results. Page 232 in text shows the steps of development
8. Business. Develop simple business processes. Practice is suggested with the common business forms as; deposit slips, notes, checks, receipts, bills, budgets, etc.
V. Suggested Activities:
1. Keeping bills and accounts. 2. Cost of schools. 3. School activities as; cantatas, parties, building book shelf, window
boxes, flower stand, etc. 4. Farm activities as; garden, school milk supply, poultry club, calf
club. 5. Drawing and construction to scale. 6. Sports. 7. Banking.
117

SIXTH GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
1. Reading and writing Roman and Arabic numerals of common usage. 2. Accuracy and a fair degree of speed in the four fundamental operations
with integers, fractions and decimals. 3. Ability to change decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals. 4. Knowledge of the fundamentals as application of decimals. 5. Ability to find volumes of rectangular solids; to reduce cubical con-
to gal., bbls., and bu. 6. Habit of checking work. 7. Ability to state and solve problems. 8. Ability to reach standard of sixth grade arithmetic.
SEVENTH GRADE ARITHMETIC Basal Text:
"The Triangle Arithmetics, Book Three," published by The John C. Winston Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: Ruch-Knight-Studebaker, "Work Book in Arithmetic," Pupil's Edition, Grade 7, Scott, Foresman & Company.
Amount of text to be Covered: Chapter I, page 1 through Chapter VIII, page 465.
Manuals: Basal Text: "A Teacher's Manual for the Triangle Arithmetics," The John C. Winston Company. (In Course of Publication.)
SEVENTH GRADE ARITHMETIC 1. Text:
The Triangle Arithmetic Book III.
n. General Objectives for the Teacher:
1. To give the pupils the general nature and uses of business and social arithmetic.
2. To increase skill in the fundamental processes. 3. To apply these fundamental processes in life situations. 4. To give a broad general knowledge of business practices. 5. To give information about such institutions as; banks, insurance com-
panies, building and loan associations, corporations. 6. To develop a higher standard of citizenship through thrift and a study
of affairs. 7. To develop an appreciation for the geometry in nature and life. 8. To develop the use of the graph as seen in life. 9. To develop mensuration and the metric system. 10. To develop the formula and equation as an introduction into Algebra.
118

III. Specific Skills for the Child:
The Child Should Be Able To: 1. Perform all fundamental operations of whole numbers, common and
decimal fractions, with accuracy and speed. 2. Apply percentage in profit and loss, discount, and commissions. 3. Apply business principles in school activities and the home. 4. Understand and use lines, angles, and the common plane figures. 5. Solve problems through the use of the equation involving the unknown. 6. Approximate results. 7. Plot and use graphs in school work or life situation. 8. Use the vocabulary of Arithmetic. 9. Use the measures in life situations. 10. Draw to scale. 11. Find area, perimeter, volume. 12. Analyze a problem. 13. Use the fractional equivalents of per cents and decimals
IV. Content to be Taught by Teacher:
1. Fundamental Operations. Review reading and writing numbers through billions; addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; fractions with denominators 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 and short cuts; decimals, s ressing location of decimal point in division.
Percentage. Review percentage and apply it to budgets, accounts, commission, discount, banking, stocks and bonds, taxes, investment, insurance.
Geometry. Measure, construct, and find illustrations of lines and angles. Use the protractor and compasses; construct and measure rectangles, parallelogram, square, triangle, trapezoid, circle.
4. Mensuration. Develop the vocabulary of mensuration; drill and apply finding the area of any of the plane figures. Develop the volume of solids, as cubes, prisms, cones, cylinders, pyramids. Develop the metric system.
5. Graphs. Develop the construction and use of bar, line, proportional, circle, frequency distribution, geographical distribution, functional and pictorial graphs. Develop the meaning of terms: scale, range, mean, medium, mode, data, normal curve of distribution, axes.
Formulas and Equations. Develop the formula through area, volume, and percentage as shown on pages 197, 203, 283, 293-96 in text. Use letters in the equations of written problems.
119

V. Suggested Activities:
1. Organization of stock company, real-estate company, brokerage, bank. 2. Local and State budgets with particular reference to Schools. 3. Design patterns for the commercial world. 4. Copy of geometry used in architecture. 5. Measure of school tennis and basketball court, baseball diamond,
football field. 6. Planning a flower garden. 7. Graph booklet of the school's history. 8. Drills and races in fundamental processes.
SEVENTH GRADE
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
Ability to quickly and accurately perform the fundamental operations in whole numbers, fractions, decimals and denominate numbers. Ability to use the principles of percentage in practical applications, as, gain and loss, commission, discount, interest, and investments. Ability to use practical measurements in problems based on the child's own experiences. Ability to formulate problems. Habit of checking
THE MOST COMMON FAULTS IN THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
The following classification of faults in the four operations with whole numbers will suggest the types of errors teachers should expect to find present in the work of pupils deficient in the processes.
Addition Difficulties 1. Weakness in combinations. 2. Counting. 3. Vocalizes his work. 4. Bridging the tens. 5. Zero difficulty. 6. Breaks up combinations. 7. Roundabout methods. 8. Carrying difficulty:
(a) Forgets to carry. (b) Adds carried number irregularly (c) Carries wrong number. 9. Column addition: (a) Adds large numbers first. (b) Trouble with second addition in column. (c) Forgets sum and repeats work. (d) Adds by tens. (e) Loses place in column. (f) Inspects example to find starting point.
120

Subtraction Difficulties
1. Weakness in combinations. 2. Counting. 3. Zero difficulty:
(a) Zero in minuend. (b) Zero in subtrahend. 4. Borrowing difficulty: (a) Does not allow for borrowing. (b) Does not borrow, but gives zero as answer. (c) Borrows when borrowing is not necessary, (d) Deducts two from minuend after borrowing. (e) Does not reduce minuend digit after borrowing. (f) Errors due to minuend and subtrahend digits being the same. 5. Subtracting minuend from subtrahend. 6. Uses same digit in two columns. 7. Roundabout methods. 8. Splits up numbers. 9. Reverses digits in remainder. 10. Confuses process with division. 11. Skips one or more decades.
MultipI:cation Difficulties
1. Weakness in combinations. 2. Counting:
(a) To carry. (b) To get combinations. 3. Zero difficulty: (a) Zero in multiplier. (b) Zero in multiplicand. 4. Carrying: (a) Carries wrong number. (b) Forgets to carry. (c) Error in carrying with zero. .5. Errors in adding: (a) In partial products. (b) In carried number. (c) Forgets to add partial products. 6. Errors in multiplying: (a) Confuses products when multiplier has two or more digits. (b) Splits multiplier. (c) Uses multiplicand. (d) Multiplies by adding. 7. Omits digit in: (a) Multiplier. (b) Multiplicand. (c) Product. 8. Uses wrong process (adds). 9. Errors in position of partial products.
121

Division Difficulties 1. Weakness in combination. 2. Difficulty with remainders:
(a) Within the example. (b) With final remainder 3. Zero difficulty. (a) Within the quotient. (b) Within the dividend. 4. Difficulty with quotient: (a) Trial quotient. (b) Counts to get quotient. (c) Derives quotient from a similar example 5. Roundabout methods. 6. Difficulty with subtraction. 7. Difficulty with multiplication. 8. Repeats tables for results. 9. Uses digits of divisor separately. 10. Brings down digit in dividend twice. 11. Faulty statements. 12. Interchanges long and short division
122

PROVISION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A. Location and Inventory Material.

Process
Addition Review Subtraction Review Flash Cards.. Multiplication Review Division Review

Grade Three
2, 8, 13, 22 5, 10, 18, 24
3

B. Standardized Tests to Locate Pupils.

Grade Four
226 227 228 231 232
238, 241 242, 251

Tests

Practice tests, in fundamentals (all Pro-

cesses)

..

Problem Scales

Grade Three
202, 208, 215, 222 100, 112, 160, 207

Grade Four . . ..
255, 290 (5) 288, 310 (3)

C. Diagnostic Tests to Determine Specific Nature of Pupil's Difficulty.

Process

Addition

Subtraction

..

Multiplication

..

Division

Grade Three
158 159

Grade Four
227 231 238 243, 204

Grade Five

A. Diagnostic tests

.

B. Remedial work provided

C. Practice exercise to locate weakness..

D. Graduated problem scales

E. Starred problems

15, 22, 28 (9) 15, 25, 29 (3) 103, 119 (2) 58, 104 (5)
7, 9, 24 Many others

Grade Six
238, 261 (4) 294, 316, etc. 262, 296 (4) 246, 257, etc.

Grade Seven Grade Eight

A. Diagnostic and practice tests B. Starred problems for superior pupils..
C. Topics for special reports
D. Enriched problem material

27, 28 33, 34 3, 16, 24 (8)
61, 79, 86 (6)
79, 86, 94, etc.

270, 320, 338 Many others 281, 323, 398 Many others 320,338, 395, etc.

123

THE ONE HUNDRED ADDITION COMBINATIONS

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3 3

3

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

124

THE ONE HUNDRED SUBTRACTION COMBINATIONS

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

125

THE ONE HUNDRED MULTIPLICATION COMBINATIONS

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

0

2

4

6

8 10 12 14 16 18

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

0

3

6

9 12 15 18 21 24 27

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

0

4

8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

0

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

0

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

0

7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

0

8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72

0

1

2

3

4

5

C

7

8

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

18

27

36

45

54

63

72

81

126

THE NINETY DIVISION COMBINATIONS

12

3

4

5

6

7

DO 1)1 1)2 1)3 1)4 1)5 1)6 1)7 1)8 1)9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2)0 2)1 2)4 2)6 2)8 2)10 2)12 2)14 2)16 2)18

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3)0 3)3 3)6 3)9 3)12 3)15 3)18 3)21 3)24 3)27

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4)0 4)4 4)8 4)12 4)16 4)20 4)24 4)28 4)32 4(36

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

5)0 5)5 5)10 5)15 5)20 5)25 5)30 5)35 5)40 5)45

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

6)0 6)6 6)12 6)18 6)24 6)30 6)36 6)42 6)48 6)54

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7)0 7)/ 7)14 7)21 7)28 7)35 7)42 7)49 7)56 7)63

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

8)0 8)8 8)16 8)24 8)32 8)40 8)48 8)56 8)64 8)72

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

9)0 9)9 9)18 9)27 9)36 9)45 9)54 9)63 9)72 9)81

127

r
MEASUREMENT
1. Arithmetic Work Books, Scott, Foresman Co., Atlanta 2. Compass Diagnostic Test in Arithmetic, Scott, Foresman Co., Atlanta 3. Diagnostic Te ts and Practice exercises, John C. Winston Co., Atlanta. 4. Otis Reasoning Test in Arithmetic, World Book Co., Atlanta. 5 Stanford Achievement Test in Arithmetic, World Book Co.. Atlanta. 6. Triangle Arithmetic Tests (Monthly tests with norms), John C. Win-
ston Co., Atlanta. 7. Woody McCall Mixed Fundamentals, Teachers College Publications,
Columbia University, N. Y.
REFERENCES ON METHOD OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC
1. Buswell, G. T., Summary of Arithmetic Investigation, University of Chicago Press.
2. Fourth year book of the National Education Association, Dep't. of Supt. 1927.
3. Lennes, N. J. The Teaching of Arithmetic, MacMillan Co., Atlanta 1924. 4. Morton, R. L. The Teaching of Arithmetic in the Intermediate Grades,
Silver Burdett and Co., New York 1927. 5. Newcomb, R. S. Modern Methods of Teaching Arithmetic, Houghton
Mifflin Co., New York 1926. 6. Otto, H. J. Remedial Instruction in Arithmetic, National Educational
Association Journal Vol. 17:87-9 Mr '28, Elementary School Journal Vol 28:121-33 0' 27. 7. Roantree, W. F. and Taylor, M. S. An Arithmetic for Teachers, MacMillan Co., Atlanta 1927. 8. Second year book of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 9 Seventeenth year book of National Society for the Study of Education. 10. Smith, D. E. and Reeves, W. D. The Teaching of Junior High School Mathematics. 11. Thorndike, E. L. The Psychology of Arithmetic, MacMillan Co., Atlanta 1922. 12. Third year book of the National Education Association, Dep't. of Supt 1926.
128

SUGGESTIONS
FOR USE OF
RUCH-KNIGHT-STUDEBAKER WORK BOOKS IN ARITHMETIC
Since arithmetic texts are organized to emphasize the teaching of new prinrf Pr^SS!f,r,ather than th* maintaining of skills already learned, add^ona weekly drib m mixed fundamentals should be given throughou he schoo year. This plan will prevent forgetting and thus lower the percentage of failures in Arithmetic.
thXZTu {Tlffl fandardized and motivated drills of this character, the Ruch-Kmght-Studebaker ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS (Scott Foresman, Atlanta) give year-round practice on the fundamental skills of Arithmetic lagging just a little behind the Arithmetic Texts in the presentation ot each new process.
benefit X^:SSerieSiSreCmmendedby the State Bard and <"
taken "oftV116, ARTMETIC WORK-BOOKS, full advantage should be taken of th plan outlined m the Teacher's Edition for the development of pupil-activity The children should do the work in their own books, record their own grades, and watch their own progress as shown on the individual and class progress charts. (Enlarged progress charts for the classroom walls furnished free by publishers). The Study Notes and Extra Practice Drills should be used to train the pupils in habits of self-help and independent study.
Grade Three. The use of the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS in connection with the basal text in Arithmetic should begin in this grade. At the beginning of the year the teacher should establish a definite routine for these weekly drills, following in general the plan outlined in the Teacher's Mition. Full advantage should be taken of the Study Notes, Extra Practice Drills, and Progress Charts in developing pupil-activity nd encouraging the children to improve their ratings from week to week
Grade Four. The weekly use of the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS will be found to maintain the Arithmetic skills taught in the primary grades as more advanced work is taken up. Special attention should be given to the Study Notes, which are motivated silent-reading lessons by which the pupils re-learn the principles previously taught with little, if any help from the teacher. This systematic re-study of the main ideas of Arithmetic is the crucial point in Arithmetic today. Many failures result from the assumption that ground once covered has been mastered by all pupils.
129

Grade Five. In the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS to be used in connection with the basal text, there will be found scientific distribution of practice on the various processes and computations previously learned. Each pupil should be made to realize the purpose of these drills, so that he will have as a conscious objective the prevention of forgetting. This can be accomplished by means of the individual and class Progress Charts, which will be found unusually effective in arousing the child's interest in improving his rating. A glance at the charts from time to time will give the teacher an accurate record of each pupil's work. Extra practice and drill can then be given in time to avert term failures.
Grade Six. As the pupils in this grade take up the more advanced computations in the text, it is important that skills previously learned be kept in mind, ready for instant use. Much of the responsibility for this should be placed on the pupils themselves, by means of the weekly drills in the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS. After each drill is given and the scores graphed in the pupil's Progress Chart, those children whose scores are low should be encouraged to notice especially the problems they failed to solve, re-study the Study Notes on these processes, and then work the Extra Practice Drills before the next WORKBOOK period.
Grade Seven. Arithmetic has probably been responsible for more failures than any other school subject. Many of these failures can be prevented by the weekly use of the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS, which maintain the skills taught in the lower grades by means of scientifically planned drills in mixed fundamentals to be given each week in the school year. As a means of preparing students for the elementary-school examination and for later work in the high school, it is recommended that every seventh grade class use the ARITHMETIC WORK-BOOKS throughout the school year.
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LANGUAGE
AND
GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR
INTRODUCTION
I. EDUCATIONAL AIMS
1. ULTIMATE AIMS:
Right ideals, good habits, personal power, social usefulness. The teacher should frequently recur to these big purposes and in them should find encouragement and strength. The penalty for failing to establish constant relationships between letters and living is loss of reality in teaching, a deadening routine, diminished wholesomeness.
2. WHOLESOMENESS:
The preservation of health and the maintenance of physical well-being stand among the first of the big objectives of the school. Very properly this important aim is often entrusted to specialists but the English curriculum is not thereby excused from the duty of intelligent co-operation.
3. HABITS AND SKILLS:
A second object of prime importance is the creation of certain habits and skills. The school sets up this objective not only that future work in the world may be better done, but that present work in the school in all lines may reach higher levels.
4. ETHICAL IDEALS:
Pre-eminent among the big objectives of the school is ethical training.
5. THE LITTLE CITIZEN:
Character-building, the realization of the ethical objective, is impossible outside of a social group. It is inconceivable in isolation.
6. USE OF LEISURE:
This motivation extends to those activities that at first sight might seem to aim at the merely pleasurable, such as coaching by pupils, dramatization, games and clubs. They find their fundamental social explanation, however, in the training they afford in the worthy use of leisure time.
II. COMPOSITION, ORAL AND WRITTEN
1. MOTIVATIONS:
Outside of the school the pupil's experience in language is haphazard, casual, chaotic. The school substitutes for this (five hours a day for ten years or more) a language experience that is purposeful, methodical, economical, progressive.
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2. GENERAL METHOD:

The language arts are acquired and practiced in response to the felt needs of the social group. A social situation exists, or is created, which calls fo the communication of ideas. Every social situation involves (1) speaker or

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and (4) are often the same (teacher and classmates)

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to tjf001 SUCh S!!Uati0nS ^ n>re "natural>" more realistic, more conducive to the learning and practice of the language arts if they necessarily grow ou of the work of organizations. The class itself is such an organization and presents a true social situation every day, if each lesson ha< a we 1Conceived

ccluubb oorr Ia bbeetttteerrEtnnTglivsh, c7lub?,"o*r afs*tor^ y-telli*n"g^ club,^ or a acSouartCesUyrrcenlutb^. enAtcs-

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SSSS !HS.

t"T ^ amtrterdvUlebw' ln^eCeS"SitiantceidSePn6taktiongthaDe dso^ cial situcaotriroensponGdeanmcees

and competitions sugar-coat the drills. Though many or all of these excellent

rrooTomm rreec'iLtattiTM on is ^a n"ec*ess?ity ffor" m<u*ch" of the*workth. atR^ ecenw t mS odifS icattio2ns
S^toS? each recitation period (!) at least one specia. task preSu^ assigned to be reported by a pupil (2) a brief contribution by the teacher of
an additional interesting fact pertinent to the lesson. Up to the momen o expression m oral or written language the steps in composition are tLlH

Jie,t^f^jretkQce) or readin& interviewing' M(2) Selection (choice of what to say and what not to say) with a known purpose m mmd and a known audience (teacher and classmates). eessppeeciiaallly^ W now ?to ^beg^ in anT d hlo^w todeetnedrm ). inatin <* * order of statements
These three acts are composition. Nexi after arrangement comes expresiTrp^X611' 6aCh ^ ^ --^^emslhich wil, ^Z

3. CHOICE OF SUBJECT MATTER: Nature and science, art and invention, social life and organization are the

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school years. The most decisive limitation, aside from lack of time is the pupil's lack of background in knowledge and experience. In view'o thi limitation the division of subject matter becomes-(l) topics drawn from th pupil s past or present experience, (2) topics for which the school may suppty
LhanndVtThrouT gh "reaT din'g (a3n) dt0ipniveSsftigraW tiohnic.h experience must be sought at second

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4. SPECIAL METHOD IN ORAL COMPOSITION:
Oral composition ocloupies four-fifths of the language time in third grade, gradually diminishes, but still requires half of the language time in the seventh grade and thereafter.
(a) Technique. Expression of composition orally involves a special technique, the fundamentals of which may be taught from the first day of school. As soon as the word composition is employed, teach that every recitation in every subject is an oral composition; that what pupils have to say in every class should be said in complete sentences. Emphasize the idea of clasmates and teacher as audience. Since communication implies intelligibility, clearness of utterance, good grammar, good usage, a good pronunciation, are in dispensable. After confidence is established, emphasis should be placed on the order of the sentences, a good beginning sentence, a good ending, sticking to the point. At all times insist on courtesy, a good posture, and deliberateness. Advise practice at home with the family as audience.
The oral practice work as developed through the grades keeps in mind three desirable habits as objectives:
(1) Readiness in expressing simple ideas as member of a social group. (2) Good sense in the order of presenting ideas. (3) Constant attention to eliminating errors of speech and to improving voice and enunciation. (b) Criticism should touch the points just named. It should be brief but sympathetic and should begin with a favorable comment. The fact should be established early that criticism is not exclusively fault-finding. Criticism may be confined, on one day, to opening and closing sentences; on another day, to the suggestion of added details that are concrete, relevant and interesting; on another, to grammar and usage; on another, to posture, voice, manner, enunciation. The teacher may often choose to be the last critic, supplementing inadequate comment. During the period of criticism the teacher will sometimes find it necessary to require a critic to change "He said, etc.," to "He should have said, etc.," or "The correct form is, etc." The teacher will find many occasions to praise, which pupil critics miss. The teacher may as part of the criticism add to the pupil's vocabulary a word or phrase that was needed but did not come, by using it in recapitulation.
5. SPECIAL METHOD IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION:
Written composition requires one-fifth of the language time in the third grade and gradually increases until, in the seventh grade and thereafter, it requires one-half of the language time.
(a) Technique. Oral composition is a necessary prerequisite to successful written composition.
(b) Criticism. Development of the habit of self-criticism is the ultimate objective.
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III. SPECIAL PHASES OF ENGLISH WORK
1. TRAINING THE SENTENCE SENSE:
From the first day of school, special attention must be given to training the ear for good sentences. Much attention must be given (in the story-telling especially) to breaking up the and--and--and habit, and to establishing the habit of pausing at the right place (sentence-ends, especially). The aid of grammar comes too late; the habit is established long before the logic of grammar can be understood. We must rely chiefly upon good example, imitation (unconscious and conscious) and repetition of correct forms (compulsory). When English is written, lack of sentence sense is published to the eye. It appears as the "comma fault" (a misnomer because often even the commas are not there) or the ''period blunder" or as faulty capitalization or as imperfect grammar. Usually these faults do not appear singly; they are confederates. After the school has accomplished all that is possible with the help of the conventions of usage in punctuation and capitalization, and the logic of grammar, there remain the finer problems of choice; for example the choice between simple, complex, and compound forms on ground of exact fitness for a given idea. Consciousness even of the existence of such problems does not come unaided to the pupil before school days are long past. But the school can supply instead the fundamental thing--a good ear-training, a good eyetraining, a liking for speech rhythm, satisfaction in good form, respect for "correctness," and courtesy, admiration for clear thinking, and for the exact expression of it in fitting grammatical structures. All that has been said above applies also in lesser degree totraining the paragraph sense.
2. LETTER WRITING:
Instruction in letter writing should be considered always from the viewpoint of meeting "social situations". Therefore content of the letter and purpose of the letter must be considered equally with form of the letter.
3. THE PROJECT:
Strictly speaking the project is not a recently added device of the school. Every well-planned and well-executed lesson is and always has been a teacherproject, fulfilling exactly the definition of a project as a "whole-hearted purposeful act carried on amid social surroundings." Do not conceive of the project then, merely as an extra enterprise; it is really vitalized general method, recognizing the "social situation" idea as fundamental to all real teaching and applicable directly to the daily work of the school.
4. GRAMMAR AND USAGE:
Very early in the English work of the school, the simplest grammatical concepts become familiar by use. Long before a grammatical term is employed in school, the thing for which it stands is repeatedly experienced. Oral and aural experience of good grammatical forms is all-important from the first
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grade up. Gradually the grammatical terms are introduced as convenient labels for known things. There is no practical advantage in knowing the label unless the thing labeled is known first. 5 DRAMATIZATION:
The use of dramatization in teaching English dates back to the sixteenth century in the schools of English, whereihead masters and good teachers set their pupils dramatizing with the avowed purpose of improving language usage, pronunciation, manners, insight into life, admiration of good and great characters in history and in common life. Our modern innovations upon the older practice are seen in the much wider application of dramatization. Our pupils, even the youngest, are encouraged to dramatize in connection with their regular English work, to devise their own scenes, to write their lines instead of having all these things supplied by their teacher. The educational purpose however remains practically unchanged. We appreciate the added advantages (1) of satisfying the evident need of childhood and youth, (2) of bringing the remote near by impersonation and representation, (3) of giving zest, point, and present interest to the subject matter, (4) of encouraging an activity that cannot fail to help solve the national problem of wholesome use of leisure time. The teacher must be satisfied with inadequate dramatizations; it would be a pity if some pupils dramatized beyond the capabilities proper to their age.
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LANGUAGE and GRAMMAR
FIRST GRADE
Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material.)
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Manuals: None.
1. FIRST GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.
Although, as has been said above, the teaching of language is considered a social problem in all grades of the school system, few teachers appreciate the fact so acutely as the teacher of the kindergarten or the first grade. Gathered before such a teacher on the opening day of school is a group of tiny human beings in all elementary stages of language development. Here are those who, because of too much attention in the family, insist upon holding supremacy in this new social group through almost incessant babbling; while across the aisle are others who, because of too much home suppression or the previous lack of social incentive, are scarcely more than mutes. Furthermore, because of lack of standards and perfect physical co-ordination, members of both these classes vary widely in their ability to speak accurately, either phonetically or grammatically. As a further complication to genuine language situation, is the fact that all these children find themselves on the first day of school in entirely new physical surroundings, a situation disturbing for natural and successful language activities even among adults. Likewise, the members of this social group are in most cases entirely unknown to each other, a situation still more disconcerting than the one just mentioned. When all these factors are considered, it is not to be wondered at that the teacher struggles valiantly for days, or in some cases weeks even, to perfect a social organization which will foster language in its true sense; i. e., social communication.
Clearly the first task of the language teacher in forming a social group of these heterogeneous units is to discover points of common interest; i. e., points of common experience. The experience of first grade children is, however, pitiably limited. Parents have labored more or less diligently to keep actual or first-hand experience restricted geographically within the boundaries of a city lot, or block at most, or of a more or less isolated farm. In the early opinion of the beginner, as in that of the more mature student of composition, few happenings interesting enough to talk about take place within such limits. The second-hand experience of these children, gained vicariously from books, varies from zero in many cases to that which is an adequate preparation for immediate reading and language activities. Clearly, some of the early language lessons must be of a type which will widen the ex-
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perience of the child in preparation for expression. Gradually the child himself must come to realize that he who talks must have something interesting to say.
The apparent enormousness of the task of teaching language to large groups of beginners, coupled with the fact that the attention of makers of curricula and books for this subject has been focused chiefly on the higher grades, has caused early language activities to receive little time and attention or even to be neglected entirely in some schools, an extra period being substituted. However, the task of teaching language to beginners is not a discouraging one in fact, it may be one of the most fascinating duties of the entire curriculum. The child comes into the first grade at a stage when he is literally craving knowledge and companionship, when as yet the school furnishes his most thrilling social experience, when he has but recently passed the peak of his period of greatest volubility, known as the speech pressure period, and when his speech habits are still flexible.
The teaching of language to beginners makes necessary four factors: (1) a specific place in every daily program, preferably fifteen minutes daily, totaling seventy-five minutes per week; (2) an enthusiastic teacher, possessing a pleasing voice and correct speech habits; (3) carefully prepared daily asignments; and (4) a definite and scientific set of objectives or aims for the year's work. The first three factors are beyond the province of any course of study, but as the fourth essential the objectives listed below may prove helpful. If they are met faithfully and the suggestions which follow them are used intelligently, any average teacher will feel gratified by the progress of any average class.
LANGUAGE OBJECTIVES IN THE FIRST GRADE
(All work of the average class in the first grade is oral.) 1. To stimulate in the child the desire to talk in order to say something interesting. 2. To provide ample opportunity for developing in the child such alert, accurate observation and straight thinking as will result in reliable, interesting accounts. 3. To develop the ability and habit of talking in sentences. 4. To develop a sentence sense. 5. To develop a sense of simple sequence. 6. To train the child to criticize constructively ora' compositions by himself and others. ' 7. To cultivate a pride in beautiful, correct speech.
a. Beautiful vowels. b. Clean-cut consonants. c. Grammatical correctness. 8. To encourage the enlargement of the child's vocabulary. 9. To form the proper habits of courteous verbal and bodily responses to certain simple social situations. 10. To present a few uses of capitalization and punctuation. In the following pages an attempt has been made to aid the teacher in meeting these objectives by discussing briefly the types of lessons necessary, some
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methods ot teaching these lessons, and the avoidance or elimination 01 attendant difficulties The material given is intended to serve merely as suggestions.
Conversations: Definite training in language should begin on the first day of school as free,
very informal, but carefully directed, purposeful conversations, dealing with actual experience already gained through the almost universal interest of beginners in babies, in other children, in their pets, and in their toys. Concerning no other topics do they generally talk with so much freedom at so early a date.
Thus the children's limitation of experience, discouraging as it may seem at first furnishes at the beginning of school an encouraging source of language activity. Since the field of experience is so much restricted, it must coincide to a greater or less degree in various children. Their relationship to the rest of their family, to their pets, and to their games is somewhat identical, and, because of lack of participation in the more exciting experiences of a later period, these experiences are of vital interest to the beginner. Here then lies the point of attack in language work.
Serving as introductions to such directed conversations, pictures, not the story-telling type, are especially helpful. For example, if the conversation is to be about a baby, the teacher may call the attention of her class to a group of pictures of babies in various poses. Some such question as "Which baby looks most like your baby?" will start the class thinking, and soon some picture will encourage some more talkative child to point out the picture which reminds him of the baby in his own or his neighbor's home. To the next suggestion, "Tell one thing that your baby can do," this same child or his neighbor will soon respond with a statement of some feat his baby can perform. Most of the other children can easily be encouraged to follow the leader's example, but some children may remain silent for a few days. The teacher should not become discouraged by their silence but should follow this first lesson with several others of the same type, on such subjects as pets, favorite toys, etc.
Experiences: Actual experiences furnish not only the method of language approach but
also the" material for many of the best compositions throughout the year. Topics in this field are almost unlimited. If the choice of subject is narrowed to one incident only, compositions are certain to be successful on such topics as something which happened last Saturday, during your vacation, at a picnic, during a visit to a zoo, to a park, to a farm, or at a circus; a joke, a Hallowe'en prank; fun in the leaves or in the snow; playing circus; etc. Since the experience of all first grade children is very limited, they should be given ample opportunity to quicken their observation by first-hand extpeience in many fields. Other subjects in the curriculum offer excellent maerrial and correlate well with language activities. However, the teacher must remember that the content of various subjects may find a place in the language class only to the extent in which it fosters language activities. The
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objective of every language lesson is the development of language ability, and not the amassing of facts, no matter how valuable.
Directed Experiences:
Nature Study. In the field of nature study unlimited material for oral compositions is fur-
nished by such topics as the following: weather; signs of seasons; protection of seeds; dissemination of seeds; flowers; fruits; vegetables; birds; animals; insects; etc. Hygiene.
Hygiene makes an equally generous contribution in such topics as diet; drinking water; sleep; fresh air; care of the skin, teeth, hair, and nails; disease prevention; exercise; etc. Citizenship.
An abundance of civic material may be presented under such topics as appreciation of public friends and helpers, the fireman, the postman, the policeman, the street cleaner, etc., and of agents of diversified labor, the painter, the fanner, the doctor, the miner, the grocer, etc.; safety first rules and devices; patriotic holidays; the origin and meaning of the flag; fire prevention; clean-up campaigns; Arbor day; etc. Ethics.
Conversations and oral compositions dealing with desirable ethical material may be based upon such topics as cleanliness, gradual independence in caring for self and possessions; service to others in the home, school, and community; thrift; honesty; promptness; initiative; obedience to law; recognition of property rights; etc. Art. See Picture Stories. Excursions.
Class excursions also contribute much valuable material for free conversations. At least two should be made during the year. These should, of course, be adapted to the locality in which the school is situated. The topics given below are intended merely as suggestions: the school building and its grounds; a toy shop; a grocery; a bakery; a green house or flower shop; a fire station; a police station; a building under erection; parks or woods; etc.
Reproduction:
Reproduction, which contributes largely to the acquiring of a sense of sequence and an enlargement of vocabulary, as well as serving as an excellent preparation for dramatization, may be begun even before children read well enough to reproduce what they have read. As soon as the conversations resulting in one-sentence compositions have become very successful, reproduction of dramatic stories and poems told, by the teacher, may be begun. A good illustration of the story told proves invaluable at this time.
The earliest material with which to begin reproduction is the Mother Goose rhymes which tell dramatic stories. The teacher first recites the poem from memory and follows her recital with the suggestion that the illustracion which she holds tells the same story. After the children have had time to look at the picture, the teacher next asks questions that develop the story point by point
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Then the whole story may be told a sentence at a time by different children and then re-told by a single child. The teacher should not insist that a child reproduce the story in his own words, for she thereby defeats the benefit to his vocabulary which would naturally result from his adoption of the exact phrasing of the story.
As soon as longer stories are attempted, they should be divided into their natural divisions. Immediately after the telling of the whole, the first division should be treated in the same manner as the stories told previously. Then each successive division should be treated in turn. Lastly, the telling of the story as a whole can be achieved by the telling of the successive parts by different children. A series of pictures portraying the main incidents will be found of invaluable aid as an outline of the action of the story. The first time that the children discover that they can accomplish jointly the telling of a long story they will be highly elated.
Presenting a poem to children from memory or a story by telling it, is much more successful than reading it, for small children dislike as much as adults the effect on the speaker's voice caused by the bringing of a book between the speaker and his audience. The listeners almost invariably feel that they are being talked at instead of to. Children endure even poor reading, but they are delighted with story telling. Any teacher can learn to tell a story well if she makes a wise selection and conscientious preparation, including repeated rehearsals of it, especially before a mirror, and makes frequent, enthusiastic attempts before her class. The evident pleasure of the children and her additional sense of power over her class will be ample payment for her efforts.
Dramatization:
Informal dramatization has its place in the language period, provided that all children have equal participation in it and it is treated as a language activity and not merely as a test of the accuracy of reading or a method of fixing some story in the minds of the pupils, both these being purely reading activities and belonging, therefore, in the reading period. Dramatization teaches poise primarily, and in addition, it improves the sense of sequence, develops the imagination and initiative through the creation of the dialog and the devising of the makeshift properties, and motivates good articulation. There are few, if any, incentives so strong for clear enunciation and sufficient volume as the knowledge that one is to take part in a real play, no matter how informal, before a genuine audience. Work on a single dramatization should continue only until the children have acquired the language training which it can offer, and then a new selection should be undertaken. In order to include more of this type of work economically, dramatization should frequently follow the reproduction of dramatic stories and poems, as the preliminary preparation for these two activities is identical.
Occasionally pantomime may be used, not as a test of reading ability, but as an exercise in clear conception resulting in bodily expression.
A short list of stories, typical of those most successful for reproduction and dramatization, is given below.
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The Gingerbread Boy. The Little Red Hen. The Three Billy Goats Gruff. Little Red Riding Hood. Chicken Little. The Story of the Three Little Pigs. The Fox and the Grapes. The Lion and the Mouse. The Crow and the Pitcher. The Little Red Hen and the Fox. Pig Brother. The Little Pink Rose. Three Little Kittens. The Naughty Billy Goat. The Hare and the Tortoise. The Paradise of Children.
Picture Stories:
Pictures used in the language class fall under two heads; the masterpiece and the story-telling picture, neither of which is used early in the year.
The use of the masterpiece, portraying animals or children and suitable for first grade art work, contributes to the language class, aside from some additions to the vocabulary, chiefly the summary of the story or conception of the picture, gained in a preliminary discussion.
The story-tel'ing picture, collected largely from magazines, serves as the inspiration of the imaginative story. Every primary teacher should possess a goodly collection of these simple, brightly colored pictures, portraying few characters, preferably children or animals in dramatic action. Such pictures should be so simple in detail that they suggest different stories to different children, rather than so complex in detail that they tell a single story and leave nothing to the imagination of the children.
After showing such a picture to the children and making sure that the details are clearly grasped, the teacher will ask questions which will bring out all possible suggestions as to plot. When she has exhausted such suggestions, the children will be ready, after two or three minutes of thought, to tell their two or three sentence compositions. The teacher must not be disappointed if her first lessons of this type require two periods, the actual story telling being left for the second day. She should be appreciative of the children's attempts at story telling of this type, but she should never accept compositions which are merely descriptions of such pictures instead of interpretations of the plot or story portrayed.
Sentence Sense:
Much of the language training of the first grade is devoted to developing in the children the ability to talk in sentences. Of course, no wise teacher will risk killing the spontaneity of the children's speech by requiring that all replies to her questions be complete sentences. However, in order to encourage talking in sentences, she may often, especially during the opening weeks of
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the term, give unobtrusively a sample composition, such as, "My dog can shake hands," and follow it with the suggestion, "What can your pet do? Start your sentence in this way: 'My kitten can.' "
One-sentence Compositions. As an aid in developing sentence sense, it is wise to permit children to tell
just one thing about the subject under discussion. The garrulity of the talkative child may be curbed by the comment, "Tommy told us two things. Who can tell us just one thing about his pet?" Such procedure will result in two benefits. Firstly, it will gradually draw upon the child that a sentence must tell something. Secondly, the meaningless repetition of and and so, entirely natural to early composition, does not have a chance to creep in.
Children should be cautioned almost from the first to drop their voices at the end of sentences so that their audience may know when they have completed a sentence, this term being used incidentally almost from the beginning. A habitual recognition of this speech tendency will aid them materially in constructive criticism of their later two-and three-sentence compositions.
Two-sentence Compositions. When the children have a satisfactory conception of the single-sentence
oral composition, they are ready for the two-sentence composition. However, the teacher must not expect this conception to be gained quickly, except by unusually strong classes. She should be content to make haste slowly in laying this foundation for acute sentence sense. When, however, this sense has been acquired by her class, she may refer to some of their best one-sentence compositions and ask them to tell one more thing about the same subject. During the telling of these two-sentence compositions the children should count the sentences heard and consider carefully whether the second one is about the same thing as the opening one.
Three-sentence Compositions. When a class has a satisfactory conception of the two-sentence composition,
the three-sentence composition may be attempted. The teacher must not hurry this stage too much, however. She must expect the second semester to be well under way before the average class can attempt this form. Procedure for development of this type is practically the same as for the preceding one. Children will now be counting three sentences instead of two. Now three sentences must be tested upon their sticking to the point. Frequently a child may complain that, when he has given his allotted three sentences, he has not yet told the most important thing. This situation offers the ideal opportunity for a consideration of the value of each sentence. By the suggestions of his classmates he will be aided in discarding the ineffective sentences and in substituting suitable ones. Gradually children learn to conform to the requirement that a composition should have a good opening sentence, a good middle sentence, and an interesting closing sentence. First grade children should meet this requirement by the end of the year, but they will require many attempts in which to learn to do so.
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Courtesy:
Since poise is the result of habitual response to genuine situations, children should be offered as early and as frequent opportunities of acquiring poise as possible. Almost from the first of the year the children should be made to realize that one indication of their stage of maturity is their habits of courtesy. They should be taught that courtesy, for all except very mall children, requires that people habitually "stand tall;" that they look at, not merely face their audience; and that they speak in clear, well enunciated sentences. The only excuse accepted for a child's not standing tall or sitting with his hips against the back of his seat is illness, and kindness to the ill one, as well as protection of the well, demands the exclusion of the sufferer until his recovery.
First grade children can be quickly taught to give and to acknowledge an introduction and to make such remarks and responses as the following: "Good morning, Miss Blank"; "How-do-you-do, Mrs. Blank"; "Good evening, Mr. Blank"; "Good night, Robert"; "I beg pardon"; "Excuse me, please"; "I am very sorry, Mary"; "I have had a pleasant time at your party, John"; "Thank you, Harry"; "Yes, thank you", or "No, thank you", instead of "I don't care," or "I don't want any (more often 'none')"; "I am well, thank you, Mrs. Blank"; etc.
Because bodily responses are expressions as much as verbal responses, children in the first grade should have ample opportunity in the language class to acquire such habits of courtesy as the following: knocking on closed doors before opening them; closing doors quietly; opening doors for others and permitting them to enter first; handing a person the blunt end of a sharp object; serving others before oneself; shaking hands with the right hand and with a firm grip; holding the handkerchief over the nose and mouth when sneezing and over the mouth when coughing or yawning; setting a table properly; behaving correctly at the table; etc.
Criticism:
Children should acquire during the first school year the habit of tactful, constructive criticism. When a child has a comment to make upon a composition just given, he should stand quietly beside his seat until the one who recited calls upon him. In case someone makes the same criticism, he should slip quietly into his seat at the time it is made. Children should be trained to state frankly which composition they prefer and their reason, and they should explain just as frankly why some other composition did not succeed and offer tactful suggestions for its improvement. It seems wise to teach a child to begin his criticism by mentioning something good about the composition just given. The one being criticised should have the privilege of replying to a criticism which he considers unjust, and the teacher will serve as referee in such a situation.
In case written composition is done by means of letter and word cards or pencil, children should acquire the habit of criticizing their own work by asking themselves such questions as the following:
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Are the lines on my desk or paper straight? Does every sentence begin with a capital letter? Does every sentence end with a period? Does every question end with a question mark? Are all the words spelled correctly? Is the word I written with a capital?
Enunciation Drills:
The foundation for correct enunciation throughout life must be laid in the first grade. A pride in pure speech can be instilled in beginners by leading them to realize that their maturity is judged to larger degree by their freedom from baby talk; i. e., their correctness of enunciation. Since a listener's recognition of a word is chiefly dependent upon the sharp enunciation of its consonants and the beauty or music of the word is dependent upon the quality of the vowels, drills upon both vowels and consonants should be given early.
By means of collections of outline pictures of objects easily recognized, drills may be given by which children's ears may be attuned to clear-cut consonants weeks before the children possess even a simple reading vocabulary. Drill upon the clear enunciation of initial and final consonants should be begun soon after the opening of school. The single lip constants, p, b, and m, should be drilled upon first, in games fitting the activity and i he seasonal interests of the child. Words should be chosen for these drills in which the consonant occurs singly rather than in combination with other consonants. Next the linguals t, d, and n, should be drilled upon. The consonants are presented in this order for two reasons. First, most speakers are lip and tongue lazy; therefore these consonants need a great deal of drill. Second, since these consonants can be successfully articulated very early, the proper mental attitude is being established for the more difficult work in other consonants and the combinations which will follow. Throughout the drills the attention of the child should be centered upon the sound and not upon the vocal organs. Such drills, occurring weekly, will be found a very beneficial training in phonics and an excellent preparation for this subject.
Drill upon vowels may wait until the early consonants have been perfected, as better results are usually secured when the vowel is in combination with an initial consonant.' The combination with the nasal consonants n and m should be attempted first, as head tones are more likely to result. From the time that work is really begun upon vowels such impure sounds as kin and ketch for can and catch (when under accent) should not be tolerated. A beautiful speaking voice is merely the result in a normal individual of unceasing, wisely directed drill.
Elimination of Grammatical Errors:
After children have begun to talk freely, correction of grammatical errors may be undertaken. Usually the teacher should substitute the correct form as unobtrusively and as early as possible without disturbing the thought. Too many corrections, however, will hamper the freedom of a child's speech.
145

The teacher needs to make each term a list of errors of her class and begin to give definite exercises which will eliminate these. No knowledge of grammar is necessary for the elimination of most grammatical speech errors. The correct form should be learned by rote in sentences; i. e., in exactly the same way that the wrong form was learned. By the end of the first year children should be expected to form correctly the plurals of the nouns which add s; to distinguish between the uses of u and are with nouns; to use correctly saw, seen, did and done; to arrange the first personal pronoun last in a series; and to use the nominative I, he, and she after is. These forms may be taught in language games, but such drills alone are not sufficient. Informal drill in original sentences and unceasing vigilance will accomplish more. The enthusiastic teacher, who is quick to praise correct usage, can stimulate her class to correct blunders even on the playground. The correction of a single error should be stressed until it is eliminated, and then a second error should be attacked, and drill on the two errors should proceed simultaneously but with decreasing frequency on the former. Such cumulative drill will eradicate a limited number of errors during the year.
Dictation:
Strong IA classes may write single sentences from dictation, testing the uses of capitalizat'on and punctuation already taught.
Enlargement of Vocabulary:
In her attempts to increase the vocabulary of her pupils the teacher should remember that with small children, as with adults, the experience should precede the vocabulary. There is abundant proof that words are quickly learned when there is a genuine need for them; i, e., when there is sufficient incentive for learning them. The task of the teacher is, therefore, that of offering sufficient genuine situations for learning the necessary vocabulary and of being enthusiastically appreciative of the correct use of words newly learned or especially well chosen. Poems and stories may be examined for unusually good words or expressions. Likewise, simple exercises in giving synonyms or easy opposites are both enjoyable and helpful to children. Most first grade children are especially lacking in adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, which are slower in appearing in the vocabulary of young children than the indispensable nouns and verbs, which early served the purpose of whole sentences. In the vocabulary of some children the pronoun is almost nonexistent, and it is not sufficiently frequent in the speech of most beginners.
Written Composition:
Strong IA classes may copy from the board with pencil or with word and letter cards three-sentence compositions, which have been previously worked out orally by the class.
Projects:
Most projects make some contribution to language activities. Usually they furnish much purposeful conversation and several additional words to the vocabulary and develop poise and the correct speech responses in gen-
146

uine social situations. Such projects as making a grocery, a florist shop, a farm, a dairy, a doll house, etc., are always interesting and beneficial, but usually the most successful projects grow out of specific needs of a school and are frequently suggested by the children themselves.
Technical Forms: During the first year of school, children should become familiar with a
few uses of capitalization and punctuation. Chiefly through incidental drill given during the teacher's copying on the board sentences previously given orally, children should fix the following forms:
Capitalization. 1. The first word in a sentence. 2. The child's own name. 3. The pronoun /.
Punctuation. 1. The period at the end of a statement. 2. The question mark after a question.
SECOND GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "The Language Garden," published by The MacMillan Company.
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text:
SECOND GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
The Language Garden is so simply written that its instruction can easily be read and followed by children in the second grade and it provides a course suitable for use in that grade. It supplies, by means of language games and other suitable material, exercise in oral composition, in simple written composition, in vocabulary development, and in the correction of common speech errors. Selections for reproduction, dramatization, and memorizing are provided. There are numerous entertaining drill and review lessons. Since it is designed for the use of pupils, The Language Garden supplies highly motivated material for silent reading.
147

Oral Composition:

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

To develop further the ability to carry on a conversation. lo develop the ability to relate a personal experience To develop the ability to relate a personal experience with interesting
sequence of events. To develop the ability to reproduce a story somewhat longer than those
attempted m first grade. To develop the ability to tell a purely imaginative story
thaTothers6 """^ t0 re0gnize that Certain words Slve better thought
To^develop the ability to substitute a better word for a poorly chosen
8. To develop further the art of using polite forms of speech. 9. lo develop an interest in new words. 10. To develop the ability to use new words. 11. To develop the ability to pronounce new words correctly.
Written Composition:

To develop the ability to copy correctly under supervision a short poem

riddle, or story.

'

2. To develop the ability to write simple dictation. 3. To develop the ability to write a short original letter. 4. To increase the writing vocabulary.

5. To develop ability to criticise one's own work

6. To develop skill in the use of the period and the question mark, 7. lo develop the ability to write correctly the following

Name

Street Address

School

Birth Date

City

Dates

America.

tilZTu ^ rDth PrSrT f Wrk fr the atta^ent of these objec
M"$^ ^ The MaCMIUan ^pany^OOSpringStreet,

THIRD GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "Our English-Grade Three, "published by Charles Scribner's Sons.
Supplementary Texts: None. (In Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
148

Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manual: Basal Text: None.

THIRD GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

General Aims: 1. To provide the child with a language experience that shall be pleasant,
sound, and satisfying to himself and others. 2. To make the English course contribute to character-building and to
training for American citizenship.

Special Aims: 1. To provide group activities that necessitate co-operation and that

induce the child to share his experience with others. 2. To train the child to observe accurately, to think clearly, and to re-

port truthfully.

,

3. To cultivate good taste, including a taste for good literature, good

morals, and good manners. 4. To strengthen the tie between home and school, school and commu-

5. To make each child feel that he has something worth while to communicate and to train him to an adequate self-expression.
6. To train the child to criticize constructively (a) his own work; (b) the work of his classmates.
7. To provide activities which count for correct language habits and
skills.

OUTLINE OF COURSE OF STUDY

I. Oral Composition:

A. Aim:

. ,.

To enlarge the child's experience and to help him to communicate his

ideas truthfully and effectively.

B. Sources of Materials for Getting Ideas. 1. Personal experiences, real and imaginary. 2. Observation and investigation.
3. Group activities. 4. Literature, prose, and poetry.

C Standards of Attainment in Communicating Ideas:

(Prerequisite: Language work done in the first and second grades.)

i

The pupil should be able 1. To relate with pleasure to himself and his audience an mcident

or story in short clear sentences. 2. To follow the guides suggested for oral composition.

140

3. To know the number of sentences used in an oral composition (Not more than three or four sentences should be used.)
4. To put into daily practice the language habits which he is gradually acquiring.
D. Suggestions: 1. Getting ideas must precede expressing ideas. 2. New ideas call for new words. 3. Lessons should include both individual and group training. 4. Train for the sentence sense. 5. Train the child to hold to a single topic and to proceed with some feeling of order. 6. Encourage the use of a good beginning and a good ending sentence. 7. In all language work keep before the child the audience idea.
II. Written Composition: A. Aim: To enlarge the child's experience and to help him to communicate his ideas truthfully and effectively through writing. B. Sources of Material for Getting Ideas: (Same as under Oral Composition) C. Standards of Achievement in Communicating Ideas: (Prerequisite: Language work done in the first and second grades.) The pupil should be able 1. To write three or four sentences on a single topic. (Term paragraph not used) 2. To copy sentence by sentence a short selection; and to correct his own work. 3. To write from dictation, sentence by sentence, a short paragraph. Each whole sentence should be dictated but once. 4. To write a friendly note according to the following model:
Dear Mother,
Your loving daughter, Mary
150

5. To use capital letters to
(1) begin each word in the name of a person, a school, a street, an avenue, a city, a state.
(2) begin the days of the week and special holidays, (3) begin a sentence, (4) write an initial, (5) write the words / and 0. (6) write Mr., Mrs. and Miss. (7) begin the first word in every line of poetry.
6. To use the following punctuation marks: (1) a period at the end of a statement, after an initial, and after the following abbreviations: Mr. and Mrs. (2) a question mark after a question. (3) an exclamation mark after an exclamatory word or sen-
tence. (4) a comma after the salutation and complimentary ending of
a note.
7. To use the apostrophe in the common contractions.

D. Suggestions:

1. Stimulate in the child a desire to communicate his ideas in

-

writing.

)

2. Preparatory to written communication follow these steps:

(1) informal class talks and discussions; story-telling, assignments which call for observing, investigating, and report-
ing; (2) class exercises in which children compose and teacher writes
on blackboard what they dictate.

III. Acquiring Correct Language Habits and Skills:

A. Correct Forms:
Sentence drills and language games planned to train the ear and tongue in using saw--seen; is--are; was--were; were you; is nl aren't; blew--blown; there is--there are; Jlew--Jlown; may--can; burst, etc.

B. Pronunciation and Enunciation:
Sentence drills and language games planned to train the ear and tongue in acquiring correct pronunciation and distinct enunciation of words commonly mispronounced: as, catch, burst, can, morning, etc.

C. Spelling:
1. Drill in writing contractions and other words that give difficulty. 2. A growing vocabulary calls for drill on spelling of new words
which the child has occasion to write.

151

FOURTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "Modem Course in English--Book One--Language and Literature," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Fourth Grade," published by Smith, Hammond & Company. (Smith, Hammond & Company also publish a "Teacher's Key to Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Fourth Grade.")
Amount of Text to be Covered: "Modern Course in English," Book I, Part I to page 172
Manual: Basal Text: None.
FIFTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "Modern Course in English, Book One, Language and Literature," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Fifth Grade," published by Smith, Hammond & Company, (Smith, Hammond & Company also publish a "Teacher's Key to Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Fifth Grade.")
Amount of Text to be Covered: "Modern Course in English, Book I". Complete
Manual: Basal Text: None.
SIXTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "Modern Course in English, Book Two, Composition and Grammar," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
152

Recommended in Addition to Above: "Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Sixth Grade," published by Smith, Hammond & Company, (Smith, Hammond & Company also publish a "Teacher's Key to Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Sixth Grade.")
Amount of Text to be Covered: "Modern Course in English, Book Two," to page 144 (182, if possible).
Manual: Basal Text: None
SEVENTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Basal Text: "Modern Course in English, Book Two, Composition and Grammar," published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Seventh Grade," published by Smith, Hammond & Company, (Smith, Hammond & Company also publish a "Teacher's Key to Language Tests and Drill Exercises, Seventh Grade.")
Amount of Text to be Covered: "Modern Course in English, Book Two," complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
LANGUAGE LESSONS AND COMPOSITION
GRADES: FOUR TO SEVEN
Bibliography: Klapper's "The Teaching of English." Chubb's "The Teaching of English." Leiper's "Elementary Language Lessons." Wohlfarth's "Self-Help Methods in Teaching English." Leonard's "Grammar and Its Reasons." Ward's "What Is English?"
All of these books are helpful and inspiring to teachers of English. The first two discuss the advantages of the new methods over the old; Leiper's book is full of practical outlines and suggestions for the teacher of each grade from the first to the seventh and for the one-teacher rural school; Miss Wohlfarth's book contains the newest instructions for teachers of elementary English; Miss Leonard and Mr. Ward deal very happily and humorously with
153

the relations of oral and written composition to grammar. All of them destroy the ancient and ineffective ideals of the nineteenth century and substitute common-sense methods and objectives.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ENGLISH
Teachers are now agreed nowadays that the chief objective in teaching English is to train children to think, speak, and write accurately, correctly, and effectively. As these are arts, skill in them must come from practice, not from the study of principles. Teachers of the nineteenth century began with grammar, the science of correct language, and proceeded to composition, the art of using correct language. Teachers of the twentieth century begin with composition, and after pupils have acquired skill in speaking and writing they teach the reasons for correct forms that are embodied in grammar. The deductive teaching of the old days consisted in presenting many definitions and rules for pupils to memorize, and then in requiring a study of the use of these in sentences from literature. The inductive method of today presents examples first, and from the study of these leads pupils to form their own definitions and rules.
The school subject of English in its broadest sense includes Reading, Spelling, Writing, Informal Conversation, Oral Composition, Literature, Word and Sentence Drills, Written Composition, Grammar, and Rhetoric. The first three studies have become separated from English in its technical sense; the last two have been almost entirely relegated to the high school.
The spiral plan of teaching English is the method in widest use. It begins with literature, which furnishes material for informal conversation, oral composition, drills in the use of correct forms, and written composition.
When this course has been run the teacher of the text-book suggests another subject, and the order of procedure is repeated. Each repetition makes a slight advance in learning.
The steps in teaching English are as follows: 1. Present a subject, such as an entertaining story, a picture full of life, a
live animal or plant, a common childish activity, a matter of community interest, to the class in as vivid way as possible. 2. Have the class talk about the subject informally until every pupil has told all that he knows about it. 3. While the pupils are talking the teacher should take note of all errors in speech, and after the discussion is over, read these to the class and have them corrected. Teacher and pupils subdivide the subject and make an outline. Pupils write a composition under the teacher's careful supervision. The teacher in reading these compositions selects the errors that are frequently repeated and places them on the blackboard for criticism, correction, and drill. The pupils copy the compositions into books, correcting all errors marked by the teacher. 8. The teacher uses the inductive method of instructing the pupils in the principles of grammar and composition which they have violated.
154
w.

FIRST GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION

I. Objectives: 1. To overcome the child's timidity and homesickness and to create a familiar and friendly atmosphere. This is to be accomplished by the
use of literature and informal conversation. 2. To give occasion and suggestion for the child's expression of his own
thoughts and feelings and to direct him into orderly and correct speech.
This is the purpose of oral composition. 3. To store the child's memory with beautiful selections from poetry and
prose. This is a second function of literature. 4. To develop the child's imagination by telling, repeating, dramatizing,
and playing of stories. This is a third use for literature.

II. Means: There are five fields of interest to children from which subjects for conversa-
tion and composition are taken: 1. Literature, which consists of stories and poems that have been written
for the entertainment of children. 2. Art, pictures in books, on cards, or on the school room walls. 3. Nature, pet animals and beautiful plants brought alive into school for
the pupils to examine. 4. Child Life, the tasks, games, and amusements that appeal to children. 5. Community Interests, such as the farm, the store, the shop, the new
building, the circus, the moving picture.

HI. Methods: The essential condition of good teaching is the child's deep interest. When
this is obtained, the way is easy. The teacher must tell the story vividly and entertainingly or present some other subject concretely and objectively, securing the attention of every child. In the discussion which follows let no child be left out. Ask easy questions of the timid and encourage the diffident to do most of the talking. Lead the conversation along a well planned course suited to the subject; if it is a picture, from foreground to background; if an animal, from one part to a closely related part; if a game, from the beginning

to the end.

.

From the pupil's errors in speech, the teachers should construct drills in

correct forms. The three acquisitions obtained by education are Knowledge,

Power, and Skill. Knowledge comes by instruction, power to apply this knowledge comes by
practice, and skill in its use is obtained from drills. Therefore, drill on the
uses of am, is and are, was and were, did and done, saw and seen, I and me,

he and him. Make a language chart in which drills are given on these forms. In the latter part of the year, after the pupils have learned to write, written
composition is begun by having the children write short sentences on the board
that tell all about the subject of their oral composition lesson. Two composition facts are learned by practice; the use of a capital for beginning a sen-

tence, and the use of a period at the end of a statement.

155

IV. Literature:
Children of this age are highly imaginative. The stories which they enjov are Aesop's Fables, Harris' Uncle Remus Stories, Kipling's Just So StorieT Folk Lore and Fa,ry Tales. They must be made to memorize many short poems, the Mother Goose rhymes, and the best selections in the FnTtReader'

SECOND GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION I. Objectives:

!" :nl7eXa0ttnlineSS ** CrreCtneSS * "**+* "* *-*-

% P^dtch da?6 imPrVement ^ Chi6f Sal *"** " '^ -

3. To cultivate the "sentence sense," the ability to distinguish between the complete and the incomplete thought

4. To extend written composition to the construction and correct writing

of longer sentences than those attempted in the first grade. Greater

diligence and care must be exercised in the use of capitals, periods,

and question marks.

'

II. Means:

pnrorviivde^aTbu'nrd*a!n"t"6m8'atebrJieaCl tSfofrrmcomnaptoUsrieti'oann, dbtohteh coMradlreann'sd exwpreirtiteennces Tsthilel L. hi^tlh T,ransiti Age according to Dr. G. Stanby Hall; he is'changLtivelv He" tCanD<; **? 'f^ meDtal Wrk- He must be tau^ ol Sinculuddee tthhee giaT nt sftor"iesT of .ShaamDsdon^ , GoSleiCaSthk, rHgeerfciugluerse,s-PeH rsiesusli,teBreal^ leropmhounst
lshuoufldd Tbe "conrtinJuae?d,k 'MNatuiraentstKudi'ileesr' wHililaW praotvhiad-e Tmhoest-einmteorrei'sztiinngg osfubpj'oeecmts. ' In this grade extend the discussions to larger animals, such as the cow toe
twSithhhair oorr woIol,T horns^orT hoof^ s. T"alk"of t*heirthuese6sTM to maenn.t oHf atvhe-theaTpiumpTills stody the birds, their names and habits. Seeds may be planted and The
a" r^d kett" ""* ^ hSTMtiTM of "-* TMy be 'JZt and

The oral composition in this grade may be extended from story-telling to

descnpt.on and explanation. Pupils may be sent to the window to describe

what they see, and the class may vote on the most interesting description

rnosafogTMffi,f t

rU"f t0 ^

eXPkin
Statl0n

the
r

t^ 0 te"fr0thme

h0Me t0
***"*

sch001
StePs

o-f PfTM--*""TMe

In written composition proceed from oral discussion to written report Oral composition has two objectives here:

L lenT^ SUre ^^ 6Very PUP" iS iD possession of the necessary ma-

2" mpumpiTlswwfr>ite', ^ the/tfea8chuefrttmeuSstUbpJaeCsst iaDmaonngrtdheerm,y, lsoeoak-uinegn<o*v. erAtshethire 156

shoulders, correcting errors when she sees them, encouraging them to ask questions about arrangement, spelling of words, and punctuation. Instruction given at this time is more valuable to the child than correcting mistakes later. Occasionally a short and simple dictation exercise, studied beforehand by the pupils so as to teach the spelling of difficult words and the division into sentences, should be given.
THIRD GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION
I. Objectives: Third grade students can comprehend the purpose of the English lesson
and do not need to be trained unconsciously, as first and second grade pupils were. Definite objectives should be set up by the teacher and adopted by the class:
1. To express every thought in a complete sentence 2. To bring every story to a point, or climax 3. To speak clearly and correctly 4. To write neatly, observing margins, placing the title correctly and
using capital letters in writing it.
II. Means: Pupils of this grade are becoming practical and appreciative of the facts of
real life. They do not like fables and fairy tales. Stories of real animals and people appeal to them, Thompson Seton, Rudyard Kipling, and others have written realistic stories of wild life. Robinson C usoe is the great classic for this grade. Do not tell the whole story, but after getting Robinson to his island, ask questions that will make the pupils solve Robinson's problems pertaining to food, shelter, and clothing. Have the pupils memorize poems that are in their readers. Nature studies should be closely correlated with the stories that treat of such subjects as how animals get food, how birds build nests, how animals and insects prepare for winter. Pictures of woodland and rural life are suitable for this grade.
III. Methods: Oral discussion of every subject must precede written composition. Pupils
should be required to collect information about trees, flowers, animals, birds, insects, crops, and people, bring facts to the class, discuss them freely, and finally write about them. Story-telling, description, and explanation should all be practiced.
WRITTEN COMPOSITION
Before having the class write on a subject, limit the subject to such a narrow scope that the composition will be less than a page in length. Lead to this composition by having pupils write on the board a series of sentences that make statements and ask questions about the subject. Then let every pupil write his own thoughts on paper.
157

J^7^S^^^ ^ **- note is the natural

next grade. XaJ^%TM ?** ^ b<J * the In correcting these compost th?J *? glV6S him an audien<*.
in the margin opposite 2 e^roTI teaclier should write the correct form

compositions into note books

^ Sh0uU be re<uired to copy the

TECHNICAL MATTERS

^s^^sis^tsjfsrs tname,of;***** p~ -

the ends of sentences and after aTbreviat ? /^ ^ qU6Stion mark a*

the omission of letters shouW be taulT T' ^/ aPStrphe to shTM

write his name and address

^ ChJd should knTM how to

FOURTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION
.1. Objectives:

M. result, by a. ,,d ct ftTM L J

',h<",M '""" --

1- To TMlSe aa appreciation of good aMm

3. lo cultivate the dictionary habit so . W . ,,

the ing

dictionary of words

when

in

douM

aboUutt

ZSpeillrmg'PP"rPonun^ ciati^ on,^ andtumrneanto-

4- To teach the meaning, the form an,. .

and of verses and stanzas

'

^ construotion of paragraphs

5- To teach the writing of informal notes and letters.
II. Standards:
*Z3ZZ2CiZ2- - ' --. o, Mm. .poke, ,,r ,,ritter, b TM* *" bf '= fP* them,elve,. Th, beet
* *- **. b. ~s: tZo^r^rct.^ d blackboard, th, be.. mpZo!&i 5 ?"*" b TMen on tb,
ni. Means and Methods:
i ^^JLS?^?? cre in English-Part' literature, naCstuay and M ^- imposition taken from are practicing the cS^^e * *? f^ f tWs ^de

-e Fairie Queene, j SS^^^BSjiS0*- * 158

The poems to be memorized should appeal to the child's romantic nature; Tennyson's "The Splendor Falls," Scott's "Breathes There the Man," and "Lochinvar," Holmes's ''Old Ironsides," Halleck's "Marco Bozzaris."
3. Pictures containing human figures in action. Pupils should be required to make original stories about these. In the discussions supplement the questions in the text with your own, drawing out the meaning of the picture-
4. Dictionary Games, in which the pupils race in the finding of words, obtaining their meanings, and using them in sentences. Story-telling: The stories may be read silently, told to the class by several pupils, each giving his own version, discussed as to meaning and purpose, dramatized and played. Occasionally a story in the English text should be analyzed into its introduction, incidents leading to the climax, climax and conclusion. On page 40 of Book I, the reconstruction of a story by changing its point of view is taught; on page 44, the story is used for analysis into paragraphs; on page 48 for teaching the writing of the title; on page 60 for dramatization. In later stories all the lessons are reviewed. Finally in Lesson 64, original stories are required, which is one of the objectives of story-telling.
6. The form of poetry is taught in lesson 10, so that pupils may learn how to copy and write poems. The meaning of verse and stanza is taught.
7. The study of functional grammar begins in lesson 8 on Sentences. Only the use of sentences and their capitalization and punctuation are taught to this grade. An abundance of practice in writing sentences is suggested. This is all-important and should be carried on at the blackboard every day.
FIFTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION
I. Objectives: 1. To cultivate the love of the beautiful in literature, art, and nature. 2. To fill the pupils' minds with noble thoughts and practical knowledge. 3. To acquaint pupils with the form of the diary, the autobiography, the social and business letter and note, and of advertisements and telegrams, and to give them practice in writing these. 4. To extend the child's knowledge of the sentence as statement, question, or exclamation, and of the way in which each is written, to show him the natural divisions of every sentence into its subject and predicate, and to introduce by their names the parts of speech.
II. Methods and Materials: Children of this age like stories about boys and girls. As they are studying
history, pioneer history stories appeal to them also. Good books for this grade are: Harris's "Stories from Georgia History," Goulding's "Young Marooners and Marooners Island," Kennedy's "Horseshoe Robinson," Ruskin's "King of the Golden River," Mulock's "The Little Lame Prince," and Page's "Two Little Confederates."
159

A sufficient number and variety of poems for memorizing will be found in Part II of Book I of the Modem Course in English.
Pictures, stories, poems "for appreciative study, pieces of description and explanation, bits of nature study, and letters from famous people are all supplied in Part II of the text. The first lessons of the term are in oral composition and are associated with the season, autumn, and its activities. Adapt these lessons to the life of your community, requiring observations and reports on the gathering of crops, the occupations of the wild animals, and birds and insects, the flowers that are blooming, and the trees with their changing colors.
^ The diary is presented as a form of composition because of the daily exercise it gives the pupil in written expression. Encourage every child to keep a diary and have some of these read to the class once a week. The class returns to the formal study of the sentence in Lesson 9, of Part II, Book One of the Modern Course In English. The uses of the sentence as taught in Part I are reviewed, and the two kinds of sentence, declarative and interrogative are taught. Train the ear of the child to recognize these by the falling and rising of the voice at the end of the sentence and his eye by the observation of the period and question mark: Give abundant practice in writing both kinds on the blackboard. In Lesson 13, the analysis of the sentence into subject and predicate is taught. Associate subject oj the sentence with subject oj the composition, with which your pupils are familiar. Teach predicate as the 'telling word," as it tells what the subject does or is.
Have sentence games, one side of the class supplying predicates for the other side's subjects. Write lists of subjects and predicates on the board and have the class build sentences out of them. In lesson 22, teach noun as a new name for an old thing. Have word-hunts for nouns like the one on page 207, until all your pupils recognize nouns wherever they see them. In Lesson 30, stress one rule for forming the possessive singular, and apostrophe and s,' and one for the plural and apostrophe only.
Have a written composition in this grade every two weeks.
SIXTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION
I. Objectives:
1. To complete the child's mastery of the mechanics of written composition; correct spelling, the use of capitals and punctuation, the choice of accurate words, the construction of complete sentences
2. To build paragraphs out of closely related thoughts and to join these in a well made composition on a subject which has been thoroughly discussed
3. To improve the mastery of letter-writing in both familiar and business letters
4. To extend the pupil's knowledge of punctuation, particularly in the direct quotation and the compound sentence.
160

II. Means and Methods: Part 1 of Book Two of the Modern Course in English has been made very attractive by a series of lessons on the Flag and Patriotism. The story is treated with special attention to composing attractive beginnings and conclusions. Description and explanation are also care-
fully taught. The literature for this class should be presented in three ways: 1. A collection of story books should be kept by the teacher, taken home
by pupils and read, and a report on each of these made to the class 2. Certain classics of a more difficult nature should be studied in the
class under the teachers direction 3 Poems to be memorized.
Outside Reading.
1 Treasure Island--R. L. Stevenson. 2. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer--Mark Twain. 3. Little Women and Little Men--Louisa M. Alcott. 4. A Man Without A Country--E. E. Hale. 5. Scottish Chiefs--Jane Porter.
Tom Brown's School Days--Hughes. Careful Study.
1 Tales of a Wayside Inn--Longfellow. 2. Tales of a Traveller--Irving. 3. The Prisoner of Chillon; Mazeppa--Byron. 4. Autobiography--Franklin. 5. Lays of Ancient Rome-- Macaulay. 6. Selected Poems and Tales--Poe.
Per Memorizing. 1. The Children's Hour--Longfellow. 2. Concord Hymn--Emerson. 3. Annabel Lee--Poe. 4. A Day in June--Lowell. 5. The Bivouac of the Dead--O'Hara. 6. The Song of the Chattahoochee--Lanier.
TECHNICAL ENGLISH
The Modern Course in English, the adopted text for Georgia Schools, uses the uniform nomenclature adopted by the National Education Association. The purpose of this is to unify all language teaching so that pupils need to learn only one set of terms in language study. The cases of nouns are similar 'to the Latin, Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative. In the section on Pronouns, care is used to distinguish the forms my and mine, thy and thine his, her, its, our and ours, you and yours, their and theirs and whose. All classification of words is based on use, not on form. If one of these words is followed by a noun, or joined to a noun by a linking verb, it is an adjective.
If it is used instead of a noun as the subject of a verb or the object of a verb or a preposition, it is a pronoun. Nouns are divided into five classes instead of two for the sake of accuracy. Silence is an abstract noun, not a common *noun, because it is the name of a quality, not the name of a class. Flock is
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a collective noun, not a common noun, because it is the name of a group, but not of a class. Reading is a verbal noun, not a common noun, because it is the name of an action, but not of a class.
Verbs belong to three distinct classes according to their function in the sentence. If a period may be placed after a verb without affecting the completeness of the thought the verb is a complete verb. If the verb expresses an action that is directed by the subject toward an object which receives the act, the verb is transitive. The sentence which contains a linking verb is like a plank turning about on a pivot with a child on each end. The sentence consisting of a subject, a transitive verb., and a direct object is like a game of baseball. The subject is the pitcher who starts the act, the verb is the batter, over whom the ball passes, the direct object is the catcher who leceived the act.

SEVENTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION

I. Objectives:
1. To prepare children for efficiency in business and social life by cultivating habits of correct and effective speech
2. To increase their culture by creating an appreciation of good literature and a distaste for trashy books
3. To further drill them in the mechanics of writing so that they will habitually spell and punctuate correctly, construct good sentences, and choose the best words for expressing their ideas.

II. Means and Methods:

1. Part II of Book Two, Modern Course in English, contains a great variety of material. Literature is used as the basis of oral and written composition. One of the simplest forms of literature, the fable, is taught first, and composition exercises requiring originality are suggested. Description, Explanation, and Argument are taught in this grade, the subjects chosen being such as children are interested in and familiar with.
2. The following literature will serve as supplementary material for further study:

Outside Reading. 1. A Dog of Flanders--Ramie. 2. Rab and His Friends--Brown. 3. The Yemassee--Simms. 4. Huckleberry Finn--Mark Twain. 5. Jo's Boys--Alcott. 6. The Story of a Bad Boy--Aldrich.

Careful Study.

1. Evangeline--Longfellow.

2. The Spy--Cooper.

3. Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan.

4. The Vision of Sir Launfal--Lowell.

5. The Sketch Book--Irving.

'

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Memorizing. 1. The Chambered Nautilus--Holmes. 2. Abou Ben Adhem--Hunt. 3. The Recessional--Kipling. 4. Crossing the Bar--Tenny son. 5. A Ballad of Trees and the Master--Lanier. 8. In Flanders Field--McRae.
ni. Methods: The term's work begins with oral and written composition so that the
teacher may learn the needs of the pupils. If she finds that they are afflicted with "spelling demons," such as "seperate," "untill," and others, she must drill on these words until they are learned. If "I seen," "I done it," "She learned me grammar" appear frequently, she must concentrate on verbs. If incomplete sentences are still used in the compositions, drill on the writing of sentences until this deformity disappears. Hammer on one fault at a time until the majority of the pupils overcome it. This seventh year is the last opportunity of many of these pupils to form habits of correct speech. Teach functional grammar rather than technical. Dwell for a long time on Lessons 12-18, which teach the agreement of verbs with all kinds of subjects. If you get no further during the year than to make all your pupils perfect in this one rule, you have done your full duty as their teacher. Have a literature report; and discussion from Home Reading once a week, a concert recitation of a poem every day, and the study of a literary classic several times a week.
IV. Technical Matters: Sentence analysis is to be taught more extensively in this grade than in
the lower grades. The division into subject and predicate, begun in the fifth grade, is carried into a subdivision of these two parts. The subject substantive is separated from its three types of modifier; adjective, possessive and appositive. The predicate verb is studied in its relation to the direct object, the indirect object, the predicate nominative, the adjunct accusative, and the adverbial modifiers; Each of these elements should be studied until thoroughly learned before proceeding to the next one. The seventh grade child must be shown the advantage of the complex sentence and the compound sentence. Little children express their thoughts in simple sentences, larger children in compound sentences, and educated men and women in complex sentences. Use the blackboard in every lesson, having the pupils write longer and longer sentences as they advance. Lessons 45, 55, 57, 66 and 69 are very important. Have more dictation work than in the lower grades.
163

FOURTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE TESTS AND DRILL EXERCISES*
(Supplementing the work of the regular Grammar Text).
The fruitless effort in language instruction, that has been followed all too long, to impart technical grammar rules as a means of final self-correction must ultimately give way to a procedure that faces the individual with his personal short comings and offers him the comfort of a shorter way out of his difficulties.
The average child enjoys writing letters or even compositions when he knows there is to follow no criticism for failure to punctuate, and capitalize his sentences correctly or is not to be scolded for the misuse of words. It is the purpose of this book, "Language Tests and Drill Exercises," to provide the pupil with the means of self-correction at every step in learning to use capital letters, punctuation marks, and correct word forms.
If the teacher will maintain a careful check on the learning and use of language mechanics and insist upon perfect accuracy and final habituation, step at a time, she will feel the satisfaction of having a class of alert minded, willing, and enthusiastic workers.

. Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Punctuating sentences arranged to disclose
individual ability and furnis'i remedial practice drills.

I. Punctuation 1. Uses of the period. 2. Uses of the comma. (a) City and state (b) Dates (c) Yes, and no

An appreciation of the need for thorough
knowledge of punctuation rules and the
automatic use of the marks of punctuation in writing.

3. Quotations

(a) At beginning of

sentence

(b) At end of

sentence

4. Uses of Apostrophe

(a) To show

possession

(b) In contractions

5. Question Mark

(a) End of an

Inserting correction in sentences that show the improper use of capital letters.

asking sentence II. Capital Letters
1. Beginning of sentence*
2. Proper names 3. I, used as a word 4. Titles and Initials 5. Titles of books 6. Holidays

The consciousness that the language lesson is of practical benefit
to boys and girls, and a corresponding willingness to cooperate with the teacher in studying

language.

Published by Smith, Hammond & Co., Atlanta, Ga

164

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Writing Friendly Letters.
Writing Business Letters.
Addressing Envelopes.
Writing the plural forms of nouns from the singular.
Filling in the blanks with the proper forms of words to illustrate correct usage.

III. Letter Writing 1. Heading
2. Inside address
3. Body 4. Closing
5. Signature

The ability to write neatly, and the knowledge that letter writing is a necessary
attainment.

IV. Nouns 1. Singular and plural
forms of nouns. 2. Distinctions and
uses of common and proper nouns.

V. Elimination of Common Speech Errors.
1. Verbs
Correct use of: See-saw-seen
Write-wrote- w ritten Give-gave-given
Do-did-done Go-went-gone Eat-ate-eaten Run-ran-run Ring-rang-rung
Is and are Was and were May and can

Increased interest due to the discovery that one's speech may be corrected and rid of common blunders by a procedure more practical and shorter than by the technical grammar
route.

Pronouns Correct use of her and she, after incomplete verbs as "It is I" "It is he"

Homonyms To, two, too There, their

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FIFTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

LANGUAGE TESTS AND DRILL EXERCISES. (Supplementing the work of the regularly used Grammar Text).

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Reviews for practice in the fourth grade activities.
Oral and written drills in correct uses and remedial practice exercises.
Testing achievement.
Practice in writing friendly and business letters.

Review of all the fourth grade principles and introduction of new subject matter.
I. Punctuation 1. Review of fourth grade exercises for the use of the period. 2. The comma (a) In a series (b) Words of address 3. Quotations(a) Review of fourth grade uses. (b) In broken sentences 4. Question Mark Review of uses 5. Apostrophe Without "s" to show possession

Increased ability to use the mechanical principles introduced and taught in the fourth grade.
Knowledge of new uses for the marks of punctuation, and the thorough use of previously taught principles.

II. Capital Letters

1. Review

Mastery of fourth grade

2. Improper adjectives uses and knowledge of

3. Sections of the

new uses in respect to

country

proper adjectives and

sectional subdivisions

III. Nouns

of the country.

1. Common and proper

2. Formation of plurals Ability to use rules

for regular plural forms.

IV. Verbs

1. Action verbs

Recognition of plurals

2. Verb phrase

formed irregularly for

3. Uses of special

principal words of fifth

verb forms

grade difficulty.

V. Pronouns 1. Personal 2. Pairs of 3. Self pronouns 4. Correct use
VI. Letter Writing 1. Review of fourth grade principles
1 2. Colon in business letters

Ability to write from dictation simple notes and business letters illustrating correct use of heading, body, complimentary close, etc.

166

Activities and Aims
Oral and written drills, filling in blanks, etc.

Subject Matter
VII. Elimination of speech errors in respect of:
1. Negatives 2. How words . 3. Pronouns 4. Verbs 5. Homonyms

Outcomes
Ability to use the correct forms of certain irregular verbs in common use.
Correct use of personal pronouns after prepositions and active verbs.
Knowledge of how to use the self pronouns (reflexively and for emphasis)
Ability to distinguish between the use of "have no" and "haven't any."

SIXTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE TESTS AND DRILL EXERCISES (Supplementing the work of the regularly used Grammar Text).

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Oral and written drills to automatize previously learned skills.

I. Punctuation
1. Period (a) End of sentence (b) In abbreviations
2. Comma (a) Review of fourth and fifth grade subject matter. (b) Words in apposition
3. Apostrophe (a) Review (b) In plurals of
figures and letters 4. Quotations (a) Review (b) Indirect (c) Two sentences in one quotation

Ability to apply punctuation rules previously studied in writing letters, notes, invitations, and business correspondence.
Development of new abilities and skills in all the language mechanics assigned for study in the sixth grade.

II. Capital Letters General Use

167

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Testing the ability of the class to use verbs correctly.
Testing the class in correct usage.
Testing in exercises designed to show ability to recognize correct forms.

III. Letter Writing
IV. Verbs 1. Principal parts 2. Past Tense 3. Verbs requiring helpers.

Ability to recognize the principal parts and the auxiliary verbs.

V. Nouns

A knowledge of past

1. Common and proper tense forms.

2. Number of nouns

VI. Adjectives 1. Recognition of inflected fori i^ to show comparison. 2. Correct uses
VII. Pronouns 1. Distinctions in the use of relative pronouns 2. Use of his, her and their.

Ability to use the positive and compound forms of descriptive adjectives.
Knowledge of the correct use of "who" and "whom."
The ability to decide whether to use "their" or "his" and "her" when meaning is made ambiguous by the use of each or every in a sentence.

SEVENTH GRADE LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE TESTS AND DRILL EXERCISES (Supplementing the work of the regularly used Grammar Text).

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Reviews by oral and written drills.
Providing real situations for the study and writing of business forms.

I. Punctuation 1. Review of all previously learned principles 2. General uses of the punctuation marks
II. Abbreviations in common use
III. Letter Writing 1. Buying letters 2. Subscriptions 3. Applications 4. Money orders 5. Telegrams 6. Bank checks 7. Notes

An appreciation of the value of the language course for present needs and for later life.
Knowledge of when to use an abbreviation.
Familiarity with business correspondence to the extent of being able to compose and write letters and the common forms used in everyday business affairs.

168

Activities and Aims

Subject Matter

Outcomes

Diagnostic testing.
Testing in achievement.
Objective illustration of the uses of subject and predicate in model sentences.
Construction of original sentences.

IV. Part of speech 1. Nount
2. Pronouns 3. Verbs 4. Adjectives 5. Adverbs 6. Conjunctions 7. Prepositions

Ability to recognize word functions in the
sentence according to the manner of their use.

V. Homonyms taught in seventh grade

VI. Common Errors
VII. Sentences 1. Kinds 2. Parts (a) Simple subject (b) Simple predicate (c) Predicate adjective (d) Predicate noun and pronoun (e) Object of verb

Elimination of the speech errors most frequently made and the ability to be self critical in the choice of words.
Ability to analyze the relationships of subject and predicate with words related modifying in simple sentences.

169

SOCIAL SCIENCE

HISTORY
History "should1 be so taught that children may become thoroughly and intelligently interested in individuals and in the concerns of society. It is a still better formulation of this aim to say that children shall reproduce in themselves the experiences of the suitable educative epochs in history. A still stronger emphasis is given to the chief aim of history by centering its lessons upon the effort to socialize and humanize the children by an intelligent and sympathetic treatment of the moral relations of men. History is thus preeminently a moral study and moral practice. To give a vivid and intense realization of social duties and obligations is the essence of the best history instruction.
A great moral-social aim has such kingly power that it draws into its tributary service other important aims which some have set in the chief place. Among these is a pure and liberal patriotism, intelligent and fair-minded. The mental powers are also exercised in a mode of reasoning peculiar to historical materials which calls for a well-balanced judgment in the weighing of arguments, and in estimating probabilities. This is a most useful form of reasoning, constantly needed in our every day problems."
All school subjects must be guided and quickened by the same purpose, the molding of a socially minded citizenry and "schoolmen realize, as never before, that the social studies differ from other subjects in the curriculum because of their content, not because of their aim."2
Heretofore little time has been devoted to the study of history in the lower elementary grades. Our couise of study has arbitrarily commenced the study of history in the fifth grade. Suggestions have been made, however, relative to the subject content in the first four grades.
As measured by the text-books of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, the content of the history work of the first four grades cannot with exactness be called history. True, we study people and their relations as in the upper grades, but the history work of the earlier grades should deal not so much with historical facts as with social situations and the child's world--his home, his school, his playground, his community, his town or city, etc. (See the Course of Study in Civics for suggestions which may be correlated with this phase of history teaching.) The work in these grades is excentric and deductive rather than concentric and inductive--working from near, immediate, and personal relations to broader spheres of activity. The child comes to the school with his social consciousness limited to his home life. This has developed fortuitously rather than designedly and a study of the home life of children in various lands is an excellent point of departure. Compare and contrast the home life of a Georgia boy with the home life of an Eskimo boy, a North American Indian boy of today and 100 years ago, and of boys of other lands.
1 McMurry, Charles A., Special Method in History, pp. 16-17, Ginn & Company.
2 Klapper, Paul, The Teaching of History, p. 4, D, Applcton & Co.
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Let it not be overlooked that "the pupil of the first four years is entitled to a study of the past,"1 even though "in his immaturity he must be given a story that is simple, dramatic, and capable of ready illustration."
Klapper2 lists the following as indicative of what is being done throughout the country in the first four years of history:
"Study of local community activities. Study of elementary processes: weaving, spinning, etc. Study of types of civilization: Indian, herding or pastoral, simple agri-
cultural, simple handicraft, old pirate and viking life. Stories of romantic heroism. To illustrate: stories from the Iliad, the
Odyssey, the Aeneid, The Norse Sagas, Nibelungenlied, King Arthur, and chivalry. Stories of holidays and school celebrations: Thanksgiving Day, Washington's Birthday, July 4th, Flag Day, Armistice Day, Longfellow's Birthday, etc. Stories of local history. Statues commemorative, tablets, historic houses in the pupil's vicinity, etc., serve to introduce stories of the past." Very clearly then, the aim of teaching history in the first four grades is three-
fold: 1. "To give young children a simple historic insight into the past by a study of some of the older types of civilization. Thus, the life of the Indians of the North, or the Aztecs, or of the pastoral peoples of Biblical days may serve this end. 2. To familiarize children with the facts that explain the common cele-
brations. 3. To acquaint the children with a few of the most illustrious leaders in
the history of mankind."2 In the second grade the teacher should begin consciously to assist the child in reading and understanding the social life of which he is a part. This can be done by constant and careful contrast and comparison of present day and past life. Society--social conditions and relationships--as we have it today may be traced from its earliest beginnings and most primitive forms. Through this method of presentation--from the present to the past, then to the present-- is developed the idea of the elements of time, place, movement, and change. From this idea of time, place, etc. develops the historic sense. The content of the first four grades may be based on felt needs expressed by the pupils. Particularly is this true of the fourth grade since here for the first time the child is brought into contact with American history as such. Prior to the fourth grade the basis of most of the history presented has been local; now, for the first time, a pyramiding of successive events may be led to culminate in the thing trying to be taught--the colonization of Georgia, for example. Each historical fact has a definite background in the religious, political, social, economic, or moral customs and/or conditions in some locality --some state, some country. The location and consideration of these factors--their imports and their results--are of importance to fourth grade children. History, in the last analysis, is a presentation of facts which are the
1 Klapper, Paul, "The Teaching of History," p. 164, D. Appleton & Co. 2 Klapper, Paul, "The Teaching of History," p. 165, D. Appleton & Co.
173

causes and/or effects of conditions. The facts should be presented accurately and vividly in order that history concepts may be accurate and vivid. A fact of today should always be placed relative to facts of yesterday--the present in its right perspective to the past.
FIRST GRADE HISTORY
Basal Text: None. (See course of study material.)
Supplementary Texts: None. (See course of study material.)
Recommended in Addition to Above: None. (See course of study material.)
Manuals: Basal Text: None
As suggested earlier the history work of the first grade, instead of being history in any true sense, is a set-up of material in history, civics, geography, etc. Through means of it the first definite conscious effort to socialize the child is made.
A first grade child is limited in his reactions to his environmental experiences. His immediate environment should therefore provide the basis of his first year's work and much of the second. The social and industrial life, though built up from their constituent parts, should form a unified whole.
Strict and formal classroom control of the subject should not be attempted. Make the method informal and illustrate by every means at the teacher's disposal--pictures, drawings, stories, songs and games.
The home--its family members, pleasures, and needs; the community--its activities, products, and needs; the school--its activities, its students, its teachers, its programs (based on recognized holidays)--these together may be woven into an interesting first grade history course.
SECOND GRADE HISTORY
Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
The first grade dealt very largely with the social life--the home, the community, the school--of the individual pupil. Klapper, Kelty, McMurry, Johnson and others recommend introducing the child to his industrial envi-
174

ronment in the second grade. The statements made in the first grade section apply very largely to the subject content of this grade except that the child's industrial and social life, rather than his social life alone, is under con-

sideration.

,

The first grade considered largely the social needs and attitudes ot the

child; the material of this grade may deal largely with the industrial aspect

of his life and his environment. A child's early experiences deal largely with

his physical needs and/or pleasures--food, clothing, shelter, play. Here too,

as in the first grade, comparison and contrast of two sets of conditions--past

and present--help to form a foundation for the local history of the third grade.

Historical facts may be developed through celebrations of holidays observed

in the class, the school, or the town. The child in the city has available many means of studying his industrial
environment. Factories, foundries, mills, etc., are brought to his attention daily On the other hand the industrial life of the rural sections (if any) is
hardly conceivable to him. The rural child has the opposite problem facmg him. The needs of the individual pupil, then, determine the pomt of con-

tact between experience and teaching. As in the first grade, informal discussion initiated by the pupil should con-
stitute the essence of the method. Games, songs, pictures, stories, etc., as

in the first grade, may be the media of method. Such as the following may constitute the subject matter of the grade: ex-
cursions, drawing, dramatization, modeling and constructing, writing, games,
food, shelter, clothing, holidays, types of people in America, schools, parks,
and many other activities related to mankind. The teacher may well outline for this grade a program which considers
community activities in relation to individual and community needs.

THIRD GRADE HISTORY

Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Supplementary Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
Socialization and humanization of history and a study of it, not as a succession of facts, but as casual events which have woven the fabric of which present day civilization is made--this is the ideal toward which to strive. All history must consider the modern and the ancient, the new and the old. Let this constitute the basis of third grade history. The work of this grade is similar in character to that of the two preceding grades--the order of development being from the present back to the past and then to the present, forming a complete cycle.
175

As in the first and second grades, local history should be the basis of teaching, with a natural and logical expansion from the child's immediate environment--home, school, playground, etc.,--to broader fields--nearby states-- to a limited extent.
The teacher may now begin to devote more time to the study and consideration of those who have made our nation. Consciousness of home, town, state, and nation--patriotism--should begin to develop in the child. This can best be done through a judicious use of history. Present the facts so that they are concrete and simple and informal. Take advantage of the medium of dramatization. A simple note-book might be kept by the child since no text-book is used. All of the material in this note-book need not be written; much of it may and should be graphic--pictures and illustrations showing and explaining and vitalizing the thing being considered.
Dramatization, story telling, excursions, pictures, etc.,--these constitute very largely the method of third grade history.
SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE
I. Your State--Georgia--its past and present: 1. The State. a. Original and present boundaries. b. Origin and present inhabitants. 2. How early Georgians lived. 3. Georgia and Virginia and the Carolinas. 4. Georgia's largest city. 5. Prominent Georgians--past and present
II. Your County and County-Seat. 1. Name of county and county-seat. 2. Size and shape. 3. Location in the State. 4. Historic spots and associations
III. Early Life in your County and State: 1. Type of community. a. Agricultural. b. Industrial. 2. Early inhabitants and settlers. 3. Early history of your town. 4. Prominent people--then and now. a. Artists. b. Inventors. c. Educators. d. Ministers. e. Philanthropists.
In this grade, when leaving local history, the teacher, may build stories around such National Holidays as:
1. Christmas--December 25th. 2 Thanksgiving--Last Thursday in November.
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3. Memorial Day--April 26th. 4. Armistice Day--November 11th. 5. New Year's Day--January 1st. 6. Independence Day--July 4th. 7. Labor Day--First Monday in September and such Legal Holidays as: 1. Birthday of Robert E. Lee--January 19th. 2. W ashinglon's Birthday--February 22nd. 3. Birthday of Jefferson Davis--June 3rd. and such Special Days as: 1. Uncle Remus Day--December 9th. 2. Georgia Day--February 12th. 3. Arbor and Bird Day--First Friday in December. 4. Temperance Day--Fourth Friday in March. (See Ga. School Code, Sec. 168.)
FOURTH GRADE HISTORY
Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Supplementary Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
In the first three grades the teachers have devoted their time largely to the history of familiar landmarks and heroes. In the third grade the work has expanded from the immediate community to the state and nation and has considered the best known national as well a? local heroes. Presumably, this has created in the child an ever widening interest in history and historical reading. So, at the beginning of this grade, we should have a pupil who is ready and anxious to know why and how we live as we do today, why and how our state, our nation, our world has become what we find it today.
The work should be planned in definite units and movements and the individuals involved in the movements should be considered together. Discovery, emigration, colonization, the westward movement--their origin and their impetus and their present day counterparts should be pictured accurately and vividly. The history makers of early America beginning with Columbus and enumerating the host of pioneers, discoverers and travelers should be woven into a design of interest and beauty for the child. The movements of peoples, the surging courses of nationalities--the Quakers, the Virginians, the Puritans, the Dutch, the French, the Scotch-Irish, and the mixture of races which seeped into Georgia--constitute a fertile field and rich material from which to construct the history of this grade.
177

Stress the deeds and actions of individuals. Teach through stories and dramatization. Use all of the illustrative material available. As in the third grade the children should keep a history note-book. In it should be recorded all work out of which the child may actuallyformulate a concept of a historical fact. The teacher's organization of material will largely determine the type of note-book the child will keep. It goes without saying that, since there is no text-book available for the teacher's use in these lower grades, the ultimate success of the course depends upon the method and manner of collecting and organizing materials. In short, only by means of a well-organized plan based upon a real grasp of the subject matter and data can a teacher secure desirable results. A daily outline and a topical plan are almost necessary to secure a properly developed, coherent sequence of subject-matter.
Unless mimeographed and distributed to the children, most of the subjectmatter of this grade will be presented orally by the teacher. This requires a definite technique. In presenting a new unit the teacher should: first, connect the new situation or material with related material previously used; second, present new material through a medium familiar to the child; third, development of new ideas and enlarged facts to their fullest possibilities; fourth, connection and tie-up of the old and new; and fifth, such study and review, reading and seatwork as fixes the whole unit in its proper perspective in the child's mind.
The following is a suggestive general outline for the work of the grade. (The teacher should build this up in detail).
I. Discovery: a. America.
II. Colonization: a. New England. b. Atlantic Coast. c. Georgia. d. Great Lakes Region. e. The Mississippi Valley.
III. Colonial Wars:
IV. Sectional Strife:
V. Commerce: How, why, and where it developed.
FIFTH GRADE HISTORY
Basal Text: "First Lessons in American History (Revised Edition)," Evans, published by Benj. H. Sanbom & Company. "First Lessons in Georgia History," Evans, published by the American Book Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
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Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: "First Lessons in American History (Revised Edition)," complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
Under the plan of the last five year adoption (1924-1928, inclusive) Evans' "American History" was placed in the fifth grade, Evans' "Georgia History" and Mace-Tanner "Old Europe and Young America" in the sixth grade, and "United States History" in the seventh grade.
The new adoption (1929-1933, inclusive) has added civics to the seventh grade. Because of the unusual amount of work piled on the seventh grade it seems permissable to suggest an alternative distribution of the social science subject matter of these grades.
Instead of having Evans' "American History" only in the fifth grade, an outline allocating both American and Georgia history to that grade is furnished herein A more detailed outline for American History is also preferred in the event it is desired to handle the subject more intensively.
The course of study outline also provides for "Georgia History" and "Old Europe and Young America" in the sixth grade. If taught here the outline for the fifth grade may be used.
ELEMENTARY HISTORY
INTRODUCTION.
History has to do with human experience- It represents men as acting in groups, as a rule under the influence and guidance of great leaders. Human action is always the outward expression of the human spirit as it seeks to achieve its purpose and to realize its ideals. Actions, deeds, and events are merely symbols of the emotions and ideas which sway men in their daily living, whether in times of peacful industry or in moments of stormy revolution or devastating war.
It is the function of the teacher of history to reveal and interpret the past so that the learner may understand its bearings upon the present and see clearly that the life of today is largely the outgrowth of days gone by.
The studies herein presented are an attempt to find materials in history that can be presented to the child in such a way as to produce a definite result--a result that will be evidenced in a better understanding of our national life, a truer sense of historical values, a keener appreciation of our international obligations and a nobler conception of American citizenship.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
1. Correct reading of the text, so that the child will get an intelligent grasp of the meaning of deeds, actions and events.
2. To call into play the sympathetic and dramatic imagination, to stimulate
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the child through good thought questions to genuine, constructive thinking toward a definite end.
3. Biography is important because personality makes the strongest appeal to the child. The letters, speeches, diaries, etc., of great men will prove interesting.
4. Correlation with other subjects to develop the interdependence of different phases of life.
5. The observance of public holidays is an element in community life and such observance will help the child to realize how vitally human actions of earlier days are related to the life of his time. Thus he comes to know that not only is the present inextricably linked with the past, but that this past is a precious part of the life of his community.

ANNIVERSARIES AND SPECIAL DAYS FOR ALL GRADES

Discovery Day Armistice Day Thanksgiving Day Christmas Lees Birthday

Oct. 12 Nov. 11
Dec. 25 Jan. 19

Georgia Day

Febl2

Washington's Birthday

Feb 22

Memorial Day....

April"26

Jefferson Davis's Birthday...June 3 Oth.-re

FIFTH GRADE HISTORY
Texts: Texts: Evans' First Lessons in American History. Evans' First Lessons in Georgia History.
Aims:
(1) To give children a series of history stories about the discoverers of the New World, which can be re-lived, in a measure through imagination and sympathy.
(2) To give ideas of life in the first English Colonies. (3) To present the history of the Georgia Colony relating it to the na-
tion as a whole.
Method:
(1) Correlate the two texts, using the American History as a background for the Georgia History.
(2) Texts and reference books in the hands of the pupils. (3) Pictures, slides, stereographs and maps to be used freely. (4) Supplementary stories descriptions and poems. (5) Dramatization of simple scenes.

FALL TERM
AMERICAN HISTORY.
Chap. 1. Discoverers and Explorers: A. Christopher Columbus. B. John Cabot.

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C. Americus Vespuciu?. D Balboa. E. Magellen. F. Ponce de Leon. G. Cortez. H. Narvaez. I. De Soto. J. Coronado. K. Verrazano. L. Cartier. M. Champlain.
Chap. 2. The English Colonists: A. Sir Walter Raleigh. B. The Settlement of Jamestown. C. The Settlement of Plymouth. D. Other Colonies in New England. E. The Dutch Come to the New World. F. Lord Baltimore and the Colony of Maryland. G. William Penn and the Colony of Pennsylvania. H. The Carolina Colonies. I. James Oglethorpe and the Colony of Georgia. J. The Original Thirteen Colonies.
Chap. 3. How the French Lost America: A. Marquette Explores the Mississippi. B. The French Claim Louisiana. C. The Young George Washington. D. Braddock's Defeat. E. The Capture of Quebec. F. Life in the Colonies: (1) Customs and Beliefs. (2) Travel. (3) Servants and Slaves.
GEORGIA HISTORY.
Parti. Georgia as a Colony: A. The Study of State History B. Early Explorers of Georgia. (1) Ponce de Leon. (2) Hernando de Soto.
C. The Indians of Georgia. (1) The Muscogees. (2) The lichees. (3) The Cherokees.
D. Indian Legends. (1) The Legend of Hiawassee. (2) The Legend of Nacoochee.
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The Colonies in America. (1) Early Settlements in North America. (2) English Colonies. (a) The Carolinas.
F. Oglethorpe and the Debtors' Prisons. G. The Settlement at Savannah.
(1) Tomochichi. H. The Progress of the Colony.
(1) The Salzburgers. (2) The Scotch Highlanders. (3) The Moravians. I. Trouble with the Spaniards. J. George Whitefield. K. Administration of William Stephens. (1) Mary Musgrove. At the End of Twenty Years. (1) The Trustees Surrender Their Charter. M Administration of John Reynolds. N. Administration of Henry Ellis. O. James Wright appointed Governor. P. Enlargement of Territory. Q. The Stamp Act in Georgia. (1) The Spirit of Resistance. (2) On the Eve of the Revolution.
AMERICAN HISTORY
Chap. 4. Heroes of the Revolution: A. Patrick Henry. B. Samuel Adams. C. The Minute Men at Lexington. D. General George Washington. E. Attack on Charleston. Declaration of Independence. F. Trials and Triumphs of the Patriots. G. Marion and Sumter. H. The End of the War. I. Benjamin Franklin. J. Daniel Boone. K. George Rogers Clarke. L. Robertson and Sevier.
GEORGIA HISTORY
Part 2. Georgia in the Revolution.
A. Beginning of the Revolution. (1) Preparing for the conflict. (2) The Royal Government overthrown
B. Organizing the State.
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C The British Invade Georgia. (1) The British capture Savannah. (2) The British overrun Georgia. (3) Instances of Adventure.
D. Progress of the War in Georgia. (1) The Attack upon Savannah. (2) Dark Days of the Revolution. (a) Robert Sallette. (b) Nancy Hart. (c) Elijah Clarke. (3) The Seige of Augusta. (a) Augusta captured from the British.
E. The End of the War. (1) James Jackson. (2) Hardship and Heroism
SPRING TERM
AMERICAN HISTORY
Chap. 5. The United States: A. Organizing the Government. B. Thomas Jefferson. C Stephen Decatur punishes the pirates. D. Purchasing and Exploring Louisiana. E. Robert Fulton perfects the steamboat. F The War of 1812. (1) Andrew Jackson and the battle of New Orleans. G. Progress and Improvements. H. Henry Clay. I. Daniel Webster. J. John C. Calhoun. K. Morse invents the electric telegraph. L. Texas becomes a part of the United States. M. We acquire the Pacific Slope. N. The Progress of the Country.
GEORGIA HISTORY
Part 3. Georgia as a State: Lessons 51-65. A. The beginnings of Statehood. (1) Georgia enters the Union of States B. Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin. C. The Yazoo Fraud. D. Progress of the State. (1) Georgia and the Steamboat. (2) Life and Customs. E. Crawford and Clark.
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F. Troup and the Treaty. (1) Georgia defies the General Government (2) Removal of the Cherokees.
G. Higher Education in Georgia. H. Our First Railroad. I. Crawford W. Long.
AMERICAN HISTORY
Chap. 6. Heroes of the Civil War: A. Abraham Lincoln. B. Jefferson Davis. C. Stonewall Jackson. D. Robert E. Lee. E. Ulysses S. Grant. F. The End of the War
GEORGIA HISTORY
Part 3. Georgia as a State. (Continued). Lessons 66-75. A. Political Disturbances. B. War Threatening. (1) Georgia Secedes from the Union C. Beginnings of War. D. Progress of War. (1) From Chattanooga to Atlanta. (2) The March to the Sea. (3) The Federal Army in Control. E. Georgia again in the Union. F. Georgia since the War.
AMERICAN HISTORY
Chap. 7. A Reunited People. A. After the War. B. Progress of the Country. C. The War with Spain. D. Recent Events.
Chap. 8. The World Wan: A. How the War Begin. B. Progress of the War. C. The United States enters the War D. The End of the War.
SUGGESTIONS
Acquaint pupils with life in Europe. Re-create homelife, court scenes travel, etc. Compare with those of today.
184

Emphasize relations between the settlers and the Indians, showing in fluence of one upon the other. Memorize legends of Hiawassee and Nacooohee.
Arouse pupils' interest in local historical spots, as Meadow Garden. The White House, Fort Cornwallis (St. Paul's Church), Lee's Tower (Cotton Exchange), Powder Magazine (Sibley Mill), Richmond Academy, Augusta Arsenal.

Basal Texts:

SIXTH GRADE HISTORY

(1) ''First Lessons in Georgia History," Evans, published by the American Book Company. (See Fifth Grade outline.)
(2) "The Story of Old Europe and Young America," published by Rand. McNally & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None-
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Texts to be Covered: (1) "First Lessons in Georgia History," complete. (2) "The Story of Old Europe and Young America," complete.
Manuals: Basal Texts: None.
"Children at this age are not philosophers, nor are they interested in abstract questions of government and social order, but in all the lively, picturesque, and adventurous phases of life."*
The history of the preceding grades has been disconnected and rambling, and consecutive casual movements have not been considered. In this grade and in this section (an outline for Georgia History will be found under the Fifth Grade) we begin to consider history chronologically. The many consecutive elements of colonial development should be formulated into different and definite movements: "One of the most difficult problems in teaching ... history ... is, how to carry along simultaneously the main threads of historical action and to maintain a comprehensive grasp of the complex forces at work."f
The first part of the content of this grade presents the Old World Background of American civilization; the second part traces America's inheritance from England, Spain, France and other European nations. This course, outlined covers the following topics:

* McMurry, Charles A., "Special Method in History," p. 119, The Macmillan Company.
t McMurry, Chas. A., "Special Method in History," p. 120, The Macmillan Company

185

I. Life in Prehistoric Times.
II. Contributions of the Eastern Nations to present day America.
III. Greece--her stories and myths; how she taught men to be free, to love democracy; how Athens lived and taught; why and how she failed.
IV. Rome--her beginnings; her conquests; her empire; how her people lived; her contributions to literature, politics, government, and law; her downfall.
V. Beginning of Germany and France.
VI. England.
VII. Life in the Middle Ages.
VIII. How social changes, trade, inventions, and explorations brought about our own times.
IX. European nations strive with each other in Europe and America. Europe expands and America begins. America's ancestors.
I. Life in Prehistoric Times: 1. "'Homes--trees, caves, huts, lake dwellings. 2. Weapons--stone hatchets, axes, spears, arrows, clubs. 3. Work of family--men hunted, fished, made weapons and boats, fought; women kept fire, gathered berries, etc., crushed grain, prepared skins for clothing, cooked, cared for babies. 4. Improvements--which slowly occured--use of fire; making of better weapons; making clay vessels, building boats of logs and skins; speaking a language; herding flocks; cultivating crops; domesticating animals; developing tribal life."*
II. Contributions of the Eastern Nations to present day America: 1. Europe--America's fatherland. W7hy Europeans emigrated. What they hoped to find in America. 2. Europe--today and yesterday. 3. European Emigrants: Why they first left Europe. W?hy they still leave Europe. What America offers them. (Consider the cases of some European emigrants who have been successful in America.) 4. Life of the Earliest Men in Europe. (See Section I above.) Compare and contrast it with European and American life of todav. 5. More Ancient Civilizations:
"Course of Study for Elementary Schools," 1929, Missouri.
186

Egypt.
1. Influence of location--surface, climate, and Nile River. 2. Social life--contrast rich and poor; study work of different classes;
dress; education, religion.
3. Government--rule of Pharaohs; desire of kings to perpetuate their memories through embalming, mummification, and tombs. Connect with Biblical story of the captivity of the children of Israel.
4. Famous Architecture--still found in Egypt. a. Tombs--e. g. Pyramids, temples, e. g. Karnak, Obelisks, and the Sphinx. b. Study purpose, decoration, size and value to us today of each
5. Contributions of Egypt to modern world-- a. Use of paper from papyrus plant. b. Pyramids, Sphinx and Temples--examples of architecture c. Study of astronomy--making a calendar.
Asia. Hebrews. Phoenecians.
in. Greece--her stories and myths; how she taught men to be free, to love democracy; how Athens lived and taught; why and how she failed. Greece--the First Great European Teacher and Thinker.
1. Influence of location, climate, coastline, surface, and peninsular shape or region upon the people and their civilization: a. Our debt to the Greeks: Love of the beautiful. Practical reasoning and thinking. Thoughts of "the good life." Government without kings--democracy. b. Greece, the sailor's country. The climate; the soil; the size; the sea in old Greek stories; some famous mythical sailors; these topics indicate the early Greeks' idea of the Mediterranean and the land unknown to them. c. Grecian conquests; Grecian colonies. Reasons for expansion; early explorers; Greek ships; the Eastern and Western Mediterranean peoples; Greek trade and trading posts; starting colonies--Gallic settlements, and African colonies. d. Grecian Cities--different types: Sparta, the soldier's city; Aegina, the sailor's city; Corinth, the merchant town; Athens, the ' Beautiful," the city of poets, artists, orators, generals.
Discuss all of this so that the child may understand why it was difficult to secure concerted action of all the cities.
Study the life in Sparta and Athens in detail. Introduce the pupil intimately to: Greek cities, statues, buildings, streets, markets, homes, schools,
187

Olympic games, ar.d government. Portray famous Athenians and famous Spartans.
e. Greek Government: 1. Original Tribal Customs. 2. The City--States--each a sovereign power with its own laws, gods, and army. 3. Development of hereditary nobles, or landed aristocracy-- from accumulation of large bodies of land. Greek tyrants--how they gained power and how they governed. Beginnings of statesmanship in this period.
f. How tyrants aided in the rise of democracies. g. Development of political institutions in Athens: kingship, aris-
tocracy, oligarchy, tyranny and democracy.
2. Greece attacked by the Persians:
a. They fight for World Power. Greece's Foes--in the East, Persia; in the West, Carthage. Show why and how Persia was a dangerous enemy of Greece. Darius; the Battle of Marathon; Thermopylae; Themistocles and his maritime preparations; the battle of Salamis.
3 The "Age of Pericles;" the "glory of Greece:" Athens at the beginning of this period. The Delian Confederacy: Pericles' imperialistic dreams; his thirty years of progress; Sparta's jealousy; war between the Greek States particularly Sparta and Athens.
Social Life in the Age of Pericles. Phidias Sophocles Euripides Aeschylus Aristophanes Socrates Herodotus Thucydides
4. Sparta becomes the leader of Greece.
5. Thebes becomes leader: Epaminaudos.
6. Alexander conquers Greece and the East. Macedon under Phillip (350 B. C.) Demosthenes. Alexander--a young man. Aristotle--his teacher. Alexander--the soldier. Alexander's Conquests Alexandria--its influence; its wonders. Euclid--father of geometry.
188

Ptolemy--the geographer. Hippocrates--father of medicine. Erosthenes--the mathematician.
7. Greek influences upon our Present Civilization. Architecture Sculpture Literature Drama Grammar PhilosophyGeometry Athletics Schools
Science Medicine.

IV' nveT"^ be^Tn.gS: her co^uests; her empire; how her people

hlrdownLl0

,<>nS t0 1UeratUre; politics< government and law;

1. The Early Days of Rome.

Its location in the Mediterranean world; Romans; its location on tne liber; her harbor; neighbors; gods; kings.
The beginning of Rome finds the Greeks educated, the Romans il-

1

lTu\ Rme 'eamed f Greece and her traders. The Roman

alphabet is the Greek alphabet modified. Money, as a medium of

exchange, the Greeks gave the Romans. Greek was the language

of business on the docks and elsewhere. Therefore, the Roman learned it.

2. Rome becomes a Republic:

It is an Imperial Republic, ruled by nobles ('-patricians"), and developed through somewhat the same steps as that of Greece" (a) a written code of laws; (b) a Senate, a council to control affairs; (c; two Consuls; (d) the peasantry ("Plebians")
Picture a scene around the Roman Forum at this time in order to portray the political and social life of the town, occupations, dress, business, religion, politics, etc.
3. Rome Conquers Italy.

Wars with the Etruscans, the Gauls, the Sammites
Establishment of Roman Rule in conquered Territory. 4. Rome and Carthage compete for Commercial Supremacy
Conflict on the seas.
Sicily finally lost to Rome.
Spain finally lost to Rome.
Carthage destroyed.

Effect of world dominion on Roman life: Slaves and their uses. Greek slaves and teachers.

Roman sources of books, music, art, architecture

189

6. Julius Caesar and Pompey. Caesar's contributions. Pompey makes Rome mistress of the Eastern Mediterranean.
7. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul. Extension of Roman Empire boundaries. Rome--the teacher. Rome--in Britain. Caesar's story of the "conquest." The Gallic Wars.
8. The Roman Empire: What it was: Caesar--Dictator, Emperor. Age of Augustus--literature, science, social life, travel, education. Heterogeneity of the Empire. "The population of this vast Empire, which girdled the Mediterranean, including France and England, was made up of the most diverse peoples and races. Egyptians, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Italians, Gauls, Britons, Iberians (Spaniards)--all alike were under the sovereign rule of Rome. One great State embraced the nomad shepherds who spread their tents on the borders of the Sahara, the mountaineer in the fastnesses of Wales, and the citizens of Athens, Alexandria, and Rome, heirs of all the luxury and learning of the ages. Whether one lived in York or Jerusalem, Memphis or Vienna, he paid his taxes into the same treasury, he was tried by the same law, and looked to the same armies for protection."*
9. New Thoughts in Rome: Christianity: Beginnings; Christian martyrs; missionaries; power and growth; Constantine.
10. The Downfall of Rome. 11. Rome's Influences on our Present Civilization:
She unified the Mediterranean World. She contributed principles of law and government.
V. Beginning of Germany and France:
1. The Roman Empire broken up by the Barbarians of the North. The Teutons--Franks, Vandals, Goths, Burgundians, Saxons, Lombards. The Goths under Alaric conquer Rome. Clovis and the Franks. Charlemagne, king of the Franks.
2. Charles the Great and his great Empire. Charlemagne's Wars and Laws. The Frankish Assemblies. Education and books. Reforms and Progress.
Robinson and Breasted. "Outlines of European History," pp. 276-277.
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The beginnings of Germany and France: Charlemagne's death; his empire divided--France and Germany;
the Coming of the Northmen.
Influence of Charlemagne's life and work upon our present civilization. The Church kept Latin alive. Education (reading) was encouraged. Roman text-books were used. Books were carefully copied. 5. Feudalism; disorder; power of great landholders.
VI. England--(on the middle ages).
1. The Norman Conquest:
The Angles and Saxons; the invasion of the Danes; King Alfred and learning; the coming of William of Normandy; Norman rule; "Doomsday Book," Laws, progress of England under William.
2. Englishmen learn to desire good government: The good laws of Henry II; King John and "Magna Carta," how Parliament began.
3. England acquires territory: Wales and Scotland. 4. The "Hundred Years War:" England and France.
VII. Life in the Middle Ages:
Castle life and rural or town life; religion and the church. Feudalism. Vassals. Knights. Tournaments and sieges. Chivalry.
The common people: workers, farmers. Taxes, dues. Growth of towns and villages. Guilds--laws, shops, trading. Religion--monasteries, education. The Pilgrims and the Crusades:
What they did.
VIII. How social changes, trade, invention, and explorations brought about our own times:
Great social changes. a. Rise of great national states. b. Break-up of the Universal Christian Church of Western Europe c. Inventions: paper; printing; the compass, etc. d. European expansion through water routes. e. Commercial revolution. f. Increase in trade. 2. Rivalry for over-sea possessions and expanding commerce. Develop this through simple incidents and selected persons.
191

IX. Europe expands and America begins: 1. The crusades and their results: Reasons for and results of pilgrimages and crusades--an increased interest in travel, commerce and expansion, and a more widespread desire for education. 2. A new route to India is wanted. How it was found: Marca Polo's travels and the geographical knowledge he gave the world. Portugal and the Portugese. The African coast uncovered. 3. Spanish ships find a New World. Columbus and the discovery of America. Spain's interest in a new route to India. Columbus' voyages. Spanish settlements begun. Americus Vespucius and America. 4. Spanish conquest in the New World. The search for gold and silver; in the Islands; in Mexico; the use of slaves. 5. French attempts at settlement in the New World. Their results. 6. Elizabethan England, and the English "sea-dogs." England on the seas. Hawkins, Drake, Raleigh. Jealousy of England and Spain. The Spanish Armada. England becomes "Mistress of the Seas." 7. Raleigh's attempts to colonize the New World. 8. The situation in America at the close of the 16th Century.
SEVENTH GRADE HISTORY
Basal Text: "A History of the People of the United States," Thompson, published by D. C. Heath & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: "A History of the People of the United States," complete
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
192

HISTORY
SEVENTH GRADE
Text: "A History of the People of the United States."--Thompson.
Aims: 1. To stress the ability to get fundamental causes and follow to inevitable
results. 2. To give in continuous form the growth and development of the United
States and her place among the nations. 3. To strengthen ability to read and organize material for the solution of
problems.
Methods: Certain large topics or units are here selected for study, and it is suggested
that the work of the class may be vitalized by organizing the subject-matter or centering the class discussions around certain big problems to be solved. Thus the facts in the lesson may be learned in their relation to a determining idea, and pupils may be trained to reason from cause to effect.
In a discussion of the organization of history around big problems the following is taken from Wilson's "Motivation of School Work":
"Every phase of history work lends itself to problem treatment. Any topic not attaching itself to a problem of vital significance should be omitted. The text is servant, not master. The problem should be as broad as the advancement of the class will permit. It is better to make the class realize the importance of a few vital problems, even if it means the sacrifice of pages. Properly handled it will mean the gain of many pages and in any case, a gain in truth."
It is to be expected that the instructor of this course will richly supplement the adopted text by reference to other histories, and that the students taking the course may so acquire the habit of supplementary reading that historical reading may form an important part of their self-culture. For this purpose there will be found in the Appendix of the adopted text two lists of books suitable for collateral reading--one for the use of teachers, and the other for the use of pupils. This collateral reading includes material for information, to make history interesting and inspiring, to give acquaintance with historical literature and to make history real.
Instructors in this course should be familiar with books on the method of teaching history of the following type:
Wayland---"How to Teach American History."
Johnson--"Teaching of History."
193

FORMATION OF AN AMERICAN PEOPLE
I. Finding the New World
"A Change is Always Brought About by a Felt Need"
Problems: What was the need? What were the resulting changes'.
1. Trade Between Europe and the East: a. Desire for a water route to India. b. This desire uppermost in the mind of Columbus c. Leads to the discovery of America.
2. Successors to Columbus: a. Significance of the voyages of John Cabot; of Americus Vespucius. b. Geographical knowledge obtained through later Spanish explorations. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. I and II.
II. Colonizing America
Problems: Who were the rivals for possession of the New World? What were the bases of the claims of each? Which got the best bargain?
1. The Spaniards settle in and around the West Indies, and on account of her rich American possessions Spain becomes the foremost nation of the world.
2. Other Nations Plan to Cripple Spain's Power by making settlements in America.
3. Conditions in Europe Favorable to the Colonization of America: a. Shifting of the center of commerce to Western Europe. b. The Reformation. c. The balance of power.
4. Spheres of the Settlements of the Rivals of Spain: a. The French settle Canada. b. The English settle between the Spaniards and the French. (1) Raleigh's "Lost Colony." (2) Joint-stock commercial companies organized in England to make settlements in America. (3) The first permanent English settlement in America. c. The coming of the Dutch, who settle between the English and the French. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. II
194

III. The Early English Colonies
1. Virginia: a. The original policy of the London (Virginia) company not a success. b. Better times come with and success assured by: (1) The allotment of land to each man for his own use. (2) The planting of tobacco. c. Social and political matters: (1) The coming of women to the colony. (2) The first legislature in America and its most important act. (3) Introduction of slavery.
2. First Exiles for Conscience Sake: a. Religious dissensions in England. (1) The Church of England. (2) The Puritans--The "Nonconformists" and the "Separatists." (3) The "Separatists" later called "Pilgrims." (4) The Pilgrims settle at Plymouth. (5) The "Mayflower" compact. (6) The "Nonconformists" follow the Pilgrims to America. (7) Massachusetts a church-controlled colony.
3. Conditions of Catholics in England: a. Catholics settle Maryland. Maryland a proprietary colony. c. The "Toleration Act."
4. England's Rivals in America: a. Importance of West Indies. b. New France and New Netherlands. c. Importance of the Mississippi Valley. d. The English excel as colonizers.
Problems: The elements of success found in the English colonies. What stepping stones for future growth were laid?
Projects--Dramatizations: Meeting of the First House of Burgesses. The Signing of the Mayflower Compact. "A History of the people of the United States," Chaps. Ill and IV.
IV. English Colonial Expansion
Religious Intolerance of Massachusetts Forces the Founding of Other Colonies in New England:
a. Connecticut the only colony whose people framed a constitution. b. Rhode Island grants the religious freedom now found in the Consti-
tution of the United States. c. New England Confederation.
195

2. Effect of English Politics Upon the American Colonies:
a. The Civil War. b. The Commonwealth. c. The Restoration.
3. Life in the Colonies in 1660.

4. Conflict of Interest Between the Mother Country and the Colonies:
a. England plans to use her colonies as a means for building up her commerce.
(1) The Navigation Acts. (2) Importance of the Dutch colony in America to England's com-
merce.
(3) Seizure of New Netherland and its gift to the king's brother, the Duke of York.
b. The colonists assert their rights.
(1) The independent spirit of New England. (2) Bacon's Rebellion.

5. Charles II Lavish in Gifts of Land in America:

a. Grant of Carolina to eight of the king's friends. (1) Failure of the proprietary government of Carolina. (2) The division of Carolina.
b. Gift of Pennsylvania to William Penn. (1) Persecution of Quakers in England. (2) Rapid growth of Pennsylvania under the proprietary government.

6. Oppression of the Colonies During the Reign of James II: a. The rule of Andros. b. The "Revolution of 1688."

7. Later Colonial Affairs:

a. Changes in the governments of the New England colonies; of Maryland.
b. Settlement of Georgia.
Show on the map the location of the different colonies. "All we have of freedom, All we think or know,
This our fathers bought for us, Long and long ago.
Right to live by no man's leave Underneath the law."

Problems:

Find proof of the above in Chapters V and VI.

Who are our "fathers?"

What did they buy for us?

*

What did their purchases cost?

"A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. V and VI.

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V. Contest Between England and France for World Supremacy

Problems:
Shall America be French or English? What was the relative strength of the contestants? Who won and why? If France had won, America would be very different today.

Explain.

1. France under Louis XIV.

2. France Succeeds Spain and Holland as the Great Rival of England.

3. Possession of America Necessary to the Nation That Would be Supreme in the World.
4. The First Three Wars Between England and France That Spread to America:
a. War of the League of Augsburg, known in America as King William's War.
b. War of the Spanish Succession, known in America as Queen Anne's War.
c. War of the Austrian Succession, known in America as King George's War.
d. These wars result to the great advantage of England in Europe, but change very little the status of America.

5. The Fourth French War Begins in America:
a. Known in Europe as the Seven Years' War, and in America as the French and Indian War.
b. Early French victories in America, but final British success. c. Results of the Fourth French War, particularly the effect upon America.
(1) Our country becomes permanently English, instead of permanently French.
(2) Boundaries of English possessions in America greatly enlarged. (3) Increased self-confidence of American colonies. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. VII.

VI. From Colonies to Nation, or How Englishmen Became Americans
1. The People: The people who braved the dangers of the New World were in themselves
different from those who stayed at home. Prove that this is true. a. Study of character of colonial Americans. Why this study is important. b. Life in English colonies in Eighteenth Century. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. VIII.
2. Study of Fundamental Causes of the Revolution: Conditions and events leading to the American Revolution. England's policy toward the colonies.
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Position of the colonists--Why Parliament did not represent the English people.
a. Oppressive laws passed by Parliament. (1) Navigation Acts. Writs of Assistance. (2) Stamp Act, 1765. (3) Townsend Acts. 1767. (4) Intolerable Acts of 1774.
b. Opposition of Pitt and other statesmen to this legislation. c. Resistant attitude of the colonies.
(1) Theory of colonies as to representation. (2) Resistance to Stamp Act.
Patrick Henry. John Dickinson. James Otis. Stamp Act Congress. (3) Boston Massacre. (4) First Continental Congress, 1774. Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia.
It would greatly add to the interest of this study to divide the class into two groups. Let one section represent the English, the other the Americans. Have a pupil responsible for each act of Parliament, or of George III and show their attitude toward the colonies by delivering speeches to the American section, who are to reply.
Projects: Dramatization of-- Boston Tea Party. Edenton Tea Party. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. DC and X.
3. Beginnings of the Revolutionary War and Some Events of the War: a. First fighting--Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill. b. Desire for Independence. (1) Sentiment in America. (2) Attitude of English Government. (3) Second Continental Congress, May 10, 1775, Philadelphia. (4) Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. (5) Adoption of our Flag, June 14, 1777. (6) Burgoyne's Invasion; Saratoga. (7) Valley Forge. (8) Alliance with France--LaFayette and others who aided. (9) War on the Sea--Paul Jones. (10) Surrender at Yorktown. (11) Results of War.
Note: A detailed study of the events of the Revolutionary War is not here given, though the student should be encouraged to read about it. Only enough of the events of the war is given to show the spirit of American colonies in their struggle for freedom.
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Problems:
What are the "Red Letter" days in the story of gaining our freedom? To whom do we owe the success of the Revolution? To one man alone, or
to many, including the women in the homes?
Project:
Make a special study of Washington as a leader. See Scudder's "George Washington" and Fiske's "War for Independence."
"A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XI, XII, and XIII.
VII. Critical Period
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1. The Articles of Confederation:
First Constitution of the United States. Submitted to Congress, 1777. Adopted by all states by 1781. Reasons for slow ratification.
a. Origin of the Articles. (1) Natural step with Declaration of Independence. (2) Outgrowth of the Continental Congress. (3) Earlier colonial steps toward union. Various conventions--Stamp Act Congress--Albany Congress.
b. Provision of Articles. (1) Recognition of States rights. (2) Equal voting of all states. (3) No amendments made without vote of all states.
c. Weak Points of Articles. (1) No president or national executive. (2) No federal courts. (3) Congress without power. (a) To raise troops. (b) To collect taxes. (c) To enforce treaties. (d) To regulate interstate commerce. (e) To guarantee its paper money. (f) Congress simply an advisory body to the states. Lacking power to endorse laws, the states did not respect it.
d. Good the Articles Accomplished. Acted as a bond of union. Crystallized informal powers of Continental Congress. Was forerunner of Constitution. Passed North West Ordinance, 1787.
2. The Formation of the Constitution:
Need of change generally recognized. a. What were the needs occasioned by the weaknesses of the Articles? b. HoV Well did the Constitution satisfy these needs? 199

A study of the purpose of the Constitution is clearly set forth in the preamble:
"To form a more perfect union. To establish justice. To insure domestic tranquillity. To provide for common defense. To promote the general welfare. To seure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity." Events whicch led to the calling of a Constitutional Convention. Constitutional Convention, May, 1787, Philadelphia. Personnel of the Constitutional Convention. Questions in dispute:
State Rights vs. Federal Power. Fear of aristocratic government and crushing of democracy. Question of representation from large and small states. Question of slavery and taxation. Question of power of Congress over commerce. Some of the great compromises agreed on. Final ratification, 1788. Adoption, 1789. (Note: Instructors will find the bulletin entitled, "The Meaning of the Constitution," published by the National Security League, helpful in preparing the above lessons.) "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XIV.
VIII. The New Government
THE FIRST GREAT REPUBLIC OF THE MODERN WORLD
Problems:
Find how the government was so organized as to (1) become effective at home, being no longer a "half-starved, limping government, tottering at every step," (2) become respected at home and abroad.
1. The President and the Vice-President:
Congress. The Supreme Court.
2. Washington's Inauguration and First Administration:
The Cabinet.
3. Sources of Revenue for the Nation:
Hamilton's solution of problems. a. The tariff--tax on imported goods. b. Tax on distilled liquor. c. Funding national debt in new bonds. d. Assumption of State debts by U. S. Government. e. Establishment of United States Bank.
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Project:
Plan a conversation between Washington and Hamilton, in which they discuss the needs of the new government.
4. Foreign and Domestic Affairs:
a. Revolution in France. Oppression of common people. The king overthrown.
b European Wars and American interests. How could European wars affect us? Relations with France. Relations with England. "Citizen" Genet. Jay's treaty. Retirement of Washington.
c. Beginnings of Political Parties. Policies of Federalists--Policies of Republicans. Opposing leaders--Hamilton--Jefferson. End of Federalist Control. X. Y. Z. affair. Alien and Sedition Laws. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.
Project:
Let one member of the class be a Federalist and another member an AntiFederalist, and stage an argument between them.
d. Jeffersonian Democracy in power. Jefferson as President. His policy of democratic simplicity and economy. Purchase of Louisiana. Story of purchase. Napoleon's reasons for selling. Why United States desired it. Jefferson's bargain. Lewis and Clarke's expedition. Wars in Europe and their consequence to America. In many respects interesting comparisons may be made with Great War of 1914. Napoleon's War with England. Contest for commercial control. Effect on America. Shipping crippled. Embargo Act. Non-Intercourse Act. Jefferson's peace policy. Drifting toward war.
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"A revolution means a turn over. The Revolutionary War meant turning from rule of England to rule of ourselves." Prove that the election of Jefferson was a political revolution.
"A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XV, XVII, XVIII.
IX. The War of 1812
Problem: Prove that the War of 1812 may rightly be called "our second war for independence."
1. Causes: a. Long struggle between England and France. In Washington's time. Genet and Jay's Treaty. In Adams' time. X. Y. Z. affair. In Jefferson's time. British "Orders" and French "Decrees." Questions at issue: Interference with our trade.
2. Conduct of War: Some events of interest: Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Victories of the "Constitution"--"Old Ironsides." Burning of Washington. Attack on Baltimore--Francis Scott Key writes "Star-Spangled Banner." Battle of New Orleans after treaty had been signed. Secession sentiment in New England on account of the war.
3. Treaty of Ghent: Results of war. Strengthens national spirit. American republic respected by European countries. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XIX.
X. Emigration to the West (about 1820)
1. Western Rush after War of 1812: Reasons for it. Indian power crushed. Danger of foreign interference removed. Picturesque pilgrimages. Roads, rivers and canals, wagons, and fiat boats--finally steamboats. Character of the people.
2. The Settlers: Immigration from Europe. Account of oppression in Europe and opportunities in America. Emigration from eastern states. Life of the settlers.
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Project: Imagine that you lived in these pioneer days. Keep a diary of your trip and the first days in your new home.
3. Formation of States and Territories West of the Alleghenies.
Problem: Prove that the purchase of Louisiana was one of the greatest events in American history.
4. Union of East and West Through Internal Improvements:
The Cumberland Road. The Erie Canal. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XX.
XI. Industrial Development of the Country (1790-1820)
1. Industrial Revolution Due to Invention and Wide Use of Machinery: a. Begins in England. b. Extends to America. c. Rapid growth of the factory system in America.
2. Early American Inventions: a. The cotton gin; its effect upon slavery. b. The steamboat. The industrial revolution meant a turning from or a change of the old industrial methods and conditions. What were the old conditions? What new need presented itself? What were the inventions which brought about the needed change?
Project: Debate--The invention of- -had the greatest effect upon the industrial revolution. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XX.
XII. New Problems
1. The Missouri Compromise: The problems raised. The fight in Congress.
Project: Let members of the class represent slave holding and non-slave holding members of Congress and make the Missouri Compromise.
2. The Monroe Doctrine: a. The Spanish colonies in America. b. The new republic.
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c. Monroe's message. d. Its bearing on present-day problems. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XXI and XXII
XIII. Jackson as President.
Leaders of a New Democracy. Spirit of the Jacksonian era--Spoils system. Policies of Jackson's administration. Sectional differences intensifying. The Webster-Hayne Debates. Tariff of 1832. Nullification. The Abolitionists.
Projects: Contrast the two great Democrats, Jackson and Jefferson Stage the Webster-Hayne Debate. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XXIII.
XIV. Expansion--Texas and the Far West
1. Texas--A Province of Mexico. Inhabitants--Indians, Spaniards, and pioneers from the United States. Revolt of Texas. Trouble with Mexican government. General Sam Houston victorious. Independence of Texas. Annexation to United States, 1845.
Problem: The existence of slavery was one underlying cause of our war with Mexico. Prove or dispute.
2. The Oregon Question. Territory claimed and occupied by both England and United States. Agreed upon 49th parallel as boundary for United States.
3. The Cause of War with Mexico. Quarrel with Mexico over boundary line. Result of war. Annexation of territory by treaty and purchase. Geography of the new territory. "A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XXIV.
XV. Progress of the Country at this Stage
Problem: Prove that our country in these days was a great improvement on the days of Washington. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XXV and XXVI.
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XVI. Territorial Expansion and the Slavery Question
SLAVERY IN THE NEW TERRITORY
Problem:
The invention of the cotton gin caused the extension of slavery and led to slavery controversies Prove or disprove.
1. Discovery of Gold in California.
How the discovery was made. Emigration to the gold fields. Results of the discovery--trade and commerce stimulated. Pacific coast developed. Need of railroad system. California asks admission as free State.
2. Compromise of 1850:
Questions at issue.
3. Slavery:
Extent of its influence. Attacks on slavery as morally wrong. These go on side by side with great
political struggles. Character of slavery in the South. Disappearance from the North. Why no factories in the South The Abolitionists. Growth of sentiment in the North. Personal liberty
laws. Difficulties in the way of abolishing slavery in the South.
4. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill:
Its relation to Missouri Compromise and Compromise of 1850.
5. The Dred Scott Decision:
6. John Brown's Raid--Effect on the South.
"A History of the People of the United States," Chaps XX, XXV and XXVII.

XVII. Crisis of the Republic--One Nation or Two
The seeds of the Civil War were sown in the Constitutional Convention and had been growing ever since, first in one part of the country, then in another Prove.
Election of 1860.
Beginnings of Secession. Opposing points of view. State sovereignty in the South. Federal sovereignty in the North.

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I

Study of Sectionalism.
Problem: The geography of the country had a great effect upon the conduct and final outcome of the Civil War. Prove.
The Doctrine of Secession: How the issues were viewed from each side of the controversy. Sincere devotion to what each side believed to be right--on part of leaders and people.
Formation of the Confederacy.
Causes of the Civil War: Review of indirect causes of war. State sovereignty. Slavery. Direct causes. Secession. Firing on Fort Sumter.
Compare the North and South at Beginning of Hostilities. a. In industries; b. In agriculture; c. In man power; d. In ideals.
Note.--No detailed study of the military operation is here outlined. A few of the great battles may be selected for type studies. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XXVIII, XXIX and XXXI.
XVIII. The Proclamation of Emancipation
'A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XXX.
XIX. Conditions in the Country at the Close of the War
QUESTIONS SETTLED BY THE WAR
Reconstruction Problems: National questions: Status of the seceded states. Lincoln-Johnson theory Had Lincoln lived. Growing understanding in the South. Influence in the North. Opportunity to reconcile two sections.
Methods of Reconstruction: Amendments to the Constitution. Reconstruction Acts of Congress.
Quarrel of Congress and President. Impeachment of Johnson.
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Troubles in the South. Carpetbag rule--the nature of it--its horrors. Ku Klux Klan. Federal repression. The passing of carpetbag rule--unreasonable and not possibly permanent.
Growing Understanding in the North. Withdrawal of troops by Hayes. Sectional feeling begins to die. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XXXII and XXXIII.
XX. Review of the Progress of the Country (1865-1910)
The Rise of the New South.
Problem: Contrast the wonderful possibilities of the New South with those of the Old South.
The United States as a World Power.
Problem: Trace the rise of the United States as a world power.
"A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XXXV, XXXVI, and XXXVII.
XXI. Present-Day History
The Great World War--1914-1918. Germany seeks to dominate the world. German military autocracy. Mitteleuropa. The Tripple Alliance. The Tripple Entente. The Balkan States. "Berlin to Bagdad Railway."
The Outbreak of the War. Murder of the Austrian Archduke, June 28, 1914. Spark that causes a world conflagration. Austria declares war on Serbia--Germany's attitude. Germany declares war on Russia. Neutrality of Belgium violated. Other declarations of war in 1914. Germany loses her colonies. Italy joins Allies--1915. How the war affected America. Submarine warfare. Germany's faithlessness. Why We declared War on Germany.
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Patriotism of our people: (a) Enlistment. (b) Bonds, stamps. (c) Red Cross. (d) War taxes. (e) National control of food, fuel, transportation. (f) On the high seas. (g) On the battle front.
The Hindenburg Line. Collapse of Russia. The Great German Drive--1918. Smashing the Hindenburg Line. The Armistice--November 11, 1918. Peace Conference at Paris. "A History of the People of the United States," Chaps. XLII-XLV.
The Treaties of Peace: The League of Nations. The effort to break down militarism consistent with American ideals.
Problems: Who or what caused the World War? Who or what won the war? What did our "brothers" buy for us in this great war? What are we doing to preserve what they "bought for us"V (a) The Limitations of Armament Treaty. (b) The "Dawes Plan." (c) The World Court. (d) The Kellogg-Briand Treaty.
"A History of the People of the United States," Chap. XLVI.
Attainments: 1. Children should have formed habits of reasoning from cause to effect in human affairs. 2. Should have the ability to organize and collect material for the solution of problems. 3. Should be able to reproduce in simple oral and written English accounts of historical events and movements. 4. Should have an interest in American and world affairs within their comprehension. 5. Should have an appreciation of American policies, past and present, and a desire to see her ideals and standards enshrined in the lives of her individual citizens.
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CIVICS

SIXTH AND-OR SEVENTH GRADE CIVICS
Basal Text: "Elementary Community Civics," Hughes, Allyn & Bacon. Georgia Supplement to above.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: - None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete in seventh grade. Some of the simpler parts may be used in the sixth grade.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
Note: No text is suggested below grade six.
ELEMENTARY GRADES CIVICS
Civics has formerly been a subject presumably adapted only to problem and abilities of high school students. Until recent years it has been a subject which dealt traditionally with the set-up and machinery of government. It was a subject developed not for the child but for the adult. What did the constitution then, or what does it now, mean to a child just entering the elementary school?
It was an excellent piece of work when the writers on civic matters, and the authors of civics text-books, decided to meet the demand for reasonable material by making civics a study not of government only, but of the many other things of civic interest. The school child today is interested in his schools, the city parks, the city's health, the city's transportation problems, and all of the other things which go to make up the life of a city, a town, or a rural district. Whether present text-books tend too much away from governmental manipulations or not, cannot be answered, but certainly it can be said that the vitalizing factor of interest is guaranteed in the new civics where it was almost eliminated in the old idea of it.
The child should know the facts of his immediate surroundings; he should be cognizant of, and grasp the major municipal problems which his newspaper reports; the public services he may expect from various sources should be known to him. He should be cognizant of some municipal, state, and national problems--civic, social and financial.
Every effort should be made by the teacher to have school children live as junior citizens. School administrators should strive consciously to develop organizations similar to that under which the child will live as an adult. Let the child in school be a citizen, not an underling.
Utilize all children's organizations--Boy and Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, etc., and by all means tie the teaching of civics to some vital social welfare
210

agency in the community which will assist the child in isolating and denning some of the problems of adult society.
Assuming that the first grade pupil is as much a citizen of our State as a seventh or eighth grade pupil, why should we consciously teach civics in the upper elementary school and neglect it in the lower grades? For no reason at all other than that it has been done.
The authors of "A Course in Citizenship and Patriotism"* (available from the Georgia Library Commission) suggest that a definite theme of citizenship be considered throughout the grades.
The work in the First Grade should revolve around the Home as a center. Kindness, helpfulness, devotion to family, love of individuals--all may be woven into one great theme which will vitalize the teachings of the school and make concrete for the child many of those abstract virtues which we have allowed all too long to remain abstract.
In the Second Grade the School and the Playground may be made the center of interest. Instead of allowing the child to gain his knowledge and formulate his ideas of his school, his playground, and his playmates and schoolmates from incidental contacts, probably unhappily made, help him through direction, instruction, and supervision to see meanings and opportunities greater than he could otherwise grasp. Help him to begin to know and appreciate the significance of the public schools and what it costs to operate them; lead him into seeing the potentiality of playgrounds and playground activities. Help him to understand the facts and implications of his little world just as you do those of your world.
Third Grade children are able to begin to be conscious of their neighborhood. If properly handled they will take pleasure and pride in doing this. Neighborliness--relation to others and recognition of their rights--is the keynote. The virtues to be emphasized and instilled in these first three grades should be taught through stories, poems, and deeds of kindness rather than through direct teaching.
Fourth Grade boys and girls begin to know more about their town or city. They become conscious of and can be induced to study the various functions of city government as divided into departments--fire, health, police, street, construction and schools. Utilize the child's questioning to guide and direct his interests and to judge his ability.
In Grade I the child studied the members of his own household; in Grade II his interests were allowed to extend to the playground and his playfellows; in Grade III he is brought into contact with the neighborhood; and in Grade IV he begins to know his city or town.
The work of the Fifth Grade should make it possible for him to extend his interests and acquaintance to his nation as a whole. His everyday life should be related to the historic struggles and achievements which make possible the type of life he is living. He might be impressed with his responsibility as a citizen. His rights and corresponding obligations should be apparent to him. In this grade the opportunity for the child to learn more of the workings of the social, civic, and business world about him should present
'A Course in Citizenship and Patriotism," Houghton, Mifflin Co.
211

itself. In this grade he should begin to collect those facts that will constitute, in later years, the basis for his reasonings about government.
The following are illustrative of the types of problems in which he might become interested:

I. The Georgia Public Service Commission:
(a) Its powers? (b) Its members? (c) What does it control? (d) Its relation to transportation?

II. Your City Government:
(a) Is it commission form? (b) If not, how organized? (c) What does it cost? (d) Why do people pay city taxes? (e) Divisions of City Government.
1. Streets 2. Sanitation 3. Schools 4. Police

5. Fire 6. Water and Lights 7. Etc.

III. Your County Government:
(a) Board of commissioners or one-man commission(b) Other county officers? Their duties? (c) Relation to good roads?

IV. State Government in Georgia:
(a) State laws. (b) State roads ^Highway Department). (c) Taxation.

V. Federal Government in Georgia:
(a) Prohibition laws. (b) Narcotic laws. (c) Taxation. (d) Postal Service.

VI. Schools:
(a) State obligations. (b) County obligations. (c) City or district obligations. (d) Board of Education.
1. Size. 2. How selected. 3. Present members. 4. Their duties.

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VII. Georgia--Your State:
(See Georgia Supplement to Hughes' Community Civics--on the list of State Adopted Books).

Reference Books: Dunn, "The Community and the Citizen;" Nida, "City, State, and Na-
tion," The Macmillan Company; Hill, "Lessons for Junior Citizens;" Lapp, "Our America," Bobbs Merrill.

Magazines: The Survey; The World's Work; Scribner's Review of Reviews; The Outlook; The Independent; The New Republic.

Intelligent patriotism is the paramount duty of all citizens. The Sixth Grade may be devoted entirely to the study of patriotism in its various phases and ramifications. The public schools should never allow a graduate to leave its doors who does not love his country dearly. In an age when this is harder, and harder to do, our schools and teachers must redouble their efforts in order to counteract the pernicious influences (within and without our country) which tend to tear down the fabric of our government and of democracy. The school child of this period should be given clear, concrete, intimate knowledge of his country's history. American ideals--honesty, sympathy, courtesy, industry, courage, self-control, reverence, a sacred regard for truth--these and all other desirable ones should become part of the child's nature by actual teaching in this grade. He should this year study critically his city water and milk supply and their inspection, the operation of his county, city, and State health departments, elections and the offices filled by election, courts and their procedures, and sources and causes of disease.

References:
(See Fifth Grade, also State Adopted Book).
In the study of civics in the Seventh Grade it will be necessary to treat more intensively much of the material already suggested in previous grades. The last big step--the correlation of the life of our nation with great world movements--should consume considerable time. The child should realize how closely linked is our country to others across the seas. The peculiar social, governmental and other problems we face because of our very heterogeneous population should be impressed on his mind. The duty of the schools in helping our nation assimilate the foreigners who come to our shores asking admittance should be considered. Study immigration laws. In this grade also may be studied the various contributions of the nations to the world's work.

The following is a suggestive outline of work for the year:

I. The City, Town, or Community:

(a) Parks.
(b) Roads. (c) Government. (d) Taxation.
(e) Health.

(f) Civic problems. (g) Schools. (h) Charitable Institutions
(i) Penal Institutions.

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I
H. The County: (a) Government. (b) Laws. (c) Taxation. (d) Health. (e) Schools. (f) Poorhouses. (g) Penal Institutions.
ni. The State of Georgia: (a) Parks. (b) Forest preserves. (c) Other reservations. (d) Laws. (e) Government. (f) Taxation. (g) Schools.
00 Eleemosynary institutions
Asylums. Schools for deaf and dumb. Schools for blind. Schools for feeble minded. (i) Penal institutions, (j) Health Department. Tuberculosis Sanitorium. IV. Government as related to: (a) The citizen. (b) The community, (o) The city. (d) The State. (e) The nation. V. Government, expense of: There are many media for teaching Civics--morning exercises and talks, reading and story-telling, dramatization, and history and geography. The more elementary portions of the State Adopted Civics Text might be used in the sixth grade.
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GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY
GENERAL STATEMENTS
General Objectives:
The aim of teaching geography is to help the children discover "the relationships between life and the factors of the environment." We want the children to have an interest in, a knowledge, an understanding, and an appreciation of:
1. The customs, manners, and character of other peoples. 2. Our foods, clothing, and shelter--how they are obtained and prepared
for use. 3. The contributions of the different countries in supplying the needs
of mankind, and their mutual interdependence. The influence of the environment upon the amount and types of progress made in different countries. 5. Those most common geographic facts and principles which are necessary for interpreting the environment and giving social insight
Suggestions for Teaching:
Materials Needed--Additional reference material such as geographic magazines, geographical readers, maps, a globe and pictures are needed to make geography more vital and interesting.
Use of Pictures--Use the pictures in the text to arouse the children's interest and make the material more vivid. Study the pictures in class in answer to the two questions: (a) What does the picture tell me? (b) What does it ask me? Make use of pictures in other texts, those in the National Geographic Magazine, and from newspapers and magazines.
Use of Maps--See that the children learn how to use and that they do use constantly the wall maps and the maps in the text to answer questions.
How to Study the Text-book--Much of the recitation period in the beginning should be used for the purpose of teaching the children how to study. This period may be a combination study-discussion lesson in which the children read silently in class one or more paragraphs at a time to find the answer to a question. Discuss the answer in class, making sure that the main idea of the paragraph is emphasized. For additional help in teaching children to study see Yoakam's "Reading and Study," published by Macmillan Company, Atlanta, Ga.
Supplementary Materials--All of the texts are little more than an outline of material to be taught. To make geography meaningful and interesting to the children, it will be necessary to study each unit of work more intensively through the use of supplementary reading materials. For example, in the study of coal in the fourth grade, much additional material should be read to find out more about how coal is formed, mined, and used. This may be obtained from General Science and Elementary Geology text-books.
Units of Work--In studying a unit of work, that is, a people, an occupation, a country, etc., (a) devote at least one lesson to getting children interest-
216

ed in the topic by studying pictures, interesting related current events, or a piece of related literature; (b) after the children have enough concrete information to become interested, have them formulate a few big questions or problems they wish to solve about the unit of work; (c) teach the children how to study the text and use reference material to answer their questions or problems; (d) organize and summarize the work of the unit.
Time and effort allotted to Geography in the first and second grades should be devoted to work which "arouses and stimulates an interest in People and Things." All of the work should be simple oral work in home Geography.
PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY
Geography in the primary grades has its own value in content, of course, but since it deals largely with local geography, it is really the foundation for the work of the following years. "The geography* which is of most significance for anyone is that which immediately surrounds him. If one cannot appreciate local life responses to the physical environment, how can he or she possibly hope to understand distant regions when symbols must be relied upon to gain an appreciation of them? The value of observational work in local geography is commenced in the primary grades, many of the difficulties, resulting from its commencement being delayed until the fourth grade, are eliminated. The children secure, in primary geography, a sufficient number of geographical experiences to give meaning to what they read. They are introduced to maps and other teaching adjuncts less abruptly, and a graduated approach is furnished them.
Stullf suggests the following Objectives: That direction may be given to the work, objectives must be set up. These should include:
1. Interesting the child in his surroundings or environment. 2. Developing an appreciation of the aid of others in supplying his needs. 3. Giving to the child certain fundamental geographical experiences
which will put meaning to the printed page when the text-book is taken up in the fourth grade.
Method
Local geography--the geography of the first, second, and third grade-- should be largely non-text-book in character. Conversational lessons, using the pupils' knowledge, and pupils' observations should form the class work for these grades.
Under no consideration should the subject matter of this period be technical in character.
*"A Course of Study in Geography," Horace Mann School. fSee reference above to Horace Mann Course of Study.
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The course in Primary Geography should be built around:
A. The Basic Needs of Man. 1. Food (especially from local sources). 2. Clothing (especially from local sources). 3. Shelter (especially from local sources). 4. Fuel (especially from local sources). 5. Communication (especially local means). 6. Transportation (especially local methods).
B. Personal Observations. 1. Excursions. 2. Seasons (their effect on life). 3. Weather observations.
C. Local Occupational Activities. 1. Agriculture. 2. Fishing. 3. Mining. 4. Lumbering. 5. Manufacturing. 6. Commerce.
D. Other Activities and Agents. 1. The life of a city. 2. The life in the country. 3. Museum (school). 4. Museum (municipal). 5. Maps. a. Teaching the map. b. Making the map. 6. Teaching of direction.
Note: The teacher must outline her own course of study in Geography for the first two grades. The above items are suggestive of the type of material to be included.
FIRST GRADE GEOGRAPHY
Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Supplementary Texts: None. (See course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Manual: Basal Texts: None.
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SECOND GRADE GEOGRAPHY
Basal Text: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Supplementary Texts: None. (See Course of Study Material).
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.

THIRD GRADE GEOGRAPHY

Basal Text: "First Lessons in Geography"--Knowlton, published by the Macmillan Company.

Supplementary Texts: None.

Recommended in Addition to Above: None.

Amount of Text to be Covered: "First Lessons in Geography," Complete.

Manuals: Basal Text: None.

The earth is the home of man. He lives upon its surface and is dependent

upon its resources for food, clothing, shelter, and other related needs. The

subject-matter of geography is made up not of a technical study of place re-

lationships but of man's environment and how it aids or hinders development

and man's efforts to modify, adopt, and utilize his physical environment.

Geography, then, is made worthwhile only by the introduction of the vitaliz-

ing and humanizing factor-man.

Geography in the primary grades should provide the child, through ob-

servation and experience, with those fundamental concepts which, when he

Q

reaches later grades, he will need in order to go in imagination to distant re-

gions which lie beyond the horizon of his observation and experience.

Children of this grade age are interested in the concrete facts of how we are

fed, clothed, sheltered, and transported rather than in why. They secure

their geographical facts, if they secure them at all, by unconsciously observ-

ing the activities of the life around them. Industrial history and nature

study of the first and second grades offer an excellent medium for presenting

geographical content. This can and should be organized and extended in the

third year through two distinct avenues of approach--observational work or

out-of-door geography and descriptive, or story, work of life in other lands.

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Begin with the near and familiar types of activities, (industrial and otherwise) and conditions which effect industry, and work outward to remote areas beyond the vision of the child. Encourage him to use his imagination, but help him to paint his mental pictures accurately.
Direct observation through excursions and short field trips may constitute much of the method of this period. The child's immediate environment-- particularly the various typical features of it should be studied at close range. Excursions, short trips at recess and after school should be carefully planned to adjust to the schedule, and should occur as frequently as possible. The teacher should always plan these trips previous to the time they are to be conducted. Observations at various times and places, visits with general or specific purposes in mind may be instituted. Oral reports supplemented by sketches are very valuable in securing the full benefit from observations and trips. Pictures, blackboard sketches, models, and other illustrative material are essential in the successful teaching of the subject.
As suggested previously, the child should see physical features first. When he has been taught to do this, and to note the activities of people in his community, then he should begin to hear stories about other lands. Finally a text, which should serve as a means to supplement the oral development work, should be placed in the pupil's hands. Normally, this should be done in the fourth grade. We do it in the third grade and have a text adopted for the grade. Simple supplementary reading material should be freely used by teacher and children in this grade. Teachers are urged not to formalize the work of the grade, nor to adhere too closely to the text-book.
Note-books and "Geography books" should be made by the class.
Distribution of subjects and time allotment: All through the year at regular intervals observational work on relation of seasonal changes and weather conditions.
September: Seasonal changes--What the farmers are doing. October: Map of school grounds, and direction and location symbols. Our homes, groups of homes; plains, hills; city and country. November: The farm and market.
December: The dairy; trade or exchange; roads. January: Seasonal changes. Farming.
Stories of child-life in other lands; children in: Artie lands, desert lands, Andean plateaus.
February: Children in the tropics.
March: Life in the Highlands; The boy or girl in the Alps; Life in the Lowlands; "Hans and Gretchen," in Holland.
April: Life along the sea-coast; Seasonal changes. Type forms in the neighborhood.
May: Type forms in the neighborhood; stream, river, ocean. June: Life in the rain forests; A boy in Africa.
General: Trace agricultural activities through all the months
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OBSERVATIONAL GEOGRAPHY
I. Seasonal changes: 1. Affecting life of pupil. 2. Affecting occupation of parents. 3. Effect upon animal life. 4. Effect upon plant life.
II. Sun's apparent daily path across sky.
III. Weather conditions: 1. Weather records.
IV. Maps: 1. Use of symbols 2. Map scales.
V. Location and Direction: 1. School-room map. 2. Neighborhood maps.
VI. Surface features: Type forms of land and water in the neighborhood. a. Field trips. b. Maps made of school grounds and vicinity by teacher.
VII. Occupations and industries of the community: 1. Agriculture. a. The farm or market garden. b. The dairy. 2. Commerce. a. The Market. b. Transportation: good roads and modes of transportation. c. Trade or exchange.
VIII. Projects in all of above divisions:
IX. Modify outline for fall, winter and spring: DESCRIPTIVE AND PICTORIAL GEOGRAPHY
I. Stories of child-life in other lands: 1. Life in cold lands, Eskimo; frozen desert, Greenland. 2. Life in hot lands. a. Dry, hot desert and oasis; Africa. The Arabian children of the desert. b. Hot, rainy regions: Babies of Hawaii, the Phillipines, and Cuba. 3. Life in the Highlands: a. Semi-arid region: Tibet, Asia. b. Switzerland, Europe. The boy and girl in the Alps.
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4. Life in the Lowlands: Seacoasts of Norway and Holland a. Children in Holland. b. Children in Norway.
II. Vary I. to meet seasonal changes.

FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY

Basal Text:
"Essentials of Geography, First Book," published by the American Book Company.

Supplementary Texts: None.

Recommended in Addition to Above:

"'Iroquois Geography Note Books, Book I," published by Iroquois

Publishing Company.

#

Amount of Text to be Covered: "Essentials of Geography, First Book," to page 90.

Manuals: Basal Text:
"Essentials of Geography, A Manual for Teachers," published by the American Book Company.

In the third grade an attempt was made, through observation and experience, to furnish the child with those fundamental geographic concepts which serve as a foundation for work of a more intensive kind in this grade. The work of the first, second, and third grades--home or out-of-door geography is continued in this grade. The child's knowledge of the simple facts he has picked up in previous grades is tested by applying this knowledge through simple observations of seasonal and weather changes and the sun's apparent path across the sky. The text of this grade should supplement the intensive study of the typical surface features in the immediate environment and its related industry. The child is early taught his social and civic privileges and responsibilities. As a member of an industrial community, he should have some respect for source and production and for markets at home and abroad, and these general facts furnish a basis for a growing comprehension of social and economic life. This is geography taught and studied concretely, and it should form a basis for comprehending distant regions, since only by comparing and contrasting the remote with the home region does one secure the proper perspective of life in other countries.
Stories told or read to children, and selections from different types of readers which furnish a background for a more unified work with the world as a whole, have been offered the child in the third grade in order that he might become familiar with distant regions strikingly different from his own. This has had the effect of familiarizing the child with features for which his own home region does not furnish a good example, and it has also imparted meaning to the

symbols of distant regions when they are met in the globe study which will be presented in this grade.
A child's memory is probably more active now than at any other time. He is vitally interested in mechanical contrivances and their processes. The basal facts of place geography may be more firmly fixed in the child's mind at this time than at any subsequent period. This should be done, however, not by learning arbitrary lists of facts and information, but by establishing the map habit and enriching the content of the curriculum in the subject.
Geography is very often devitalized by the teacher's failure to take advantage of and use to their fullest extent the various teaching adjuncts, such as globes and maps. Teachers should use these at every opportunity for it is through their use that pupils gain power to read and intelligently interpret maps and thus to place themselves in the world. Interpretation of symbols tied up to the things, areas, and places of his world offers one means of enabling the child to correctly orient himself. He is further helped by emphasis being placed in every lesson on the relation between himself and the great world around him.
Facility in map reading can be secured only by means of maps and globes. An 18-inch globe, wall maps, small outline or base maps, and all other teaching paraphernalia should be used to give facility in map reading. This type of work is well adapted to fix in the mind of the child the main facts concerning the locations of the various places and countries studied in the grade. All types of materials--pictures, postcards, illustrated publications of all types, manufactured articles of all types can be used to great advantage and materially aid in increasing interest. This is particularly true when the thng used is tied up to something in which the child is or can be made interested.
As already stated the text is not to be considered the only source of content material. Rather should it supplement the oral development work, giving the pupil in a clear, concise form what he had already found out through observation and experience. The child should be trained to use the text intelligently for by such use he will form good study habits and secure good results. The teacher should so outline and present the material that the text may be used largely to re-inforce her presentation. The recitation should not be a geography lecture, as is so often the case. The child, instead of being inactive, should react in such a way that his expressed interest is the motif in the sequence of presentation. In other words, there should be a constant return from the pupil either through constant discussion of material gleaned from the class period and the text or from his store of personal contacts and experiences. It is essential, however, that the class work, no matter how spontaneous, should be related to the text. In this constant and conscious attempt on the part of the teacher to relate the child and his observations and experiences to the text, and the subject content of the grade, the proper method of studying and using the text should not be lost sight of. The child should be thoroughly versed in the best way of finding the essential points and learning to interpret the pictures and the maps as an aid in clarifying and fixing in memory the most important geographical facts. Much may be done in this grade in fixing in the pupil correct habits of study.
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All the adapted supplementary material available should be used in thi grade. Note-books supplementing the text-book should be kept by each pupil. Base and outline maps, illustrations, and written summaries and outlines should be recorded in these note-books.
Observational work should be continued throughout the year, and should be regular, not intermittent. Nature study may be tied up with this observational geography to good advantage. The out-of-door geography of this grade may be approached through type forms of the neighborhood, globe and map study, trip studies, study of the vicinity and the county, etc.
The general outline may be somewhat as follows:
I. Observational Geography: 1. Weather changes and conditions. 2. The succession of the seasons and their changes. 3. Topography--surface features. a. Field work in the immediate vicinity. b. The environment--social and industrial.
II. Globe Studies: 1. The size of the earth. 2. The earth's movements. 3. Climates. 4. Bodies of land and water. 5. Compass points--(directions).
III. Geography of the vicinity, region, and continents: 1. Vicinity (city environs and/or county). a. Surface features. b. Industries. c. Location and extent. 2. Continental Journey Geography: a. North America--Coastal and interior plains, Mountains; great drainage basins. b. South America--Tropical forests and their products. c. Europe--various countries d. Asia--various countries. e. Africa--various countries.
In all of the above the country, section, activity, or industry being studied should be definitely located on the map; travel routes should be traced; peoples studied as to types; industries studied as to reasons for location (raw materials, etc.); and imports and exports explained by all ascertainable factors.
In order to teach surface features in home environment, and in turn features in removed environments, we select a river for purposes of illustration. The teacher should of course select the river or stream in her immediate locality.
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An excursion should be made to the river or stream. Its course and banks, the type of transportation on it, the industries located adjacent to it--all these should be studied.
THE RIVER
(The Savannah is used here for purposes of illustration).
I. The (Savannah) River: 1. Its source (trace into north Georgia and South Carolina). 2. It's path, (a state boundary). 3. How it compares with other rivers in Georgia--the Chattahoochee, the Ocmulgee, the Oconee, the Alapaha, and others. 4. The river system--its headwaters, its course, its basin. 5. Type of country it traverses; what is seen along its banks--industries, resorts, forts, etc. 6. The uses of the (Savannah) River: a. Navigation. b. Drainage. c. Manufacturing. d. Industries, Fisheries, etc. 7. Federal Government connection: a. Channel. b. Harbors.
The teacher should take the children on an imaginary trip down the river, studying the map and the features mentioned in the outline above.
II. Industry along the banks of the river: 1. Manufacturing. a. Raw materials--source. b. Transportation. 2. Naval Stores (particularly on the Savannah). a. Source of raw materials. b. Manufacturing process. c. Trace to various locations and uses.
(SAVANNAH) RIVER--OUTLET
I. Bay or Outlet: 1. Shape, contour. 2. How it changes through the years. 3. Its uses.
II. Industries around the bay (if any). 1. Fishing. 2. Oyster culture.
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MOUTH OF THE BAY--OCEAN
I. Ocean:
1. Atlantic. (Note: Certain other Georgia rivers empty into the Gulf of Mexico, and must therefore be studied with this in mind.)
a. Size. b. Use. c. Value of the Atlantic: Commercial routes; pleasure. 2. Harbors: (Savannah River Navigable). a. Size and importance. b. Wharves (river). c. Lighthouses (Tybee Island; Fort Screven), d. Lightships. e. Channel, buoys--bell and whistling. f. Breakwaters--(sea wall at Fort Screven).
II. Industrial activity along the Georgia Coast: 1. Transportation. a. Coastwise to Eastern, Gulf, and Foreign Ports. 2. Fishing: On Georgia Coast. a. Types engaged in. b. How caught. c. Marketing. 3. Fishing: On other coasts: a. Gulf. b. Pacific. c. Northeast Atlantic Seaboard.
We may next come back to the immediate environment of the school, and move from some prevailing familiar type study to some unfamiliar types; move from the known to the unknown.
PLAINS
I. Material Features: 1. What is a plain? 2. Plains in the United States. 3. Plains in Georgia. 4. Georgia's Coastal Plain. 5. Appearance of plains. 6. Values of: slopes, plains. 7. Drainage: swamps and plains.
II. Observational work: 1. Plain drainage. 2. The soil and its conditions. 3. Graduations from Northwest to Southeast Georgia--mountains to coast.
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III. Agriculture: 1. Farming (general). 2. Truck. 3. Grazing. 4. Fruit and nut growing.
IV. Industrial activity: 1. Cattle raising on coastal plain.
HILLS AND VALLEYS
I. Hills:
1. What is a hill? 2. Uses of hills:
a. Farming and grazing. b. Reasons for home building.
Lakemont and Tallulah Sections in Habersham and Rabun Counties. c. Why homes are built on the hills. 3. Scenery: a. Beauty of the North Georgia Mountains. b. Compare with resort sections of other states. c. Valleys, streams, wooded slopes. 4. Observational work: a. Variation in scenery. b. Drainage. c. Soil conditions. d. Occupation of people. e. Roads. 5. Industrial Activity: a. Grazing, farming. b. Dairying. c. Agriculture--on the coastal plain, and in the mountains.
II. Valleys: 1. What is a valley? 2. How formed? 3. Uses. 4. Industries usually found in them. a. Dairying. b. Farming. c. Trucking. 5. Large valleys of your county. Locate them on a county map. 6. Large valleys of Georgia; of our country. 7. Uses of valleys: Homes, agriculture, roads and railroads. 8. Size of valleys. A divide--where located in Georgia? 9. Mississippi Valley.
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a. Location.
b. Size. Difference between Mississippi valley and any Georgia river valley.
10. Agriculture of river valleys. a. Nile. b. Mississippi. c. Chattahoochee. d. The river nearest your home.
11. How valleys are formed.
The teacher may well afford to spend some time in excursions to different sections in order to see and identify things discussed in the class. Collections of pictures showing contrasting scenes and activities in hills and valleys may be made. Differentiate between old and young valleys. Tie up some Arithmetic problems to the local industries.

Mountains:

MOUNTAINS

1. Appearance of hills in surrounding country. 2. Appearance of mountains. 3. Size of mountains.
a. Use pictures.

b. Show by local contrasts. 4. Uses of mountains.

a. Water supply to cities.

b. Power--discuss network of power lines beginning to cover Georgia.

Locate the power dams at and above the fall line (Augusta, Macon and Columbus).

c. Mining--Metals, Coal. d. Lumbering.

e. Summer resorts. 5. A trip up a mountain.

a. The start from the adjacent valley or lowlands. b. The tree line--vegetation. c. The summit. 6. How mountains have been formed.

II. Observational work--use the text for verification, and field trips for emphasis.

III. Industrial Activity: 1. Mining--Dahlonega, Cartersville, etc. a. Collection of Minerals. b. Reports of visit to mine, or to unloading points for coal and other minerals.
c. Pictures--mining conditions and operations. d. Uses of raw and manufactured products. e. How moved from source of production. f. Mining camp life. 2. Lumbering may be treated in a similar detailed manner.
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LAKES AND RIVERS
I. Lakes: 1. How formed. Source. Headwaters. 2. Uses of lakes or ponds. a. Water supply. b. Food supply. c. Traffic. d. Resorts along its shores--Lakemont. Excursion to a lake. Study Georgia lakes and the Great Lakes.
II. Rivers: 1. How formed. Connect with Section I. on Lakes. 2. Source, changes. 3. River systems. 4. Basins and valleys. 5. The River. a. Along its banks. (1.) Forts. (2.) Factories. (3.) Pleasure resorts. b. Use of the river. (1.) Transportation. (2.) Drainage. (3.) Manufacturing. (4.) Irrigation.
III. Industrial Activities: 1. Mills--cotton, iron, etc. 2. Location of mills. 3. Source of raw material: a. For cotton mills. b. For metal mills. c. For lumber mills. Processes in each. Uses of each product.
BAYS
Bay (any along the Georgia coast?) 1. How formed. 2. Uses.
a. Transportation. b. Drainage. c. Haven for shipping.
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OCEAN
I. Atlantic: 1. Georgia rivers entering the Atlantic. 2. Ocean water; taste, color, movement (tides and Gulf stream). 3. Value. 4. Harbors. a. Seaports. b. Channels. 5. Breakwaters. 6. Peninsulas.
II. Industrial Activity: 1. Fishing. 2. Shipping. 3. Exceptional Industries. a. Source of certain chemicals.
FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY
I. North America as a Whole.* Problem: Why has North America become the home of such progressive people?
1. Location. a. On globe with reference to other countries; see early settlements. b. By latitude and longitude, explain and give drill on these terms. c. How would the location of North America favor progress?
2. Coastline. a. Study general shape. b. Learn principal projections and indentations--Probable effect or significance of coastline to continent.
3. Surface. a. Locate principal mountain ranges, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers-- effect of each. b. Note altitude and general slope and drainage of land; see relief map. c. How does the surface help or hinder progress of people?
4. Climate. a. Variation in heat and cold--cause of this-- probable effect on life. b. Winds--trade and prevailing westerlies, cause, effect, upon continent. c. Rainfall. Study map for amount and variation. Note cause and probable effect upon life. d. Plant and animal life. Study these to note the results of climatic conditions. Find those peculiar to each of the three zones. e. How has the climate of North America helped or hindered progress?
From Courses of Study for elementary schools--Missouri.
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n. The North Central States:
Problem: Why is this group of states often referred to as 'the chief source of food" for the United States?
1. General Survey of Region. a. Location in the United States; advantages of location. b. Extent. c. Distribution of population (Use population map). d. Surface conditions. (Use physical map).
(1) Lakes and lake plains. (2) Prairie plains. (3) Ozark plateau and Black Hills. (4) Rivers.
e. Soil. f. Climate.
(1) Distribution and amount of rainfall. (Use rainfall maps). (2) Variation of temperature.
g. Summary. With these physical and climatic conditions, what industries do you expect to find here? Why? Sub-problem: What food do we actually grow on our farms?
2. Farming. Study Production Maps.
a. Wheat growing. (1) Reasons for location of region. (2) Study^of culture and harvesting. (3) Proportion of world supply produced. (4) Chief marketing centers: Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago.
b. Corn growing. (1) Reason for location of region. (2) Study of culture and harvesting. (3) Proportion of world supply produced. (4) Chief marketing centers: Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago.
c. Live Stock Production. (1) Reason for this industry in corn region. (2) Importance of dairying. (3) Contribution of the region to meet supply of United States. (4) Meat packing centers: Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Joseph, St. Louis.
d. Minor crops. (1) Rye, barley, oats, flax, sugar beets, potatoes. (2) Treat as fully as time and material permit. Sub-problem: What other necessary work must be done before our food is ready to be used?
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Manufacturing.
a. Factors necessary for manufacturing.
(1) Power. Study this region and find its sources of water power, coal, gas and oil; example, Keokuk Dam (or local dams).
(2) Raw materials. Recall those produced on farms. Study region for others, notably the iron, copper and lumber of lake region and lead and zinc of Ozark Plateau.
(3) Workers. Study distribution of cities, noting that nine of twenty-five largest in United States are in this region.
(4) Summary. In view of these facts, what kinds of manufacturing do you expect to find? Where do you expect the center to be?
b. Kinds of manufacturing.
(1) Flour milling. Centers at Minneapolis and St. Paul. Study process as fully as material permits.
(2) Meat packing. Centers at Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha and St. Joseph. Study process as fully as material permits.
c. Manufacturing steel goods. Centers at Gary, Chicago, Columbus, Cincinnati, Cleveland and Duluth. Kind of goods manufactured. Show how they supply the needs of the region.
d. Automobile manufacture. Center at Detroit. Reason for location of industry. Kinds of cars made, and their use in this region.
e. Rubber making. Center at Akron. Reason for location of this near Detroit. Sources of raw material. Sub-problem: After our food is raised, or our goods manufactured, we still cannot use them. What other big problem must be solved.
Transportation.
a. River shipping. Early importance; cause of decline; cities affected, St. Louis, Kansas City, Cincinnati.
b. Lake shipping: Iron ore, coal, grain and lumber. Future of shipping; improvement by canal building; cities affected, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Milwaukee and Duluth.
c. Railroads. Chief lines located. Centers at Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City. Sub-problem: Chicago is the second largest city in the United States. Why has it grown more rapidly than all its neighboring cities?
d. Development of highway and air; competition with other means.
Type Study of Chicago,
a. Advantages of location.
(1) Center of rich agricultural region. (2) Near mineral deposits of Great Lakes region. (3) Natural railroad center. (4) Lake port.
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b. Chief industries reviewed and summarized. (1) Meat packing. (2) Grain marketing. (3) Iron and steel manufacturing. (4) Distributing point for clothing, machinery, etc.
c. Places of interest. (1) Chicago University. (2) Field Museum. (3) Art Museum. (4) Parks--particularly Lincoln Park. (5) Municipal pier. Review and testing.
in. The Southern States: Problem: What needs of the people of the United States does the South supply?
1. General survey of region. Follow general points given under this heading under North Central States. a. Levees, adding Coastline--extent and effect. b. Contrast this region with North Central states and try to predict industrial life from these physical conditions. Sub-problem: Do you think the South competed with the North in farming? Why?
2. Farming: plantation and small farm types. a. Cotton growing. (1) Advantages of South--temperature, rainfall, soil, cheap labor, easy transportation. (2) Proportion of cotton of United States produced here--value. (3) Study of culture and picking and marketing as material permits. (4) By-products of cotton--oil cake, hulls, meal, cotton seed oil, etc. (5) Possible future growth of industry. b. Other farm products which should be considered in somewhat similar manner, are tobacco, corn, sugar cane, rice, fruits and vegetables, live stocks. Opportunity is provided here for individual or group assignments if desired. Sub-problem: How does "the New South" differ from "the Old South?"
3. Manufacturing. a. Early manufacturing slight, due to small population, cheap land, and ease of buying goods. b. Factors necessary for manufacturing.
233

(1) Power. Study region to find its sources, stressing the abundance of oil, gas, coal, and water power, example: Muscle Shoals.
(2) Raw material. Recall agricultural products. Study others stressing lumber, iron ore, bauxite, sea foods, sulphur and phosphates.
(3) Workers. Recall distribution of population: consider character of Negro labor. Contrast with North.
(4) Summary. In view of these facts, what do you expect to find manufactured? Why?
c. Kinds of manufacturing.
(1) Cotton manufacturing. Reasons for shift from New England. Kinds of goods made; amount produced; centers of industry.
(2) Other types of manufacturing to be treated in a similar way as time permits; lumber manufacture, tobacco manufacture, iron and steel manufacture, canning sea foods. Sub-problem: What peculiar advantages does the South enjoy for transportation?
4. Transportation.
a. Rivers--location of navigable ones, advantages of river trade; cities affected.
b. Railroads. Advantages of surface for building; location of chief lines; lack in some places; centers. Sub-problem: Why has Atlanta earned the name "The Gate City of the South?"
5. Type Study of New Orleans, Atlanta, Birmingham. Follow same general plan used for Chicago.
IV. The Western States:
Problem. Why have so many people wanted to move West?
1. General survey of region. See early explorers; Lewis and Clark.
a. Follow same genera] points given under this heading in previous sections. Use various kinds of maps; stress use of physical maps.
b. Note particularly the effect of surface upon climate, and the resulting effect of both upon life of region. Sub-problem: How do people make a living in such rough mountain lands?
Mining and oil production.
a. Kinds of ore: Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc. b. Oil. c. Methods of mining. Make-believe visit to a mine may be used.
If possible visit mine. d. Smelting and allied industries. e. Centers of mining and smelting.
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3. Farming. a. Irrigation--necessity for it; location of regions; crops grown, methods used; study of process if desired. b. Dry farming. Treat as above. c. Crops of particular value to West. d. Dams and government reclamation service.
4. Other industries to be developed as fully as time and material permit. Fruit growing, grazing, lumbering, fishing, manufacturing and transportation. Under the latter note natural difficulties and methods of overcoming them, e. g. The Moffat Tunnel in Colorado. Stress geographical reason for each industry and the result. Sub-problem: Why have large cities grown up in what is otherwise sparsely populated region?
5. Type studies of one or several cities: Seattle, San Francisco, Loa Angeles, Denver, Salt Lake City. Follow general outline used before in similar study. Sub-problem: Why do so many tourists go West every summer?
6. National places of interest: Yellowstone Park, Yosemite National Park, Grand Canyon of Colorado, Pike's Peak, Glacier National Park, Salt Lake.
7. Transcontinental Railroads. Review and testing.
V. Northeastern States:
Problem. How can such a small area support so large a population?
1. General Survey of region. See previous outlines. Note especially density of population in centers.
2. Conditions that determine population centers and industries. a. Presence of coal. Location of regions; use of coal; description of a mine; cities noted for production. b. Presence of water power. Location of sources; utilization. c. Presence of raw material--kinds. Stress iron ore, cement rock, clay, lumber, fish, petroleum, fruit and vegetables. Presence of farming lands. Disadvantages; need for food; kinds of farming, stress fruit growing, truck gardening and dairying. Presence of energizing climate. Effect upon industries; contrast with South. Effect of coastal location. Indented coast; chief ports; probable exports. g- Effect of inland transportation. Necessity; navigable rivers; location of railroad lines and cities; use of highways. h. Scenery and summer resorts.
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Manufacturing--the chief industry. a. Natural advantages summarized. b. Natural disadvantages. Lack of certain raw materials, e. g.
cotton. Competition in textiles with South. c. Kinds. Centers of each; such study of processes as time permits.
Stress iron and steel goods, cement, light metal goods, cotton, woolen, leather goods.
Great cities of the region. Several are worthy of study. New York and Washington should
be considered in some detail. A general problem: Why has New York grown to its present size? a. Cities. New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washing-
ton, Pittsburg. b. Outline of study. See previous ones. Make comparisons and
contrast with other cities. Transportation. a. Ocean ports, importance of. b. Rivers and canals, Example: Erie Canal. c. Railroads, Example: New York Central. 6. Points of historical interest, for example: Bunker Hill, West Point, Saratoga, Philadelphia, Harvard, Yale and Princeton.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES THAT MAY BE USED AFTER A STUDY OF THE UNITED STATES IF TIME PERMITS
The Iron and Steel Industry of the World: 1. Awaken interest by seeing which child can in three minutes write the longest list of articles made of iron and steel. Let them guess the value of the iron and steel produced in the United States in a way. (Production of pig iron in 1927 was valued at $646,226,139.00) Develop in class the outline for a composition on one of the following subjects: how iron and steel aid the farmer (or home-maker, or the manufacturer). 2. Study the iron mining industry of the Lake Superior District; it costs only 30 cents per ton to mine this high grade ore, $1.00 per ton to ship it 1,000 miles to Lake Erie ports and 4 cents to unload. Explain these low costs and show how they encourage the industry. Study the life of the mining section. 3. Distinguish between iron ore from the mine, pig iron from the blast furnace, and steel from the Bessemer converters, or from the open hearth furnaces. A large modern blast furnace costs a million dollars and consumes daily 800 tons of ore, 400 tons of coke, 100 tons of limestone, and 2,500 tons of air to produce 400 or 500 tons of pig iron.
Note that as a result of modern efficiency two tons of ore are smelted with one ton of coke. Why should two tons of ore be sent to one ton of coke? (Industry started in Pennsylvania and Ohio when two tons of coal were used to smelt one ton of ore. The largest home demand is in the Northeast and there is a large export.)
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Have children prepare reports giving the advantages of the iron and steel industry possessed by the following cities: Pittsburg, Gary, Cleveland, Detroit, Duluth. Account for the fact that in recent years the United States has produced three-fourths of the world's pig iron. The United States ranks first among the nations in coal resources, second in iron ore, being surpassed only by Brazil, which has no coal and has abundant capital and labor and large home markets protected from foreign competition by our tariff. Big scale production with labor-saving machinery makes low costs and gives cheap iron to sell abroad. Make graphs showing the estimated iron ore resources of the nations that rank highest. Use the following figures which are estimated in millions of tons of the pig iron that could be obtained by smelting ore: Brazil, 3,000; United States, 2,335; France, 2,066; Newfoundland, 2,300; Cuba, 857; Sweden, 740; Germany, 460; Russia, 387; Great Britain, 355; Spain, 349; China, 60. Make a similar graph for coal resources using these figures which stand for billions of tons of coal resources, that is, coal that is beneath the surface: United States, 3,838; Canada, 1,234; China, 995; Germany, 400; United Kingdom, 189; Siberia, 173; India, 179; Russia, 60; South Africa, 56; Czechoslovakia, 50; France, 34; Columbia, Indo-China, 20; Belgium, 11. 7. Study figures of production of iron ore and of coal; name nations that rank high in resources but low in production; others with small resources have a large production annually. Explain.
VI. Territories and Dependencies of the United States. The United States has few colonies or outlying possessions. This is due
to the fact it is the youngest among the great nations of the world, having never suffered from that overcrowding and fierce trade competition which led the nations of Europe to seek foreign territory and the control of distant markets. Much of the earth's surface has been subdivided by European powers before the United States came into existence and later, when the rush opened for colonies in Africa and in the Pacific, the United States was busy settling and developing its own vast territory. The policy of the government has been generally opposed to acquiring foreign possessions.
1. Alaska. a. When and from whom purchased? Was its purchase wise? b. Boundaries and area. Alaska is more than twice as big as Texas. c. Physiography and climate. Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in North America. The Yukon River with its tributaries provides 3,500 miles of navigable waters. d. Industries. Mining, fisheries, fur industry, reindeer raising. The Government of the United States carries on the largest sealing industry in the world at the Pribilof Islands.
Note especially those that supply needs of United States which cannot be supplied at home.
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Probable future; Will it Progress? Will it ever become independent? Why?
Review and testing.
VII. Territories and Dependencies of the United States (continued).
1. Philippines. a. When, how and from whom secured? Is it wise to hold them? b. Area and location with regard to Asiatic World. c. Physiography and tropical climate. d. Industries and products. Sugar, rice, cocoanut, copra, hemp, rattan, rubber. Note especially those that supply needs of United States which cannot be supplied at home. e. Principal cities; cause of growth. Probable future; Will they progress? Will they ever become independent? Why.
2. Hawaiian Islands. When and how secured? Is it wise to hold them? Population, location and volcanic surface conditions. Industries and products. Pineapples, sugar, bananas. Importance as coaling and naval base. Scenic beauty and recreational points of interest. Will they become independent? Why? Review and testing.
3. Consideration of Porto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands, Samoa, Wake, Midway, etc., with regard to: a. Location from continents, from United States. b. Industries and products. c. Probable future.
VIII. Countries North of United States: Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador. Why has this region become one of the most valuable parts of the great British Empire?
1. General Survey. a. Follow general plan used here for sections of the United States, using maps largely for making survey. b. Stress at the end, the probable results upon human activities on the physical and climatic conditions.
Natural Division of Canada. a. Maritime Provinces--New Brunswick, Novia Scotia, and Prince
Edward's Isle. (1) Advantages and disadvantages of location. (2) Chief industries--cause of each, resulting cities. (3) Character of people; French ancestry. (4) Possible future progress--causes: effect upon Canada,
upon Great Britain, upon United States.
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b. Quebec and Ontario; Hudson Bay. c. Prairie Provinces--Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba. d. British Columbia.
3. Newfoundland, Labrador. a. Cause of location. b. Industries. Chiefly fishing. c. Life of people contrasted with that of Canada. Study of work of Dr. Wilfred Grenfell would add interest here.
4. Relation of the region to Great Britain. a. Government of Canada; of Newfoundland. b. Economic relation--trade; products supplied by Canada which England lacks, e. g. Wheat. c. Loyalty of Canadians, e. g. Service in World War. Review and testing.
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA
1. Know the location and reason for the importance of these cities: Atlanta, Savannah, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, Baltimore, Cleveland, Buffalo, Pittsburg, San Francisco, Cincinnati, New Orleans, Milwaukee, Washington, D. C, Denver, Louisville, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Kansas City, Indianapolis, Seattle, Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, Quebec, Mexico City.
2. Know the location and the value of the country of these rivers: Mississippi, Missouri, Hudson, Ohio, Columbia, St. Lawrence, Savannah.
3. Know the location, extent, and effect upon life conditions of these mountain ranges and peaks: Rocky, Appalachian, Mt. McKinley, Mt. Ranier.
4. Know the location and importance to the world of these bodies of water: Gulf of Mexico, Panama Canal, the five Great Lakes, Niagara Falls.
5. Know the location and important geographical facts about these islands: Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaiian Islands, Philippines, Manhattan.
PUPILS' REFERENCES FOR FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY
1. Allen, Nellie B., "Industrial Studies, The United States." 1918. 2. Allen, Nellie B., "Geographical and Industrial Studies of North America."
1910. 3. Atwood-Thomas, "The America," Book Two. 1929. 4. Babson, R. W., "A Central American Journey" 1924. 5. Barrows, H. H--Parker, Edith P., "The United States and Canada."
1925. 6.|[Brigham, A. P.--McFarlane, C. T., "Essentials in Geography," First
[Book. 1922. 7. Bunker, Frank F., "Hawaii and the Philippines." 1928. 8. Carroll, C. F., "Around the World," Book IV. 1910.
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9. Carpenter, Frank G., "New Geographical Reader," North America. 1922.
10. Chamberlain, J. F. and A. EL, "The Continents and Their People," North America. 1921.
11. Chamberlain, J. F., Home and World Series, "How We Are Fed, How We Are Sheltered, How We Are Clothed, How We Travel." 1924.
12. Dodge and Lackey, "Elementary Geography." 1927. 13. Fairbanks, Harold W., "North America." 1927. 14. Fairgrieve, James and Young, Ernest, "Human Geography by Grades "
1925. 15. Frye, A., "New Geography," Frye-Atwood Series. Book I. 1920. 16. Gilman, I. A., "Alaska, the American Northland." 17. Hotchkiss, C. W., "Representative Cities of the United States." 18. McMurray, Frank M., and Parkins., A. E., "The New World." 1927. 19. McMurray, Frank M., and Parkins, A. E., "Elementary Geography "
1925. 20. Pitkin and Hughes, "Seeing America." 1925. 21. Smith, J. Russell, "Commerce and Industry." 1920. 22. Smith, J. Russell, "Human Geography." BOOK I. Peoples and
Countries. 1925. 23. Southworth, G. V. and Kramer, S. E., "Great Cities of the United States." 24. Turpin, Edna, "Cotton." 1924. 25. Winslow, I. O., Geography Series, Book II. "The United States."
Book III. "Our American Neighbors." Revised Book II, 1921; Book III, 1925 26. "World Almanac." (Latest).
SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY
I. Fundamentals of Geography.
1. Earth Movements.
a. Rotation on its axis each 24 hours. b. Revolution once each year about the sun. c. Causes of seasons, difference in northern and southern hemi-
spheres.
2. Definition and practice in place location. a. Latitude. b. Longitude.
3. Oceans.
a. Name and locate Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, Antarctic. b. Name and locate Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Caribbean Sea,
Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, Hudson Bay, Bay of Bengal.
c. Know the terms: ocean basin, continental shelf, coral reefs.

d. Barrier beach, surf, tides, waves, ocean currents. (1) Clockwise movements north of equator. (2) Counter clockwise movements south of equator. (3) Gulf stream, California Current, Peruvian Current, Brazilian Current. (4) Affect on Europe of Gulf Stream.
e. Uses of the ocean. (1) Means of transportation. (2) Influence on temperature and rainfall. (3) As a source of food supply.
4. World Winds. a. Cause of winds; movements of warm and cold air; effects on climate. b. Trade winds. c. Equatorial calms or doldrums. d. Horse latitude. e. Monsoons. f. Prevailing Westerlies.
5. North and South Polar Regions. a. Peary's expedition, Amundsen, Scott. b. Recent air expeditions: Byrd to South Pole, 1928-30.
6. Problems. a. What use do we make of land, water, atmosphere and climate? b. What effect did trade winds have on the discovery of America? c. Will polar regions ever be inhabited?
II. Countries South of United States: Mexico, Countries of Central America. Problem: Why are these countries so much less progressive than the United States?
1. General survey of region. a. Follow general plan used for sections of United States, using maps. b. Stress particularly variations in climate in Mexico, due to varying altitudes, and effect of this. c. Early Indian people and Spanish domination.
2. Factors which make for progress. a. Possible variety of products due to varying climate. b. Rich natural resources: Silver, gold, iron, oil, fertile land. c. Proximity to United States.
3. Factors which prevent progress. a. Character of people, mixed races; lack of education, lack of good homes and standards of living; lack of modern methods of work. b. Weakness of governments; type of government; cause of weakness; revolutions; revolts on progress.
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c. Poor land and labor conditions; system of peonage; result upon country.
d. Poor transportation facilities; lack of rivers and harbors; cause of poor railroads and highways; effects upon the country.
III. Panama Canal: Outline of Panama Canal Project. 1. Introduction.
The project should be introduced by calling attention to any big building project with which the children have experience, such as roads, bridges, buildings, etc. 2. Each child may write to various steamship companies and ask for material describing the canal zone. 3. Class discussion as to how to reach the Panama Canal. When material arrives the study and discussion should follow this outline.
Execution of plans.
a. Location as to continents and oceans, directions from your home, physical features, climate, size.
Early people of region--Columbus, Balboa, Morgan, Drake. The zone at the present--size, plants and animals, native occu-
pations, products produced and exported, principle cities. Panama railroad--date, cost, value, difficulties, reason for building. History of the canal plans--Cortez, acquisition of territory, Treaty
of President Jackson, English Treaty of 1850. f. French attempts--date, equipment used, cause of sickness, De-
Lesseps, French failure. g- America's need for canal--shorter route between east and west
coast, location of canal, buying of French interest. h. Gatun Dam--choice of lock type to dam Rio Chagres River, diffi-
culties, construction of dam. i. Locks--location, size, distance between, method of operation.
Culebra Cut--a French excavation used, type of machinery used, maximum width and depth at present, land-slides during process of construction.
Work of sanitation department--necessity, methods of destroying .mosquitoes, protection of water supply, system of drainage, leadership of Dr. Gorgas.
Labor--skilled, unskilled, engineers, doctors, living quarters and food.
Leaders in the work--President Roosevelt, John Wallace, John Stevens, G. W. Goethals, engineers Gaillard and Sibert.
United States problems after completion (1915)--fortification and management of canal.
Commercial advantages--saves distance, makes better coast protection, all nations permitted to use by payment of toll.
P- How a ship passes through the canal--time required, passage through locks, electric locomotives, difference in ocean level of Atlantic and Pacific.
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5. Suggested Activities for Pupils. a. Consult World Almanac concerning tolls received and number of vessels passing through. b. Sketch of canal zone locating cities, locks, lakes and rivers. c. Plan on sand table native village along the canal. d. Have pupils write biographies of leaders in the construction.
REFERENCES
1. Goethals, "The Panama Canal." 2. "The World Almanac." 3. "Book of Knowledge, World Book, and Encyclopedia." 4. Gauze, P. A. and Carr, C. C, "The Store of Panama," 1912 5. Guitteau and Winter, "Seeing South America," Ch. XXVII 1929. 6. Hall, Alfred B., and Chester, Clarence L., "Panama and the Canal,"
1925. 7. Carpenter, Frank G., "North America," 1922. 8. Nida, Stella H., "Panama and its Bridge of Water," 1922.
Soulh America: South America should receive careful attention from the standpoint of
our trade relations, the importance of rich resources and the possibilities of future development. Little time should be given to the smaller countries, but there should be a detailed study of Argentina, Brazil and Chile. 1. South America as a Whole. Problem: Why has South America not made the progress North America
has? a. Location.
(1) Position with reference to other countries. (2) Position with reference to oceans. (3) Position with reference to equator, poles, heat belts, wind
belts. (4) How has location of South America retarded progress?
b. Coast line. (1) Study general shape. (2) Compare harbor facilities with North America.
c. Surface. (1) Note mountains on East and West with central plains. (2) Note slope and drainage of land. (3) Significance of Amazon, Plata, and Orinoco River Basins. (4) Does surface hinder or help progress of people?
d. Climate. (1) Differences in temperature; note tropical and temperate regions. (2) Differences in rainfall; note excess precipitation in Amazon Basin as compared with remainder of continent. (3) Unhealthfulness of tropical climate; its effect on progress.
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e. Industries and Products.
(1) Rubber, coffee, sugar, hides, leather, meats, cocoa, tobacco, bananas.
(2) Cattle and sheep; farming--wheat, corn, cotton, flax, oats. (3) Mining--gold, silver, mercury, copper, tin, iron, aluminum. f. Cities. (1) Why few important coast cities? (2) Make study of Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Valparaiso. (3) Locate capitals of South American countries. g. Peoples. (1) Early Indian civilization. (2) Latin Spanish civilization. (3) Mixed character of people. (4) Republican government for the last 100 years.
II. Important Countries of South America: 1. Argentine.
Problem: How can we account for its rapid development? a. Location and boundaries. b. Surface features--pampas. c. Factors determining climate--winds and mountains. d. Products and industries--primarily agricultural. e. Buenos Aires is largest city in South America and is great commercial center. f. Possible future of a country.
(1) What is present status of country? (2) What part does it play in world's commerce? (3) What are its future possibilities? 2. Brazil.
Problems: Why does Brazil with an area greater than United States have population less than one-fourth that of the United States? What obstacles must be overcome before the Amazon Country can have many white settlers? a. Location and boundaries--Position with respect to equator. b. Surface features--Amazon Lowlands, and Brazilian Highlands. c. Tropical climate. d. Tropical products--stress coffee and rubber. e. Rio de Janeiro--beautiful seaport. f. Possible future of country.
(1) What is present status of country? (2) What part does it play in world's commerce? (3) What are its future possibilities? 3. Chili.
Problem: Why may Chili be called the California of South America?
a. Location and boundaries--extreme length of country along Andes, Mountains.
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)
b. Variations in climate and rainfall due to mountains and length of country.
c. Industries of farming, mining, manufacturing. (1) Importance of nitrates (in case of War.) (2) Agriculture of second interest. (3) Effect of railroads and Panama Canal.
d. Possible future of country. (1) What is present status of country? (2) What part does it play in the world's commerce?
e. What are its future possibilities? 4. Other countries of South America. Following in general the outline of the three countries given for each country
of the continent. Review and testing.
III. Projects: 1. The Brazilian Coffee Region. Either this or following one on rubber may be given.
REFERENCES
Encyclopedia. South America, Vol. II (Fairbanks) 252-260. South America (Allen) 126-142.
a. On blank map of South America color in red Sao-Paulo coffee district.
b. In class discussion bring out clearly the importance of each of the following conditions upon coffee growing: (1) Length of growing season, temperature conditions, and amount and distribution of rainfall. (2) Land form, and soils.
c. Problems: In what ways does the coffee industry have a bearing upon: (1) Size and ownership of farms. (2) Locations of homes of people. (3) Methods of cultivation. (4) Securing sufficient amount of efficient labor. (5) Contentment of people.
d. Larger problems involved: Discuss and bring out clearly how each of the following is related to coffee production: (1) Locations of ocean ports, names of ports. (2) Transportation. (a) Within the area. (b) From area to ocean ports. (3) Interest of Brazilian government in welfare of coffee area. (4) Expansion of coffee area.
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i

e. Special Problem: Activities on a coffee plantation. (1) Plan of the plantation. (a) The home of the planter; character of house and adjacent grounds. (b) Homes of the workers; character and locations. (c) Locations of the coffee trees. (2) Taking care of the trees. (a) Cultivation. (b) Protection--Why? (3) Harvesting the crop. (a) Picking the berries. (b) Preparing for market. (4) Marketing the crop. (a) Transportation. (b) Competition of other coffee-producing areas. (5) Recreations and customs of. (a) The plantation owner. (b) The workers on the plantation.
Rubber. Either this or coffee project may be given.
Reference
"The Romance of Rubber," a booklet edited by John Martin. A copy for each child in the class may be obtained free by writing to the Educational Department of the United States Rubber Co., 1790 Broadway New York City.
See Encyclopedia and World Almanac. Use the following facts as a basis for the study of rubber:
1. The world production of rubber in thousands of tons for each tenth year from 1850 to 1920 was 1.4, 2.6, 6.4, 8.5, 16, 53, 77, 406.
2. Of the world production of 409,000 tons in 1922, British Malaya contributed 212,000; Dutch East Indies, 102,000; Ceylon, 47,000" Brazil, 22,000.
Although the plantation rubber industry is only 25 years old, 93 per cent of the world's rubber now comes from plantation.
The United States which produces no crude rubber uses almost three-fourths of the world's supply in 500 factories, employing 175,000 people and making rubber goods valued at $961,000,000, only four per cent of which was exported. The value of the rubber tires was $620,000,000 and of rubber foot-wear $145,000,000. 5. London is the greatest rubber market of the world; New York, Singapore, and Colombo are important. Additional facts: Plantation rubber is marketed in three forms: a. Smoked sheet, which resembles black molasses candy and
smells like bacon. b. Thin crepe, which looks like lemon-colored flannel.
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c. Thick crepe, which looks like tripe. A lecture prepared by the Educational Department of the
United States Rubber Company, says: "Of late one has heard much of the well advertised slogan,
'America Should Produce Its Own Rubber.' This makes a strong sentimental appeal, but unless applied in a practical way may lead to heavy financial losses. Up to the present, labor and land laws, together with the uncertain political future, have prevented capital from flowing into the Philippines. Shortage of lowpriced labor and governmental insecurity have likewise discouraged investment in Latin-America."
Review and testing.
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT FOR THE FIRST HALF OF THE YEAR
I. Fundamentals of Geography: At the completion of the work of this unit the pupil should be able to fulfill
the following requirements: 1. Know meaning of rotation and revolution, latitude and longitude. 2. Be able to explain cause of seasons. 3. Know and locate five oceans of the world. 4. Know names and direction of principal winds and ocean currents. 5. Know Arctic and Antarctic explorers.
II. Panama Canal: 1. Know how Panama Canal ranks among other world canals. 2. Know length, cost of construction, and date canal was finished. 3. Know how a ship goes through the canal. 4. Know the importance of the canal to the United States.
III. South America: 1. Know the three great river systems of South America: The Orinoco, the Amazon, the Plata. 2. Know the significance of location and boundaries, the distribution or natural resources, the effect of climate and the physical makeup of the country. 3. Know the causes for the slow growth and the possibilities for future development. 4. Know the problems of transporting and marketing products: the ocean routes to the countries with which South America trades. 5. Know the leading cities and the reason for their importance. 6. Know the opportunities South America affords the United States from a commercial standpoint.
PUPILS' REFERENCES
1. Atwood and Thomas, "The Americas," Book Two, 1929. 2. Brigham, A. P. and McParlane, "Essentials of Geography." 1925. 3. Carpenter, F. G., "New Geographical Reader," South America. 1922.
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4. Chamberlain, J. F., "Home and World Series." 1927. 5. Chamberlain and Chamberlain, "The Continents and Their People,"
South America, 1921. 6. Dodge, R. E. and Lakey, E. E., "Advanced Geography." 1928. 7. Franck, Harry A., "Travels in Many Lands," Mexico and Central
America. 1927. 8. Guitteau and Winter, "Seeing South America." 1929. 9. Lefferts, Walter, "Our Neighbors in South America." 1927. 10. McMurray, F. M. and Parkins, A. E., "Advanced Geography." 1927. 11. Packard and Sinnott, "Nations as Neighbors." 1925. 12. Perdue, H. Anis, "How Other Children Live." 1928. 13. Southworth, G. V., "Our South American Neighbors." 1924. 14. Winslow, L.O., "Our American Neighbors," 1921. 15. "World Almanac" (Latest).
SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY
I. Europe as a Whole:
Problems: Why is Europe a continent of particular interest to Americans? Why has Europe become so densely populated and so important?
1. Our Relations to Europe. a. Home of our ancestors. b. Point of interest to travelers. c. Trade and commercial interest. d. Center of civilization for many years. e. Seat of World War (1914-1918).
2. General Survey of Continent.
a. Location--advantages. Relation to Asia and Africa; effect of latitude.
b. Extent. Compare with North America and Asia. c. Population. Centers of density; distribution. d. Form and coastline. Effect of irregularities and islands. e. Surface. Effect of chief mountains, rivers and plains on human
activities. f. Climate. Variations in temperature and rainfall; their cause and
effect; winds and ocean currents, g. Countries. Explain natural causes for the large number.
II. The Mediterranean Basin :
Problem: Why was this region the home of the oldest civilization of the world?
1. General survey of Mediterranean Sea and shore.
a. Follow general plan used under this heading for other regions. b. Summary: Consider all the natural conditions favoring an
early development of civilization, e. g., mild climate, protecting mountain walls, enclosed sea for navigation, fertile valleys and plains, numerous islands. 2. Italy.
a. Natural advantage of position.
b. Disadvantages. Mountains: lack of rain; lack of raw materials; unhealthful climate. 248

c. Industries.

(1) Farming--particularly of Po Valley--methods, products

(2) Manufacturing--Piedmont towns--centers, products. (3) Commerce--Natural advantages, centers of trade.

d. Places of interest to tourist.

(1) Rome. Compare the modern and ancient city.

(2) Mt. Vesuvius and buried Pompeii. (3) Venice--streets of water, bridges, buildings. (4) Florence--Art galleries.

3. Spain and Portugal.

a. Natural advantage of position.

b. Disadvantages--plateaus; lack of rain; straight coastline; un-

navigable rivers; poor transportation; ignorance and laziness of people.

c. Industries--Note their limitations from .these disadvantages. (1) Farming--methods; products.

(2) Grazing--products. (3) Forestry--cork, chief product.

(4) Mining--products; possible future development .

(5) Manufacturing--Reasons for poor development; future. d. Cities of interest--Madrid, Barcelona, Balboa, Lisbon, Oporto,
Granada. e. Gibraltar owned by British.

f. Summarize all causes of backwardness. Compare with Italy.

]

Predict future development.

4. Countries of the Danube and the Balkans--Austria, Hungary, Czecho Slovakia, Albania, Bulgaria, Fiume, Rumania, Jugo Slavia, Turkey, Greece.

Problems: Why is this section of Europe divided into small, backward nations instead of being one large nation? Why has such an unprogressive section of Europe been regarded by other nations as of such great importance?
a. Survey of region. Follow general outline used before, stressing the effect of
mountainous surface and coastline upon the number of small countries.
b. Industries. Note limitations caused by surface and climate. (1) Farming--methods, crops--wheat, corn, fruits. (2) Grazing--reason for its prevalence. (3) Mining and manufacturing. Reasons for much hand work and little machine work. Cities which are centers, e. g., Prague--iron and steel industries.
c. Important cities. (1) Causes of growth, present industries, points of interest. (2) Select from Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Constantinople, Athens. Contrast latter two with earlier development; Parthenon.

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d. Importance of region to rest of world. (1) Location as connecting link between Europe and Asia. (2) Strait of Dardanelles--Natural passage for trade. Important position in war. (3) Danube--only outlet of landlocked countries, to sea.
5. Summary: Recall problems of Mediterranean Basin and attempt a solution. Find the causes for the lesser importance of the region today than formerly.
III. Eastern Europe: Soviet Russia, Poland, Esthonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland. Problems: Why have these countries been in such an unsettled state for the last few years? What future progress can we predict for them?
1. General survey of entire region. Treat in same general way as other outlines, stressing the great
differences in different parts of the region due to variations in climate, and racial groups and to size.
2. Soviet Russia. a. Condition of people--Lack of education, freedom to work and own land. Show changes which must come here in order to have a better Russia. b. Industries. (1) Farming--Natural advantages; primitive methods; crops. (2) Lumbering--Location of forests, use. (3) Mining--Location of regions; products; importance of Baku oil field. (4) Transportation--Advantages of rivers; disadvantages; need for port other than through the Dardanelles, which is controlled by another nation; Trans-Siberian railroad.
3. New nations in the region. a. Development of these countries following the World War and the Russian Revolution of 1917. b. Poland--Location; area; population; character of people; industries; cities. c. Finland. Treat much as you do Poland. d. Lesser countries. Latvia, Lithuania, Esthonia--location; reason for separation from Russia; industries.
4. Summary of problems. Review and testing.
IV. Northwestern Europe: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Holland, Switzerland.
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Great Britain. Problem: What are the conditions which have made Britain
great? (Problem and outline), adapted from Clark, Rose B., "Unit Studies in Geography," 1924
Why does England maintain the largest navy of any nation? a. Area and location--advantages and disadvantages.
Population in relation to area. b. Climate--effect on industrial life. c. Coal--location of fields; output compared with United States and
France; effect upon manufacturing. d. Sources of raw materials--those produced in England; those
imported; importance of colonies as sources.
e. Sources of food supply. (1) Necessity for large supply. (2) Farming--crops grown; proportionate amount produced. (3) Fishing--kinds; use. (4) Importing of foods--kinds; sources. (5) Necessity for protecting food supply--merchant marine and navy.
f. Transportation--use of railroads; chief seaports.
g. Dependencies of Britain. (1) Location of principal possessions. (2) Type of government granted them. (3) Industrial and commercial value of them.
h. Cities of Britain. (1) Study reason for importance, industries, places of interest. (2) London, Liverpool, Cardiff, Glasgow, Edinburg, Belfast, Dublin.
France. Problem: How does France compare with Great Britain in natural advantages and industrial development?
a. Survey of region.
Use maps freely, follow general outline used before. Make comparisons and contrasts with Great Britain. Stress the unifying character of natural features of France. Restoration of Alsace-Lorraine (1918).
b. Farming. (1) Location of regions; crops grown; methods used. ^ (2) Proportionate part of food produced. Compare with Great Britain.
c. Manufacturing. (1) Sources of power--coal and water. Stress benefit of World War in this respect. (2) Sources of raw materials--a.t home; abroad. (3) Goods made--centers of each, e. g. silk--Lyons; wineBordeaux.
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d. Transportation. (1) Natural advantage of rivers and surface. (2) Chief railroad centers and seaports.
e. Paris--the center of French life. (1) Advantages of location. (2) Present importance in industry, art, education and government. (3) Places of interest.
3. Germany.
Problem: Has Germany reached its place of importance as a nation because of natural advantages or in spite of the lack of them?
Has Germany recovered from the World War? a. General survey. Note especially the disadvantages of surface and soil, the advantages of rivers. b. Farming. (1) Natural handicaps and methods of overcoming them. (2) Regions--crops grown. (3) Proportionate part of food supply produced. c. Mining--regions; kinds of minerals; use of them. d. Manufacturing. (1) Sources of power--effect of war losses felt here. (2) Sources of raw materials. (3) Chief imports and exports. People of Germany--education, character, intelligence and government as factors in developing strong nation. f. Cities of importance. (1) Consider natural advantages, chief industries. (2) Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Leipzig, Dresden, Cologne, Breslau. Review and testing.
1. Small countries of North Central--Holland, Belgium and Denmark.
Problem: How has the dense population of these countries influenced the occupations of people?
a. Natural advantages of location. b. Area and population. Note density of latter. c. Influence of surface and climate upon occupations. d. Industries--results of physical conditions and population.
(1) Farming--chiefly in Denmark--methods; crops. (2) Manufacturing--chiefly in Belgium--advantages; articles
made; centers of industry. (3) Transportation--chiefly in Holland--reason for seafaring
men; ports; goods carried.
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e. Important Cities. (1) Account for their large size and importance. (2) Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liege, Copenhagen.
2. Switzerland. Problem: How has such a tiny nation been able to maintain its inde-
pendence among such large nations? a. Disadvantages of location--mountainous surface; lack of seacoast. b. Advantages of location--protected by mountains; buffer state; outlet through rivers. c. Effect of natural conditions upon people. (1) Character of people. (2) Tourist business. (3) Farming--valleys and terraces. (4) Manufacturing--type; goods made. (5) Transportation--handicaps; methods of overcoming them. d. Famous cities--Zurich, Basel and Geneva. e. Famous lakes--Lucerne, Constance, Geneva.
3. Norway and Sweden. Problem 1: How can people make a living in such cold, rugged coun-
tries? 2: Why called land of the midnight sun? a. General survey of region. Stress the way surface and climate limit industries b. Industries. (1) Farming. (2) Lumbering. (3) Mining. (4) Manufacturing. (5) Fishing (6) Commerce. c. Cities--Oslo and Stockholm.
Asia: 1. Asia as a Whole.
Problem: Why has Asia, with more area and population, been of less importance than Europe in the past?
a. General survey of continent. Follow general plan of map reading used previously for other
continents. Stress location, extent, surface, climate, rivers, animals. b. Pupils' discussion of problem.
2. The Chinese Republic. Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, Tibet, China Proper. Problem: What chances has China to become a world power? (Prob-
253

lem and outline adapted from Clark, Rose B., "Unit Studies in Geography," 1924).
a. General survey of physical conditions. Stress wide diversity of surface and climate in various parts of
the Republic, and effect upon life conditions. Note density of population.
b. People. (1) Physical traits of different parts of Republic; home life; customs. (2) Moral and intellectual traits--education; religion; government; attitude toward progress; Chinese Wall.
c. Industries-- (1) Farming--advantages; methods; crops. (2) Grazing--contribution of Mongolian herdsmen. (3) Lumbering--benefit of Manchurian forests. (4) Manufacturing--Sources of power and raw materials undeveloped; type; articles made. (5) Transportation--reasons for lack; chief ports, e. g., Shanghai, Canton, Darien, and Tienstin.
d. Conditions of Government-- (1) Internal government--causes of unrest; Civil War of 1927; difficulties in forming central government. (2) Relation with foreign powers--interference in internal affairs; attitude of United States toward immigration and treaty rights.
e. Rivers--Yangtze and Hwang. f. Summary of problem.
3. Japan. Problem: How has Japan been able to change from a country of no
importance to a World Power in seventy years?
a. Japan--an isolated nation-- Tell briefly the story of Japan's isolation for 250 years, broken
in 1854 by Commodore Perry of United States; Roosevelt and Russo-Japanese war 1904-05.
b. General survey of region. Note effect of mountainous island upon industries.
c. Utilization of resources--
(1) Farming--type; method; crops.
(2) Fishing--advantages; necessity for; kinds of fish. (3) Lumbering value in furnishing raw material for manufactur-
ing. (4) Manufacturing--sources of power and raw materials; kinds
of land and machine-made goods sold; centers.
(5) Transportation--advantages and handicaps; methods used; chief seaports.
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People--as a factor in progress-- (1) Physical traits--home life; customs. (2) Moral and social traits--education; religion; government. (3) Need for colonies--due to dense population. Cities--Tokyo, Osaka, Tokohama. Summary of problem.
4. Indian Empire. India, Burma, Baluchistan, Ceylon. Problem: Why has Great Britain been able and anxious to keep
India as a part of her Empire? a. Advantages to Great Britain in holding India--
(1) Location and climate--do not favor development of energetic and independent people.
(2) Surface--unfavorable to a united people. (3) People--racial, class and religious divisions, poverty and igno-
rance do not favor independence. Benefits of India to Great Britain-- (1) Rich farming lands--Study farming; crops; methods. (2) Mineral wealth--kinds; amounts. (3) Forests--kinds; value. (4) Hand-made goods--reasons for hand industries. (5) Market for Great Britain's manufactured goods. Benefits that Great Britain has brought to India-- (1) Better government. (2) Better education. (3) Better sanitation and medical treatment. (4) Improvements in agriculture and transportation. d. Cities- Calcutta, Bombay, Benares. Rivers -Ganges, Indus.
Review and testing.
5. Southeastern Asia. Indo-China, Malay Peninsular and Dutch East Indies. Problem: Why have European nations been so much interested in an unprogressive region? Develop along lines of unit on India, though in less detail. Stress value of these regions to European nations as sources of tropical products, and as markets for manufactured goods.
6. Central and Northern Asia--Russian Territory. Problems: This region is similar to Canada in latitude, extent, cli-
mate, and products; yet it has never become so important. Why? Develop the problem to show relation between physical conditions, e.g., surface, climate and the progress of the country.
Southwestern Asia. Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Persia, Turkey in Asia,
255

Syria, Afghanistan. Problems: What conditions made this region the center of world
civilization in ancient times? Why has it lost its prominence? Develop the problem to show the greater advantages of facing the Mediterranean in ancient than in modern times, the limitations of region in climate and character of people, and the effect of centuries of wars.
VI. Africa. Problems: Of what value is Africa to the rest of the world? What has
been the significance of Africa to world History? Why is Africa such a backward continent when most of it belongs to European countries? Why is South Africa the most progressive part?
1. Location-- a. With reference to oceans, other continents, and the equator. b. Latitude and longitude. c. Is Africa favorably located for progress?
2. Coastline-- a. Study general shape. b. Note lack of good harbors. c. Closeness to Asia and Europe.
3. Surface-- a. Few mountains. b. Interior plateau. c. Sahara desert.
4. Rivers and lakes-- a. Four great rivers: Nile, Congo, Niger, Zambezi. b. Victoria Falls, highest in the world. c. Lakes: Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Chad.
5. Climate-- a. Central Africa along equator. b. Dry and arid in North; northeast trade winds. c. Temperate in south; southeast trade winds. d. Tropical rains in equatorial Africa.
6. History and People-- a. The native African. b. European immigrants. c. Stanley and Livingston. d. Proposed Cape-to-Cairo railroad--7,000 miles. e. The partition of Africa, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Portugal. f. Suez Canal; importance of. g. Boer War.
7. Industries and Products-- a. Kimberly diamond mines. b. Ivory, cotton, cereals, sugar, gold, tobacco, asbestos. c. Forests and animal life.
256

8. Egypt; possession Great Britain-- a. Gift of the Nile. b. Ancient civilization, pyramids, sphinx.
9. Union of South Africa-- a. Prominent part of Cecil Rhodes. b. Gold mines of Johannesburg. d. 98 per cent of the world's diamonds.
10. Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Liberia, Belgian Congo, Madagascar, France, Portuguese, Italian, and Spanish possessions.
11. Cities: Cairo, Alexandria, Cape Town, Port Said, Kimberly, and Johannesburg.
VII. Australia and New Zealand:
Problem: Will Australia ever become a leading continent? 1. Location--
a. With reference to oceans and other continents. 2. Area and Population--
a. Three-fourths size of Europe. b. Natives and immigrant whites. 3. History-- a. Both British possessions. b. Early British convict settlements. 4. Surface-- a. Mountains and central plains. b. Do surface features hinder progress. 5. Climate-- a. Effect of Southeast trade winds and prevailing westerlies and equatorial calms. b. How rainfall affects agriculture. 6. Products and industries-- a. Farm products: Wheat, sugar cane, sheep, cattle. b. Mining: gold, silver, lead, copper, and coal. 7. Cities: Wellington.
VIII. Important Commodities of World Trade:
Learn sections of world that are the greatest producers of these commodities. Study production maps and make some if time permits. 1. Wheat. 2. Sugar. 3. Meats. 4. Dairy products. 5. Vegetable oils and fats--copra, olive oil, cottonseed oil, paim oil, peanut
oil, soy bean oil. 6. Cotton and cotton textiles.
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7. Other plant fibers and their uses--flax fiber, sisal, Manila hemp, hemp jute.
8. Wool and woolen goods. 9. Silk and silk manufacturing. 10. The forest and its products--timber, tanning materials, naval store,
paper. 11. Rubber. 12. Leather. 13. Iron. 14. Coal. 15. Petroleum.
IX. The Great Highways of Trade:
1. Ocean Routes-- a. The North Atlantic route. b. The Mediterranean-Suez route. c. Pacific routes.
2 Land Routes-- a. The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence waterway. b. The leading railroads of the United States and Canada c. The chief trade routes of continental Europe. d. The chief trade routes of Asia. e. The chief trade routes of South America. f. The airplane routes of the world. References--Physical and Trade Maps. Review and Testing.
STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT
I. European Geography:
a. Know the location and reason foi the importance of these cities: London, Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Madrid, Berlin, Hamburg, Rome, Athens, Constantinople, Petrograd, Moscow, Paris, Marseilles, Prague, Warsaw, Venice, Vienna.
b. Know the location and value to the country of these rivers: Danube, Rhine, Seine, Volga, Vistula, Elbe.
c. Know the location and effect upon life conditions of these mountain ranges and peaks: Alps, Caucasus, Ural, Carpathian, Pyrenees, Mt. Blanc.
d. Know the location and importance to the world of these bodies of water: Mediterranean, Aegean, Black, Adriatic, North and Baltic Seas, Dardanelles, Bosporus Strait, Gulf of Finland, English Channel, Kiel Canal.
II. Asiatic Geography:
a. Know the location and reason for the importance of these cities: Calcutta, Bombay, Canton, Hongkong, Shanghai, Peking, Tientsin, Jerusalem, Tokyo, Yokohama.
258

b. Know the location and value to the country of these rivers: Yangtse,
Ganges, Indus, Tigris, Euphrates. c. Know the location, approximate height and effect upon life conditions
of Himalaya mountains, Plateau of Tibet, and Mt. Everest. d. Know the location and importance to the world of these bodies of
water: Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Suez Canal, China Sea.
m. Africa and Australia: a. Know why the animal life and plant life of Australia is so different from that of other countries. b. Know why the climate is so even. Know why so much of Australia is dry and the results of this on the development of the country. Know the chief products, and the possibilities of future development of the country. e. Know why the continent is inhabited only along the coast. f. Know that Australia leads the world in sheep raising. g- Know why Africa is so retarded in development. h. Know that South Africa leads the world in the production of gold and diamonds. Know why the Nile overflows every year, and know the great importance of this fact to the Nile Valley. Know four other rivers. Why the Strait of Gibraltar is the most important water passage in the world. k. Know that Africa has the world's largest desert. 1. Know the animal life of the continent--why so large. m. Be able to account for the progressiveness of New Zealand.
IV. World Commodities and Highways: a. Know principal countries that produce wheat, cotton, flax, wool, silk, lumber, rubber, coal, iron, oil. b. Know leading United States railroads and rivers.
GEOGRAPHY TESTS
1. Branom, M. E., Practice Tests in Geography. 1926-28. 2. Buckingham-Stevenson, Problem Information Test in Geography. 1923. 3. Buckingham-Stevenson, Place Geography Tests. 1922. 4. Branom, M. E., Branom Tests in Geography. 1925. 5. Curtis, S. A., Standard Supervisory Test in Geography. Form A. 1922.
Hahn-Lackey, Geography Scale. 1920.
PUPILS' REFERENCES FOR SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY
1. Allen, Nellie B., "The New Europe," Asia. (Geographical and Industrial studies.) 1920.
2. Allen, Nellie B., "Asia", Ginn and Company. 1920. 3. Atwood and Thomas, "Eurasia, Africa and Australia," Book III, 1929. 4. Barrows, H. H. and Parker, Edith and Margaret, "Europe and Asia."
1927.
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5. Bates, Katherine Lee, "In Sunny Spain." 1913. 6. Brigham, A. P. and McFarlane, C. T. "Essentials of Geography." Book
II. 1924.
7. Carpenter, Frank G., "New Geographical Reader of Asia." 1922. 8. Chamberlain, J. F. and A. H., Home and World Series, "The Continents
and Their People--Europe." Asia. 1921. 9. Dodge, Mary Mapes, "Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates." 1873. 10. Fairbanks, Harold W., "Europe." 1925. 11. Fairgrieve, James and Young, "The New World and the Old." Book V
and VI of Human Geography by Grades. 1926. 12. Franck, H. A., "Travels in Many Lands:" China, The Japanese Em-
pire. 1927. 13. George, Marian M. "Little Journeys Series." Numerous Countries
treated. 1901. 14. Haskell, H. E. Katrinks, "The Story of a Russian Child." 15. Huntington, Ellsworth, "Asia." 1912. 16. McDonald, E. B. and Dalrymple, Julia, "Little People Everywhere Se-
ries," (Stories of Child life in Various Lands, e. g., Boris in Russia. Many Volumes.) 1916. 17. McMurry, Frank M. and Parkins, A. E. "Advanced Geography." 1925. 18. Packard and Sinnott, "Nations as Neighbors." 19. Perkins, Lucy Fitch, "The Belgian Twins." 20. Perkins, Lucy Fitch, "The Scotch Twins." 21. Perkins, Lucy Fitch, "The Swiss Twins." 22. Spyri, Johanna H., "Heidi." 23. Smith, J. Russell, "Human Geography," Book II, "Regions and Trade " 1925. 24. Winslow, I. 0., "Geography Series," Book IV. "Europe." 25. Winslow, I. O., Book V, Geography Series, Distant Countries." 1921. 26. World Almanac. (Latest.)
REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS
1. Allen, N. B., "Geographical and Industrial Studies," Ginn & Co. 2. Barrows and Parker, "Elementary Geography Objectives and Curricu-
lum," Elementary School Journal XXV (March 1925) pp. 493-506.
Branom, Mendel and Fred K., "The Teaching of Geography," Ginn & Company. 1921. 4. Bowman, Isaiah, "The New World," World Book Co. 1921. 5. Brigham, A. P., "Commercial Geography-revised," Ginn & Co. 1923. 6. "Compton's Pictures Encyclopedia," Compton Publishing Co. 7. Clark, "Unit Studies in Geography." World Book Co. 1924. 8. Colby, C. C, "A Source Book for the Economic Geography of North America." University of Chicago Press. 1922. 9. Crawford, C. C. and McDonald, L. P., "Modern Methods in Teaching Geography." Houghton-Mifflin Company 1929. 10. Crissey, Forrest, "The Story of Floods." Rand, McNally Co. 1917. 11. Dryer, C, "Elementary Economic Geography," American Book Co. 1926. 12. Fairbanks, H. W., "North America." Wagner-Harr. 1926.
260

13. Fairbanks, H. W., "South America." Wagner-Harr. 1926. 14. Fairbanks, H. W. "Europe." Wagner-Harr. 1925. 15. Finch and Baker, "Geography of the World's Agriculture." Superin-
tendent of Documents of Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 16. Greeley, W. B., "Timber, Mine or Crop?" United States Department of
Agriculture, Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 17. Goode, J. Paul, "School Atlas," Rand, McNally. 18. "National Geographic Magazine and National Geographic Weekly." National Geographical Society, Washington, D. C. 19. Nida, A. H., "Panama and its Bridge of Water." Rand, McNally Co. 1922. 20. Nystrom, "International Trade Desk Map." Nystrom, A. J. & Co. 21. Pack, "Our Vanishing Forests." Macmillan Company. 1923. 22. Parker, "Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning." Ginn & Company. 1923. 23. Packard, L. O. and Sinnott, C. P., "Nations as Neighbors." Macmillan Company. 1925. 24. Rocheleau, W. F. "Geography of Commerce and Industry." Educational Publishing Company. 1923. 25. Rugg, Harold, Social Science Pamphlets, Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, New York City'. 26. Smith, J. R., "Commerce and Industry." Henry Holt & Co. 1920. 27. Smith, J. Russell, "Commerce and Industry." Henry Holt & Co. 1925. 28. Smith, E. E., "Teaching Geography by Problems." Doubleday, Page & Co. 1924. 29. "The World Book." Roach-Fowler Company. 30. Verrill, A. H, "Panama, Past and Present," Dodd, G. 1921. 31. Winslow, "United States." D. C. Heath & Co. 1921. 32. Winslow, "American Neighbors." D. C. Heath & Co. 1921. 33. Winslow, "Distant Countries." D. C. Heath & Co. 1921. 34. Whitbeck, R. H., "Industrial Geography." American Book Co. 1924. 35. Whitbeck, R. H., "Economic Geography of South America." McGraw. 1926. 36. Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture. Copies 1921-29, inclusive, should be in the library.
GEORGIA GEOGRAPHY
Problem: Is the frequently repeated statement, "Georgia produces a great enough variety of products to satisfy all her own needs," true? Support your answers with facts.
Georgia Industries--Do they Meet the Needs of the People?
1. Farming-- a. Natural advantages of temperature, rainfall, surface and soil. b. Chief crops grown. (1) Corn, hay, wheat, cotton, oats, fruit, vegetables, berries, melons, tobacco.
261

(2) Consider regions, acreage, yield and comparative value of each.
c. Livestock. (1) Cattle, hogs, horses, mules, sheep, goats and poultry. (2) Consider regions of production, value, rank in production.
2. Mining--
a. Natural advantages of topography. b. Mineral resources.
(1) Coal, lead, zinc, iron, building stone, clay, sand, gravel. (2) Consider regions of production, amount, value, use of mineral,
and rank of Georgia production.
3. Manufacturing--
a. Natural advantages. Location near center of production of raw materials, near coal, gas and oil.
b. Types of manufacturing. (1) Meat packing, shoe manufacturing, flour milling, making of lumber goods, naval stores. Other articles mentioned though not studied. (2) Consider centers of industry; importance; and story of the kind of manufacturing, e. g., Cotton goods.
4. Forestry--
a. Location of regions. b. Kinds of trees found. c. Uses made of lumber. d. Need for great conservation of timber.
II. Georgia Transportation--Does it meet the needs of the State? 1. River Transportation-- a. Navigable rivers of State. b. Early importance and effect. c. Present importance. d. Possibility of future development of river traffic. 2. Railroad Transportation--
a. Location of chief lines. Reason for their regional location and general direction.
b. Early roads built in State. c. Advantages of railroad transportation. d. Future railroad building in Georgia. Highway Transportation--
a. Location of hard surfaced highways and Georgia river bridges. b. Construction--cost; manner. c. Advantages of highway transportation. d. Future of highway building in Georgia. Air Transportation-- a. Location of airports in State. b. On U. S. Air Mail Route.
262
c

III. Georgia Cities--
1. Chief Cities-- a. Atlanta, Macon, Augusta, Savannah, Columbus. b. Consider advantages of location; story of founding; present industries; efforts of city to aid citizens, e. g., colleges.
2. Less important Cities-- Consider as need arises, emphasizing those which are the locations of state institutions. Summary of problem: This may be helped by using Arithmetic problems based on production and consumption of goods, graphs showing comparative production; maps showing regions of production, etc.
Problem: Have Georgians any cause for State pride? Support your answer with facts.

IV. Early History of Georgia:
1. The first white men. 2. Early settlements. 3. Coming of Spanish. Their interest in the region. 4. Coming of pioneers from both northern and southern states.
of each upon character of state. 5. Social customs of pioneer days.
a. Village life. b. Late pioneer life of American settlers.

Effect

V. Civil War Period In Georgia: 1. Georgia's part. 2. War as it affected Georgia.
VI. Famous Citizens of Georgia. Suggestive list may be made by teachers.
VII. Georgia's Care of Her Citizens: 1. Educational institutions. 2. Institutions for unfortunates. 3. Penal institutions.

Vin. Recreational Opportunities of Georgia:
1. State Parks. 2. Mountain Region.
Summary of second problem. Stress importance both geographically and historically the courage of pioneer ancestors, the accomplishments of famous citizens, the opportunities for education.
Problem: What must we do in order to have a better Georgia of the future.

IX. Georgia Future Needs: 1. More adequate schools. 2. Better methods of farming. 3. Better utilization of mountain waterpower. 4. Conservation of mineral resources. 6. Conservation of forests. 6. Better schools and homes for unfortunates. 7. More and better roads. Review, testing, finishing related work, e. g., graphs
{.:
864

SPELLING
GENERAL PURPOSE
The ultimate purpose of instruction in spelling is to free the child from those handicaps to written expression which result from poor spelling.
This purpose recognizes the pupil as a distinctive individual having experiences, emotions, and desires that are worthy of effective expression. Spelling, as one of the language arts, assists the child to express himself. The school should encourage and help the child to employ every available means of selfexpression, in order that he may develop a wholesome personality, able and anxious to make helpful contributions and necessary adaptations to the social life and institutions about him.
Spelling, therefore, should not be considered as an isolated subject. The most desirable outcomes in spelling may be obtained only when it is thoroughly integrated in actual use with other tools of written expression. A child should spell correctly the words he writes, in order that the reader's attention may not be distracted by misspelled words from the pictures, feelings, and ideas which the child intends to convey.
MAJOR OUTCOMES TO BE ATTAINED
I. To develop in each pupil a strong and active desire to spell correctly the words he writes.
II. To enable each pupil to write correctly and without hesitation the words he most frequently needs in giving full expression to his daily interests and experiences.
III. To give pupils a mastery of specific skills in word study, including those that are vital in effective dictionary usage.
IV. To make habitual the correct application of certain elementary principles of word formation.
(The specific objectives to be attained at each level of the elementary school course and some of the ways in which these may be obtained most readily are indicated in later sections of this course of study.)
SOURCES OF WORDS TO BE LEARNED
In attaining the outcomes indicated above, each child will learn to spell correctly and automatically a growing list of words. The spelling needs of each pupil should be determined as far as possible from his own oral discussions, written exercises, letters, reports, and expressed interests.
In most schools, however, the limitations imposed by the daily class schedule and by the diversity of interests among pupils will probably force the teacher to a regular use of class exercises in spelling. The words for these lessons should be selected in terms of their frequency of use in written materials and of their relative spelling difficulties for the pupils to be taught. The most recent textbooks in spelling supply ready-made lists of such words, selected because they are used frequently in writing and graded in terms of their difficulty.
266

When a class is using a spelling book, the teacher should make sure that each pupil is learning not only words from the book but also the other words which he needs frequently in his writing and which are not too difficult for him to learn. The permanent value and appropriateness of a word selected by a pupil may be judged by consulting the chief sources from which the words in modern spelling books have been chosen. At least one copy of each of the lists named below should be available for use by the teachers in every school:-- For judging the frequency or permanent importance of a word:--
A Basic Writing Vocabulary, by Ernest Horn. This is known as "the Commonwealth List," and gives the frequency of use in written materials of each of the 10,000 words most frequently used in English writing. (College of Education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. Price, $1.75).
The Teacher's Word Book, by E. L. Thorndike. This list gives the frequency with which each word appears in various printed materials. (Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 525 West 120th St., New York, N. Y. Price, 75c).
A Reading Vocabulary for the Primary Grades, by Arthur I. Gates. This list gives the fifteen hundred words that are most important in the reading of children in the primary grades. (Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 525 West 120th St., New York, N. Y. Price 25c).
For judging the difficulty of a word:--
The Iowa Spelling Scales, by E. J. Ashbaugh. Approximately three thousand important words are evaluated as to difficulty in each elementary grade in this report. (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. Price, $1.25).
The Buckingham Extension of the Ayres Spelling Scale. The relative difficulties in each grade of approximately fifteen hundred important words are reported on this sheet. (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. Price, 14c).
FIRST GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: None--(See adopted text, page XVI.)
SECOND GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: "The Trabue-Stevens Speller--Primary." published by Row, Peterson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
267

Recommended in Addition to Above: "Students Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 1 to page 38, inclusive.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
THIRD GRADE SPELLING Basal Text:
"The Trabue-Stevens Speller--Primary," published by Row, Peterson & Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Student's Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond and Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 39 to page 76 inclusive.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
FOURTH GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: "The Trabue-Stevens Speller--Primary," published by Row, Peterson and Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Student's Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 77 to page 114 inclusive. Appendix.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
268

GRADES TWO, THREE AND FOUR, SPELLING
Spelling should not be taught as a distinct subject in the first grade. Children in this grade will, however, learn the correct spelling of many easy monosyllables through seeing them repeatedly in their reading activities. The first-grade teacher should be alert in helping any child who wishes to write a word, but she should not require formal study and drill on the spelling of words. Corrections in a young child's spelling of a word should in most cases be made without comment.
Teachers in grades two, three, and four should test their instruction periodically to determine the extent to which it is attaining the following objectives of spelling instruction.
OBJECTIVES
I. To stimulate and develop in each pupil growing satisfactions. (A) in sharing with other people his experiences, feelings, and thoughts; (B) in improving his techniques and skills in conveying ideas and impressions to other people; and (C) in interpreting and sharing the experiences, feelings, and thoughts reported by others.
II. To assist pupils. (A) in discovering the words they need to write most frequently; (B) in building up the determination to master the spelling of these words; and (C) in developing the most effective habits of studying spelling. 1. A growing habit of learning the exact pronunciation, meaning, and use of each word before attempting to use it. 2. Increasingly taking responsibility for careful observations of the sequence of letters, syllables, and sounds in each word written. 3. The habit of testing and checking himself to determine what words or parts of words need to be studied most carefully. 4. The growing habit of associating the visual images and sounds of each word with the muscular movements necessary in writing it. 5. A growing habit of persisting in his study of each important word until its spelling has been permanently mastered.
III. To stimulate and develop other habits that will contiibute to the child's success in learning to spell, especially (A) Correct habits of forming regular derivatives ending in s, ed, ing, and Iy. (B) Habits of observing and using effectively the alphabetical organization of words in dictionaries and indexes.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
Teachers who are employing a textbook in spelling should use the methods of instruction suggested in the Foreword or Introduction of the book. The words and exercises of each book are arranged to serve most effectively the methods selected by the authors and recommended by them. Do not fail to read their suggestions carefully.
269

WEEKLY PROGRAM
Scientific studies have demonstrated the superiority of weekly units in spelling instruction. The assignment of words in daily units is uneconomical and unwise. The assignment-test-study program may be applied to a weekly unit of words with assurance of maximum returns to the pupil, both in words learned and in the associated learnings that are so desirable in the development of wholesome socialized personalities. The essential elements in the program are as follows:
FIRST DAY (Assignment Day) Discussion by the pupils and teacher of some interesting experience or
idea is to be followed by the selection of the words that would be needed in writing about it. The teacher guides the children to prevent them from selecting words that have little social value or are too difficult for them. Pronunciation, use, and meaning are made clear, and many errors in actual spelling are prevented by this day's discussions.
SECOND DAY (Test Day) Test the pupils on the entire list of words for the week. Each pupil's
assignment for study during the week will consist of the words missed on this first test.
THIRD AND FOURTH DAYS (Study Days) These are the days for carefully directed study by each pupil of the
words he missed on the second day.
FIFTH DAY (Final Test Day) Words missed on this final test of the week should be carried forward as
a primary responsibility of the student during the following week.
ILLUSTRATIVE TEACHING UNIT
On the opening day of school, before spelling books had been purchased, the teacher asked the pupils how they would like to take home to their parents a magazine telling what the different children had done during the summer. The difficulties to be met in preparing such a magazine were discussed during the language period. Each pupil worked out an outline of what he wanted to tell, and then during the spelling period he selected the words that he would need but whose spelling might give him trouble. The twenty-four words appearing on the largest number of lists were chosen by the teacher as the class lesson for the week, and each pupil was encouraged to select additional words for his own personal assignment.
On the second day the teacher pronounced the list of twenty-four words and each pupil wrote them. Papers were exchanged and marked, as directed by the teacher. Each pupil then copied in his spelling note-book the words he had misspelled on the test.
On the third and fourth days the teacher worked with groups of pupils who had missed the same words, showing them how to study spelling words most effectively. In cases where only one pupil had missed a word, the teacher gave that pupil individual guidance.
270

On tbe fifth day another test was given with the same words used on the second day. Each pupil who missed one or more words on this test copied such words correctly in bis spelling notebook for fuither study.
During the language period each day the children were working on their stories of what they did during the summer, and during the art period they were preparing illustrations for their magazine articles. The reading lessons were used in reading the accounts of similar experiences other children had enjoyed, as recorded in books and magazines, and the arithmetic periods were used in malting calculations regarding the sizes of their pages and illustrations, the number and cost of the mimeographed pages needed, and other numerical features of their activities. A few of the children who had missed no words on the first test were allowed to spend their spelling periods on the third and fourth days in working on other features of their enterprise.
STUDY HABITS
Effective study habits are the result of long and careful cultivation. The later success of a pupil in spelling, as well as in other subjects, will depend in large measure upon the care with which he is directed in his early attempts to study. It is wise during the first weeks to direct all study of words from the blackboard. As the pupils show increasing power to direct their own study intelligently, the amount of blackboard control may be reduced. Whenever faulty or careless habits of study reappear, be sure to return to directed study from the blackboard. Follow closely the suggestions of the textbook regarding word study, or the "Pupil's Guide in Word Study" which appears in the upper-grade section of this course of study.
SPELLING NOTEBOOK
As soon as a pupil begins the study of spelling as a separate school subject he should begin to keep a spelling notebook. Three distinct sections should be provided for in the spelling notebook: (1) Special Assignment Words--those which do not appear in the printed assignment for the week, but which the child sees the need of learning to spell at once; (2) Study List--words which are missed on the first test at the beginning of the week and are therefore to be learned during the spelling periods of the third and fourth days; (3) Words for Special Study--those which are misspelled in the final test of the week and must therefore be given first attention the next week. It is very desirable to set up in the pupil the ideal of never writing a word incorrectly in his spelling notebook, which is in reality the book from which he studies spelling.
DICTIONARY HABITS
Definite exercises should be begun in the second grade and continued through the third grade in steps of increasing difficulty looking to the mastery of the alphabetical order of words in dictionaries and indexes. Excellent work in this direction can be developed in connection with the reading and language periods, especially in the making of a simple dictionary containing the new words found.
271

REVIEWS
Do not neglect the review words listed in the textbook, for the authors have carefully placed each word in such manner as will give it the number of reviews and at the intervals most appropriate to its social importance and its difficulty for the pupil. Weekly assignments composed entirely of review words may be omitted in schools having less than a thirty-six weeks term.
DERIVATIVES
Experimental investigation has repeatedly indicated that ability to quote rules of spelling has little if any influence in improving a pupil's actual spelling of words. It is not advisable to teach -rules of spelling, but it is desirable to develop in the pupils a number of correct habits of forming simple derivatives. After pupils in the second grade, for example, have repeatedly observed that plurals are commonly formed by adding "s" or "es" to the singular form, they may discuss the matter and decide to practice the forming of plurals. The teacher should guide the drill so that only regularly formed plurals will be called for in it. Similar habits of adding "ed," "ing," and "ly" may later be developed. Other derivatives and irregular forms that have permanent spelling values should be taught as individual words.
FIFTH GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: "The Trabue-Stevens Speller--Advanced," published by Row, Peterson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Student's Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 1 to page 28, inclusive.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
SIXTH GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: "The Trabue-Stevens Speller--Advanced," published by Row, Peterson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
272

Recommended in Addition to Above: "Student's Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 29 to page 56, inclusive.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
SEVENTH GRADE SPELLING
Basal Text: "The Trabue-Stevens Speller Advanced," published by Row, Peterson & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: "Student's Spelling Manual and Term Record," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Page 57 to page 84, inclusive. Appendix.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
GRADES FIVE, SIX AND SEVEN SPELLING
The major outcomes of spelling instruction are the same in the upper as in the lower grades. In the higher grades, however, it is appropriate to use certain activities and materials which are not so useful in the lower grades. One may assume also that pupils in the upper grades have already made some progress in certain desirable lines of development.
Teachers of spelling in the upper grades should at intervals evaluate the effectiveness of their instruction in terms of the following standards and objectives.
STANDARDS AND OBJECTIVES
I. Has each pupil been stimulated and strengthened in his desire to express his ideas, experiences, and interests so smoothly and well that his readers will not have their attention distracted from his thoughts by errors in form or spelling? A. Has the pupil grown in the conviction that his own experiences, ideas, and feelings are worthy of expression and of the attention of his fellows?
273

B. Has he been encouraged, by definite evidences of success and of group approval, to seek more and more frequent opportunities for and more successful attempts at self-expression?
C. Has he been led to see more and more clearly that correct spelling aids him to convey ideas, pictures, and feelings effectively to the minds of his readers, and that poor spelling injures the effects of his efforts?
II. Does each pupil spell correctly and automatically a growing list of the important words needed in his writing?
A. Are the words he is learning those which serve most effectively both his immediate and his ultimate needs? 1. Words which are among the first four thousand in frequency in the "Commonwealth List" are sufficiently permanent in value to justify being learned by an upper-grade pupil as soon as they are needed in his writing. 2. Other things being equal, the most easily mastered words should be learned first.
B. Has each pupil mastered the words he needs most frequently, regardless of the frequency with which pupils in general may need them?
C. Has each pupil developed for himself valid criteria and the habit of applying them effectively in determining which words should be mastered?
III. Has each pupil developed important skills in the study of spelling words? A. Does he assume increasing responsibility for verifying by the dictionary and otherwise the correct pronunciation of each new word? B. Does he increasingly assume the responsibility for verifying the exact meaning and use of each new word needed in his writing? C. Has he grown in his power to observe for himself the sequence of letters, syllables, and combinations of sounds in each word? D. Does he take an increasing amount of responsibility for testing himself to discover the words and parts of words on which he needs most drill? E. Has he become increasingly able to form close associations between visual images and sounds and the muscular movements used in writing them? F. Has he grown in his tendency to persist in his efforts until a word's spelling has been completely and permanently mastered?
IV. Has each pupil perfected his habits of forming regular plurals, thirdperson singulars, past tenses, present participles, and adverb forms?
METHODS OF TEACHING
The methods of teaching spelling in the upper grades differ little from those used in the lower grades, but the materials or topics in which upper-grade pupils are naturally interested, and about which their spelling assignments should be organized, are nearer to adult life than are the topics used in the lower grades. Discussions may be started among these more mature pupils with less stimulation, guidance, and questioning than are required by lower-
274

grade pupils. Older pupils may become deeply interested in an intellectual activity, such as finding words which double their final consonants before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, and they may discuss it just as earnestly and sincerely as a group of lower-grade pupils would discuss a trip to the vegetable market. The teacher's task in developing assignment-day work will therefore be complicated by a larger variety of pupil interests and activities, from which there will arise a greater diversity of individual spelling needs. These greater individual differences in the upper grades may be met in large part through the selection and assignment of supplementary words in terms of pupil interests and needs.
Pupils in the upper grades should take more responsibility for their own study habits than do pupils in the lower grades. In order to enable them to guide themselves effectively, the teacher might well mimeograph and give to each pupil the following guide for word study.
PUPIL'S GUIDE IN WORD STUDY
1. Look up the word in your dictionary if you are not sure how it should be pronounced. Look at it carefully while you say it softly and slowly to yourself.
2. Try to see and hear each part of the word as you pronounce it again slowly and accurately. Speak each syllable very distinctly. For example: un der stand ing.
3. Read the letters of the word softly to yourself, grouping them by syllables.
4. Pronounce the word again, looking closely at any part of it which you think you might find hard to remember.
5. Copy the word on a piece of paper, pronouncing the letters to yourself as you write them. Make sure your copy is correct.
6. Close your eyes and pronounce the word again, trying to see in your mind a clear picture of the word and all its parts. If there is any part that is not clear, open your eyes and look at the word again, until you can see a clear picture of it with your eyes closed.
7. When you have in your mind a clear picture of the word and all its parts, open your eyes and write it on a piece of paper, without looking at your book or copy.
8. Compare what you have written with the word in the book. If you spelled the word correctly, close the book, cover what you have written with a card or paper, and write the word again three times, covering what you have written each time so you cannot copy it. Look carefully to see that all three trials are correct.
9. If you made any mistake in writing a word, cross it out, go back to step 3, and go through each step again, until you can write the word rapidly and correctly at least three times without copying.
Whether the above guide is duplicated and given to each pupil or not, the teacher should see to it that each pupil is following closely the procedure outlined in the guide.
275

DEVICES AND MATERIALS
Teachers should try to develop in their pupils a sincere desire to spell correctly for the sake of the greater effectiveness of what they write. There are, however, a few devices which enable a child to observe his own progress in spelling, thereby strengthening him in his efforts to improve, and there are sound reasons for employing such materials. One such device is the graphic chart showing how many words are misspelled on the final test of the week. If this chart is kept in the spelling notebook with the record of words studied and words missed, the child has a splendid opportunity to take immediate action each time he observes any deficiencies in his spelling record.
The habit of keeping a spelling notebook should be fixed firmly in the grammar grade pupil's character. If he carries the habit over into his life after leaving school, he will find it useful and stimulating. New words that he may wish to be able to write correctly, the words which his preliminary test shows that he has not yet learned, and the words which the final test shows that he has yet to master should be copied neatly and correctly on appropriate pages of the pupil's notebook each week.
COURSE OF STUDY FOR
STUDENT ACTD7ITIES IN SPELLING
GRADES TWO TO SEVEN
Based upon STUDENTS SPELLING MANUAL and Term Record, by Algar Woolfolk, published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Motivation of the written spelling activities is easy to accomplish, just to the extent the teacher may be able to divide responsibility with her pupils in the actual conduct and administration of the recitations.
A "core assignment," running through the entire work of the year, and permitting the free use of competition between groups--between individuals, and comparison of today's score with a previous record, will be learned and' followed with intelligent interest by all classes.
STUDENTS SPELLING MANUAL provides a definite core procedure which pupils, themselves, enjoy using and directing competitively. Its use lightens the burdens of the teacher; systematizes the keeping of class and individual records; and shortens the time of the recitations.
HOW TO USE THE MANUAL
CORE PROCEDURE
Step 1. Explain to the class the directions to pupils on the second cover page. Step 2. Divide the class into two groups and dictate the new words of the
week. Step 3. Have books corrected by the opposing groups. Step 4. Follow directions printed at the top of each column as to the trans-
fer of corrections.
276

HEALTH

HEALTH EDUCATION*
General Objectives:
1. To promote health and maintain the physical fitness of the individual. 2. To protect the health of the individual and the community. 3. To develop the health of the individual so that he can use his physical
and mental abilities to the best advantage. To provide the child with the necessary knowledge and habits by which he can preserve his own health and physical fitness and that of his associates. 5. To teach the child to correlate judgment with taste in the matters of food, clothing, shelter, exercise, etc. 0. To teach the child the reasons for and the best methods of ventilation, physical inspection, proper heating, lighting and sanitation. 7. To habituate health practices.
II. Meaning of Health:
1. Physiological Health.
a. Proper growth in height, weight, structural and functional development.
b. Full efficiency of functions--muscular, nervous, mental, emotional, glandular, nutritional, circulatory, respiratory and reproductive.
2. Mental Health.
a. Predominating emotional qualities--happiness, cheer and courage. 3. Social Health.
a. New points of view--Results of our conduct on future generations.
b. A new attitude--Informing young people accurately and scientifically about the facts of life and human relations.
c. New Standard--Creating ideals of usefulness and establishing habits of accepting community responsibility.
III. What the Schools Should Teach:
1. Hygienic habits of living in regard to eating, sleeping, dressing, cleanliness, exercise, mental, emotional and social behavior, safety and first aid conduct.
2. Knowledge of health principles and facts regarding a. Hygiene for different age groups. b. Sanitation and physiology. c. How to find, evaluate and use health service and the physician's advice. d. Care of the sick.
3. Environmental Conditions
a. Adequate and safe milk, water and food supplies. b. Sanitary sewage disposals.
Courses of Study for Elementary Schools, Missouri, 1929.
278

c. Good housing conditions. d. Favorable industrial, economic and individual conditions. e. Observation of safety habits at all times.
Stimulacing Ideals of Health
a. Desire for health, discontent with low vitality and mere absence of disease.
b. Desire to attain and maintain favorable standards in weight, posture and the daily habits necessary to secure the highest efficiency and satisfaction.
c. A practical conviction that prevention is better than cure with realization that it is uneconomical and scarcely moral to keep going as long as possible" before seeking remedies.
d. Development of a health conscience, which realizes the danger of exposing other persons unnecessarily to infectious diseases; willingness to suffer inconvenience for the sake of the community as in the example of quarantine.
e. Acceptance of ideal "good health is to live most and serve best."
IV. Methods and Devices:
1. Methods are more important than subject-matter in attaining the objectives in health education.
Projects, songs, dramatizations and poster-making should be used in such a way children will enjoy the work and desire strong, vigorous bodies, and will desire further to do their part in safeguarding the life of others.
Habit formation rather than mere knowledge of facts should be emphasized. 4. In the upper grades, as in the earlier grades, the health education program should still emphasize the health habits. There should be an increasing emphasis on the study of community health.
Charts and posters may be made more exact and scientific in the upper grades than in the earlier grades. Charts may be made showing energy values of food, groups of food, meals, etc. The physiology taught in the fifth and sixth grades should be given in response to the child's felt need for understanding more clearly the beneficial results of health laws and play activities. 7. Insist upon the formulation of good health habits emphasized for previous grades, provided these have not been formed. 8. There should be: a. A complete physical examination twice a year. b. Removal of all defects, when possible, together with provision
for normal growth and development. c. Vaccination of children against smallpox, and innoculation of
children against other diseases. d. Rigid enforcement of quarantine laws, and other health laws of
our State.
279

e. Weighing and measuring of each child every month with permanent records kept of such weights and measures.
f. Daily inspection of all children with reference to conditions of health and general cleanliness.
9. To vitalize the lessons properly, devices are essential. a. Health plays can be secured from various organizations such as Child Health Organization of America, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y.; Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Have children write health playlets in correlation with their English work.
b. Have the children make health scrapbooks by having them cut pictures from old magazines, newspapers, etc., which illustrate any parts in their general health education program, and have them write original lines to acompany the pictures.
c. Organize a health club for morning inspection. This will bring about concerted work in cleanliness and health. Make this an interesting and pleasurable time. Probably the club will elect a doctor and nurse. At all times, the teacher should see that the doctor and nurse are fair in their inspection.
d. A modified socialized recitation should be used occasionally as a means of vitalizing the hygiene work.
e. Have recitations and reports on health topics developed by pupils. f. A schoolroom health bulletin, made up of essays and reports writ-
ten by the pupils on health topics and of standings or ratings of the various health activities of the school, may be issued every two weeks, or every month.
g. Experiments to show air is made impure by burning lamps and fires; the lime water test to show that exhaled air contains carbon dioxide, etc.
h. Demonstrations in making bandages in first-aid work, in making counter-irritants (poultices), etc., may be used to great advantage.
i. Field work--excursions to various places of interest may be planned and different children may be selected to make reports on the things observed. This method is necessary in the community survey work, as outlined for the eighth grade.
j. The quarterly report card may be used as a valuable aid in the vitalizing of health education, by marking it to show the child's progress in the practice of health habits.
k. Health charts may be made a valuable asset in the teaching of physiology and hygiene.
1. Question box--questions by children answered by teacher.
m. Keep close contact with the State Board of Health, Use it.
10. Hand Washing Drill.
280

DIRECTIONS FOR CONDUCTING
The habit of washing the hands before meals is one of the most vital of health rules. Making this drill a part of the school routine immediately preceding the noon lunch will be valuable in establishing this habit. The entire time for this drill in a room of thirty pupils should not exceed five minutes and through practice, it can be done more quickly.
a. Plan: Out of doors if weather permits, otherwise in schoolhouse. b. Equipment: (1) 2 large pitchers. (Gallon pails with one side
bent to form spout may be used.) (2) Liquid soap container (old perfume or hair tonic bottle.) (3) Liquid soap, (purchased or made by teacher, made by shaving one cake of castile, one cake of Palm Olive into a gallon of boiling water and allowing to dissolve) (4) Paper towels. (5) Flat tooth-picks. (6) Two large buckets for waste water, (for indoor use) (7) Waste basket for used towels and tooth-picks. c. Assistance: Teacher for soap monitor, and two pupils for water monitors. d. Methods: (1) Out of doors: Children form in 2 lines facing each other. While children form in line with tbeir hands cup shape, water monitor passes down one line and up the other spilling two or three tablespoonfuls of water in each child's hand. Children rub water over hands so that entire surface is wet and form hands in cup shape again, ready for the soap monitor, who passes along shaking soap into each child's hands. Child now lathers his hands well and is ready for the second water monitor to pour on the rinsing water. As soon as the soap is rinsed off, child passes to the house for a paper towel and after drying hands carefully, puts used towel in waste basket and takes a tooth-pick with which to clean his nails. (2) Indoors: Place the waste buckets on a bench or stools about six feet apart. A water monitor stands behind each stool. Soap monitors stand between the buckets, nearer to the first bucket. Children form in line, as each child comes to first bucket he forms bis hands into a cup, receives the water over the bucket so as not to sp;ll on the floor, rubs his hands and passes on fcr the soap, lathers his hands and stops by the second bucket for the rinsing, then passes on for the towel and toothpicks as before. 11. Tooth-brush drill. 12. Water-drinking drill. (Use any method making sure the children drink water frequently during the day.)
V. Suggested Correlations:
Many times throughout the course there will be opportunities to correlate with other subjects. For example:
1. Art.
a. Poster.
281

b. Picture Study. (1) The Torn Hat (Healthy boyhood). (2) The Song of the Lark (benefit of early morning air).
c. Sand-box work--construct health house, healthful school plant, etc.
d. Drawing--on posters, etc. e. Papercutting. f. Paper folding of sanitary drinking cups.
Geography. a. Study climatic conditions, favorable to productions of different
foods or fruits. b. Reasons for illness during the construction of Panama Canal. c. Comparison of health habits of different races of peoples.
English. a. The Life of Pasteur, Jenner and others may be studied for oral
or written composition during the English period. b. Composing of health rhymes, health songs, health plays, etc. c. Write letters to soap companies, tooth paste companies, etc., for
samples of products and information regarding same.
Arithmetic. a. Percentages of gain or loss of weight at weighing time. b. Cost of illness, giving time a value, medicine, doctor bills, etc. c. Compare cost of home shampoo with cost if barber gives it.
History. a. History of diseases. b. History of Georgia Tuberculosis Association. c. History of soap and early methods of laundering clothes. d. History of bath tub--(Home Equipment Survey, General Federa-
tion of Women's Clubs, Washington, D. C.)
Citizenship. a. Pure food laws. b. Traffic Regulations. 7. Spelling. a. Health terms, immunity, infection, vaccination, etc.
Manual training. a. Making fly-traps, medicine cases. b. Making playground equipment. c. Making safety signs.
Agriculture. a. Food.
(1) How grown.' (2) How preserved.
10. Penmanship. a. Write health slogans for penmanship practice.
11. Nature Study. a. Study cleanliness habits of animals.
282

VI. Measurement of Results: 1. Means of Measuring. a. Standardized tests. b. Records. Health records, score cards, height and weight charts, vegetable chart. c. Observation by teacher. (1) General results. (a) What health habits have been formed by each pupil? Are being formed? Still need to be formed? (b) What attitudes have been established? Still need to be established? (c) Of what knowledge do the pupils have command? (d) Has there been improvement in health of children? (e) Has there been any relationship between health improvement (or lack of it) and the improved health habits, attitudes and knowledge? (2) Comparison of methods. (a) Which methods and materials are most effective in producing results in habit formation? In informational learning?
283

CHARTS (a) Weight--Height--Age Table For Girls

Hgt. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 In. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs.

38 33 33 39 34 34

40 36 36 36 41 37 37 37 42 39 39 39
43 41 41 41 41 44 42 42 42 42

45 45 45 45 45 45

46 47 47 47 48 48

47 49 50 50 50 50 50

48

52 52 52 52 53 53

49

54 54 55 55 56 56

50

56 56 57 58 59 61 62

51

59 60 61 61 63 65

52

63 64 64 64 65 67

53

66 67 67 68 68 69 71

54

69 70 70 71 71 73

55

72 74 74 74 75 77 78

56

76 78 78 79 81 83

57

80 82 82 82 84 88 92

58

84 86 86 88 93 96 101

59

87 90 90 92 96 100 103 104

60

91 95 95 97 101 105 108 109 Ill

61

99 100 101 105 108 112 113 116

62

104 105 106 109 113 115 117 118

63

110 110 112 116 117 119 120

64

114 115 117 119 120 122 123

65

118 120 121 122 123 124 125 126

66

124 124 125 128 129 130

67

128 130 131 133 133 135

68

131 133 135 136 138 138

69

135 137 138 140 142

70

136 138 140 142 144

71

138 140 142 144 145

Prepared by Bird T. Baldwin, Ph. D., and Thomas D. Wood, M. D. When taking measurements, remove the child's outdoor clothing, shoes and coats. Take heights with a square, consisting of two flat pieces of wood joined at right angles (a chalk box will serve). The child is placed in a good erect position, with heels and shoulders against the wall or wide board, upon which has been marked or pasted an accurate measure. Age is taken to the nearest birthday.
284

Published by the American CHILD HEALTH Association, 370 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y.
Note: Under the law when a full time commission of health is employed it is necessary that physical examinations of school children be made. Consult your State Board of Health, Atlanta, Georgia for full information.
(b) Weight--Height--Age Table for Boys.

Hqt. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 In. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs.

38 34 34 39 35 35

40 36 36 41 38 38 38 42 39 39 39 39 43 41 41 41 41 44 44 44 44 44

45 46 46 46 46 46

46 47 48 48 48 48

47 49 50 50 50 50 50

48

52 53 53 53 53

49

55 55 55 55 55 55

50

57 58 58 58 58 58 58

51

61 61 61 61 61 61

52

63 64 64 64 64 64 64

53

66 67 67 67 67 68 68

54

70 70 70 70 71 71 72

55

72 72 73 73 74 74 74

56

75 76 77 77 77 78 78 80

57

79 80 81 81 82 83 83

58

83 84 84 85 85 86 87

59

87 88 89 89 90 90 90

60

91 92 92 93 94 95 96

61

95 96 97 99 100 103 106

62

100 101 102 103 104 107 111 116

63

105 106 107 108 110 113 118 123 127

64

109 111 113 115 117 121 126 130

65

114 117 118 120 122 127 131 134

66

119 122 125 128 132 136 139

67

124 128 130 134 136 139 142

68

134 134 137 141 143 147

69

137 139 143 146 149 152

70

143 144 145 148 151 155

71

148 150 151 152 154 159

72

153 155 156 158 163

73

157 160 162 164 167

74

160 164 168 170 171

Prepared by Bird T. Baldwin, Ph. D., and Thomas D. Wood, M. D. 285

These new Weight-Height Age Tables, which are similar to the Wood Tables (formerly issued by the Child Health Organization of America), are the most accurate available.*
These tables should be used as a means of interesting the child in his growth and as a factor in determining the child's health and nutrition.

1 1 and 2 3-5 6-9 10-13 14-17 18-25

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY

Age of Person

Calories per pound of body weight
45 45-40 40-36 36-32 34-30 30-23 23-18

A
Cod liver oil butter milk egg yolk spinach carrots bananas lettuce oranges apples string beans turnips

VITAMIN CHART



B

C

D

potatoes (I & S) lettuce lemons milk orange juice
cabbage eggs apples carrots peas onions string beans
bananas tomatoes turnips
dried Brewers yeast

potatoes (I & S) cabbage (raw) peas raw apples lemon juice bananas tomatoes onions orange juice turnips

cod liver oil milk butter cheese beans

*Representing a large group of presumably healthy children, most of whom are native born. Tables for technical workers with detailed information can be secured from the American CHILD HEALTH Association. **Encourage the annual physical examination of every child by a physician.
286

FIRST GRADE HEALTH
Basal Text: "Health Readers: Book One--The Safety Hill of Health," published by World Book Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
SECOND GRADE
Basal Text: "Health Readers: Book Two--Building My House of Health," published by World Book Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
THIRD GRADE
Basal Text: "Health Readers: Book Three--The Road of Health to Grown-up Town," published by World Book Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
287

HEALTH, GRADES ONE, TWO AND THREE
"The Safety Hill of Health"--for first grade. "Building My House of Health"--for second grade. "The Road of Health to Grown-up Town"--for third grade. "Guide for a Health Program."
A teacher's manual by Miss Lummis and Miss Schawe based upon their Health Readers, describing in detail the work for each year. The health program in the primary grades covers all phases of healthmental, physical, and social--with emphasis on the possession of good health rather than on the lack of it. Children should be taught to consider good health in terms of simple, every-day habits of daily living, and in terms of their own usefulness and happiness, their responsibility to home, playmates, school, and community.
The objectives of health teaching are: 1. Establishment of good health habits. 2. Development of wholesome attitudes with regard to health. 3. Acquisition of knowledge about health, commensurate with the age of the children.
As children advance in grades, their health practices should become more firmly fixed and their attitudes and knowledge about matters of health more fully developed.
The result of this progress should be evident to the teacher by signs of physical improvement and development, satisfactory progress in classwork, and wholesome relationships with parents and playmates, and with the teacher herself.
HABIT SURVEY
Before any health program can be planned satisfactorily, the needs of the children of the community must be determined. This may be accomplished by making a survey, covering such details as food, food habits, sleep, play, and personal hygiene.
In the first grade this habit survey will be very simple, but with advancing grades more details may be included. From a study of the survey the teacher can determine which of the health habits need most emphasis and can accordingly give them prominence in the program. A suggested health habit survey for grades one, two, and three is given on page 4 of the Lummis-Schawe "Guide for a Health Program."
WEIGHING AND MEASURING
The results of weighing and measuring are an excellent guide for the teacher in watching the physical growth of children. It it,, likewise, a most satisfactory way of interesting children in their own development. Weighing and measuring is best done monthly; it should by all means be done at least three times during the school year.
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Projects for encouraging periodic gains in weight may be developed in each of the three grades. Definite projects of this type are described in "Guide for a Health Program" and in the Lummis-Schawe series of Health Readers.
Regular reports on weighing and measuring should be sent to parents so that they may co-operate in promoting the health of the children.
DAILY INSPECTION
Daily inspection for personal cleanliness and neatness is invaluable in developing good habits and promoting the proper attitude toward these health practices.
Methods for conducting daily inspection are outlined in "Guide for a Health Program" (page 8) and the reader, "The Road of Health to Grown-up Town" (page 22).
MID-MORNING LUNCHES
In many cases it is advisable to serve milk to seriously underweight or malnourished children in the middle of the morning, not later than 10 A. M. When possiole, this milk should have been boiled for at least 3 minutes. In rural districts, the children may bring extra milk from home or arrangements may be made with a farmer to supply the needs of the school.
SCHOOL DOCTOR, NURSE, AND DENTIST
Close co-operation of the teacher with the doctor, nurse, and dentist (provided these are on the school staff) is most essential for the development of a well-rounded health program. Without knowledge of physical defects and their correction, the teacher is greatly handicapped.
MOTIVATION AND CORRELATION
The use of classroom and playground situations is one of the most effective means of promoting health teaching. Subjects with which health teaching may be correlated are writing, reading, art, and arithmetic; also such activities as play, mid-morning lunch, and the school lunch-room.
Knowledge which the children gather through silent reading may often make more lasting impressions than when facts are presented to the class at the lesson period. Through the Health Readers the children discover for themselves references or stories about health which make the subject more vivid and real. The stories may make the children recall points which the teacher has already emphasized, or they may pave the way for an understanding and appreciation of health subjects which the teacher may present at some future time.
GRADE ONE
The following topics should be developed in the health program in Grade One: 1. Classification of foods by name; fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, desserts.
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2. Simple knowledge about foods. Amount of milk best for growing boys and girls. Food essentials for a good breakfast. Abstinence from tea and coffee and from sweets between meale Important vegetables to promote growth. Important fruits to promote growth. Sufficient water daily.
3. Regularity in eating. 4. Long hours of sleep at night with open windows. 5. Daily relaxation periods at school. 6. Individual ownership of toilet articles. 7. Cleanliness.
Teeth, proper method of brushing, Body, Face, Hands, Hair, Regular habits of elimination. 8. Play outdoors daily. 9. Simple safety lessons. 10. Appropriate dress with relation to the weather. 11. Control over emotions. 12. Self protection and group protection from the common cold.
GRADE TWO
The topics listed for Grade One should be continually emphasized in the second grade, through new methods of presentation, new projects, and reading. In addition to these topics, the following subjects are to be stressed:
1. Posture: Sitting Walking Sleeping
2. Food Habits: Regularity in meals Learning to eat certain new foods Chewing thoroughly and slowly Cheerfulness at Mealtime Cleanliness in regard to foods
3. Simple reasons for eating the following: Vegetables Fruits Milk Cereals
4. Foods essential for A good breakfast A good dinner A good supper
5. Additional safety knowledge
290
(

Disease prevention 7. How the teeth grow
GRADE THREE
The topics listed for Grades One and Two should be continually emphasized in the third grade, through new methods of presentation, new projects, and reading. In addition to these topics, the following subjects are to be stressed.
1. First-aid lessons 2. Schoolroom ventilation 3. Structure of teeth 4. Food that builds bones and teeth 5. Foods that build muscle 6. Foods that build blood 7. Cooking lessons 8. Study of the arches of the feet 9. Attention to proper method of walking 10. Life processes through plants and animals 11. Care of the eyes 12 Simple knowledge of community health
FOURTH GRADE
Basal Text: "Just Ten Minutes," published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Aboove: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: "Teacher's Manual for Just Ten Minutes," published by Smith, Hammond and Company. (In course of preparation.)
HEALTH COURSE OF STUDY FOR FOURTH GRADE
Text Book: "JUST TEN MINUETS," by Eleanor G. Griffith.
AIMS OF THE COURSE:
To create in children of the fourth grade an ideal of "positive, constructive health building" looking toward "the mental, emotional, and social health of the child, as well as his physical well being."
291

To set up in the mind of the teacher the conception that health education means creating interest in those habits, attitudes, and character traits which not only may add to the length of life, but which will improve the quality of life.

SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE PROPER USE OF THE BOOK.
In order to develop to the best advantage the many activities which the contents suggest, the teacher should see that a book is in the hands of every pupil. The unusual charm of the story is generally too strong for youthful temptation to withstand, hence it is wise to permit the book to be read in its entirety before planning the first unit of instruction.
It will add greatly to the successful use of the book if the teacher first makes herself familiar with the entire story. She then can plan, with reference to the contents, health instruction units according to the needs of her particular group. She will find herself supplied with enough material to cover a year's work. A prepared list of the major thoughts will guide the teacher in her search for subject matter. She will find mentioned the following habits, attitudes, and character traits needed:

MAJOR THOUGHTS FOR PLANNING THE HEALTH INSTRUCTION UNITS

For Health Building:

For Character Building.

1. Adequate sleep

1. Obedience

2. Rest

2. Friendliness

3. Proper food (including the drink 3. Helpfulness

ing of milk and of water)

4. Courage

4. Play

5. Leadership

5. Exercise

6. Good sportsmanship

6. Fresh Air

7. Appreciation

7. Sunshine

8. Generosity

8. General cleanliness

9. Patience

9. Clean teeth

10. Truthfulness

10. Well-kept hands

11. Honesty

12. Courtesy

13. Self-control

14. Poise

PRINCIPLES IN HABIT FORMATION TO BE OBSERVED.
_ To assist teachers in health habit training, the following principles involved in general habit formation will be found helpful.
"In trying to establish a habit, give frequent opportunity to practice that habit with satisfaction.
(1) Practice with satisfaction builds. (2) Practice with annoyance tears down. (3) Success is stimulating.

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(4) Failure is paralyzing. (5) Utilize all occasions. (6) Create occasions. Be conscious of attendant learnings. (1) While the teacher is consciously teaching one thing, the child is un-
consciously learning many things. (2) The child develops attitudes towards any task. (3) Avoid too much zeal. (4) Get action without exhortation. (5) Present the positive side of health. From a lecture given by Dr. W. H. Kilpatrick, of Columbia University, and printed in "Some Tendencies in Health Education," published by the American Child Health Association, 1926.

MOTIVATION OF HABIT FORMING:

Incentives that may be used to motivate the practice of health habits are:

1. Personal appearance 2. Helpfulness 3. Leadership 4. Growing 5. Comradeship

6. Physical accomplishment (winning in games)
7. Desire to deserve well of public opinion

The best results are obtained by making a "drive" on one or two habits only, for short periods of time. Variety stimulates enthusiasm.

HABIT FORMING ACTIVITIES:
Observing and recording accomplishments are an important factor in the procedure. This may be carried on as a separate activity, or as a part of a health instruction unit. The following methods have been used to advantage by successful teachers:
(1) Morning inspection for habits that relate to cleanliness and general appearance.
(2) Health habit record of those habits which are carried on usually at home, such as eating and sleeping.
(3) Blackboard record of habits concerned with character development that the teacher can observe in her daily contact with the pupils.
(4) An achievement book for each child or for the class, which contains statements written by the children at such times as they become conscious of improvement.

DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTION UNITS:
In developing health instruction units, natural interests which have been found useful are:
1. Family life 2. Nature (animals, plants) 3. Toys
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4. Handwork (construction, sewing, cutting, drawing, painting) 5. School and class activities 6. Games 7. Parties 8. Dramatization 9. Class or group loyalty (group competition)
For each chapter in JUST TEN MINUTES, similar suggestions to the following are appropriate:

CHAPTER I.

First Step: Read the chapter. Discuss the contents. Dramatize it.

Second Step: Thoughts for developing the units of instruction:

Health Building-- Sleep
Value of sleep. Regular sleep habits. Stories of the sandman. Discuss the value of
sleep--rest--play--

Character Building-- Obedience
Obedience to parents. Disobedience. Stories illustrating effects of dis-
obedience.

Do young animals, cats, puppies, etc.

play?

Third Step:
Make illustrative drawings. Make posters. Make a good sleep rule. Make slogans. Use sand table and plasticene. Use scissors and paper. Write original health stories.

Fourth Step: Select a good habit to form:
Make it a habit to sleep by your rule. Record Achievements:
Let pupils keep a record of the time they went to bed each night and arose each morning during the week.

First Step:
Read the chapter. Discuss the contents. Dramatize it.

CHAPTER II

294
I

Second Step: Thoughts for developing the units of instruction:

Health Building--
Need for nourishing foods. The Story of "Neighbor Apple Tree". How eating apples may help boys
and girls to beat the Imp who is really 111 Health.

Character Building--
Courage to endure hardships. Co-operation and friendship. A bad habit.

Third Step:
Make a health rule about apples. Make a class slogan concerning bad habits.

Fourth Step:
Selecting a habit to form: (Eating a raw fruit or vegetable daily).
Record of achievement: Raw fruits and vegetables eaten daily during the week: Apples, oranges, grapes, tomatoes and lettuce.

CHAPTER IV.

First Step:
Read this chapter and others that contain information about milk. (Ill, VI, VIII).
Discuss the use of milk and vegetables with members of class.

Second Step: Thoughts for developing the units of instruction:

Health Building--
Our Teeth What our teeth do for us and
what we should do for them. Milk contains lime for making
enamel. Show that teeth crumble and de-
cay for lack of lime. Fruits and vegetables exercise the
teeth if we chew them thoroughly on both sides of the mouth. Chewing bread and other coarse foods makes the blood circulate around the roots of our teeth.

Character Building--
Helpfulness to Others Discuss the story of the boy who
was made into "Neighbor Apple Tree". Let the children tell how the boys and girls in the story could help him.

Third Step: Make a rule for the daily care of the teeth (see page 94). Make another rule for building up the teeth and for exercising them.

295

Fourth Step:
Making the rule for brushing teeth a habit by daily practice. (Count those who brush teeth).
Record achievements in care of teeth--morning, noon, and night.

CHAPTER VI.

First Step:
Read the chapter. Discuss the contents. Dramatize it.

Second Step: Thoughts for developing the units of instruction:

Health Building-

Character Building--

Milk
Milk makes a "perfect food". Milk must be kept clean. Discuss the lunch, (Pages 39 and
40), which the Fairy gave Comfort. Ask class what the doctor ordered King Neversleep to eat.

Forgiveness
Permit the children to discuss in class the kindness of the Fairy to her enemy. (see page 76).
Show what her knights fought for by a statement the Fairy made.

Third Step:
Make a character rule against quarreling Make a rule for drinking milk.

Fourth Step:
Making habits of the rules. Record of achievement:
Held temper in check __no. of times. Drank 1 quart milk daily .. no. of times.

CHAPTER VII.
First Step: Read the chapter. Discuss the contents. Dramatize it.
Second Step: Thoughts for developing the units of instruction:
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Health Building--
Water Makes us Strong
and Healthy
Discuss the weight of the human body after the water has been taken from it.
Weigh the class. Show each pupil how much
weight is due to water in his body. Show how water cools the body engine and keeps the engine from getting too hot. Show that food could not be used if it were not mixed with water.

Character Building-
Faithfulness Show why Faith's pitcher was always
filled with water. Show how the fairy was faithful by
being neighborly. Show how the giant was faithful and
sportsmanlike.

Third Step:
Make a rule for drinking water. Make a rule for bathing.

Fourth Step: Select a habit to form in regard to drinking milk and water.

Record of Achievement. Water drunk daily Milk drunk daily Number of baths during the week

(blackboard) qts. qts.
..times.

FIFTH GRADE
Basal Text: "Everyday Living for Boys and Girls," published by Smith, Hammond and Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
297

HEALTH COURSE OF STUDY FOR FIFTH GRADE
Text Book: EVERYDAY LIVING FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, by Maude Richman Calvert.
HOW TO KEEP WELL
The teacher should co-operate in every way possible in helping to carry forward the work of the State Health Department. Before selecting the problems for study, she should communicate with the School Nurse, the Public Health Nurse, or the Red Cross Nurse, if there are any in the community, and she should secure the material on Teaching Health issued by the State Health Department. She should make a careful study of the community in which she is teaching, and endeavor to discover the needs of her students. A few suggested problems are given below. Each separate community will suggest additional problems.
Problem I. Page 2. If we are to live right and be able to do our share of work in this world,
it will be necessary that we be healthy and strong. 1. Am I as well as I should be? 2. How can I find this out? 3. If I am not, why am I not? 4. What can I do to make myself well and to keep myself well? The members of the class should be weighed and measured and a chart made for each one. They should be impressed with the importance of forming good health habits, and every effort should be made to induce them to do so.
Problem II. Page 3. 1. Are the members of my family well? 2. Do my younger brothers and sisters weigh what they should? 3. How can I help mother in teaching the younger members of the family better food and health habits? 4. Review the rules of the Health Game.
Problem III. Page 9. Health Rule No. 1. Are we taking proper care of our teeth? Discuss the importance of having the teeth examined at least every six months. When possible, arrange for Dental Hygiene lectures by local dentists.
Problem IV. Page 23-26. 1. How much do we know about germs? 2. What germs are harmful? 3. How do germs enter the body? 4. How can we protect ourselves against disease?
298

Problem V. Page 27-36.
Since dirt and filth breed disease, what are some of the things that we can do in our home that will help us to keep in better health? 1. What care should be given our house and yard? 2. What is my duty toward helping to keep our school grounds clean? 3. What special care should we give the kitchen? The refrigerator; the
bathroom; the garbage can?
Problem VI. Page 44-45.
1. Have any of the children in our family hookworm? 2. Has carelessness about our homes caused this? 3. What can we do to cure them?
Problem VII.
Flies, mosquitoes, rats, body lice and household pets carry disease. 1. Are there flies around our house? Where do they breed? Class
clean up breeding places. Make fly traps and see that they are used. Screen houses with mosquito net if wire is not available. 2. Are there breeding places for mosquitoes around our house? How can we get rid of them? 3. Since rats and mice carry disease, we must get rid of them. How can we best do it? 4. Household pets also carry disease, especially pets which are kept indoors, such as cats and dogs. Rabbits, chickens and birds which are kept outdoors rarely have diseases which are easily transferred to human beings.
Problem VIH. Page 25-28.
How can we guard against contagious and communicable diseases, such as: 1. Colds. 2. Tonsilitis. 3. Whooping Cough. 4. Measles. 5. Chicken Pox. 6. Scarlet fever, etc.
Problem IX. Page 33-36.
Drinking water sometimes carries disease germs. Is our water pure? Lessons on contamination of water should be given. Study the local water supplies. Harmful effects from using "common drinking cup." Teach class how to make a drinking cup out of clean folded paper. Discuss the importance of having "doubtful" water tested by City or State Health Department. Discuss proper methods of sewerage disposal, the importance of proper drainage in relation to wells, privies, stables, etc.
Special References:
"Health of the Family"--Federal Bureau for Vocational Education," Washington, D. C. Page 22-36.
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The following bulletins from TJ. S. Department of Agriculture: Bulletin No. 463--"The Sanitary Privy." Bulletin No. 527--"Sewage Disposal in Rural Homes." Bulletin No. 851--"The House Fly." Bulletin No. 444--"Remedies and Prevention Against Mosquitoes." Bulletin No. 754:--"The Bedbug." U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Problem X. Page 46. What should we know about the use of patent medicines? Class should be impressed with the harmful effects of taking patent medi-
cines. They should know that in case of illness a physician should be consulted, and his advice should be followed.
Problem XI. Page 46-57. What shall we do when accidents occur? Make a study of simple First-Aid Treatment.
Problem XII. What supplies should be in our Home Medicine Cabinet? Ask a doctor or Public Health nurse to assist in making a list of home
remedies and First-Aid supplies.
Problem XIII. How can we guard against accidents? Make a list of "Safety First" rules.

THRIFT

Do you know what it means to be successful? Find a food definition of success. Name some successful men and women.
In order to succeed in life, it is necessary to possess certain qualifications.

Problem I.

Why should I give special attention to the following:

1. Honesty

7. Enthusiasm

2. Courtesy

8. Initiative

3. Clean personal habits

9. Loyalty

4. Industry

10. Ambition

5. Promptness

11. Dependability

6. Thoughtfulness

12. Neat appearance

Problem H. * Page 140-145. What does it mean to be thrifty? In order to be thrifty, I must learn to earn, spend, and save wisely. Discuss the meaning of earning, spending, and saving.

Problem m. Page 140-150. How can I earn money? Should I expect money for helping with the work at home? Name ways in which money may be earned. Discuss the money value of the comforts of home, including food, clothing, etc.
300

Problem IV. Page 142-143. Does it make any difference how we spend our time? Discuss the value of making good use of our time.
Problem V. Page 144-145. Why should I invest in good health? Discuss the importance of good health in relation to success in life.
Problem VI. Page 147-151. Why should I learn to save time, money, food, clothing, etc? Discuss the value of spending less than is earned; the importance of saving money for sickness and old age, etc.
GOOD MANNERS
Good behavior should be considered as one of the important factors in developing a good personality.
Problem I. Page 105-107. Why should I learn to be polite and courteous? Discuss the value of courteous manners in relation to success in life.
Problem II. Page 111-116. Do I have good table manners? Is it necessary to practice good table manners every day? Discuss the value of good table manners.
Problem in. Page 108-110. How can I help mother at home? Give some good reason for being courteous to your mother, father, brother and sister. Make a list of things that you can do at home. Discuss the value of good manners at home. Make a set of rules to be used in your home.
Problem IV. Page 110. Do I have proper respect for older people? Suggest ways in which you can make older people happier and more comfortable.
Problem V. Page 117-119. Do I know how to introduce my friends? Do I know what to do when being introduced?
Problem VI. Page 119. Do I know how to answer the telephone? Am I continually borrowing from my neighbors? Discuss "The Voice with a Smile Wins." Give reasons for this statement: "Boys and Girls in school should not borrow from each other."
301

Problem VII. Page 119-122. How can I help keep my clothes in good repair? Discuss care of clothing, such as simple repairing, dusting, everyday care, etc.
Problem VIII. Page 122-125. Do I know how to entertain my friends? Write a note inviting your friends to your home for an informal party. How would you answer a formal invitation to a party? Plan a class party.
Problem IX. Page 124-126 Do I know how to treat a guest? Do I know how to be a guest? Write a letter inviting a friend to visit you. Write an answer to this letter. Write to your friend's mother telling her how much you enjoyed your visit in her home.
Problem X. Do I know how to choose gifts for my father, mother, brother, sister and friends? Make a study of gifts suitable for people of all ages.
Problem XI. Page 126-128. Do I know how to treat my teacher and my schoolmates at school? Make a set of rules to be observed at school, in the class room, in the halls, and in the assembly.
Problem XII. Page 175-177. Do I have good manneis in the lunch room? Discuss the behavior of boys and girls in the lunch room.
Problem XIII. Page 105-177. Do I know how to apply the rules of "Good Behavior" in playing games at school and at home? Discuss the value of being a "good sport."
Problem XIV. Page 128-129. Do I have good manners in public places? Discuss the importance of good manners on the street, on the country roads, on trains, pullman cars, street cars, cafeterias, restaurants, depots, theatres, churches, etc.
Problem XV. Page 133-134. Do automobile drivers respect the rights of others? How can I belp in making the community a better place to live? Discuss the value of "community clean up day" and of keeping parks, back yards, sheds, etc. free from paper bags, chewing gum, tin cans, etc.
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SCHOOL LUNCH
Problem I. Page 155-156. Do I know what kind of foods growing boys and girls should eat? Discuss food needs for growing boys and girls.
Problem n. Page 69-92. Food experts in the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Home Economics Division, have divided all foods into five groups: Group 1. Fruits and vegetables. Group 2. Milk, eggs, meat and meat substitutes. Group 3. Starchy foods. Group 4. Sugar and sweet foods. Group 5. Fat and fat foods. Name all the foods used in your home and classify under the above classification.
Problem III. Page 97-98. In order to be healthy and strong, it is necessary to select food from each of the five groups. What foods are usually served for breakfast? Plan ten breakfasts using food from each food group.
Problem IV. Do I know how to select proper food in the school cafeteria? List foods commonly used in restaurants and cafeterias. Select ten lunches suitable for growing boys and girls from this list.
Problem V. Page 163-166. Do I know how to select food for the lunch box? Discuss types of food suitable for lunch box, such as fruits, sandwiches, etc. Plan ten school lunch combinations. The ideal school lunch should contain: 1. A substantial food such as sandwiches. 2. A bulky, water food such as fresh fruit or tomatoes. 8. A simple dessert, such as custards or plain cakes. 4. Milk or cocoa to drink. "A bowl of hot soup or a cup of cocoa is a very valuable addition to the cold lunch. The addition of one hot dish to the school lunch makes the food more digestible and more appetizing. Even among children who are not under-nourished, the hot lunch has the effect of making their mental machinery run better. It makes their disposition happier and they are less inclined to waste time and annoy the teacher."
Problem VI. Page 166-167, 173-174. How can I help in preparing the hot lunch at school? Plan school lunches for one month to be supplemented by at least one hot dish. Make out a plan for serving a hot lunch in your school.
303

Problem VII. Page 159-160. What kind of lunch box shall we select? Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of the tin box, paper box, paper - sacks, etc. What dishes are needed in the lunch box? What special care should be given the tin lunch box? How should sandwiches be wrapped, etc.?
Problem VIII. How can I help in making the lunch hour pleasant? Discuss the value of being happy at meal time, table manners, etc. Why take plenty of time to eat lunch?
SIXTH GRADE
Basal Text: "New World Health Series--Primer of Hygiene and Sanitation," published by World Book Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
SIXTH GRADE HEALTH COURSE
Based on Ritchie--Caldwell's
PRIMER OP HYGIENE AND SANITATION: THIRD REVISION
The object that the teacher should continually have in mind in the presentation of health subjects to children is the creation of right attitudes and habits of healthy living. With the inculcation of these, the foundation will be laid for vigorous and useful manhood and womanhood. But to secure the results that are desired, constant repetition will be necessary.
The work of the sixth grade is intended to give to the many pupils who leave school early a thorough grasp of those principles that will enable them intelligently to care for their own health and to co-operate in public health activities; at the same time it is designed to lay a solid foundation for more advanced work on the part of those pupils who will go on to the higher grades. Upon the completion of this year's health work the pupil should (1) be thoroughly impressed with the idea that he is physically the architect of his own fortunes and (2) have a clear understanding of the fundamental principles on which are based the campaign against all infectious diseases.
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The methods and principles of personal or physiological hygiene are quite distinct from those of public hygiene or sanitation. It avoids confusion and misunderstanding on the part of the pupil at this stage of his education if these two different phases of the work are largely taken up separately. The first half year is therefore devoted to personal hygiene (with a brief introduction to sanitation) and the second half year to sanitation.
The state adopted text, Ritchie-Caldwell's Primer of Hygiene and Sanitation: Third Revision, is to be followed.
First Half Year's Work--Complete Book I, Primer of Hygiene and Chapters I to VI of Book n, Primer of Sanitation. The primary objective of the work of the first half year is to ground pupils
in those elementary principles upon which the intelligent care of the body and the promotion of personal health and physical well-being depend. The ultimate success of this part of the course will be measured by the extent to which the pupils form right attitudes and habits. It should be remembered that children of the age of those in this grade begin to want to know the reason why they must do certain things and they are more apt to effect changes in their habits and methods of living when they understand the reasons for the new practices. The "Suggestions and Topics for Development" at the end of most of the chapters of the textbook will provide material for class discussions and activities. The simple exercises described in Chapter XXVII (page 131) can be used from time to time throughout the year. The units of study outlined below do not necessarily require the same amount of class time; the teacher should make the proper apportionment of time at the beginning of the year.
Unit 1. Keeping the Body in Health--Chapters I and II, Primer of Hygiene:
Importance of health. The parts of the body. The seven great laws of health.
Unit 2. Foods: Their Uses, Selection, and Preparation--Chapters HI to VI. The three uses and classes of foods. Minerals and vitamins. Economy
in buying foods. Choosing the right foods. Some important principles in cooking. Why foods spoil. How foods are preserved.
Unit 3. Keeping the Digestive Organs in Health--Chapters VII and VIII. What happens to food during digestion. The organs of digestion.^ Proper
care of the digestive organs. Aids to digestion. Correct eating habits.
Unit 4. Care of the Teeth--Chapter IX: Importance of caring for the teeth. How to care for the teeth. Visiting
the dentist.
Unit 5. Breathing and Ventilation--Chapters X to XII: Why the body needs air. What is meant by fresh air and how to obtain
it. Outdoor sleeping How the lungs and air passages work. Care of the respiratory organs. Special troubles of the nose and throat. Treating adenoids and tonsils.
305

Unit 6. The Blood and the Heart--Chapter XIII:
How the blood circulates. Avoiding strain on the heart, and substances injurious to the heart. How to stop bleeding.

Unit 7. The Work and Care of the Kidneys--Chapter XIV:

Unit 8. The Skin and the Clothing--Chapters XV and XVI:
Function of the skin in regulating body heat. Care of the hair and nails. Bathing. Selecting clothing suited to seasons. Shoes and feet.

Unit 9. Carriage of the Body and Exercise--Chapters XVII and XVIII (also

XXVII):

V

How the body is held erect. Securing correct carriage in both standing and sitting. Place and time to exercise. Some rules in regard to exercise.

Unit 10. Care of the Nervous System and Habit Formation--Chapters XIX to XXI:
General plan and work of the nervous system. Need for rest and sleep. Hygienic habits everyone should form. Desirable habits of mind.

Unit 11. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco--Chapters XXII and XXIII:
From standpoint of health. From standpoint of business. Arguments against their use.

Unit 12. Care of the Eyes and Ears--Chapters XXIV and XXV: Structure of the eye. Importance of correcting defective vision with glasses.
Good light for reading. Resting the eyes. Removing foreign bodies. Testing the sight. Structure of the ear. Care of the ear.
Unit 13. First Aid--Chapter XXVI:
Actual drill in the methods of first aid for the following accidents: Broken bone, burning clothing, fainting, drowning. What to do in case
of poisoning.

Unit 14. How the Body is Affected by Disease Germs--Chapters 1 to III, Primer of Sanitation:
Importance of preventing germ diseases. The cells of which the body is made. Health dependent upon conditions of the cells. What disease germs are and where they come from. How the germs enter the body. The first two rules for preventing germ diseases.

Unit 15. The Body's Protection Against Germs--Chapters IV to VI:
How germs cause sickness. How the body destroys germs and their poisons. Vaccination. The third rule for preventing germ diseases. The different kinds of bacteria. The skin as a defense against infectious diseases.
Second Half Year's Work--Complete Book H, Primer of Sanitation, Chapters vn to XXXVII:
The primary objective of the work of the second half year is to develop an understanding of the means of preventing infectious diseases and to stimulate the pupil's intelligent and effective co-operation in public health activities.

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The pupil should be able to apply what he learns to the sanitary problems of his school and of his local community. The great central idea of sanitation, keeping germs out of the body, is a relatively simple one. The methods are definite and specific and the pupil can apply them with immediate effect in his own life. The most fruitful results in health conservation can be achieved in this field. Again the units of study outlined are not necessarily of uniform length.
Unit 1. Bacteria That Enter Through the Skin--Chapters VII and VIII, Primer of Sanitation: Review Units 14 and 15 of first half year's work. Protecting wounds against
pus forming germs. How lockjaw may be avoided. Tetanus antitoxin.
Unit 2. The Respiratory Diseases: How Prevented--Chapters IX to XII: General methods of preventing respiratory diseases. How diphtheria is
caused. The Schick Test. Antitoxin treatment. How pneumonia is caused. How it is prevented. Guarding against influenza and whooping cough. The importance of avoiding colds.
Unit 3. Tuberculosis and Its Treatment--Chapters XIII to XV.: Prevalence of the disease and its different forms. How it is contracted.
Precautions to prevent it. Tuberculosis in animals. Importance of early treatment of consumptives. Factors in successful treatment. Sanitariums. Progress being made. Relation of dust to Tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases.
Unit 4. Diseases of the Intestines: Typhoid Fever--Chapters XVI to XIX: Food poisoning. How Typhoid Fever is carried. Vaccination and preven-
tion. Other bacterial diseases of the intestines prevented in ways similar to prevention of Typhoid Fever.
Unit 5. Securing Pure Water Supply--Chapter XX: Relation of water supply to disease. How water supplies are kept safe.
Removing germs from water.
Unit 6. Some Other Diseases and How to Avoid Them--Chapter XXI: Meningitis, Pink eye, Scarlet Fever, Plague, diseases of animals and plants.
Unit 7. Preventing Malaria and Yellow Fever--Chapters XXII to XXIV: A different kind of disease germ causes Malaria. How the germ is trans-
mitted by mosquitoes. Preventing Malaria by screening, destroying mosquitoes, and by quinine. Yellow Fever caused by another mosquito. Importance of destroying mosquitoes. Life history of mosquito. Methods of fighting mosquitoes.
Unit 8. Smallpox--Chapter XXV: Character of the disease. Why everyone should be vaccinated. A point
about preventing germ diseases that should be fully understood.
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Unit 9. Some Other Diseases That Can Be Prevented- -Chapters XXVI and XXVII:
The Pasteur treatment for hydrophobia. Controlling epidemics of measles and mumps. How the spread of hookworm and other intestinal worms is prevented.
Unit 10. Protection From Diseases by Means of Sanitation--Chapters XXVIII to XXXII: What sanitation is and why it is important. The house fly as a carrier of
disease. How to destroy flys. Keeping food free from disease germs. Keeping milk pure. Methods of disinfecting: Light, heat, chemicals. Special points in disinfecting. Avoiding habits that help spread germs.
Unit II. Public Sanitation and the Individual's Part In It--Chapters XXXIII to XXXV:
The need for public health officials. How the individual can support their work. ^ Quarantine. Water supply and sewerage system. Vital statistics. Educating the public on health matters. Sanitary measures in your own community. Practical results.
Unit 12. New Discoveries Regarding Disease Germs--Chapters XXXVI and XXXVII: Measures to help prevent infantile paralysis. Other diseases caused by
filterable viruses. Importance of contact infection. School health officers and public health nurses. Other matters yet to be finally settled.
SEVENTH GRADE
Basal Text: "Healthy Living, Book Two," published by Charles E. Merrill Company.
Supplementary Text: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete.
Manuals: Basal Text: None.
SEVENTH GRADE HEALTH
"Just as there was,* at about the age of eight or nine a period of readjustment of motor ideals, so at about twelve, there is a time of halting, uncertainty, and readjustment of social ideals. We are now at the threshold of a new birth, a new conception of life and of the use of powers.
Education by plays and games, Johnson.
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This is the period of most rapid bodily growth. The heart increases rapidly in size relative to the blood vessels, and there is a marked increase in blood pressure. There is also a rapid increase in lung and chest capacity, in strength of grip of hand, and in control of accessory muscles. The sexual organs are developing rapidly. While the brain is not perceptibly increasing in weight there is a rapid structural change and accelerated development of association fibers. It is the period of greatest tendency to nervous disorders, and there is an increased liability to disease.
This is the time of the most rapid development of the heart, and emotions. Love, pity, fear, anger, jealousy, emulation, ambition have a new awakening. There is frequently great emotional instability. Anger and pugnacity increase; sympathy increases. There is periodic laziness, awkwardness, selfconsciousness, tendency to reverie, dreams of greatness, self-assertion. There is a tendency to affection and mannerisms, to slang, to desire to show off, to freakishness and pranks.
There comes now a new tendency to imitation and suggestion. There is a shifting of susceptibility to influence of adult ideals and example. There is a striking increase in susceptibility to religious influence; also the greatest liability to incorrigibility, misdemeanors and crime. There is a desire to leave home, yet susceptibility to homesickness. There is a keen sense of humor, a tendency to practical joking, great sensitiveness to praise, censure, or ridicule.
There is now an increasing tendency to rudimentary organizations, gangs, clubs, and great interest in competitive and co-operative games; also in taking and giving of 'Stunts'. The circle of favorite games is narrowing, and sex differences become prominent. There is great admiration for physical prowess, hero worship, loye of adventure, and love of hunting and camping.
Reasoning is strengthening. There is on the whole less liability to errors in reasoning. The memory is increasing and the imagination is very active. The general reading interest is at its height. A genuine historic interest appears; also interest in drama. The collection interest gains in definiteness and permanency. There is great interest in nature and the training of animals. There is an increase in the regard for money and for trading. The puzzle interest involves mainly language and arithmetical puzzles. There is an increased interest in music and in rhythm.
The environment in this period, then, should furnish opportunity for games and plays involving great physical activity and adapted to develop the large muscle areas, to continue the development of the finer motor adjustments, and to relate individual activity to a social group. These plays should develop the manly qualities--courage, generosity, staying power, and social consciousness. The increased interest along the many lines mentioned above should be a means for supplying many varied activities tending to direct the attention and interests without rathar than within, relieving the peculiar and often morbid emotional tendencies of this time. The narrowing circle and increased intensity of interest make this a favorable time for fixing permanent interests in some line--in athletics, nature, science, literature, music, or art."
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Teachers should inspect the hygienic conditions of their classrooms daily and from this inspection should be set up definite ideals and standards of cleanliness. This should have both an illustrative and a practical value.
Class attention should be devoted to the following conditions:
1. Pupils--their personal cleanliness: clothes, nose, hair, teeth, nails. 2. The room and its ventilation--fresh air and the correct room tem-
perature. 3. Short,recurrent physical exercise periods. 4. Eye strain--detect this as soon as possible. Careful use of blackboards. 5. Body posture. See that the child forms correct bone and muscle
habits. 6. Seats--See that they are properly adjusted to the child. 7. Breathing habits (watch for mouth breathers and for them, if possible,
consult a physician.) 8. Speech habits. 9. Lunch inspection, care and suggestions for eating, with opportunities
provided for wholesome conversation while lunch is being eaten.
SEVENTH GRADE OUTLINE
In an increasing measure through the seventh grade the teacher should emphasize:
1. A more detailed study of physiology and hygiene. 2. The social and community aspect of health. 3. The scientific foundation for health habits so that by the time the
pupil reaches maturity he may decide all health problems on a rational basis. 4. That it is still necessary to have pupils check their own health behavior, to be sure that their ideals and information carry over into action.
1. Need of Health Study:
a. The following adapted quotations from Dr. Thos. D. Wood, presents these startling facts:
(1) About one per cent of our school children are mentally defective. (2) More than one per cent have organic heart trouble. (3) At least five per cent are, or have been, afflicted with tuberculosis. (4) Five per cent have defective hearing which often causes normal
children to be classified as dullards. (5) Twenty-five per cent of our children have defective eyes. Only
a small portion of these have received any attention. (6) Fifteen to twenty-five per cent are malnourished. This is not
limited to the poorest classes, but is found many times in wealthy families. (7) Fifteen to twenty-five per cent have adenoids, diseased tonsils or other glandular defects. (8) Fifty to seventy-five per cent have defective teeth which frequently lead to other diseases, such as rheumatism.
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(9) Ten to twenty per cent have weak foot arches, spines or other joint defects.
(10) Seventy-five per cent of all school children have some physical defect which is remedial, and would be remedied, in many cases, if known.
b. Importance of these statistics to Georgia boys and girls. (1) A universal problem, defective children may be in any school. (2) During World War twenty-five per cent of the men in prime of life were not accepted because of physical defects. Estimate financial cost to government. (3) Ill health is detrimental to school work. (4) Ill health prevents family support.
2. Needs of Health Study (Continued).:
a. Survey of community will show illnesses or ill health of grown people which are a result of neglect in childhood. Discuss the following points from local observation: (1) Rheumatism may be caused by bad teeth. (2) Deafness--may have been prevented. (3) Blindness or defective eyesight--may have been corrected. (4) Tuberculosis--may have been prevented in childhood. (5) Malnutrition may be corrected by a study of foods and food needs. (6) Adenoid and tonsil operation should not be neglected.
b. Start weighing and weight chart as in previous years.
3. The Structure of the Body. Life and Health:
a. A study of the cell, development of all parts of the body from the single cell.
b. Caring for the body. c. Relation of knowledge and practice of laws of health to length of life.
4. The Skeleton: a. Uses of the skeleton. b. Most important parts of the skeleton. c. Sprains, dislocations and broken bones.
5. The Skeletal System as related to Hygienic Habits: a. Necessity for formation of posture habits in youth. b. The pliability of bones during youth.
G. The Muscles: a. Structure and location. b. Work of the muscles. c. Securing good carriage of the body.
7. The Muscular System: a. Effects of strain or fatigue. b. Methods of wholesome development.
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Summary and review of the important points of work done during the quarter.
Bring weight chart to date.
8. The circulatory system: a. How it works. b. The function of the blood. c. Plasma and corpuscles.
Note: Read from available sources any information regarding the Selective Draft, and determine the number of young men who were rejected. From observation and questioning it will be found that there are children within the community who have one or more defects.
9. The Circulatory System--(Continued): a. The heart. b. Hygiene of the heart. c. How the heart may be injured.
10. The Lymph: a. The nature of the lymph. b. How it is circulated. c. Its use.
11. The Circulatory System--(Continued): a. The effects of drugs and stimulants. b. Discussion of various kind of drugs and stimulants and their effects.
12. The Nervous System: a. Structure and function of the nervous system. b. The three principal parts of the brain. c. Discussion of reflex and voluntary action. Importance of habit.
13. The Nervous System--(Continued): a. How it works. b. How it may be kept efficient. Physiological effects of drugs. c. Care of the nervous system. The need of rest, fresh air, and peace of mind.
14. Tuberculosis: a. Sanitariums. b. Treatment, rest, food, outdoor life, avoidance of dampness, climate conditions. Review the work of the quarter.
15. The Digestive System: a. Parts of the digestive system. b. The function of the digestive system. c. The intestines and their work.
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16. The Digestive System--(Continued): a. The food needs of the body. b. Substances, such as minerals, etc., that are necessary to health. c. Work done by enzymes. Carbohydrates and fats, proteins. d. Storage of food within the body.
17. The Digestive System--(Continued): a. Alcohol not a food. Its affects on the brain and the nervous and digestive systems. b. Reasons for eating slowly and regularly. c. Reasons for chewing food well, and being cheerful.
18. The Eye:
a. The function and structure of the eye. b. How the image is formed. The lens and its function and how it ac-
commodates. c. Care of the eyes.
Note: Test the vision of each child using an eye test chart. If in doubt about vision urge child to see a physician.
19. The Eye-- (Continued): a. Defects of the eye. (1) Nearsightedness. (2) Farsightedness. (3) Astigmatism. b. Injuries done by disease germs. Effects of trachoma (sore eyes). c. Importance of securing spectacles when needed; necessity for good light when working or reading; practices that overtax the eyes.
20. The Ear:
a. Divisions of the ear structure and function. b. How a sound wave starts a message to the brain. c. Care of the ear. Make tests for hearing.
Note: Test the hearing. Hold a watch (a man's pocket watch) 20 feet from child and see if he can hear tick. Stand 20 feet away and speak in a distinct whisper. If child cannot repeat what you say, his hearing is defective.
21. Touch, Taste and Smell: a. How the nerves of touch receive messages. b. The nerves of taste; location of taste buds. Relation between smell and taste. c. The nerves of smell. Olfactory cells. Location. Discussion and reviews of the work covered during the quarter.
22. Food:
a. Compare foods with foods used in an earlier time. b. Why plain food is better for health. c. Proper care of food.
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(1) Refrigerator. (2) Keep covered. (3) Pure Food Laws. d. Why a variety of foods is better. Study food charts. e. School lunch. (1) Properly prepared. (2) Foods best for school lunch.
23. Foods that build the body: a. Those which build muscle. b. Those which build bones and teeth. c. Those which build blood.
24. Foods which furnish fuel: a. Sugars, starches, fats. b. Test for starch in potatoes, cornstarch flour by the iodine solution test.
25. Foods which keep the body in running order: a. Vitamins. b. Body cleaners.
26. Cost and nutritive value of foods: a. Calories furnished in different foods. b. Calories furnished in different meals. c. Calories required in a whole day.
27. Planning Balanced Meals: a. Quantitative studies of the amounts of different foods to make a well balanced diet. b. Estimation of food requirements, quantitatively making a schedule of the day's activities by minutes and calculating calories per pound per body. c. Calculation of different types of food found in individual diets.
28. Relation of Hygiene to Food Supply: a. Conditions favorable to action and growth of bacteria; yeast and mold on food in the home. b. Protection of foods. c. Raise and study yeast and mold.
29. Summarize the Work of the Quarter: Discuss and review important things covered during the year.
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION
(Caution: Physicial examination should always precede participation in vigorous activities.)
OBJECTIVES
Definition Physical Education is education by means of physical activities. It is concerned with the big-muscle activities and related factors which influence the development of the child and the physical and social efficiency of the adult.
General Objectives: The general objectives of Physical Education are: 1. The development of organic vitality. 2. The development of many specific neuro-muscular skills. 3. The development of proper ideals and attitudes toward physical activity. 4. The establishment of desirable habits of conduct.
Specific Objectives: Some of the specific objectives of Physical Education may be stated as
follows:
To-- 1. Prevent handicaps and improve physical efficiency. 2. Improve the individual's posture. 3. Decrease mental strain and improve mental health. 4. Develop symmetry, control and grace of bodily movement. 5. Develop ability to meet physical emergencies. 6. Develop alertness and quick response. 7. Develop an active response to rhythm. 8. Develop courage, self-control, self-sacrifice, courtesy, kindness, loyalty, obedience, honesty, cooperation and initiative. 9. Create in youth an intelligent and healthful interest in physical activity and give to him a fund of activity material for use in leisure time.
10. Create an interest in the physical welfare of others. 11. Promote the desire for wholesome associations and recreation. 12. Develop the proper spirit toward victory and defeat. 13. Develop good character. 14. Develop the qualities inherent in leadership.
Effects of Muscular Activity* Circulation is increased throughout the entire body, or through the part exercised. This circulatory activity increases carriage of food to the tissues, removal of wastes, distribution of the endocrine secretions and equalization of the water and heat content of the body.
Report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association, pages 50-51.
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Big-muscle activity increases the demand for oxygen and thus causes an increased respiratory activity with the resulting increase in the rate of oxygenation of the blood, increased rate of elimination of the carbon dioxide and increased oxygen supply to the tissues. This increased respiratory activity is the result of the demands made by the exercise, and deep breathing without the bodily exercise will not have the same results. During increased activity the respiratory apparatus naturally responds by frequent and deep respirations.
Exercise stimulates the excretory system and increases the elimination of waste through kidneys, lungs, intestines and skin. ^ Digestion is improved and assimilation is accelerated by exercise. Digestion is not only a chemical but a muscular process. If the musculature of the alimentary canal is flaccid, digestion is retarded amd impeded. Peristatic movements are more vigorous when the muscle tone of the alimentary canal is good. Exercise is essential in keeping the muscles in good condition. The constipation resulting from sedentary life is in large part due to inadequate muscular activity.
Big-muscle activity stimulates growth and for the growing child is absolutely essential.
The heart is strengthened by the exercise of the skeletal muscles of the body. The best known way in which some types of weak heart can be made strong is by gradual and increasing amounts of physical work of the skeletal muscles. Exercise for the person with a weak heart should be arranged by skilled specialists; it should not be prescribed by an untrained person.
The muscles of the body are directly developed by physical activity. This is of great importance for health as regards the muscles of the trunk; the abdominal muscles must be in good condition for the maintenance of the upright posture which is necessary for the best position and functioning of the abdominal and pelvic organs and therefore of great importance for health.
Rational exercise results in increased neural activity and in neuromuscular control which develops skill, accuracy, endurance, agility and strength.
ORGANIZATION
Physical Education Periods
Instructional period. This is the period required by law, and is exclusive of noon and recess periods. It should be programmed daily as one period coming either in the morning session or in the afternoon. The division of the period into two periods destroys its usefulness for instructional purposes. It is the period when new types of activity are taught and practiced. The teacher takes the initiative and actually teaches the graded material which is to be practiced in the other play periods. The instruction should be scheduled definitely, the attendance of pupils regular, and the attitude full of purpose and enjoyment. Competition should not be the primary factor during this period, or the timid and poor performers will quickly lose interest. The teacher should explain to pupils that the purpose of the period is to learn the game and develop habits of good form in skills.
Relief periods. A relief period of two minutes in length should be given when needed. The purpose of these relief activities is to counteract the ill effects of sitting long periods at school desks, stimulate the vital organs, re-
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lieve fatigue, equalize and stimulate circulation, give postural change, exercise the large muscle groups and give mental relaxation. The activities used should be those previously learned during instructional periods. Running in place, running around the room, running around the schoolhouse, mimetic exercises, short games and story plays are well adapted to furnish relief. Formalized exercises to command are fatiguing and should not be used. The following points should be kept in mind:
The activity should be conducted by the regular class teacher. If the class remains in the schoolroom, windows should be opened during the period. No time should be wasted in getting class into action. Coats and wraps should be removed before exercise. The activity must be vigorous in type to be effective. Supervised play periods. The periods before school, morning recess, noon, afternoon recess and after school should be considered as physical education periods and require constructive leadership and supervision by teachers. These periods offer an opportunity to extend the educational influences of the school into the play life of the child. The child here has the chance to practice the activities which are taught in the instructional period. Children need a great deal of vigorous activity for growth and development and need definite supervision of the right kind in order that their activities may contribute to their improvement. Intramural athletics should be emphasized in these periods.

Specimen Programs
The importance of making out programs in advance can not be overemphasized. In planning a program the teacher should select activities of the various types, so as to give a well balanced development. Activities, after being taught by the teacher, should be practiced frequently by the pupils until satisfying skills are acquired. The specimen programs which follow merely suggest a method which may be used.
A--Yearly Program for Instructional Period (First Grade).

Activities

September

Oct. Nov. Dec. Etc.

Story Plays
Rhythmical Activities

Playground Day in the Country Sleeping Princess Circus Cutting the Grass Autumn in the Woods Etc.
The Camel Cats and Rats Did you Ever see a Lassie Farmer in the Dell Mulberry Bush Etc.
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Activities Hunting Games
Mimetics

September
Brownies and Fairies Chase the Animal Around the
Circle Crossing the Brook Jack Be Nimble Leader and Class Etc.
Rabbits Birds Ferry Boat Cats Horse Galloping Etc.

Oct. Nov. Dec. Etc.

g--Weekly Program for Instructional Period (First Grade).

Activities

Monday Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday Friday

Story Plays
Rhythmical Activities

The

(Review) Sleeping Princess

Playground,

The Playground

Did You (Review) The Camel

Ever See

Did You Ever

a Lassie

See a Lassie

(Review) Cutting Grass
Sleeping Princess
(Review) Farmer in the Dell

Hunting Games
Mimetics

Brownies Chase the (Review) and Fairies Animal Around
the
Circle

Rabbits Birds

(Review) (Review)

Magic

(Review)

Carpet

Ferry Boat (Review Cats

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SIXTH GRADE AGRICULTURE
Basal Text: "Pleasant and Profitable Farming," Chapman and Sheffer, published by Smith, Hammond & Company.
Supplementary Texts: None.
Recommended in Addition to Above: None.
Amount of Text to be Covered: Complete, if possible, if not, complete in seventh grade.
Manual: Basal Text: None.
Course of Study in Agriculture
Text Book:
PLEASANT AND PROFITABLE FARMING
By
Paul W. Chapman and L. M. Sheffer
In the states of the South and West, agriculture in the elementary grades is absorbing increasingly the serious attention of those who are entrusted with planning and shaping curricular studies. The ideals of a course of study based on child and community activities can not be realized until agriculture, which employs more people than any other single industry in America, re^ ceives due recognition at the hands of educators by being incorporated as a basic curricular study for both boys and girls.
From the standpoint of appreciation alone it is justifiable to incorporate elementary agriculture as a school study. Our geography course, in that part which is based on the lives and social activity of peoples living in distant lands, is justifiable only by the remote values information, concerning these peoples may have. But information that concerns the daily lives of our farming classes in respect of their business needs, their modes of living, and their economic relationships to other industries, is of practical and material value to merchants, bankers, students, and economists.
FIRST MONTH
Chapter I. Study the achievements during the twentieth century that have been made by the agricultural industry in regard to the improvement of farming methods, and the progress that has been made in growing better crops and better animals, and in improved market conditions.
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Chapter II. Study the factors that make farming profitable and farm life attractive.
Score one or more of the best farms in the local community by use of the Master Farmer Score Card on page 27.
Chapter III. How Plants Grow. Study the structure of plants and learn the functions of leaves, stems, and roots in the growth of plants. Conduct class experiments with the exercises on page 36. Encourage the the girls to make home experiments with rosebush cuttings as directed on page 37.
Chapter IV. The soil as a Home for Plants. Study plant food elements, organic matter in the soil, and the work of bacteria in the soil. Give careful attention to soil depletion by the various causes, as for example, soil erosion. Make class experiments of exercises 2 and 4, page 47.
SECOND MONTH
How to Increase Soil Fertility: (a) By using natural methods (Chapter 5). (b) By using commercial plant foods (Chapter 6).
Class experiment (for girls and boys) in soil innoculation with bacteria as directed in exercise' 1 page 58.
The appreciative study of cotton as to growth of the staple, and its manufacture in Georgia and the other southern states.
Comparison of cotton sales abroad with its manufacture in the United States. Proportionate amounts manufactured between the North and South. Compare the value of cotton exported annually with the value of exports jn wheat. In corn. In steel products. Discuss with the class the need for better farming and better markets. Invite the county agent, or some vocational teacher in your community, to speak to your class on the topics of study for this month.
THIRD MONTH
Introduce corn to the class as a plant found under cultivation when America was first discovered. In this connection associate the sweet potato, irish potato, and tobacco which, also, were found under cultivation when America was discovered.
It will be interesting for class members to trace the extended use of corn and the irish potato in Europe and Asia as articles of food.
Compare exports of these two products with the exports of cotton in terms of economic value.
Select at least one of the exercises, page 99, as a class activity, preferable No. 1.
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Develop the idea that sweet potatoes, like cotton, can be grown more profitably in the south than elsewhere, and the attendant idea that we should consume more at home and influence their use abroad by advertising, etc.
Compare the dietary value of the sweet potato with the white potato. Ask a home economics teacher in your community to speak before your class showing the sugar, starch and vitamin content of sweet potatoes. Try Exercise No. 2, page 108, as a school activity for making money to buy a library.
H?Udy Carefully the aPPreciation of the peanut, by Dr. Frank Crane, page
Make a drawing as directed, page 114, exercise 1. Write a description of this drawing for your English teacher and ask for credit on it instead of your daily recitation in English. Study the tobacco crop of Georgia as one of the cash crops. Find out its value in terms of the value of the melon crop. The peach crop.
FOURTH MONTH
Small Grains Study wheat from the standpoint of our chief breadstuff. Note the extent to which this cereal may be profitably grown in the South.
Discuss the merits of whole wheat flour as compared with white flour The first dictionary of the English language (Johnson's) defined oats as "a
grain fed to horses in England and eaten by people in Scotland." See that the class get a correct idea of the nutritive value of oatmeal.
Study the uses of rye as a food stuff, and as a winter turf crop to prevent soils washing, and as green forage for stock.
Forage Crops of the South (a) Legumes. (b) Grasses.
Show how bacteria by living at the roots of legumes enable those plants to obtain nitrogen which they can not get direct from the air.
Explain inoculation of legumes by two methods. _ Classify the legumes as soil improvement crops and name the ones most important to the south.
Make class experiments of the school exercises on pages 144 and 145.
FIFTH MONTH
The Livestock Industry in the South
Establish an appreciation of this industry showing the extent to which livestock are grown in the south; the methods of marketing livestock; the quantity o\ livestock products consumed; and the extent to which local production supplies the local markets.
Discuss the appeal of the farmstead to the mind and the imagination of poets and artists. Study the paintings of Rosa Bonheur, or Turner, as reproduced in school readers. Notice the part played by farm animals in all their paintings:
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Discuss the part that pasturage plays in the feed supply of farm animals. Discuss the value of green pastures in improving the general appearance of farm lands. Show how grazing farm animals dotting these pastures, further add to the beauty of the landscape. Ask each member of the class to write a short composition on this subject: The Place of Livestock on the Farm. Take a local census of the farm animals on each farm in your school community. Emphasize Chapter 16. "How Animals Grow." Show that the health principles observed in feeding and tending young animals are somewhat similar to those used in the care of children. Emphasize the necessity for, and value of, knowing how to cure meats. Advocate the curing of meats and advertising them for sale under trade brands and slogans to the effect that "Georgia methods of feeding and home curing guarantee hams that are delicious in flavor, fine in texture, and well preserved." "Georgia cured Hams," and "Georgia peanut-fed sausage" are better than others because feed conditions and curing methods make them so. Join a 4-H Club.
SIXTH MONTH
Milk and Dairy Products.
Chapter 18.
As an outcome of this month's instruction, give definite and abundant information concerning milk as a health food. Impress this fact upon the minds of all: "Georgia children are entitled to the quota of milk that is necessary for their health. If not produced at home it should be imported."
Show that if each child in the state should have his quota of 1 qt. daily it would require the importation of much milk.
As a class exercise find out if local farmers are producing the milk required for community needs.
Discuss the care and handling of milk by sanitary methods. Both girls and boys should learn to appreciate the importance of safeguarding the milk supply. Discuss with them the best methods of cleaning the milk containers or other utensils in which milk is shipped or kept at home.
Compare the per capita consumption of milk in your community with the national consumption chart, page 183.
Invite a dairyman, the county home demonstration agent, or a teacher of home economics to speak before the class on the importance of milk in the human diet.
A Poultry Flock for Every Farm.
Compare the total annual receipts from poultry and poultry products raised on American farms with the money received from the sale of our cotton crop.
Compare the use of eggs with the use of milk as food for mankind. Ask your home demonstration agent or the county agricultural agent to appear before the class and demonstrate poultry culling. Learn the characteristics of the egg breeds and meat breeds.
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Discuss milk feeding in order to hasten the development of "broilers." Study the record of the 318-Egg Hen, page 318. Notice the seasons when few eggs were obtained. Try to find out possible reasons why the hen was not laying at certain periods. It will be interesting and profitable for the class to study and observe the decreasing use of workstock and the increasing use of power driven machinery on the farm. A comparison of the relative expenses in the use of horse power and mechanical power, will prove a diverting exercise.
SEVENTH MONTH
Vegetables for Home and Market.
Ask the teacher of English to give your class credit for a paper to be written on The Food Values of Garden Vegetables, and to excuse each pupil who writes a suitable paper from reciting at the next period for English.
Make a study of the gardens in your community to see if ell the children have the vegetables needed for perfect health and to supply the minerals growing boys and girls need to insure bodies that are strong, well developed, and comely.
The teacher should endeavor to overcome the natural prejudice that gardenchores create in children's minds. Children who work in the fields often feel an aversion toward garden work, because parents have thoughtlessly compelled them to devote some part of their holidays to weeding or hoeing in the garden.
Lighter work, shorter hours, and relief from all field work, while working in the garden will transform the garden chores into special privileges.
The instruction outcomes most desirable for the Seventh Month should be to convince girls and boys that fruit and vegetables are indispensable if we wish to have good health.
The home orchard and vegetable garden for home use should have preference over the raising of fruits and vegetables for commercial purposes.
Mineral salts, iron, lime and iodin, as found in vegetables and fruits, are ready for use in the body. There is no other source of supply accessible to all people.
Fruits and vegetables, together with fresh milk and eggs, constitute the chief source of supply for vitamins.
The class would enjoy a talk by a home economics teacher, or a home demonstration agent on the health and growth values of minerals and vitamins.
EIGHTH MONTH
Unit I. Beautifying School and Home Grounds. Plan the work of this unit on the basis of activities using the school exercises
278, 279 and the home practice exercises page 279.
Unit II. The Forest as a Farm Crop.
Use the content of this unit as an informational and appreciative study. Every boy, girl, man, and woman of Georgia should read it.
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Unit III. Our Bird Friends. The activities designed for this unit should be planned to precede any read-
ing or study. Making the bird calendar should be the first step. Study of the laws for the protection of birds will furnish an approach for
developing the helpfulness and usefulness of birds. The work of this unit correlates interestingly with the English work. Facts
for themes and compositions may be developed in abundance. Unit IV.
(a) Home Conveniences. Chapter 27. The Home demonstration agent, a home economics teacher, or some housewife in the community should be called upon to help with this unit. (b) The Ideal Rural Community. By tactfully handling the score card, page 342, step at a time and by occasional reference to the reading matter in Chapter 30, the teacher will be able to accomplish everything possible in the way of setting up the ideals for rural communities.
NINTH MONTH Unit I. Labor Saving Machinery for the Farm. Chapter 26. Unit II. Marketing Farm Products. Chapter 28. Unit HI. Cooperative Marketing. Chapter 29.
For handling the work of the last month, arrangements should be effected with the county agent, or a competent teacher of vocational agriculture, to give three or more lectures.
4
1
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DICTIONARIES
Primary Edition of "Winston's Simplified Dictionary," published by The John C. Winston Company, is recommended for grades four, five and six; the Intermediate Edition of "Winston's Simplified Dictionary" is recommended for grades seven and eight of the elementary school, and Freshman year of the high school; the advanced Edition of "Winston's Simplified Dictionary" is recommended for Sophomore, Junior and Senior years of the high school
A GUIDE FOR THE USE OF THE WINSTON SIMPLIFIED DICTIONARIES
"The dictionary is a book which contains facts about words as they are used by the best writers and speakers. As the language grew words acquired new meanings, dropped old ones, or went out of fashion. In time, so many facts about words accumulated, that no one person could remember them. Among a large and scattered people, too, uncertainties concerning spelling and proper usage arose. A book which contained the facts about all our words became a necessity."--Lewis & Lynch--Grammar To Use.
To meet this need, the dictionary was developed and has become an essential part of the course of study of the schools and an invaluable guide wherever the English language is spoken. A detailed account of many aims and purposes in using the dictionary is given in this outline. These should be of help to the teacher and pupil interested in vocabulary building, and should be enlarged upon when the time for instruction will permit.
I. Purposes of Teaching the Dictionary in the Public Schools:
1. Enriching the Vocabulary.
Enriching the vocabulary is enlarging the scope of usable words at the command of the individual for reading, hearing, speaking and writing. A word is usable in the reading vocabulary when its meaning is understood from its spelling or when it can be understood from context, in the hearing vocabulary when its pronunciation is recognized and its meaning understood from previous knowledge or from context, in the speaking vocabulary when its pronunciation and meaning are definitely known, and finally, in the writing vocabulary, when its meaning and spelling are known. It is therefore essential that the dictionary should be used freely to develop the meaning, pronunciation, and correct spelling of all words necessary for communication in the social and in the business world.
Enriching the vocabulary means more than enlarging the scope of usable words; it consists in a discriminating knowledge of the exact shades of meanings. The English language is highly inflected and contains many irregularities in form and in spelling. A rich vocabulary can be developed only by acquiring definite knowledge of such facts concerning these unusual features of the language as may be found in a text of the quality of the Winston Simplified Dictionary, Advanced Edition.
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2. Developing the Dictionary Habit.
The pupil should be led by the teacher into the habit of using the dictionary freely in connection with spelling, reading, language drills, and in a general way with all subjects in the elementary and high school courses of study. This has the two-fold value of stimulating interest and skill in the research method of study and in fixing a habit that will be continued in the activities of the pupil in after life. No other text in the school curriculum lends itself to the idea of training the child to investigate for himself as does the dictionary. It develops the spirit of self-reliance and stimulates appreciation for thoroughness in whatever is undertaken.
II. The Kind of Dictionary to Use.
Although word-study is very essential in the primary grades, it is desirable that it should be directed by the teacher without reference to the dictionary. In these grades pupils should be encouraged to ask how to spell difficult words needed for their written work, as well as the meaning of words necessary to interpret their reading material. In this connection, the teacher should make liberal use of the blackboard.
It is in the fourth grade that the pupil should be required to consult the dictionary for the correct spelling and meaning of words. Beginning with this grade and continuing through the sixth the Winston Simplified Dictionary--Primary Edition, defining 28,000 words, meets the needs. If, however, it is desired that a text desirable for a longer term of years should be purchased by the fourth grade child, the Intermediate Edition, defining 44,000 words, of the same series is preferable. In either case the Advanced Edition, defining 100,000 words, should be on the desk of every teacher who is interested in the instruction of the child in its uses. A text of this type should be in the hands of each child of high school grade.
IV. Features of the Dictionary.
Dictionaries differ in the method of presenting material, but the following definition from The Winston Simplified Dictionary shows how to find out the essential facts about a word:
IN-TACT (in-tact), adj. [(Lat. intactus) in-nat+tangere (tactus], to touch., entire; unbroken; uninjured; untouched as by anything harmful.
Syn. whole, unimpaired, perfect, entire, complete. Parentheses in which are enclosed the pronunciation of the word usually follow the word itself. At the bottom of each page in the dictionary is a key to the symbols found in the parentheses. The italicized letter, "adj." stands for adjective, the part of speech of the word. Placed somewhere in the definition is a set of brackets which contain information concerning the sources of the word. In this case you see that the Latin meaning of the word is "not touched," and that the English meaning is identical--untouched, uninjured. Below the various meanings of the word is the abbreviation, "Syn." standing for synonyms, and indication that words of similar kindred meaning are to be found under this heading.
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Some words are spelled in two ways both correct, but the preferable form is listed first in the column as: practice, practise; color, colour.
The words listed are divided into syllables for assistance in pronunciation as well as to show the divisions of a word when part must be carried at the end of a line.
Most words have more than one use and this is indicated by Arabic number 1, 2, 3, etc. The definition of the word most extensively used is placed first.
All words are listed with small letters except those that regularly begin with capitals.
A heavy hyphen is used for compound words, while a light hyphen is used to separate words into syllables.
Words not in good usage are listed as obsolete, rare, slang, colloquial, etc. Current abbreviations and common foreign words and phrases are listed in special section, and in alphabetical order with words. Names of important persons and places are listed either in special section or alphabetical order with other words. Illustrations, drawn to scale, aid in giving a clear impression of the meaning of the word. Other information, as Signs and Symbols, Tables of Weights, and Concise Atlas of World will be found in special sections. Prefixes and suffixes are listed in alphabetical order and in separate sections. A brief account of the development of the English language is given in the preface.
SPECIFIC HELPS FOR THE USE OF "THE WINSTON SIMPLIFIED DICTIONARY" IN GRADES 4, 5, AND 6
I. Finding Words.
One of the first requirements for looking up a word and gaining skill in finding words is to learn the alphabet. A child should know which letter follows 'k' and if 'r' precedes 't' or follows it, and if 'al' comes before 'ar' or after. In a careful explanation and diagram showing "alter" and "always" as al:ter, al :ways, the child can readily see that alter will come first in the dictionary because 't' precedes 'w' in the alphabet.
If there is no index, the child should be able to approximate about where to turn for a word beginning with 'r', 'f, 'm', etc.
The exact place where the word is listed may best be determined through the two wrords, known as, "guide or key words," written in the margin at the top of each page; since these guide words are always the first word and last word listed on the page, a familiarity with the alphabetical order aids one in locating quickly any word coming between the two.
The following are suggested helps for developing the ability to find words quickly:
1. A contest or drill on finding names in the telephone directories, encyclopedias, indexes, etc.
2. Arranging, alphabetically, a miscellaneous group of words beginning with different letters.
3. Arranging children alphabetically according to their names.
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4. Arranging alphabetically a group of words each beginning with the same letter.
5. A contest for finding a given page in any book by turning the fewest pages.
6. Timed contest to locate words.
II. Correct Pronunciation. A mispronounced word is as dangerous to use as a misspelled one. If the
pronunciation of words is taught and the child becomes skilled in the use of the dictionary, both of these dangers will be removed. A child should know that:
1. Some words are pronounced correctly two ways and that the first listed is preferable.
2. Syllabication is an aid in pronouncing a word. 3. The syllable with the accent mark (') should receive the stress. All
syllables not marked with an accent mark are pronounced in an ordinary tone. Syllables marked with primary accent (') are stressed and those marked with secondary accent (") are slightly higher than the ordinary tone. Sometimes the accent mark is used to change the word as de'sert (n), and desert' (v). 4. Diacritical marks are very important and the sounds of the vowels with the different marks should be memorized. Key words at bottom of page will be found to remind one of the proper sound. Skill in the use of the above can be developed by the following drills: 1. Find words in dictionary with two pronunciations. 2. Class individually and as a group pronounce words from dictionary. 3. Drill on the important sounds of the vowels. 4. Have children mark written words. 5. Have children divide words into syllables. 6. Have children write the accent marks in words.
HI. Correct Spelling. Correct spelling should be emphasized in each grade and each subject. A
teacher should accept only the correctly spelled words. Much research has been done so as to improve the spelling and great progress has been made in the last fifteen years. However, when a person is in doubt about the correct spelling of a word, he quickly uses the dictionary. Since this is true, the dictionary habit. "When in doubt, use the dictionary," should be acquired in school. If the teachers of each subject would encourage and demand perfect spelling, this habit would soon become a help.
Besides the directions in the modern spellers for learning to spell, the dictionary offers aid through syllabication, pronunciation, capitalization, and the use of the hyphen and words spelled more than one way.
IV. Enriching the Vocabulary. A large number of words and their accurate use is indispensable to effective
speech and writing, and to intelligent reading. Teachers should plan to aid children in mastering more words. This cannot be done quickly or easily. It
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should continue through out a person's life, and the habit should be formed in school. Some of the methods that can be employed in developing the habits are: (1) rich and varied reading, (2) note the unfamiliar words, (3) using, a few times, those words to be added to one's vocabulary in writing and speaking, (4) completing objective tests and drills, (5) keeping words to be mastered in one's vocabulary list, (6) substituting synonyms for a specific word in sentences, (7) clinching more meanings than one for a word, (8) studying prefixes and suffixes with root words, (9) dictionary study at regular intervals.
Some specific aids in developing a larger vocabulary are:

1. Write on the board a list of words out of which a child should master or acquire the use of a certain number.
2 Each child keep a vocabulary note book in which he adds one or two words a day. These he should enter with the diacritical marks, the definition and the date acquired.
3. Use the dictionary as a text for a regular period each day and quickly the children will acquire new words. In English and other subjects, the use of these new words should be encouraged.
4. Study synonyms so as to be able to give a distinction between words. Through this a child will learn to express himself accurately.
5. A study of words often confused, as 'farther' and further', 'affect' and 'effect', with children using them correctly in oral and written English.
6. Give a list of words for a child to find as many substitutes for each week as he can.
7. Give a list of words each week for the child to find and use the syno-

nyms.

8. A contest on who can find the largest number of words to fit a blank

in a completion sentence, as: The day is

.

9. Give true-false questions using definitions.

10. Give multiple choice questions using the definitions for choosing.

11. Give a list of words with one syllable to be completed.

12. Lesson on "Enriching the Vocabulary" taken from "English for Use,"

Book III, pages 121-122, by Beveridge-Ryan-Lewis follows:

"Arrange the following woids in alphabetical order, giving the correct syllabication of each word."
"Look in the dictionary for correct pronunciation and meaning of words." "Place a check mark after every word that you now use in your vocabulary. How many new words must you add today? Use them in sentences to assure yourself that the meaning is clear:"

1. whereas 2. difference 3. support 4. logical

5. vigorous 6. discussion 7. expression 8. caution 9. courteous

10. sportsmanship 15. demerits

11. underlying 16. propose

12. reflection

17. disapprov-

13. opinion

ing

14. merits

18. standpoint

V. Skills for Grades 4, 5, and 6. A child should be able to: 1. Repeat the alphabet. 2. Give instantly the letter preceding and following a certain letter.

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3. Alphabetize a list of words. 4. Divide a book proportionally according to letters as 'm' about one
half, 'f about one fourth, etc. 5. Use the guide words at top of page in margin as aids in locating words. 6. Find quickly any word in the dictionary. 7. Use the diacritical marks over words both in reading and writing. 8. Separate a word into syllables. 9. Give the proper tone where the accent marks occur. 10. Pronounce a word when he sees it. 11: Choose the preferred way of pronouncing a word if more than one way
is given. 12. Use the dictionary when in doubt as to pronunciation or spelling. 13. Use at least two synonyms--look, see, view. 14. Recognize prefixes and suffixes. 15. Add new words to his vocabulary each week.

SPECIFIC HELPS FOR THE USE OF "THE WINSTON SIMPLIFIED DICTIONARY" IN GRADES 7, 8, AND 9
I. Enriching the vocabulary through a study of homonyms, synonyms, and antonyms.
Lessons taken from "English For Use," by Beveridge-Ryan-Lewis, pages 171-174, follows:

ENRICHING THE VOCABULARY

Homonyms
Homonyms are words which sound alike but have different meaning. In order to use such words correctly, you must know the meaning so as to be able to select the words necessary to give accurate expression to your thought. Your vocabulary should contain many homonyms.
With the use of the dictionary, fix in mind the difference in meaning of this list of homonyms, then use them in sentences.

1. compliment, complement 2. currant, current 3. dying, dyeing 4. dews, dues 5. creak, creek 6. steal, steel 7. soar, sore 8. gate, gait 9. pain, pane 10. waste, waist 11. scene, seen 12. hare, hair 13. knight, night 14. air, heir 15. raised, razed

16. straight, strait 17. cereal, serial 18. to, too, two 19. stationary, stationery 20. forth, fourth 21. gild, guild 22. hew, hue 23. pair, pear, pare 24. idol, idle 25. need, knead 26. seam, seem 27. prey, pray 28. alter, altar 29. seller, cellar

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Synonyms
Find the word synonym in the dictionary. What does it mean? Dictionaries often give synonyms for important words after the definition of the word.
Exercise. Write as many synonyms as you can find for these words. You will find that no two synonyms have an identical meaning. There is always a shade of difference in meaning. The two meanings, however, must be almost the same.

look among big

help little

timid

brave pretty

work

Of what value are synonyms to you in composition? Write the following sentences in as many ways as you can by substituting as many synonyms for the italicized words as possible.

1. A pretty little girl ran to meet us. 2. He will not be able to fill the position because he is ignorant. 3. Mr. Burroughs compelled the laborer to finish his work before leaving. 4. He purchased the equipment at the stationery store. 5. An ancient tower defends the gate.

Write all the synonyms you can find for said in a short story in your reader. Synonyms for said m#y express the speaker's feeling or condition, as: "Where am I?" he moaned. "Just try it," he grumbled. Write ten synonyms for said showing different feelings or conditions of the speaker.

Antonyms What is an antonym? Consult your dictionary. Write antonyms for the following words:

enemy

beautiful

good

first

brave

clever

doubt

late

earn

day

dark

give

Antonyms would be valuable in a composition when two characters or things are being contrasted.

Practice in hunting synonyms will increase your working vocabulary. Insert the antonyms in these contrasts:

1. John is very clever but his cousin is rather

.

2. Try the apples. They are sweet, but the plums are

--.

3. This merciful ruler was followed by a very

one.

4. Why does he eat such delicious and wholesome.

food when there is so much that is

5. I believe that Mr. Price will grant my request this term even if he did it last year."

These lessons are suggestions that can be modified and used for drills on synonyms, homonyns, and antonyms.

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II. Skills for Grades 7, 8, and 9. A child should have acquired the skills listed for grades 4, 5, and 6 and be
able to: 1. Distinguish quickly which homonym, as there or their, to use. 2. Use at least four synonyms, as; help, aid, assist, befriend, encourage. 3. Give antonyms of words as brave, afraid, and use them in comparisons 4. Add three words a day to his vocabulary. 5. Give meaning of the common prefixes and suffixes. 6. Find abbreviations in dictionary.

SPECIFIC HELPS FOE THE USE OF "THE WINSTON SIMPLIFIED DICTIONARY" IN GRADES 10, 11, AND 12

I. Etymology of Words.

For further enriching the vocabulary, a pupil in high school should learn to

trace words to their sources for the original meanings. In the Winston Simpli-

fied Dictionary the derivation for the word tel-e-scope is (tele -skop) l(Gk.

tele, far off+skopein, to look]. Thus the word has a Greek origin and literally

means an instrument for viewing distant objects.

Many of our words have been constructed by adding a prefix or suffix to a

root word. There are some that we have accepted from foreign languages

and changed the spelling and meaning very little, others we have accepted

without change in spelling or meaning. This study of the derivation of words

is profitable and the child is delighted with it.

Some methods of developing skill in this follow: 1. Give a list of words for the child to find the language or languages

from which they are derived. 2. Give a list of Greek and Latin root words for the child to find and
learn the meaning. Have child give several English words that have these Greek and

Latin root words for their base. 4. Give a list of prefixes and suffixes and have the child learn their mean-

ings-

_

Drill in class on word building by adding the prefixes and suffixes to

the root words.

H. Grammatical Forms and Abbreviations.
The dictionary lists directly after the word the grammatical form. These are indicated by the abbreviations such as; v, i, p. t., pi., adj., comp., etc. In the dictionary it is very easy to find the principal parts of a verb, the plural of a noun, the masculine or feminine form of a noun, the possessive or objective form of a personal pronoun, the comparative or superlative form of an irregular adjective or adverb. Drill on finding the principal parts of a verb, how an adverb is divided, plural of nouns, gender of nouns, case of nouns, etc., is very beneficial.
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>

III. Skills for Grades 10,11, and 12.

A child should have acquired the skills listed for grades 4 through 9 and be able to:

i

1. Use many synonyms with care as to the five distinctions. 2. Trace words to their sources for the original meanings. 3. Analyze words for meaning, breaking them up into their prefixes, root

word and suffixes.

Use dictionary for finding grammatical forms of words, as part of speech, principal parts of verbs.

5. Use dictionary to find common foreign words and phrases. 6. Use current abbreviations.
7. Use dictionary to find names of important persons and places. 8. Use the dictionary to find historic and geographic information 9. Use the dictionary to find tables of weights and measures. 10. Use the dictionary to find common signs and symbols.

336

CONDENSED COURSES OF STUDY TO ACCOMPANY THE INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED ART BOOKS AND GREAT PICTURES AND THEIR STORIES
A SUGGESTIVE COURSE OF STUDY (Condensed) for
THE INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED ART BOOKS
Note--Since Monthly Outline Lesson Plans are supplied by the publishers (Mentzer, Bush & Co., Chicago) free to teachers of each room or grade, for each month of the school year, no attempt will be made to suggest the length of lessons. The Lesson Plans give, step by step, the work of the consecutive weeks of the school year.
USE OF THE BOOKS
Showing the children a completed drawing or the object to be made in the lesson, arouses their enthusiam for the attempt; therefore, it is always best to study the text and illustrations in the Industrial and Applied Art Books before beginning the actual work of the lesson.
The Industrial and Applied Art Books give examples of various kinds as outlined in the following 14 Courses which appear in each book:
1. Color Study and Application. 2. Flowers, Fruits, and Trees. 3. Civic Art--Beautiful Homes. 4. Design and Applied Design. 5. Lettering--Poster and Free-hand. 6. Poster Making. 7. Construction and Bookmaking. 8. Picture Study--Art Appreciation. 9. Industrial Processes. 10. Industrial and Applied Art. 11. Perspective and Free-hand Drawing. 12. Figure Drawing and Costume Design. 13. Bird and Animal Drawing, Toys. 14. Interior Decoration. Careful study of the examples and of the accompanying text (the text on each page of the book) will enable pupils to apply to similar materials in thenown locality the methods that are employed here. If these lessons are presented with the idea of developing skill, observation, and imagination, the teacher as well as the pupils will find the periods devoted to drawing the happiest ones of the week.
MATERIALS
The materials to be used are: plain manila or white drawing paper--a cheap tablet paper for practice work is often used and the drawing paper kept for the finished work A box of colored crayons and a lead pencil are necessary.
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Water colors, if desired, may replace the crayons. In construction work backs of tablets and other materials are often used.
TIME FOR LESSONS
We suggest two lessons, at least, per week of thirty minutes each, depending somewhat on the age of the pupils. Small pupils tire easily and a twenty mmute period may be better for them and thirty minutes for the older pupils. A regular day and hour should be kept for the drawing lesson. The hour following the morning recess is a good time for the lesson or the first period in the afternoon, as preparations for the lesson can then be made during the intermission.
ENTIRE ROOM
The grading and arrangement of the Industrial and Applied Art Books are such that all grades and all classes in the same room may recite at one time, each grade using the book selected for it. The illustrations may be different, but the topic and paging are the same.
CARE OF BOOKS AND DRAWINGS
Children should be required to keep books and drawings in good condition. The best drawings should be mounted. The drawing book may be used as a portfolio in which to keep drawings by pasting mounted drawings to stubs from which pages have been detached.
PAGES 2 AND 3
Purpose: To teach the child to recognize, mix, and use: 1. The three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. These are hues from which all other colors are made, but which cannot be made by mixing other colors. 2. The three secondary colors, orange, green, and violet. Orange is made by mixing red and yellow, green is made by mixing blue and yellow, violet is made by mixing red and blue. 3. The "partners" or complementary colors are those found opposite one another across the center of the color wheel. See page 2. The complementary color of red is green. The complementary color of blue is orange. The complementary color of yellow is violet.
Study and follow text on pages 2 and 3.
PAGE 5
REPRESENTATION--NATURE
Purpose: To teach pupils to observe and then to represent nature forms Study the illustrations in the book. Read and follow text on page 5. Dis-
cuss the form of apples, pears, and other fruits. Make cuttings of the apple,
338

pear, turnip and pumpkin. With crayon or pencil draw fruits and vegetables. Study tree forms. Make freehand cuttings of trees. Try the same trees with your crayons. Discuss the direction taken by the limbs of the poplar, the pine, the elm, and the weeping willow.
PAGE 7
REPRESENTATION--NATURE
Purpose: To learn how to see and to represent objects, using various mediums. Follow the suggestions of the text on page 7. Cut and draw many of the
various objects suggested by the illustrations. You may wish to make a drawing of a tree, fence, trellis, or house in pencil or colored crayon.
PAGES 9 AND 11
REPRESENTATION--TREES AND HOUSES CIVIC ART--ATTRACTD7E HOMES
Purpose: 1. To develop an interest in beautifying the home and its surroundings 2. To see beauty in nature.
Follow the directions of the text on pages 9 and 11. Make a simple home and perhaps a garage. Discuss the best location for trees, vines, flowers, shrubs, and plants. Use crayons, pencil, or water colors.
Note: Perhaps you can make pictures of log cabins, or large colonial houses.
CIVIC ART PORTFOLIO
Collect and discuss pictures of interesting small homes with well arranged flowers, shrubs, trees, and vines and suitable fences, walls, or hedges. Mount the pictures on sheets of heavy neutral toned paper. Keep them in a Civio Art Booklet such as is described on page 23.
PAGE 11
Follow the directions on page 11. Detach page; color and mount it. You might for an extra lesson make large cuttings of a flower box and fill it with flowering plants.
PAGE 13
Design--Borders, surface patterns, and units of design. Purpose:
1. To develop a feeling for order and rhythm in design. 2. To be able to select better designs. Read text and follow suggestions. On page 13 of each of the 8 books illustrations are given suggesting how to make and apply designs for given spaces and purposes These may be worked out in cut paper, crayon, or pencil.
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PAGE 15
REPRESENTATION--FREEHAND LETTERS
Purpose: To teach the child to draw letters easily and quickly. Study page 15 and read the text carefully. Apply the principles learned to
the freehand lettering of cards for bulletin board, labels for school supplies, lists of supplementary readers, etc.
PAGE 17
DESIGN--POSTER LETTERS
Purpose: To design good letters of any size. Study the letters and follow the text on page 17. Copy the alphabet.
Study good show cards, advertisements, and posters.
PAGE 19
DESIGN--POSTERS Purpose: To teach a good striking arrangement of letters and pictures in a
poster form. Read the text and study the illustrations. Decide upon the subject and size of the poster. Observe the following rules:
1. Keep the picture and letter designs simple. 2. Have a strong contrast between values of the background and the de-
sign shapes. 3. Plan interesting margins, making the margin of the lower edge wider
than elsewhere. 4. Arrange the letters of a word close together. Place letters horizontally,
and not too far from picture shapes. 5. The border lines should repeat the dominant colors in the poster.
PAGE 21
CONSTRUCTION Purpose: To develop skill and accuracy in construction work.
Follow the directions of the text after studying the pictures. Use either manila or light toned construction paper in working out the project you decide upon. Decorate with crayons or water colors. Books 1, 2, 3 and 4, page 21, give several sample projects in measuring, folding and pasting that any school can easily work out.
PAGE 23
CONSTRUCTION AND APPLIED DESIGN Purpose: To gain skill and accuracy in constructing a book.
Study the pictures; read the text and notes. Construct a similar book. Discuss the use of the book before you plan the cover. You might use it for mounting the pictures on page 26. Page 17 shows how to print the title.
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Books 1, 2, 3, and 4 give simple booklets that can be made by any school and with no cost.
PAGE 26
ART APPRECIATION--PICTURE STUDY
"We should study great pictures as we study great books, not for the purpose of being able to pass learned criticism upon them, but for the purpose of appropriating and enjoying our share of whatever they have to give us."
Read the text on page 26. Detach the page on the dotted line; trim the pictures carefully and mount them in a book similar to the one described on page 23. (In books 1, 2, 3, and 4, page 23, pupils are given a simple booklet to make. This would be a suitable booklet for mounting of pictures, size to be determined by size of pictures.) Collect other reproductions of famous pictures for the remaining pages of your booklet.
Note: The pictures listed on page 26 can be secured in color from Mentzer, Bush & Company at about 2c each. GREAT PICTURES AND THEIR STORIES, published by the same company, give interpretations of the pictures and stories of the artists.
PAGE 28
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Purpose: To develop an interest in the various Industrial Processes-- Wool, Weaving, Pottery, Building, Cotton, and Grains.
Study the text and illustrations on page 28. Detach page on the dotted line; trim the pictures carefully and mount in a booklet. Page 19 will give you a suggestion for the letters to be used in the title of the booklet. A wool booklet, one of weaving, pottery, grains, etc., may be made. Collect other pictures for the remaining pages of your booklet.
PAGE 30
APPLIED DESIGN
Purpose: To teach pupils to select, make, and apply good designs. The illustrations on page 30 are intended as examples and suggestions for
similar designs to be worked out and applied to the projects on page 32. Read the text on pages 30 and 32 and follow suggestions.
PAGE 32
INDUSTRIAL ART
Purpose: To develop an interest in the materials and process of industrial projects.
Study the text and illustrations on page 32. Each book gives a different project to be worked out, and requires material adapted to the particular project.
Note: In rural or small village schools only the simplest project should be attempted, one which would require but few materials.
341

PAGE 34
REPRESENTATION--FREEHAND DRAWING
Purpose: To represent and recognize the appearance of objects. Study the illustrations on page 34 and follow the directions of the text.
Practice on the blackboard will help the child to secure a better understanding of the object to be drawn. Discuss the proportions of the objects which are to be drawn and try to represent them. Books 1, 2, 3, and 4, page 34, give crayon and pencil holding or how to draw. These pages are very helpful as they show the how of simple drawing. Books 5, 6, 7, and 8, page 34, give the simple principles of perspective and their application to various objects.
PAGE 36
REPRESENTATION--FREEHAND DRAWING
Purpose: To make beautiful drawings of objects. Study the pictures and read the text on page 36. Discuss these pictures
and the mediums used for each. Draw from objects and from memory. Try to express true proportion and form.
PAGES 38 AND 40
REPRESENTATION--FIGURE STUDY DESIGN--COSTUME STUDY
Purpose: 1. To gain skill in figure sketching. 2. To develop interest in costume designs which show good lines and good color combinations.
Study the text and follow the directions on page 38. Perhaps you can have the children, through the study of pictures, discover that oblique or slanting lines indicate movement, vertical lines suggest height or exaltation when arms and head are uplifted; bowed, bent, or drooping lines convey dejection, grief, or remorse, while horizontal lines suggest rest or calm. Be careful in all figure drawings to keep the relative proportions of the head, torso, arms, and legs. Dramatize stories and make silhouette drawings of the poses shown. Page 40--Read the text on page 38 and follow directions. Collect pictures from fashion magazines and design other costumes for them. In studying costume lines show how the fashions should be modified for extreme types. Stout girls should wear: 1. Long unbroken lines. 2. Quiet colors. 3. Unobtrusive, vertical stripes. 4. Shoes and stockings to match costume--plain, simple shapes of shoes.
342

Stout girls should avoid: 1. Flounces, tucks, and trimmings placed horizontally. 2. Coats ending at hips. 3. Plaids, broad stripes, or laige designs on textiles. 4. Extremely tight or very loose garments. 5. Waists contrasting with skirts.
PAGE 42
REPRESENTATION--PETS, ANIMALS, AND BIRDS
Purpose: 1. To gain skill in modeling and drawing of birds, pete, and animals. 2. To study good pictures and see how artists have rendered the same subjects. Follow the directions of the text on page 42. Collect and discuss pictures
and stories about pet animals. Translate prints of animals and birds into good pencil drawings.
Note: Perhaps the pupils can write papers about some of the famous animal painters: Rosa Bonheur, French; Sir Edwin Landseer, English; Paul Potter, Dutch; and Henrietta Ronner, French.

PAGES 44, 46, AND 47.
INTERIOR DECORATION
Purpose: 1. To teach the application of the principles of design and color when furnishing a room. 2. To give opportunity for social and dramatic expression.
The three pages, 44, 46, and 47, should be studied together; the text read and the project worked out as far as practical for local situations. In Books 1, 2, and 3, page 46, the plan for making simple toy furniture is given. In Books 4, 5, 6, and 7, page 46, some good furniture designs are shown. The developing of the furniture on page 46 is given so that it will prove helpful when working out the outlined page 44. The color scheme used on page 47 may be used for page 44 or in a new page.
Note: Collect pictures of beautiful interiors of modest homes; trim and mount them in a portfolio or booklet. Page 47 may also be detached and mounted on heavy paper to hang in your room at home or mounted in your booklet. Page 17 suggests the form of letters for your booklet.

SPECIAL DAYS

While this outline has covered the work of the year some direct references may be made to special days:

Story Illustrations--

>

The Three Bears, Book 1, page 47.

Little Red Riding Hood, Book 2, page 47.

343

Making Butter, Book 1, page 28. Holland Boys and Girls, Book 2, page 38. Pilgrims Going to Church, Book 3, page 38. Preparing and Weaving Wool, Book 3, page 28. Textiles, Book 6, page 28. Harvesting, Book 7, page 28.
Thanksgiving--
Pilgrims, Book 3, pages 38, 40, and 47. Wigwam, Book 2, page 36. Pumpkins, Book 4, page 5. Basket of Fruit, Book 2, page 5.
Clay and Toys--
Mother Hen and Chicks, Book 1, page 42. The Squirrel and the Cat, Book 2, page 42. Pets, Book 4, page 42. Pony, Book 5, page 42. Boat, Book 6, page 42.
Christmas Problems--
Christmas Tree, Book 1, page 5. Fireplace, Book 3, page 47. Greeting Cards, Book 4, page 13. Christmas Tree, Book 5, page 5. Merry Christmas, Book 5, page 32. Merry Christmas, Book 8, page 13.
The paper boxes in Books 1, 2, and 3, page 21, make excellent problems for Christmas. Decorate them with holly and other Christmas suggestions.

A SUGGESTIVE COURSE OF STUDY

"\

for

GREAT PICTURES AND THEIR STORIES

ART APPRECIATION

"It is better to know art through reproduction than not to know it at all. It is only the best that can bear reproduction, and a good reproduction is a better preparation for the enjoyment of the original than a thousand pages of art criticism. To go from the photograph of the Sistine Madonna to the painting itself, is to have a dream come true with magnificent distinction. It is to see beauty in full sunlight after many twilight glimpses." Picture study has become an important factor in public school education. Pictures are loved because they give pleasure. Pictures are valuable in education because they stimulate aesthetic feeling, and lead to an unfolding and enrichment of life through a realization and appreciation of beauty everywhere. Today the great pictures of the world are being reproduced in color. This element of color is the final contribution which science has made to picture

344

reproduction. It completes the picture. It leaves nothing to be desired, unless, indeed, the original masterpiece itself! Further, with an appreciation of color, line, and pattern as presented in color reproduction today, what joy awaits the student when he beholds "his friend"--the original!
SPECIFIC AIMS A study of the world's masterpieces in painting and sculpture aims to develop not only pleasure and interest in the beautiful, but, as well, an intelligent understanding of the ART FORM of these masterpieces. The first appeal made by any great work of art is always emotional. We like it. We may not be able to tell why. Perhaps it is the story, the action, the color. It appeals to the senses, it recalls events in our own experience. These impressions give rise to certain feelings--the emotional response. Gradually a new interest develops and the question arises--"Why does a picture create certain feelings or mood?" This leads to an understanding of the simpler forms of art structure, or the WAY the artist has achieved certain effects or "feeling" in his picture. In other words, it leads to an understanding of the fine choices the artist has made in color, line, and pattern to express the beauty which he feels. It is this intelligent appreciation of art structure added to the mere emotional appeal that is REAL APPRECIATION.
MUSIC AS AN INTERPRETATIVE AID
Since the first appeal in both pictures and music is always emotional, the use of music with pictures is to be encouraged. Music, selected for the emotional quality only, leads to an appreciation of the "mood" or "spirit" which the artist has aimed to express. When used in this way, the emotional elements of the two great arts are coordinated and appreciated--the one expresses through musical tone, the other through fine choices in color, line, and pattern.
True, indeed, is it that the arts have much in common. An appreciation of art form in painting and sculpture provides the pupil with a background for the intelligent appreciation of all the fine arts.
CLASS ROOM PRACTICE
The picture study hour should be one of pleasure. All study should be leisurely done for enjoyment. It should be a voyage of discovery--discovery of the fine choices the artist has made in color, line, and pattern in building up his masterpiece.
PRIMARY GRADES
GRADES I-II-III TO THE TEACHER: In presenting any picture to children for study ALWAYS encourage the pupils to give their own impressions, tell what they like in a picture, and WHY they like it before reading the text. By skillful questioning the teacher may easily bring out important elements which go to make any picture a work of art. After class discussion, and then only, the teacher may enlarge upon the ideas brought out by the class.
345

SUGGESTIONS FOR DEVELOPING LESSONS IN PRIMARY GRADES
1. Encourage pupils to tell what they think about a picture. 2. Encourage pupils to tell what they see in a picture. 3. Help pupils to see things that they might not see were they left to their
own initiative. 4. Children may name colors. 5. Children may tell what they like about a picture. 6. Children may pose for the picture.

GRADE I (All in Color)

1. Baby Stuart < 2. Nurse and Child 3. The Calmady Children 4. Madonna of the Chair 5. With Grandma 6. Children of the Shell 7. Children of the Sea 8. Feeding Her Birds 9. Infanta Margarita Tberesia 10. The Holy Night

Van Dyck Hals Lawrence Raphael MacEwen Murillo Israels Millet Velasquez Correggio

Flemish Dutch English Italian American Spanish Dutch French Spanish Italian

"These lists, if desired, may be supplemented by additional pictures.

GRADE II

(All in Color)

1. The Holiday 2. Artist and Daughter 3. Boy with Rabbit 4. Don Baltasar Carlos on Horseback 5. The Storage Room 6. The Pastry Eaters 7. Age of Innocence 8. Home Work 9. Children of Charles I 0. Sistine Madonna (Detail)

Potthast Vigee-Lebrun Raeburn Velasquez Hooch Murillo Reynolds Carriere Van Dyck Raphael

American French English Spanish Dutch Spanish English French Flemish Italian

346

GRADE HI (All in Color)

1. Angel with Lute (Detail) 2. Dancing in a Ring 3. An Aristocrat 4. Return to the Fold 5. Hearing
6. Miss Bowles 7. Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose 8. Pilgrims Going to Church 9. Going to Church, Moravia


Carpaccio Thoma Landseer Mauve Jessie Wilcox
Smith Gainsborough Sargent Boughton Uprka

10. The Primitive Sculptor

Couse

Italian German English Dutch
American English American English Czecho-
Slovakian American

INTERMEDIATE GRADES
TO THE TEACHER: The story interest in picture carries over into the intermediate grades. Here the teacher will find helpful the same simple suggestions given for developing the lesson in primary grades. If, in the primary grades, pupils have been encouraged to express their ideas in reference to picture, the teacher will now find a growing readiness to touch upon the simplest elements of art form, i. e., center of interest, repetition of color, rhythm, light and dark, balance. These should be discussed only in a most elementary way.

1. Aurora 2. The Horse Fair 3. Behind the Plow 4. Venetian Waters 5. The Sheepfold 6. The Gleaners 7. The Solemn Pledge 8. Preparing for Church 9. Going to Market 10. The Blue Boy

GRADE IV
(All in Color)
Guido Reni Bonheur Kemp Welch Tito Jacque Millet Ufer Bloomers Troyon Gainsborough

Italian French English Italian French French American Dutch French English

GRADE V

(9 in Color- Statue in Black)

1. Spring Dance 2. After a Summer Shower 3. Russian Winter 4. The Sewing School 5. Return of the Fisherman 6. Song of the Lark 7. Appeal to the Great Spirit 8. Lady with Lute 9. Galahad the Deliverer 10. The Santa Fe Trail

Von Stuck Inness Grabar Artz Sorolla Breton Dallin Vermeer Abbey Young-Hunter

German American Russian Dutch Spanish French American Dutch American English

347

GRADE IV

(9 in Color--Statue in Black)

1. The Jester 2. The Mill 3. A Flower Girl in Holland 4. Dutch Interior 5. View of Ghent 6. The Fog Warning 7. Joan of Arc 8. Joan of Are 9. The Boy Christ in the Temple 10. The Angelus

Hals Ruisdael Hitchcock Hooch Baertsoen Homer Chapu Lepage Hofmann Millet

Dutch Dutch American Dutch Belgian American French French German French

GRAMMAR GRADES
GRADES VII-VIII
TO THE TEACHERS: Although the story interest of pictures still carries over into the grammar grades, it is here that other elements in picture making begin to receive greater attention. Color, line, and pattern, plus inspiration, are the tools which the artist uses to express beauty. Through discussion of these elements and the part they play in giving design form to composition, the student begins to acquire new ideas. The emotional response of earlier years is tempered with a degree of understanding of those art elements which produce it. These new ideas, correlating as they do with the drawing and design work of grammar grade pupils, give the student a background leading him to an intelligent, hence a deeper appreciation of the fine arts.

GRADE VII (9 in Color--Statue in Black)

1. Moonlight, Wood's Island Light 2. Dance of the Nymphs 3. Sir Galahad 4. The Vigil 5. Icebound 6. The Concert 7. Frieze of the Prophets (Detail) 8. Bartolommeo Colleoni 9. King Cophetua and Beggar Maid 0. Avenue of Trees

Homer Corot Watts Pettie Metcalf Terborch Sargent Verocchio Burne-Jones Hobbema

American French English English American Dutch American Italian English Dutch

348

GRADE Vffl

(9 in Color--Statue in Black)

1. George Washington 2. On the Stairs 3. The Artist's Mother 4. Cotopaxi 5. The Snydics 6. The Church at Old Lyme 7. The Last Supper 8. St. Genevieve
9. The Fighting Temeraire 0. The Victory of Samothrace

Stuart Zorn Whistler Church Rembrandt Hassam Da Vinci Purvis De
Chavannes Turner Sculptor
Unknown

American Swedish American American Dutch American Italian
French English
Greek

Supplementary Aids to appreciation. 1. Note books (with mounted pictures and brief notes). 2. Visits to art museums and galleries. 3. Reference reading. Lectures or informal talks (with lantern slides).

The Legislature of 1929 passed a law of which the following is an excerpt:

SECTION 2

Be it

enacted

that in every public school of

this State a period of not less than twenty-five minutes of each week during

the entire school term shall be devoted to teaching the pupils thereof the practi-

cal value of conserving and protecting birds, animals, fish, forest and other

forms of wild life; also the humane treatment and protection of our domestic

birds and animals, as well as the part they fulfill in the economy of nature.

It may be optional with the teacher whether this period shall be a consecutive

twenty-five minutes or be divided into shorter periods during the week, and

it shall also be within the discretion of the teacher as to the method of instruc-

tion to be employed. The instruction herein prescribed shall constitute a de-

finite purpose of the curriculum of study in all the public schools of this State.

SECTION 3

Be it

enacted

that each and every teacher in

the schools of this State shall certify in his or her reports that the instruction

provided for has been imparted in accordance with the provisions of this Act.

A "Plan of Work for the Loyal Legion of Nature Guardians" can be had

without cost upon application to Hon. Peter S. Twitty, Game and Fish Commissioner, Atlanta, Georgia.

This little booklet and other teaching helps supplied by Mr. Twitty will be

helpful in carrying out the requirements of the above law.

349

JUL5 193|


B 3 o >

GEORGIA State School Items
Published by the State Department of Education

Volume IX

SEPTEMBER, 1932

No. 5

Sianion Book Law

M. L. DUGGAN
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.

STANTON BOOK LAW
AN ACT
To create a Text-book Commission for the State of Georgia; to define their duties and powers; to provide for the adoption and'use of a uniform series of text-books in the public schools of the State; to provide how text-books used in the common schools of this State shall be adopted, prepared, published, purchased, distributed and sold; to provide a revolving fund for these purposes; to provide for the sale of text-books at actual cost; to repeal existing laws; to provide penalties for the violation of the provisions of this Act; and for other purposes.
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Georgia and it is hereby enacted by authority of the same:
SECTION I.
A special Text-book Commission is hereby created for the State of Georgia. The members of'said Text-book Commission shall be members of the State Board of Education and the State Board of Education shall be the Text-book Commission. The Governor shall be ex-officio a member of the Text-book Commission and the State School Superintendent shall be the Secretary and executive officer of the Text-book Commission. The members of the Text-book Commission shall serve without compensation but shall be allowed their actual traveling expenses in attending meetings of the Commission upon submitting a sworn itemized statement accompanied by proper vouchers, to be paid out of the State Treasury upon the warrant of the Governor. The total expenses for all members shall not exceed three hundred dollars per year.
SECTION 2.
Before transacting business relating to the duties of the Commission, they shall each take an oath before an officer authorized to administer same, as follows: "We, and each of us, do solemnly swear that we will faithfully discharge all the duties imposed upon us as members of the Text-book Commission and we, and each of us, do further swear that we are not interested, directly or indirectly, in the publication or sale of any school book now in use in the common or high schools of this State, and we further swear that we will not become interested in any contract that may be made by the Textbook Commission and that we will receive no personal benefits therefrom, so help us God."

SECTION 3.
The Text-book Commission shall adopt a uniform series of textbooks for use in all the common schools of) this State, and shall have the authority to adopt a uniform series of text-books for use in the high schools of this State, when in their judgment it is advisable and for the best interests of the patrons of said high school so to do. The text-books so adopted shall include the elements of an English education as at present denned and enumerated by law and such other branches of study as may be provided by statute. None of said books so adopted shall contain anything of a partisan or sectarian nature. The manner of adoption shall be as provided herein.
SECTION 4.
The Text-book Commission is empowered and directed to formulate and put into effect a system of purchasing, publishing, and distributing the text-books adopted by them, which will reduce the present prices of text-books now in effect under existing contracts and methods of sale and distribution. For the purpose of putting such system into effect the Text-book Commission is authorized to make any and all necessary rules and regulations they may deem proper.
SECTION 5.
Nothing in this Act shall be construed to authorize the Text-book Commission to adopt text-books in the manner and numbers now authorized by law and, the sale and distribution of all text-books adopted shall be by and through the agency or agencies created in accordance with the provisions of this Act. The term "adoption" shall mean the purchase of manuscripts outright or upon a royalty basis, the purchase of copyrights for the State of Georgia, the renting of plates, the purchase of text-books by the Commission direct from the publishers in quantities, and/or a contract with anyi publisher for the use of any text-book as provided in Section 8 of this Act.
SECTION 6.
The Text-book Commission is empowered and authorized to have books for the common or high schools printed by contract by the lowest and best bidders after due advertisement for at least thirty days in at least four newspapers of general circulation in the State, which advertisement shall contain the specifications of such proposed contract, and to carry out this provision the said Commission is authorized to rent plates, secure copyrights for use in this State, buy manuscripts outright or on a royalty basis, and to have the same electrotyped or plates made thereof and copyrights secured, to em-

ploy competent authors or to do any other act or thing necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act in publishing said text-books by contract.
SECTION 7.
The Text-book Commission is hereby empowered to contract with the publishers of any text-book the Commission may adopt, for the purchase of text-books in quantities sufficient to supply the children in any or all of the grades of the common schools of this State, based on estimates and the school census, provided said text-books shall be sold to patrons of schools of the common school system at price fixed by said Commission, which said price shall be actual cost of purchase and/or production and distribution as herein provided.
SECTION 8.
The Text-book Commission is authorized and empowered to contract with any publisher of school-books for the use of any book which may be adopted at a lower cost than is possible by hiaving a similar text of equal grade and character and of the same subject or course of study, printed by contract or purchased in quantities; provided that such publisher will agree to have such books handled through the agency of distribution created and recognized by the Text-book Commission, without any profit to the distributor. Provided that only one text-book of any one subject or course of study for any one grade shall be so adopted and then for no longer period of adoption than other text-books adopted by the Commission.
SECTION 9.
For the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this Act the Text-book Commission is authorized and the State Board of Education is directed, upon recommendation of the Text-book Commission, to set apart from the appropriation made to the common schools of this State, in any year, beginning in the year 1933, a sum not to exceed four hundred thousand ($400,000.00) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for any one year; provided that not more than four hundred thousand ($400,000.00) dollars shall at any time constitute and be used as such revolving fund; said fund shall constitute a revolving fund for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this Act, whether to print text-books by contract, secure copyrights, purchase manuscripts outright or on a royalty basis to rent plates, to have plates and electrotypes made, to purchase text-books in quantities, and to cover the cost of distribution of text-books; any and all of such items to be taken into account in computing the prices at which said text-books shall be sold, and to

be repaid into said revolving fund in the manner hereinafter prescribed. After the plan or system formulated and adopted by the Text-book Commission for the publication and/or purchase and sale and distribution of text-books under the provisions of this Act are fully in effect and operation in all the schools of this State, any surplus in said revolving fund not required in the operation of the said system and in carrying out the provisions of this Act shall be repaid into the common school fund of the State.
SECTION 10.
If the revolving fund provided herein is not sufficient in amount to enable the Text-book Commission to print, purchase, contract, or otherwise render available, text-books for all the grades of the common schools of the State in any one year, the Text-book Commission is authorized first to supply text-books under the plan adopted by them, to the lower grades, beginning with the first grade and adding a grade or grades each year until text-books for all the grades in the public schools of this State shall be supplied under the plan or system adopted, provided said text-books shall be supplied to patrons of schools of the common school system at prices fixed by said Text-book Commission, which said price shall be actual cost of purchase and/or production and distribution as herein provided.
SECTION 11.
The sale for use in the public schools of this State, except as supplemental texts as provided herein, of any text-book adopted under the present method of adoption in effect at the time of the passage of this Act is prohibited after the period of adoption or term of the contract has expired or is changed by the Text-book Commission.
SECTION 12.
The1 Text-book Commission shall meet in the office of the Secretary not later than June 1, 1932 and shall advertise in such manner and form as they may deem best, that at a time to be fixed by the said Commission, but not later than September 1, 1932, the Textbook Commission will receive at the office of the Secretary manuscript texts of school-books, specifying the subjects, grades and courses of study, to be purchased outright or adopted on a royalty or copyright basis. At the same time the Text-book Commission shall advertise for sealed bids or proposals from publishers of text-books, for the purchase of text-books in sufficient quantities to supply the children in any or all of the grades of the common schools of this State, specifying the quantities of each text-book required, as well as such other specifications as to the Commission shall seem neces-
G

sary, and any bidder under such advertisement shall state in his proposal the price or prices at which the said text-books will be sold to the Text-book Commission delivered to their office in Atlanta, and shall also state in said proposal the rate at which plates for the printing of such texts will be rented to the Text-book Commission. Each and every proposal from a publisher shall be accompanied by specimen copies of all books specified in said bid or proposal. The Commission shall, at the same time, advertise for bids from publishers of schoolbooks for text-books to be furnished upon contract as provided in Section eight of this Act.

SECTION 13.

The Text-book Commission shall, at the time of, or before the meeting aforesaid, appoint a committee of outstanding and specially qualified educators of this State, not more than nine in number, to whom the manuscripts, bids and specimen copies shall be submitted for examination. The said committee shall serve for a term concurrent with that of the members of the Text-book Commission and in such manner as the Text-book Commission shall determine. The said Committee shall, each, from the school funds of the State, receive the sum of $10.00 per day for the time devoted thereto, but such sum so paid shall not exceed the total amount of $150.00 each, and in addition each member shall be paid his actual expenses, not to exceed $100.00 upon submission of vouchers and affidavit thereto.

The said committee shall carefully examine and consider the mat-

ters submitted to them, having due regard to the subject matter,

mechanical make-up and price, and shall within sixty days recom-

mend to the Text-book Commission in writing three books or texts

for each subject in a given course of study, and in so doing shall not

recommend more than one book for any one grade in each course



of study from or by the same author or publisher.

From the recommendation made by the said committee the Textbook Commission shall select one text or book, which shall be the text or book adopted and shall not be changed during the period of adoption. Provided, however, that if in the opinion of the Text-book Commission a suitable text as to subject matter and price, in any or all subjects or courses of study, is not included in said recommendation, the said committee may be required to make new recommendations in the same manner as before.

If the committee should recommend, and the Text-book Commission should adopt, a manuscript or text submitted by any person, instead of a published book, then the Text-book Commission shall at once advertise for bids for making plates, and/or electrotypes and/or printing said book from the manuscript. If the Text-book

Commission should elect to rent plates of any text submitted in the proposal of any publisher, instead of buying such books in quantities or under contract as provided, in Section 8 of this Act, then the Text-book Commission shall at once advertise for bids for printing books from such plates, as hereinbefore provided.
The Text-book Commission shall have the right to reject any and all bids and shall have the right to re-advertise as often and in any manner as they deem necessary to carry out the plan or system adopted by them. The Text-book Commission shall have the right to require bidders to post a sufficient bond with their bids to insure good faith and to require bonds from successful bidders in amounts sufficient to insure their compliance with the terms of their contract.
SECTION 14.
Any adoption, contract or purchase of text-books by the Text-book Commission shall be for a period of not less than five years. All contracts made by county boards of education, or independent school districts for school books prior to the adoption of this Act shall not be affected by this Act.
SECTION 15.
The Text-book Commission is authorized and directed to create a Central Depository or Agency for the distribution of the textbooks adopted, printed and purchased by them, to the several counties of this State, which depository or agency of distribution shall be under the direct supervision and control of the Text-book Commission. The expense of maintaining such agency shall be paid from the revolving fund herein provided and shall be added to the prices of the books sold as a part of the cost thereof.
SECTION 16.
Text-books purchased, published or contracted for by the Textbook Commission under the provisions of the preceding sections shall be distributed by the Text-book Commission through the County School Superintendent in each County of the State to the school patrons at the prices fixed by the Text-book Commission, which shall be the actual cost of purchase and/or production and distribution. The County School Superintendent in each county of this State is hereby charged with the duty of ascertaining the requirements of all schools in his county, including independent school districts and systems, of school books for all grades in such schools for which adoptions shall have been made under the provisions of this Act, at least
8

sixty days before the beginning of each school term, and the County School Superintendent shall make requisition to the Text-book Commission for such requirements sixty days before the beginning of each school term, said requisitions to be approved by the Chairman of the County Board of Education or the Chairman of the Board of Education or Board of Trustees of each independent school district or system in his county.
Upon the receipt of such requisition the Text-book Commission shall determine whether same is reasonable and sufficient for the needs of the common schools in said county and upon the approval thereof shall cause the books so requisitioned to be forwarded to the County School Superintendent and charged to him upon the books of the Text-book Commission. Said books shall then be sold to the school patrons by the County School Superintendent at the prices fixed by the Text-book Commission, for cash. The amounts received by the County School Superintendent from the sale of text-books shall immediately be remitted by him to the Text-book Commission to reimburse the revolving fund for such expenditure made in the purchase, preparation and distribution of such books. The Text-book Commission shall have the authority to require the return of all unsold books from the County School Superintendent at any time. At least sixty days before the beginning of any school term the County School Superintendent shall execute and file with the Text-book Commission a good and sufficient bond to be approved by the Textbook Commission, conditioned upon the proper handling of said textbooks and the faithful accounting for same and for all funds received from the-sale of or in connection therewith. Such bond shall be in the amount of $1,000 or such larger amount as the Text-book Commission shall prescribe and in no event shall be for a sum less than the total amount of the invoices of all school books furnished to said county for one school year.
SECTION 17.
It shall be unlawful for any teacher in the common or high schools of this State to use any book in place of the books adopted, published or purchased for use and distribution by the Text-book Commission, except as otherwise herein provided.
SECTION 18.
No public school, board of education, board of trustees or independent or local school system of this State shall receive any part of the appropriation made to the common schools of this State by the General Assembly in any year unless such school, board, or system shall use the text-books adopted and provided by the Text-book

Commission as provided for in this Act. Provided, however, that supplemental books may be used by any school or school system, the cost of such supplemental books to be paid by the school system and the books loaned to the school children without charge. Provided, further, that the provisions of this Section shall not apply to nor be mandatory upon those systems of public schools in this State whose boards of education or boards of trustees now own and furnish free, or upon a rental basis, the text-books for their schools, until the text-books adopted and now in use by said systems shall be by them changed; any future adoptions and/or purchases of textbooks, except supplemental texts as provided herein, shall be from the lists adopted by the Text-book Commission and through the agency of distribution created by them.
SECTION 19. Any person violating the provisions of this Act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be punished as provided therefor.
SECTION 20. If any section or portion of this Act shall be held to be unconstitutional or invalid by any court of competent jurisdiction, the same shall not invalidate the entire Act but shall apply only to the Section or portion of the Act so held to be unconstitutional or invalid.
SECTION 21. The present laws in regard to the adoption, use, purchase, distribution and sale of text-books for the public schools of this State are hereby expressly repealed, except where they do not conflict with the provisions of this Act.
SECTION 22. Be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid that all laws and parts of laws in conflict with the provisions of this Act, be and the same are hereby repealed. Approved August 28, 1931.
10

GENERAL LIBRARY
SEP 14 1946
UNIVERSITY Of GEORGIA .

.A
E3 o o
Tl &3
GEORGIA
State School Items
Published by the State Department of Education

Volume IX

OCTOBER, 1932

No. 6

A Course of Study In English
In The High School
M. L. DUGGAN State Superintendent of Schools
Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.

PREFACE

A great need is felt for a definite outline of course of study in high school English. During the session of the 1931 Summer School of the University of Georgia, Dr. R. E. Park, head of the Department of English, worked out, with the members of his class in the "Teaching of High School English," an outline that was placed in the hands of the teachers of high school English. During the 1932 Summer School of the University, under Dr. Park's direction, this first outline was revised and improved. There are, of course, many outlines of instruction made out for high school English, but none that meets the peculiar difficulties with which our Georgia schools are confronted. This course, it is hoped, will overcome many of these difficulties.

The reading list submitted should be helpful. If every high

school could buy a number of copies of the books that are

starred and rent these books to its students, both students and

school would be benefitted. The high school library is of vital

concern to every well-run system of schools, and money intel-

ligently spent on books for reference and for general reading

always gives good results. Without the reading habit, no one

.I

can be educated.

With Dr. Park's permission and through the courtesy of the State Department of Education, this bulletin is prepared for the teachers of high school English in the state.

W. L. DOWNS, State High School Supervisor.

--3--

AIMS OF ENGLISH COURSE IN HIGH SCHOOL
I. ORAL COMMUNICATION 1. The ability to read aloud distinctly and intelligently. 2. To answer questions distinctly and precisely. 3. To cultivate the habit of using correct English both in the class room and outside. 4. To make an oral composition with a fair degree of spontaneity and coherence. 5. To take an easy and correct posture without destroying naturalness, when speaking to an audience. 6. To address a class, club, or group effectively on a simple topic. 7. To preside at a club or class meeting.
II. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
1. To train pupils to realize that legible writing and neat arrangement of material are courtesies due to the reader and are evidences of self-respect.
2. To train pupils to spell, to capitalize, to punctuate, and to write with grammatical correctness.
3. To communicate with clearness directions for doing simple things.
4. To communicate ideas with simplicity and directness.
III. LITERATURE
It is important for the teacher to understand that composition and reading are directly opposite processes: composition is the communication of ideas, reading is the reception of ideas.
1. The object of teaching literature is appreciation, not information.
2. The best way to teach literature is from the viewpoint of recreation, not from the viewpoint of study and work.
--4--

THE COURSE OF STUDY IN ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
The high school teacher has a right to demand that pupils entering from the grammar school should bring with them a certain definite body of information in English. The ability of the student graduated from the grammar school should encompass the following:
1. Ability to recognize incomplete sentences.
2. To recognize parts of speech.
3. To analyze simple sentences as to subject, predicate, object and modifiers.
4. To understand capitalization and the use of the period and the question mark.
5. To write legibly and to spell the words in his vocabulary.
6. To read aloud in such a way as to convey the writer's thought.
7. To write a friendly letter and a simple business letter.
Note: The high school teacher has a right to expect that the pupil from grammar school should have memorized a number of poems suitable to his development.
SYLLABUS OF COURSE
There is a wide diversion of opinion among high school teachers as to the proper division of time between literature on the one hand and grammar and composition on the other. It would seem that the following plan should be satisfactory:
(a) Eighth, ninth, and tenth grades--Two semesters of eighteen weeks each. The first twelve weeks of each semester are devoted to literature, the remaining six weeks of each semester to grammar and composition.
(b) Eleventh grade (See below).

I. EIGHTH GRADE
First semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) Read with the class Stevenson's Treasure Island or some other novel equally simple and diverting. Time: about three weeks. (b) Read Poe's "Gold Bug" in class, supplementing this with other short stories of Poe. Time: about three weeks. (c) Read some such narrative poems as Scott's "Lady of the Lake," Arnold's "Sohrab and Rustum," and Longfellow's "Courtship of Miles Standish." Time: about six weeks.
2. Six weeks--Grammar and composition
To begin, assign a composition of 200 words. Then base the study of grammar on the deficiencies revealed in this composition. Include in the teaching the following:
GRAMMAR
(a) Review of the eight parts of speech. (b) The sentence (simple, compound, complex). (c) Modifiers (adjectives, adverbs, prepositional
phrases). (d) Tense forms, auxiliaries, and case and number forms
of nouns and pronouns. (e) Clauses. (f) The paragraph. (g) The comma.
COMPOSITION
At least three compositions a month should be written. These compositions should be correlated with the actual life of the pupils. Demand two or three oral themes of two or three minutes each per month. The pupil should be trained to write and speak from outline.
--6--

Second semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Time: six to eight weeks. (b) Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. Time: two to three weeks. (c) Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer. Time: two to three weeks.
2. Six weeks--Grammar and composition "Continue work of last six weeks of first semester.
II. NINTH GRADE
First semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) Lorna Doone. Time: three weeks. (b) "Lancelot and Elaine" or other selections from Tennyson. Time: about three weeks. (c) Shakespeare's As You Like It. Time: four weeks. (d) Dickens's Christmas Carol. Two weeks.
Note: Passages of poetry should be memorized.
2. Six weeks--Composition and grammar (a) Modes of the verb. (b) Infinitives, participles, gerunds. (c) Derivation of words. (d) Punctuation: semicolon and colon. (e) Unity of the sentence and the paragraph. (f) Review of clauses and phrases.
The composition work of this semester should include narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. Papers should be written on current topics based on newspaper and magazine reading. Eight compositions of about 200 words each should be required during this semester. Oral compositions also, of from two to three minutes, should be frequently required. Some attention should be given to letter writing.

Second semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) George Eliot's Silas Marner. Three weeks. (b) Franklin's Autobiography. Three weeks. (c) A selection of modern one-act plays. (Such books are published by a number of different houses.) Six weeks.
2. Six Weeks--Grammar and composition Continue the work of the first semester.
III. TENTH GRADE
First semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) Dickens's David Copperfield (abridged). Three to four weeks. (b) Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. Five to six weeks. (c) Irving's Sketch Book. Three weeks.
Note: Memorize passages of poetry.
2. Six weeks--Grammar and composition (a) Sentence structure: clearness, unity, and coherence. (b) Dangling elements: participles, gerunds, phrases. (c) Uses of clauses. (d) Origin and derivation of words. (e) Constant drill on grammar as outlined for eighth and ninth grades.
COMPOSITION
Practice in writing compositions of all kinds should be continued. Study the paragraph and composition as a whole. Take subjects from studies in other departments, topics of national interest. Try to select only such subjects as interest the pupils. Continue the study of letter writing, both business and friendly letters. Encourage all attempts at poetry and literary criticism. Continue the work in oral expression, requiring both impromptu and prepared speeches.
--8--

Second semester
1. Twelve weeks--Literature (a) Scott's Ivanhoe. Four weeks. (b) Macaulay's Essay on Lord Clive. Two weeks. (c) Shakespeare's Macbeth. Six weeks.
2. Six weeks--Composition Intensify the work in theme-writing. Give each week
a theme of not less than 200 words. Give frequent daily exercise in paragraph writing. Continue instruction in
grammar.

IV. ELEVENTH GRADE

First semester The teacher uses the time to cover whatever deficiencies
show themselves in the class. At the beginning of the year the teacher should outline to the class the minimum requirements required from the pupils for graduation. No pupil deficient in these requirements should be graduated. Ihese minimum requirements in grammar and composition are:

1. The ability to recognize in sentences the eight parts

of speech. 2. To recognize the different clauses in sentences.
3. To recognize incomplete sentences. 4. To understand capitalization and the use of the period. 5. To understand the agreement of verb and subject. 6. To use case forms correctly--who, whom, etc. 7 To use simple punctuation--comma, semicolon. 8. To analyze simple, compound, and complex sentences.
9. To recognize the active and passive voices. 10. To recognize participle, gerund, and infinitive. 11. To understand conjugation and the modes of verbs. 12. To write a friendly letter or a business letter accord-

ing to the forms in general use. 13. To write a readable series of paragraphs on a familiar

subject.

.

,

14. The ability to collect and organize material tor oral

discourse on subjects of common interest and to pre-

sent it effectively to the class.

--9--

1. The study of literature
The aim of the work this year should be to develop an appreciation of literary values. Select the material from all literary types. Have pupils notice the periods in which the authors lived and wrote, the motives that prompted them to write, and the influence that they have exerted. Continue the memorizing of selected passages.
In the drama, Hamlet might be taken up. Study the plot and character delineation. Show how Shakespeare touched on practically every phase of life, and how great was his knowledge and insight into human emotion. Have each pupil give an oral report on some other play assigned for outside reading. (This play might be selected from the list appended.)
Study representative English poems of all periods, directing attention to the types of poetry. Encourage the pupils to write original poetry. Continue the study of the mechanics of poetry. (Note: It has been noticed in the English department of the University that results obtained from the study of the poetry of Milton and Pope are not satisfactory.)
Study some novel from the list appended. Require the reading of at least ten books throughout the year. Give extra credit for work done that is not required.
2. Composition
Give a more detailed study to the important parts of rhetoric. Have pupils write news items, character sketches, book reviews, summaries of debates. Study to increase the pupil's power in oral expression. Require at least one short written exercise each week, and a much longer one at the end of the semester.
During the four years' work the student should read approximately one book a month outside of his class-room study. Additional credit could be given to those who read more. The student should report on these books orally or in writing.
-- 10

As many themes of 150 to 200 words (twelve if possible) should be required each year as the teacher can efficiently handle. These themes should be corrected in red pencil, returned to the pupil, and rewritten if necessary.
READING LIST
NOVELS
For Eighth and Ninth Grades
Stevenson: Treasure Island* Kidnapped
Mark Twain: Tom Sawyer* Huckleberry Finn*
Cooper: The Deerslayer The Last of the Mohicans*
Aldrich: The Story of a Bad Boy Kipling: The Jungle Book; Captains Courageous Tarkington: Penrod
Seventeen* WYSS: THE SWISS Family Robinson* Goulding: The Young Marooners Marryat: Mr. Midshipman Easy* London: Whitefang*
Jerry Michael Thomas Nelson Page: Two Little Confederates Mulock (Craik): John Halifax, Gentleman Doyle: A Study in Scarlet The Hound of the Baskervilles Fox: The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come*
For Tenth and Eleventh Grades
Scott: Ivanhoe* Talisman*
Dickens: Oliver Twist* A Tale of Two Cities*
Churchill: Richard Carvel* The Crisis
Mary Johnston: To Have and to Hold*
-- 11 --

Lew Wallace: Ben Hur Stevenson: The Black Arrow
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Wister: The Virginian* Lambs' Tales from Shakespeare Kipling: Kim Hughes: Tom Brown's School Days* Haggard: King Solomon's Mines Doyle: Sir Nigel
The White Company Lewis Carroll: Alice in Wonderland Eggleston: The Hoosier Schoolmaster Bronte: Jane Eyre* Barrie: The Little Minister Hudson: Green Mansions* Buchan: Prester John* Sabatini: Scaramouche Hardy: A Pair of Blue Eyes
READING LIST
NON-FICTION
For All Classes
Old Testament Narratives Hawthorne: Tanglewood Tales and Wonder Book Beebe: Jungle Peace Church: The Iliad The Odyssey Keary: Heroes of Asgard Kingsley: The Heroes (Greek mythology) Smith: What Can Literature Do for Me? Scudder: George Washington Macaulay: Essay on Lord Clive Hamilton: Life of Robert E. Lee for Boys and Girls Burroughs: Sharp Eyes Helen Keller: The Story of my Life. Parton: Captains of Industry Plutarch's Lives of Caesar, Brutus, and Mark Antony
-- 12 --

Emerson Hough: The Covered Wagon Parkman: The Oregon Trail Paine: A Short Life of Mark Twain Slosson: Creative Chemistry Vallery-Radot: The Life of Pasteur Lawrence: Revolt in the Desert Stevenson: Travels with a Donkey
POETRY AND THE DRAMA
For All Classes
Arnold: Sohrab and Rustum Coleridge: The Ancient Mariner Tennyson: Gareth and Lynette
Lancelot and Elaine The Passing of Arthur Enoch Arden Byron: The Prisoner of Chillon Lowell: The Vision of Sir Launfal Longfellow: Evangeline Courtship of Miles Standish Scott: Marmion Lady of the Lake Poe: Selections Masefield: Dauber Noyes: The Highwayman Robinson: Death of the Hired Man Isaac and Archibald Minnever Cheevy Richard Cory Lanier: Marshes of Glynn Sunrise Kipling: Gunga Din Recessional Fuzzy Wuzzy Ballad of East and West L'envoi If
-- 13 --

Lindsay: The Congo General William Booth Enters Heaven
Keats: Eve of St. Agnes
N. B.: Lyric selections should be chosen with caution and judgment.
Shakespeare: Julius Caesar, As You Like it, Henry IV (Part I), Henry V, Merchant of Venice, Twelfth Night, Taming of the Shrew, Macbeth, King Lear, and Hamlet
Sheridan: The School for Scandal Goldsmith: She Stoops to Conquer Ibsen: An Enemy of the People T. W. Robertson: Caste Bennett and Knoblock: Milestones Shaw: The Devil's Disciple Synge: Riders to the Sea Barrie: What Every Woman Knows Galsworthy: Justice
Strife Rostand: Cyrano de Bergerac (Brian Hooker's translation) Fitch: The Girl with the Green Eyes O'Neill: The Emperor Jones Dunsany: Tents of the Arabs Yeats: The Land of Heart's Desire Wilde: Lady Windermere's Fan
The Importance of Being Earnest Millay: The King's Henchman
SHORT STORIES
Irving: The Sketch Book Hawthorne: Twice Told Tales Poe: Tales Bret Harte: Short Stories Mark Twain: The Jumping Frog, The Man that Corrupted
Hadleyburg Harris: Uncle Remus Page: Marse Chan
-- 14 --

0. Henry: Selections Brown: Rab and His Friends Stevenson: Sire de Malatroit's Door
Markheim Lodging for the Night Morris: The Dream of John Ball Kipling: Selections The Arabian Nights Maupassant: The Necklace A Piece of String The Coward
In selecting the above list of books for high school reading three essentials are held in mind: interest, cost, and literary value.
A LIBRARY FOR TEACHERS
SIDNEY COX: THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH {Harper) Chub: The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Sec-
ondary Schools (Macmillan) Craig: The Teaching of High School English (Longmans-
Green) Heydrick: How to Study Literature (Hinds, Noble, Eldridge) Carpenter, Baker, and Scott: Teaching of English (Long-
mans) McMurray: Special Methods in the Reading of English
Classics (Macmillan) Bulletin, 1917, No. 2, Department of the Interior, Bureau
of Education, Washington, D. C: Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools.
MAGAZINES (For the Teacher and the Student Library)
The English Journal The Literary Digest Time Review of Reviews Current History
-- 15 --

National Geographic Magazine Scientific American The Forum Harper's The Atlantic Monthly The American Mercury The Nation
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
Webster's New International Dictionary Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Americana International Encyclopaedia Bulfinch: Age of Fable (Dutton) Galey: Classic Myths Smith: A Smaller Classical Dictionary (Dutton) Cambridge History of English Literature Cambridge History of American Literature
MISCELLANEOUS
Hubbell and Beatty: An Introduction to Poetry Eastman: Enjoyment of Poetry Keller: The Reader's Digest
NOTE ON TEXT-BOOKS: The use of histories of American and English literature is left to the judgment of the teacher. The prevailing opinion of the class was that no text should be used.
A text on theme writing will be found serviceable when judiciously used by the teacher. Any good hand-book of grammar and composition would serve the purpose. This book should be comprehensive enough to allow its use throughout the four years' course.
GENERAL LIBRARY
SEP 14^ 1&6_
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA

GEORGIA State School Items
Published by the State Department of Education

Volume IX

NOVEMBER, 1932

No. 7

A Survey of Chatham County, Georgia,
Public School System
M. L. DUGGAN
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.

REPORT of the
Survey of the Schools
of
Chatham County, Georgia
Made by The State Department of Education
Atlanta, Georgia 1932

BOARD OF EDUCATION OF CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA

CHARLES ELLIS

President

HENRY BLUN

Vice-President

CHARLES F. GROVES

Treasurer

HOWARD C. FOSS

ELLIOTT W. PARISH

JOHN S. WILDER

HERMAN W. HESSE

MRS. T. P. WARING

HERBERT L. KAYTON

CAPT. F. W. SPENCER

W. G. SUTLIVE

WALTER S. WILSON

PETER R. NUGENT

ORMOND B. STRONG, Superintendent of Schools

.<
J
1

THE SURVEY STAFF
J. I. Allman, Supervisor of School Administration. I. S. Smith, Supervisor of Elementary Schools. Miss Caro Lane, Assistant to Mr. Smith. Paul Ellison, Supervisor of Elementary Schools. W. L. Downs, State Supervisor of High Schools. Miss Sarah Mell Duggan, Specialist Educational Measurements. J. L. Graham, Supervisor of Schoolhouse Construction. Gordon G. Singleton, Director of Information and Statistics. Mrs. Dorothy Loeb, Secretary to Dr. Singleton. J. C. Dixon, Supervisor of Negro Education.
OFFICE ASSISTANTS
Mr. James A. Stripling, Assistant Division of Schoolhouse Construction.
Mrs. Lucy Hughes, Secretary Division of Schoolhouse Construction. Mrs. W. T. Moore, Secretary to State High School Supervisor. Mrs. J. C. Laurent, Secretary to the Supervisors of Elementary Schools. Miss Julia Napier, Secretary Division of Administration.

FOREWORD

Education is not a stationary thing--fixed and complete. A continuously and rapidly changing civilization is constantly making new demands on education. Consequently, educational standards and requirements are constantly changing to meet the new demands. New inventions and discoveries, new and more rapid means of communication and transportation, are constantly changing our habits of thought and action, our manner of living, our social outlook, our economic activities. It is the task of education, as far as it is possible to do so, to prepare the coming citizen to meet these ever changing conditions.

The school system that was functioning with a high degree of perfection a decade ago is today doing a poor job if it has continued to perform on the basis on which it operated at that time. Therefore, no school system is perfect. It must be constantly alert to the ever changing demands made upon it.

The administrators of the Chatham County school system are alive to this fact. There is evidence on every hand that they have incorporated into their school program those new ideas which have shown promise of giving improved opportunities to their pupils. The result is that the Chatham County school system compares favorably with other school systems in this section of the country. Practically all of the questions raised in this survey report were known to the administrators of the system and efforts were being made to improve many of them with the result that much progress has been made already. Other problems, which were known but about which nothing had been done, were simply being held in abeyance until the opportune time came for dealing with them.

This survey has had for its purpose the discovery of the actual conditions existing in the various departments of the system, to set forth these conditions in such a manner that both the strong and the weak places may be clearly seen in order that efforts for improvement may be made most effectively.

The survey makes no attempt to explain the reasons for existing conditions. It raises questions but leaves the answer subject to further investigation. It is not intended that the survey should be exhaustive. With limited time, limited staff, and limited funds available, an exhaustive study was impossible. Many important problems are barely touched; others are omitted entirely. The testing program was very limited in scope; no detailed study of curriculum offerings was made; neither was there a detailed study of the health program nor of teacher personnel.

I desire to express sincere appreciation for the cordial cooperation and uniform courtesy shown us by the Board of Education, principals, teachers and pupils. We wish to express our especial appreciation to Superintendent 0. B. Strong, Mrs. Virginia Heard and Mr. W. W. McCune, Assistant Superintendents, Supervisor Margaret Seawright, and the local office personnel.

The survey was undertaken at the request of the Savannah Superintendent and Board of Education and with the hope that it would be useful to the public schools of other systems as well as Savannah and Chatham County.
M. L. DUGGAN,

December 1, 1932.

State Superintendent of Schools.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

Page

I. Organization and Administration

1

City School System Established

1

First Board of Education

1

First Provision for Education of Negro Children

2

Expansion of Board's Legal Authority

2

Self-Perpetuating Board Changed

2

Present Board Set-Up Formulated--i

3

Guiding Principles of Administration

3

Administrative Organization of the Board of Education 5

Standing Committees of the Board

6

Duties of a Board of Education

7

The Superintendent of Schools

8

Suggested Administrative Staff

12

Revision of Board Rules and Regulations

13

Chart of Present Organization

15

Chart of Proposed Organization

16

Negro Schools

17

Community Relations

17

Census and Attendance

18

Records and Reports

18

Supervision

19

Recommendations

19

II. The Business Administration of the Schools

21

The Administration of Business Affairs

21

The Committee System

21

How Business Affairs are Administered

22

Need of Better Business Administration

22

Director of Business Administration

23

Commendations and Recommendations

24

III. Financing the S&hools of Savannah and Chatham County

Expenditures of the Savannah and Chatham County

Public Schools

26

The Revenue System

26

Education and the Depression

27

The Total Cost of the P'ublic Schools of Savannah and

Chatham County

28

A Distribution of School Expenditures

30

How the School Dollar is Invested

34

Trends in School Expenditures Since 1926

36

Causes of Increased Expenditures

41

Comparisons and Analysis of School Expenditures in

Savannah and Fourteen Southern Cities

47

Financing Capital Outlay

53

TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued

Chapter

Page

Ability of Savannah to Finance Her Schools

55

Effort Made by Savannah and Eleven Southern Cities

to Finance Her Public Schools

55

IV. The Personnel

57

V. Educational Results*

64

Introduction--Purpose of Tests

64

Tests Used

64

Testing Procedure

64

Survey Test Data

65

Median Scores in Total Averages--Tables

65

Median Scores in Reading--Tables

68

Median Scores in Arithmetic Computation--Tables

70

Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning--Tables

71

Median Scores in Language--Tables

73

Median Scores in Spelling--Tables

75

Comparison of Elementary Schools with Respect to

Achievement

76

In Total Averages

77

In Reading

78

In Aritiimetic Computation

78

In Language

78

In Spelling

78

Comparison of Three Specific Schools

80

Distribution of Scores

81

Percentages of Pupils Achieving Normal, above Normal,

and below Normal

86

Emphasis in Special Subjects

86

Conclusions

86

Recommendations

87

Colored Schools

87

VI. Educational Opportunities in the Elementary Schools

99

Course of Study

99

Time Allotment of Subjects

99

Size of Classes

101

Age of Entrance to Elementary Schools

102

Age-Grade Status of Pupils in Elementary Schools

104

* Charts were prepared to accompany each table shown in this chapter but for purposes of economy in printing, these charts were omitted. Copies of the charts are on file in the office of the Superintendent of Schools of Chatham County at Savannah, Georgia.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued
Chapter
Progress Policies m Elementary Schools Failure and Promotion Practices Causes of Failure A Study of Individual Cases Acceleration Conditional Promotion Adjustments to Individual Pupil Needs
Educational Activities in Elementary Schools Holding Power of Elementary Schools Conclusions Recommendations Colored Schools

Page
105 110 119 116 118 120 120 122 123 124
87 126

VII. Secondary Education

132

Educational Results and Opportunities in the Junior and

Senior High Schools (White)

132

Libraries and Laboratories

144

Study Halls

145

Extra Curricular Activities

145

Results and Opportunities in Cuyler Junior and Senior

High Schools (Negro)

146

VIII.

School Buildings White Schools Present School Plant Status Evaluation of Present Plant Facilities for All White Children Rating of All White Plants Sites Buildings Service System Classrooms Special Rooms Recommendations Colored Schools Facilities for All Colored Children Rating of All Colored Plants Sites Buildings Service System Classrooms Special Rooms Recommendations

151 151
151 152 152 156 157
160 161 163 164 164 164 164 169 171 171 172 173 _. 173 173

TABLES

CHAPTER I.

Table No.

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

Page

Suggested Administrative Staff for Savanah Schools 12

CHAPTER III.

FINANCING THE SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY

Table No.

Page

I. II. III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII. VIII.
IX. X. XI. XII.
XIII.
XIV. XV.
XVI. XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.

Total Cost of Public Education in Chatham County. 29

Distribution of Total Expenditures by Character--- 31

How the School Dollar Is Invested in Savannah and

188 Cites of 30,000 to 100,000 Population

34

Distribution of Total Expenditures by Character,

1926-1927 to 1931-1932

37

Current Expense Per Pupil in Average Daily At-

tendance

38

Instructional Service and Current Expenses, 1926-

1932

38

Teachers Salaries and Current Expenses, 1926-1932. 40

Expenditure Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

for Auxiliary Agencies, 1926-1932

40

Annual Expenditure for Transportation

41

Average Daily Attendance, 1926-1932

42

Enrollment by Grades, 1926-1932

43

Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Savannah and Chatham

County, 1926-1927 to 1931-1932

44

Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Chatham County and Cities

of 10,000 Population and More, Based Upon En-

rollment

44

Expenditures Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance 48

Current Expense Per Pupil in Average Daily At-

tendance

49

Total and Per Pupil Expenses for Eight Major Items 50

Expenditure Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

for General Control in Fifteen Southern Cities,

1929-1930

51

Expenditure for Instruction Per Pupil in Average

Daily Attendance in Fifteen Southern Cities

51

Expenditure Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance

for Auxiliary Agencies in Fifteen Southern Cities. 52

Value of School Property Per Pupil in Average

Daily Attendance in Fifteen Southern Cities

54

viii

CHAPTER III.--Continued

Table No. XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.

School Bonds Outstanding in Savannah and Other United States' Cities
Tax Valuation Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in Fifteen Southern Cities
School-Tax Rate in Savannah and Twelve Southern Cities

Page 54
55 5g

CHAPTER IV.

PERSONNEL

XXIV. White Teachers--Recency of Training

57

XXV. White Teachers--Age of Teachers

58

XXVI. Annual Salaries Paid White Teachers According

to Training

58

XXVII. Annual Salaries Paid White Teachers According

to Experience

59

XXVIII. Annual Salaries Paid White Teachers According to

What They Teach

60

XXIX. Annual Salaries Paid White Principals

60

XXX. XXXI. XXXII.

Recency of Training of Colored Teachers

61

Age of Colored Teachers

61

Annual Salaries Paid Colored Teachers According

to Training

62

XXXIII. Annual Salaries Paid Colored Teachers According

to Experience

62

XXXIV. Annual Salaries Paid Colored Teachers According

to What They Teach

63

XXXV. Annual Salaries Paid Colored Principals

63

CHAPTER V.

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS

XXXVI. Median Scores in Total Averages for Elementary

White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah.__ 66 XXXVII. Median Scores in Total Averages fdr Elementary

White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham

County

67

XXXVIII. Median Scores in Reading for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County__ 68 XXXIX. Median Scores in Reading for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County.. GS XL. Median Scores in Arithmetic Fundamentals for Ele-

mentary White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A,

Savannah

70

Table No.

CHAPTER V.--Continued

Page

XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX.
L. LI LII. LIII.
LIV.
LV.

Median Scores in Arithmetic Fundamentals for Ele-

mentary White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A,

Chatham County

70

Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning for Elemen-

tary White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savan-

nah

71

Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning for Elemen-

tary White Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham

County

72

Median Scores in Language for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah

73

Median Scores in Language for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County-- 74

Median Scores in Spelling for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah

75

Median Scores in Spelling for Elementary White

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County.- 76

Comparison of Elementary Schools for White Chil-

dren With Respect to Achievement in Total Aver-

ages, Savannah

77

Comparison of Elementary Schools for White Chil-

dren With Respect to Achievement in Silent

Reading, Savannah

78

Comparison of Elementary Schools for White Chil-

dren With Respect to Achievement in Arithmetic,

Savannah

78

Comparison of Elementary Schools for White Chil-

dren With Respect to Achievement in Language,

Savannah

79

Comparison of Elementary Schools for White Chil-

dren With Respect to Achievement in Spelling,

Savannah

79

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Metro-

politan Achievement Tests in the White Schools--

Grade 3-A, Savannah

82

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Metro-

politan Achievement Tests in the White Schools--

Grade 3-A, Chatham County

83

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Public

School Achievement Tests in the White Schools--

Grade 6-A, Savannah

84

Chapter LVI.

CHAPTER V.--Continued

Page

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Public

School Achievement Tests in the White Schools--

Grade 6-A, Chatham County

85

COLORED SCHOOLS

LVII. LVIII. LIX.
LX.

Median Scores in Total Averages for Elementary

Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah__ 89

Median Scores in Reading for Elementary Colored

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah

89

Median Scores in Arithmetic Fundamentals for Ele-

mentary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A,

Savannah

90

Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning for Elemen-

tary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Sa-

vannah

90

LXI. LXII. LXIII.

Median Scores in Language for Elementary Colored

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah

91

Median Scores in Spelling for Elementary Colored

Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Savannah

91

Median Scores in Total Averages for Elementary

Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham

County

92

LXIV. Median Scores in Reading for Elementary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County. _ 92

LXV. Median Scores in Arithmetic Fundamentals for

Elementary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A,

Chatham County

93

LXVI. Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning for Ele-

mentary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A,

Chatham County

93

LXVII. Median Scores in Language for Elementary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County.. 94

LXVIII. Median Scores in Spelling for Elementary Colored Schools--Grades 3-A and 6-A, Chatham County... 94

LXIX.

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Public

School Achievement Tests in the Colored Schools,

Grade 6-A, Chatham County

95

LXX.

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Nor-

mal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Metro-

politan Achievement Tests in the Colored Schools,

Grade 3-A, Chatham County

96

xi

Chapter LXXI.
LXXII.

CHAPTER V, ontinued

Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Normal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Public School Achievement Tests in the Colored Schools, Grade 6-A, Savannah
Per Cent of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Normal, and Below Normal by Subjects in the Metropolitan Achievement Tests in the Colored Schools, Grade 3-A, Savannah

Page 97 98

CHAPTER VI

LXXIII.
LXXIV. LXXV. LXXVI.

A Comparison of the Time Allotment by Subjects of

the First Three Grades of Three White Schools in

the City of Savannah with Average of 444 Cities

and 15 States

100

Time Allotments in Minutes Per Week in Pour Hun-

dred and Forty-four Cities and Fifteen States,

Listed by Subjects

101

Size of Class in City White Schools of Savannah,

Fall Term, 1931

102

Per Cent of Children Entering First Grade by Ages,

Fall Term, 1931, Savannah City Schools

103

LXXVII. Per Cent of Pupils Under Age, Normal Age, Over

Age, in the Savannah City Schools, Grades 1 to 6,

Fall Term, 1931

105

LXXVIII. Comparison of Per Cent of Under Age, Normal Age, and Over Age Children in the White Elementary Schools of Savannah with Other Cities and States. 106

LXXIX. Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and Over Age in Chatham County Rural Schools 106

LXXX. LXXXI.

Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and

Over Age in Rural Schools of Chatham County

Compared with Certain Other Areas

107

Grade Progress--Per Cent of Children in Grades 1 to

6 Making Slow, Normal, and Rapid Progress

108

LXXXII. Comparison of Grade Progress in White Rural

Schools of Chatham County with Shelby County,

Alabama

109

LXXXIII. Per Cent of Pupils Requiring More Than Normal

Time to Complete a Grade. White Elementary

Schools of Savannah

109

LXXXIV. Per Cent of Promotion, Double Promotion, Special

Promotion, Conditional Promotion, and Non-Pro-

motion in Grades 1 to 6, Savannah

112

xii

CHAPTER VL--Continued

Table No.

Page

LXXXV. Per Cent of Promotion, Double Promotion, Special

Promotion, Conditional Promotion, and Non-Pro-

motion in Grades 1 to 6, Chatham County

113

LXXXVI. Per Cent of Failures by Schools, Grade 1 to 6, Sa-

vannah City Schools, 1931

H4

LXXXVII. Total Per Cent of Failures by Schools, Grade 1 to 6,

Savannah City Schools

H4

LXXXVIII Rank of Ten White Elementary Schools of Savan-

nah in Per Cent of Failures and in Average Schol-

arship as Shown by Scores on Standard Tests.

Grades 3A and 6A, May, 1932

115

LXXXIX. Causes of Failures as Given by Teachers and the

Per Cent of Total Failure Due to Each Cause in

Grades 1 to 6, Savannah City Schools

119

XC. Adjustment in Instruction to Individual Needs, Chat-

ham County White Schools, 1932

121

XCI. A Comparison of the Holding Power of the White

Schools of Chatham, Bibb and Richmond Coun-

ties as Shown by the Per Cent the Enrollment in

Each Grade is of the Enrollment in the First

Grade, 1931-1932

124

COLORED SCHOOLS

XCII. XCIII. XCIV.
xcv.
XCVI.
XCVII.
XCVIII.
XCIX.

Size of Class in the City Colored Schools

126

Per Cent of Pupils in Savannah City Schools Grade

1 to 6, Under Age, Normal Age, and Over Age.

Fall Term, 1931

126

Per Cent of Over Age Pupils, Grades 1 to 6, in

Savannah Schools Compared with Birmingham 127

Per Cent of Under Age, Normal Age, and Over Age

Pupils, Grades 1 to 6, Chatham County Schools-- 128

Per Cent of Over Age Pupils in Grades 1 to 6, Chat-

ham County Colored Schools Compared with Those

of Shelby County, Alabama

128

Per Cent of Promotion, Double Promotion, Special

Promotion, Conditional Promotion, and Non-Promo-

tion in Grades 1 to 6, Savannah City Schools 129

Per Cent of Promotion, Double Promotion, Special

Promotion, Conditional Promotion, and Non-Pro-

motion in Grades 1 to 6, Chatham County Schools.

Fall Term, 1931

130

Per Cent of Failures by Schools, Grade 1 to 6, Sa-

vannah City Schools, 1931

131

CHAPTER VII

Table No.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Page

C. Educational Results in the Junior High Schools

(White) --

132

CI. Distribution of Scores Made by Pupils in 35th Street

Junior High School

133

CII. Distribution of Scores Made by Pupils in Chatham

Junior High School, Grade 9-A in the Public School

Achievement Tests

134

OIL Distribution of Scores Made by Pupils in City White

Junior High Schools, Grade 9-A in the Public

School Achievement Tests

135

CIV. Number of Students Registered by Subjects, Num-

ber and Per Cent Dropped and Failed in the Senior

High School

137

CV. Number of Students Registered by Subjects, Num-

ber and Per Cent Failed in the Chatham Junior

High School

137

CVI. CVII. CVIII.

Number of Students Registered by Subjects, Num-

ber and Per Cent Failed in 35th Street Junior High

School

138

Per Cent of Pupils Making Rapid Progress, Normal

Progress, and Slow Progress in Chatham Senior

High School

139

Per Cent of Pupils Making Rapid Progress, Normal

Progress, and Slow Progress in 35th Street Junior

High School

139

OX. CX. CXI. CXII.

Per Cent of Pupils Making Rapid Progress, Normal

Progress, and Slow Progress in Chatham Junior

High School

140

Causes of Failures as Given by Teachers and Per

Cent of Total Failures Due to Each Cause in

Grades 7-9 of the Junior High Schools (White),.. 140

Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and

Over Age in the Savannah Senior High School

(White)

141

Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and

Over Age in the Savannah Junior High Schools

(White)

141

CXIII. CXIV. CXV.

Per Cent of Promotions, Double Promotions, Spe-

cial Promotions, Conditional Promotions, and Non-

Promotions in Chatham Junior High School 142

Per Cent of Promotions, Double Promotions, Spe-

cial Promotions, Conditional Promotions, and Non-

Promotions 35th Junior High School

143

Educational Results in the Junior High Schools

(Negro)

146

xiv

Table No. CXVI. CXVII. CXVIII.
CXIX.
CXX.
CXXI.
CXXII.

CHAPTER VII.--Continued

Page

Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and

Over Age In Savannah Senior High School (Negro) 146

Per Cent of Children Under Age, Normal Age, and

Over Age in the Cuyler Junior High School (Negro) 147

Per Cent of Pupils Making Rapid Progress, Normal

Progress, and Slow Progress in Cuyler Junior

High School (Negro)

-

147

Per Cent of Pupils Making Rapid Progress, Normal

Progress, and Slow Progress in Cuyler Senior

High School (Negro)

-

-- 147

Causes of Failures as Given by Teachers and the

Per Cent of Total Failures Due to Bach Cause in

Grades 7-9 of the Senior High School (Negro)-- 148

Per Cent of Promotions, Double Promotions, Special

Promotions, Conditional Promotions, and Non-Pro-

motions in the Cuyler Senior High School (Negro) 149

Per Cent of Promotions, Double Promotions, Special

Promotions, Conditional Promotions, and Non-Pro-

motions in the Cuyler Junior High School (Negro) 150

CHAPTER VIII

Table No. CXXIII.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS

Page

Classroom Facilities for White Elementary, Junior

and Senior High School Children of Savannah,

CXXIV. CXXV.
CXXVI.

Georgia

153

Classroom Facilities for White Elementary School

Children of Chatham County, Georgia

154

Scores of Savannah and Chatham County, Georgia

School Plants for White Pupils as Measured by

the Strayer-Engelhardt Standards and Score Card. 155

Square Feet of Site Area Per White Pupil Enrolled

(Standard: 200 Square Feet Per Pupi' to be En-

rolled), Savannah, Georgia

159

CXXVII. Square Feet of Site Area Per White Pupil Enrolled

(Standard: 200 Square Feet Per Pupil to be En-

rolled), Chatham County, Georgia

159

CXXVIII. Classroom Facilities for Colored Elementary, Junior and Senior High School Children of Savannah, Ga. 165

CXXIX. Classroom Facilities for Colored Elementary School

Children of Chatham County, Georgia

166

CXXX.

Scores of Savannah and Chatham County, Georgia School Plants for Colored Pupils as Measured by the Strayer-Engelhardt Standards and Score Card- 167

CHAPTER VIII.--Continued

Table No. CXXXI.
CXXXII.

Page

Square Feet of Site Area Per Colored Pupil En-

rolled (Standard: 200 Square Feet Per Pupil to

be Enrolled), Savannah, Georgia

170

Square Feet of Site Area Per Colored Pupil En-

rolled (Standard: 200 Square Feet Per Pupil to be

Enrolled), Chatham County, Georgia

170

CHARTS

Chapter I--Organization and Administration

Chart No.

1

Present Organization

2

Proposed Organization

Page 15 16

Chapter V--Educational Results

3

Comparison of Three Schools with Respect to Achieve-

ment in the Several Subjects, Grade 3-A, Savannah. 80

4

Comparison of Three Schools with Respect to Achieve-

ment in the Several Subjects, Grade 6-A, Savannah.. 81

Chapter VIII--School Buildings

63

Graphic Representation of School Plant Scores

(White Schools)

157

64

Graphic Representation of School Plant Scores

(Colored Schools)

168

CHAPTER I
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
It is the purpose of this section of this report to attempt to evaluate the legal and administrative organization of the public schools of Chatham County and the City of Savannah (hereinafter to be known and referred to as the public schools or the public school system of Chatham County) and, as far as possible to lay down the essential principles which should guide in the operation or in the reorganization of the system.
The legal basis upon which the schools of a county or a city are operated is often one of the most important explanations of their successes or failures. The placement of authority and/or responsibility is always of paramount interest to anyone studying the operation of a school system. It is well and plausible, then, to ask and seek the answer to such questions as the following:
1. Where does authority for conducting the schools originate?
2. To whom, to how large a group, and for how' long is this authority delegated?
3. How do those to whom authority is delegated obtain office?
4. What specific powers are granted to these persons?
5. Under what specific limitations must they organize and operate the schools?
6. What authority in turn do they delegate to others?
Savannah City School System Established
The public school system of Savannah was established by an Act of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, approved March 21, 1866. This Act provided for and created "The Board of Public Education for the City of Savannah," whose design and purpose was to be "the direction, management, and superintendence of public education of white children in the said city, between the ages of six and eighteen years."
First Board of Education
Section 2 of the Act named nine citizens of Savannah, "together with the Commissioners of the Massie School," who were to constitute the first board. This board was self-perpetuating, except as related to the Commissioners of the Massie School and had, by the

.
standards of those days, broad powers of control. It had transferred to its control and possession on the "Public School," the "Massie School," and all and any other buildings and grounds that may be placed in their possession or under their management, control, and superintendence. ..."
This Board of Education was empowered to receive and administer funds already received or to be received from the City of Savannah, the County of Chatham, and the State of Georgia. The Act limited the authority of this Board to the "extended limits of the City of Savannah."
First Provision for Education of Negro Children
The Board of Education of the City of Savannah and the County of Chatham, which will hereafter be referred to as "the Board" or "the Board of Education," secured, by a petition to the October Term, 1878, of the Chathaim Superior Court, a change in its charter which provided for the education "of colored children or children of African descent, . . . between the ages of six and eighteen years." This petition for a charter change was granted by the presiding judge on December 2, 1878.
Expansion of Board's Legal Authority
The powers of the Board of Education were further extended by an order of the Chatham Superior Court under date of September 3, 1914. This petition asked for and received an expansion of authority in receiving and conveying real and personal property standing in the name of the Board of Education, and ratified the sale of any of its property conveyed since the charter amendment of December 2, 1878.
An enactment of the General Assembly of Georgia, approved August 15, 1917, validated and confirmed the Chatham Superior Court order of December, 1878, relative to the education of colored children and legalized the borrowing power of the Board of Education for certain purposes, but stipulated that "the Board shall not borrow for any particular year in excess of its resources for such year."
Self-Perpetuating Board Changed
On August 2, 1923, the General Assembly of the State of Georgia approved "An Act to Provide for the Termination of the Terms of Office of the Members of the Board of Education ... to provide for the Selection of their Successors and the Pilling of Vacancies, and Other Purposes."

Present Board Set-Up Formulated
This Act of August 2, 1923, provides for a Board of Education of twelve persons, two of whom are to be appointed each year . . . one by the Mayor and Aldermen of the City of Savannah and one by the "Commissioners of Chatham County and ex-officio judges." Members' terms are for six years and expire on January first. Section 3 of this Act terminated that section of the Act of 1866 which related to the Massie School Commissioners and provided for the filling of vacancies in the term of any member by action of the Board.
Pursuant to the authority granted it, the Board has formulated its "Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Public Schools."
The answers to the six questions propounded at the beginning of this chapter are to be found in the charter provisions as interpreted by the ''Rules and Regulations. ..." The answers to these questions will undoubtedly show some variation between practice in Chatham County and in other places in Georgia and in other states. The question, then, as to which is the better law can be answered only in terms of accepted administrative principles, in terms of results which are obviously due to the working of the law, and in terms of the best practice elsewhere.
Cubberly, Sears, and others who are recognized authorities in matters pertaining to school administration, have laid down guiding principles which have proved their worth not only to the political theorist, but in the practical administration of education as well. Sears1 states these as follows:
1. The authority over schools rests primarily with the State.
2. The Legislature may delegate any authority it pleases to whom it pleases, such persons being responsible to the State and not necessarily to local authority.
3. There must be harmony between the administrative and the financial powers over the schools, so that those who direct the schools may have power to command the necessary support.
4. Boards of Education should be left free to determine their own form of organization and largely their business procedure.
5. Each board member should be elected by and should represent all the people of the school district, and not one section or precinct.
6. All board legislation should be based upon the deliberations of the entire board, rather than being referred to standing committees.
7. A board of education possesses deliberative and legislative powler, but should delegate executive power to the Superin-
1. Sears, "The School Survey," Hougrhton, Mifflin Company.
3

tendent on the principle that the functions of deliberation and legislation belong to the representatives of the people, and the execution of the results to its executive officer or officers.
8. A perfect coordination of the many forces involved In the administration of a school system demands that all executive control shall center in one head.
9. Continuity of policy demands that it be impossible to change the entire personnel of the board in less than three to five years
10. Members should serve essentially without pay.
In many respects the Assembly Acts and Court Orders creating the charter provisions under which the schools of Chatham County operate are most desirable and have resulted in the proper operation of most of the above principles.
The term of service of Board members is six years and only two of the twelve members may be replaced any one year. This undoubtedly contributed to a stabilization of control which is most desirable and which is reflected in the reasonable length of tenure of superintendents. The two new members come into a Board, the majority of whom have served for a number of years, and participate in the development of a policy which continues without regard to change in the political control of the city. Progressive school policies which are sound, serviceable, and workable more often emanate from boards whose membership is stable than from those whose membership may change even to the extent of a majority in a very short time.
If the organization set-up of a Board of Education is as it should be; if the administration is placed in the hands of the proper officer; if a school system is not straddled with local politics; in short, if it is efficient and productive of good results, it may safely be said that the Board of Education will not be subservient to the will of any political body such as the city council or county commissioners; it will consist usually of from five to seven members; it will be elected at large, and for a term long enough so that the entire Board cannot be changed short of three to seven years; it will possess power to determine the tax levy, and power to legislate for the schools; it will not possess executive authority, but will have delegated such authority to its executive officers; it will act as a Board always, making use of temporary, but rarely or never of permanent committees, and finally, it will serve without pay.
In some respects it is doubtful whether certain provisions of the Assembly Acts and Court Orders are most desirable. Schools managed by independent or elected boards are, as a general rule, more efficient than schools managed by dependent or appointed boards. They are freer from politics, have greater holding power and better attendance, classes are smaller, more plagrounds are provided, and

teachers are more experienced and more equitably paid. Though it may not so operate now, the present plan of having one board member appointed each year by city authorities and one by county authorities is a procedure fraught with possible dangers. Unless there is a genuine feeling on the part of residents of Savannah and residents of the county outside of the city that each will consider the interests of the other and work together to a common end, a cleavage might result. Any development of this kind which could or might divide the Board into two groups--one representing the county and one the city--would inevitably retard progress. Studies of this kind made all over the United States, opinions of authorities on school organization, and good practice seem to indicate fairly definitely the desirability of a Board of Education elected at large by the people of the community.
If this change should be made the Board ought to be formed of not more than seven members. A Board of this size eliminates the need for dividing it into committees. The term of office should be seven years--thus providing for only one new member each year. Other advantages in this type of Board are apparent.
New legislation would be required to provide the schools of Chatham County and Savannah with a Board of this kind.
Administrative Organization of the Board of Education
"The operation of a modern school system is highly technical in character and requires scientific planning and expert guidance. The question naturally arises: How can a Board of Education charged with operating a given school system best discharge its duties?"(i)
"Large industries have suggested the answer by holding their boards of directors responsible: (1) for the policies under which the business is operated, (2) for securing trained and competent executives, and (3) for an evaluation of the results secured. Authorities on public education are agreed that the organization of a public school system should follow much the same procedure."
A careful study of the Board minutes indicates that the schools of Savannah and Chatham County have not been operated entirely in accordance with this policy, though it must be admitted that the Board, with some few minor exceptions, generally considers the superintendent its executive agent.
The minutes of the Board indicate that, in some instances, the Board has endeavored to put policies into effect, as well as to enact them. This is not only productive of a bad organization but, since Board members have their own personal duties and obligations, practically assures less thorough attention than the superintendent
1. Nashville, Tennessee--Public Schools Survey.

would give to the matter under consideration. Furthermore, the superintendent is trained to operate a system of schools; the Board is not so trained.
Pursuant to the authority granted by the charter to the Board of Education, the Board has adopted certain "Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Public Schools."
Standing Committees
The Rules say that "At the January meeting of the Board the incoming President shall appoint the following standing committees of four members each to serve until their successors are appointed, viz: Committee on Finance, Committee on Properties, and Committee on Instruction," and have prescribed their duties as follows:
Section 11. "The Committee on Finance shall cause to be made in December a budget of income and expenses, and recommend to the Board a suitable tax rate for the ensuing year; shall have general direction and supervision of the Treasurer; shall designate the places of deposit; shall receive monthly and scrutinize the Treasurer's report; shall audit and approve all accounts against the Board; shall have supervision of the forms of vouchers and the books kept by the Treasurer; shall, under authority of the Board, negotiate all loans; shall receive annually the report of the Treasurer and the report of the certified public accountant and transmit the same to the Board; and shall have general direction, under the Board, of all matters relating to the financial administration and the accounts of the Board."
Section 12. "The Committee on Properties shall recommend to the Board the purchase of suitable school sites and the provision of school houses of proper size and design; shall select and employ architects for school buildings; shall have general direction of the Superintendent in the purchase, within the budget, of all furniture and school supplies, and audit and approve accounts for all such purchases; shall see that all buildings and other properties are kept in good condition; shall make, or cause to be made from time to time, inspections of buildings and premises and require them to be kept clean and in a sanitary condition; shall cause the ground about the school buildings to be made attractive; shall recommend all necessary alterations, or enlargements of present buildings and have supervision of the construction of new buildings, and shall have general direction of all matters relating to the properties, real and personal, of the Board of Education."
Section 13. "The Committee on Instruction shall consider and report upon matters relating to the instruction and discipline of the schools; shall from time to time review and recommend changes in the course of study; shall with the advice of the Superintendent,
6

recommend to the Board definite minimum qualifications for admission to the corps of teachers: shall upon approval by the Board establish and supervise a plan of promotions on merit and tenure; shall receive from the Superintendent, consider and pass on all applications for special promotions, or considerations by teachers and principals; shall approve or disapprove recommendations of textbooks and appliances for teaching; shall from time to time review the records of teachers and the reports of principals and supervising officers made to the Superintendent; shall receive and review the recommendations of the Superintendent based upon observation or upon reports of principals where teaching service is persistently unsatisfactory; shall have general supervision of scholarship standards and requirements for graduation from the Senior High School; shall consider and recommend to the Board establishment or discontinuance of special classes, continuation and part-time classes, evening schools and summer schools; and shall, for the Board, exercise general supervision over the scholastic side of the Superintendent's work."
These three rules very definitely vest in the respective committees duties and responsibilities which should be the superintendent's.
It is recommended that the Rules of the Board of Education be changed so as to abolish these three standing committees.
The present and past Boards are to be complimented on making the superintendent more nearly the executive officer of the Board than is generally done. Section 14 of the Rules shows that twenty duties have been assigned to the superintendent.
These rules impose on the superintendent some duties which belong logically to supervisors, make him, jointly with Board committees, responsible for other details of administration, and create an allocation of authority and responsibility which makes it difficult for the superintendent to know his duties and responsibilities.
The Board, through a revision of its present "Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Public Schools," should define and limit its own direct responsiblities and activities. The duties of a Board of Education have been listed in order of importance by Theisen1 as follows:
1. Select its executive officer and support him.
2. Pass on the budget
3. Pass on building programs and plans for financing them.
4. Advise with its executive officer with regard to his recommendations for the extension of educational activities.
W. W. Theisen, the City Superintendent of the Board of Education, and by H. C. Olsen, the Work of Boards of Education.

5. Appoint, on the recommendation of its executive officer, teachers, principals, supervisors, and other employees.
6. Determine, after consultation with its executive officer, a schedule of salaries.
7. Require and consider reports of business transacted or pending and the financial status of the system.
8. Require and consider reports of its executive officer concerning the progress of the school in terms of achievement of pupils, teachers, and supervisors.
9. Adopt, on the recommendation of its executive officer, rules for the government of the school system.
10. Pass on architect's plans approved by its executive officer for buildings already authorized.
11. Present the needs of schools to city authorities and the State Legislature.
12. Approve bills for expenditures previously authorized and approved by its executive officer.
13. Approve textbooks and courses of study recommended by its executive officer.
14. Present the needs of the schools to the public, press, etc. 15. Serve as court of appeals.
16. Hear communications from citizens on administration policies.
17. Consider recommendations of its executive officer and attorney on legal matters and decide on steps to be taken, etc.
18. Judge the efficiency of its executive officer.
After the Board has limited its own direct responsibilities and activities, it should hold the superintendent, as its executive officer, absolutely responsible for the conduct of the schools and the results obtained therein.
The Superintendent of Schools
The duties of a superintendent of schools as the executive officer of a board of education may be grouped under four general headings,1 as follows: (1) as an organizer and planner; (2) as the executive officer of the schools; (3) as head teacher and supervisor of instruction; and (4) as interpreter of the schools to the community and morale builder of the schools.
Answers were obtained to a series of questions relating to organization and administration set-up and procedure in order to determine
1. H. O. Olsen. the Work of Boards of Education, Bureau of Publications Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City, 1926.

the extent to which the superintendent serves as organizer and planner. (Strange as it may seem, the actual relationship of the Board to the present superintendent is more desirable than the relationship stipulated by th*3 Rules.)
Though it has not always so operated, the very wording of some of the duties of the Board committees indicates that the Board can initiate policies and be within the provisions of the Rules.
To illustrate: The Committee on Finance "shall cause to be made in December a budget of income and expenses, and recommend to the Board a suitable tax for the ensuing year. . . ." This committee is also supposed to "audit and approve all accounts against the Board. . . ."
The Rules of the Board make the Committee on Properties responsible for the repair, upkeep, and housekeeping of the buildings and grounds and allocate to the committee several duties which might well be made the responsibility of a business manager, or supervisor of business activities, or assistant superintendent in charge of business.
Under these Rules the Committee on Instruction is supposed to "from time to time review and recommend changes in the course of study," to set up minimum qualifications for admission to the corps of teachers, and to do other things which are distinctly professional in nature.
Engelhardt and Engelhardt1 have listed the major duties of the superintendent in a properly organized school system as follows:
A. Personnel.
Teachers--Principals--Supervisors
1. Nominate.
2. Assign and transfer.
3. Plan for improvement in service.
4. Recommend leaves of absence.
5. Recommend salaries.
6. Recommend removal.
(The Board of Education is to be complimented on the extent to which it leaves to the superintendent the selection, employment, and general control of the teaching personnel. This is as it should be and a continuance of the present policy is recommended.)
B. Instruction.
1. Propose courses of study.
1. Engelhardt and Engelhardt, Public School Business Administration.
9

2. Recommend textbooks. C. Ad ministration.
1. Prepare budget. 2. Initiate new policies. 3. Recommend new buildings. 4. Recommend supplies and equipment. 5. Recommend rules and regulations. 6. Make reports. 7. Receive communications and complaints
Section 14 of the Rules says that "the superintendent of schools, as the technical executive of the Board:
1. Shall be charged with proper and satisfactory conduct of the schools under the charter provisions, by-laws, rules and general policies of the Board. In questions of interpretation of the policies of the Board, he shall confer with the President of the Board.
2. Shall devote himself to the study of public school system's and educational progress.
3. Shall keep himself informed on the sources of supply of competent teachers and principals, draw up and submit to tie Board, from time to time, recommendations for changes in organization and personnel, which, in his judgment, may strengthen the school system.
4. Shall, within the fixed qualifications and salary schedule, fill vacancies in the teaching corps.
5. Shall nominate to Ihe Committee on Instruction, for approval of the Board, assistants, supervisors and principals.
6. Shall exercise constant personal supervision over all the schools, visit and examine them as often as is practicable.
7. Shall fix school boundaries.
8. Shall be charged with carrying out the established course of study, and from time to time recommend to the Committee on Instruction, for the approval of the Board, changes in the course of study which, in his judgment, may improve it.
9. Shall have charge of school houses and grounds and the necessary repairs for upkeep under the general direction of the Committee on Properties.
10. Shall employ or discharge suitable persons to keep the school
10

houses and grounds in proper order within the limit of the funds provided by the budget for this purpose.
11. Shall make and cause to be made inspections of school,properties and report to the Committee of Properties.
12. Shall have a seat and voice, but no vote, in Board and committee meetings.
13. Shall cause to be kept accurate records of enrollment and attendance of pupils.
14. Shall have power to dismiss, suspend or transfer any pupil when in his judgment the interest of the pupil or the school demands it.
15. Shall assign and transfer teachers where in his judgment they may serve best.
16. May suspend for cause principals or teachers pending immediate investigation by the Committee on Instruction or the Board.
17. Shall see that the schools are conducted within the annual budget adopted by the Board on the basis of the plans and policies approved by the Board.
18. Shall employ and assign substitutes for absent teachers. 19. Shall arrange for the proper conduct of teachers' meetings for
study and discussion of school matters.
20. Shall make monthly reports to the Board and submit at the June meeting an annual detailed statement of the conduct of the schools for the closing year and make recommendations for improving the schools. The Assistant Superintendent shall assist the Superintendent in the discharge of his duties and act under his instructions."
It is questionable whether such minute stipulations should be made about the Superintendent's duties; it would seem preferable to list his duties in general as indicated by the quotation above from Engelhardt and Engelhardt. To discharge these duties, the Superintendent must be provided with an appropriate and adequate staff. This staff would necessarily be composed of two kinds of assistants: (1) those to whom duties are assigned with full authority to act and (2) those who have limited administrative authority but who aid the Superintendent, through fact finding and in other ways, in the discharge of the duties of his office.
In Table A is indicated an administrative staff for the public schools of Savannah and Chatham County. At the present time children residing within the corporate limits of the City of Savannah have the advantage of a type of supervision not accorded those who reside
11

without the city limits. It is altogether possible that the rural teachers of Chatham County are more in need of professional supervision than are the teachers in the city schools.
It would, therefore, seem not unreasonable to propose that the Director of Instruction and his assistants--the supervisor of secondary education,1 the supervisor of elementary education, the special (subject) supervisors, the Director of Health and Physical Education, the Director of Child Accounting, and the Director of Research cooperating, should work in the rural, as well as the city schools. The various school principals would, of course, be responsible to the Director of Instruction.
It goes without saying that the Superintendent should immediately be relieved of the duties of supervising the junior and senior high schools, of duties of a business nature, and of all other duties not listed previously in a quotation from Engelhardt and Engelhardt.

Table A

SUGGESTED ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF FOR SAVANNAH SCHOOLS

Number

Members of the Staff

1

Superintendent of Schools.

1

Director of Instruction.

1

Director of Business.

1

Supervisor of Secondary Education.

1

Supervisor of Elementary Education.

Supervisors:
Present group to be added to, when and if possible, so as to have a special supervisor for each subject or for each group of related subjects.

1

Director of Health and Physical Education.

(With the requisite assistants--doctors, dentists, and nurses.)

1

Director of Child Accounting (attendance officer).

(With assistants--attendance officers and visiting teachers.)

1

Engineer.

1

Bookkeeper.

1

Storekeeper.

1. No high schools outside City of Savannah.

12

Architect or Builder (building custodian.) (With necessary repair staff.)
The following would also be most desirable:
Psychologist.
Director of Research.
The Director of Business should relieve the Superintendent of all duties of a business nature. He should be held responsible by the Superintendent for the following:
Financial accounting.
Caring for monies.
Making the budget.
Selecting sites.
Planning new construction.
Operation and maintenance of plant.
Payroll procedure.
Insurance of buildings.
Purchasing of supplies and equipment.
A more detailed list of these duties will be found in the chapter on Business Administration of the Schools.
This will require an individual trained in business and in education, and he should have the necessary assistants. The dollar value of such an individual can hardly be estimated. Efficiency and economy will result from his employment.
The Board of Education is to be congratulated on leaving the matter of personnel management to the Superintendent. As the executive officer of the Board he cannot be held accountable and responsible for employees unless he is allowed to select them.
The Superintendent has full authority in the selection, transfer, and discharge of teachers and the high quality of the teaching personnel bears testimony to the fact that he has used this authority wisely and that the procedure is for the best interest of the schools.
Revision of Board Rules and Regulations If even a part of the foregoing recommendations as to the duties of the Board and the Superintendent are put into effect, and if the Superintendent is provided with some such staff as is suggested above, it will become necessary to rewrite the present rules and
13

regulations of the Board. In this revision the following suggestions should serve as guides);
1. The duties of the Board and of the Superintendent should be clearly denned.
2. The general character of the work of each employee or type of employee should be prescribed. The relation of each worker to every other worker should be fixed and these relations should be shown on an organization cnart so that each employee may determine his place in the organization. In dealing with such matters as the qualifications and salaries of teachers, school records and reports, admitting and transferring pupils, rules and regulations should be specific; but such matters as promotion, discipline, teaching procedures, materials of instruction can be dealt with best through directions issued by the Superintendent or his assistants, and even these directions should be such as not to discourage the exercise of personal judgment, initiative and originality.
1. Nashville, Tennessee--Survey of Public Schools.
14

CHART NO. I
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CHART NO. 2 PROPOSED ORGANIZATION Chart No. 2 indicates graphically the proposed relationship between the several parts of the school system.
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16

Negro Schools
The existence of a dual system of schools makes it necessary to devote some consideration to the education of Negro children apart from a consideration of the problem of education in general.
The attitude of the Superintendent to this particular problem of education is most commendable. He not only evidences a real word interest in the education of Negro children but his constructive efforts indicate that he is striving to furnish them better educational opportunities. He has been able to consolidate most of the small rural schools for Negroes and in every instance has undoubtedly improved the quality of instruction they are receiving.
There are, however, still some few one-teacher Negro schools in Chatham county. These are, for the most part, housed in most inadequate buildings. The Superintendent is now trying to complete his program of consolidation by combining these remaining oneteacher Negro schools, and it is recommended that the Board of Education assist in this so that it may be done as soon as possible There are about nine of these schools which should be consolidated at the very earliest possible time.
The Board of Education and the Superintendent are to be complimented on the fact that Chatham county operates its Negro schools nine months, just as it does its white schools; that it transports Negro children just as it does white children. These things and the erection of such schools as the Florence Street School for Negroes are an evidence of an interest not often found.
As is the case with other rural schools, the Negro schools need more of the same type of supervision the urban schools are now receiving, and it is suggested that general and special subject supervisors work in the whole county and in all schools.
It is not unreasonable to call attention again to the fact that the supervisory staff of the schools is entirely inadequate and to suggest that, as soon as the financial situation will permit, the Superintendent be allowed to expand his supervisory force either along the lines suggested herein or as he may think best.
Community Relations
No Superintendent can achieve an educational program without the support of the people whom he serves. The community should be kept acquainted with the schools. People should be educated to understand what a modern public school is and what it costs; they should be educated, also, to know the kinds of schools they now have and what it will cost to bring them to accepted standards, if they are not already of such quality.
Due to the fluctuations in the value of money, the corresponding
17

variations in the cost of living, and the necessity for economizing, the problem of educating the public has been much more difficult during the last two or three years than ever before.
The present Superintendent and the Board of Education have definitely tried to keep the people of Savannah and Chatham county acquainted with their schools. The newspapers of Savannah have been and are still vitally and actively interested in the problems of education, and there seems to have been the most cordial of relations between the Superintendent, the Board and the press.
The Superintendent has also carried on this program of keeping the public informed by appearing as a speaker before various clubs and organizations. These, along with many others, are some of the duties of a superintendent of schools of which people in general are most often not cognizant and are simply another reason why, as recommended earlier in this chapter, the Superintendent should be relieved of some of his present routine duties and should be given, as soon as is possible, additional administrative and supervisory help.
Census and Attendance
One person is responsible for truancy, attendance, absence, tardiness, the census, and the preparation of statistics for the whole school system.
In order to provide appropriate schools for all the children of Chatham County, and in order to place and hold all children of legal school age in school, it is necessary for school authorities to know (1) the name and age of every child of legal school age in the city, and (2) the name and age of every child of the city attending (a) public schools and (b) private schools.
Proper reports from public and private schools and a complete school census are necessary to secure the above information.
A state law requires the taking of a school census every five years. When one remembers that people are still nomadic and move quite frequently, the inadequacy of this five-year census is apparent.
A sound attendance program calls for a continuous school census.
The Director of Child Accounting should have a staff sufficiently large to see that all children of compulsory school age who are physically fit are enrolled either in a public or in a private school.
Records and Reports
It is recommended that a careful study by a group composed of representatives from the administrative and teaching groups of the public schools and an outside authority in the field of administration, be made of tiie records and reports now in use.
18

Summary
The organization and the administration of the Chatham county public schools are commendable. The superintendent of schools has most cordial relations with the Board, the press and the public; the Minutes of the Board of Education indicate that, only in rare instances, has the Board assumed unto itself duties and responsibilities which should rest on the Superintendent.
Supervision
One exception to this policy, however, is indicated by the minute references to the matter of supervision. The Board of Education, in order to determine whether or not the administration is at present over-staffed, could well afford to select a group of comparable school systems and study them. It is the opinion of the survey staff that the Chatham County schools are, if anything, under-staffed, administratively.
If this comparison with other systems is made it will be found that school supervision costs in Chatham County are small when checked against similar costs in comparable situations.
Principals cannot take the place of supervisors. Their duties are dissimilar. The principal of even a fair-sized school has not much time for class-room supervision if he keeps his organization functioning at maximum efficiency. His duties are more administrative than supervisory and his use as a supervisor precludes the possibility of developing an integrated program--such as will result from the use of supervisors who work in all schools.
The caliber of the teaching personnel of the Chatham County schools shows that teachers are wisely and carefully selected and that the Board of Education, in placing this responsibility on the Superintendent, has used good judgment. The present Superintendent is to be complimented on the most excellent plan he has devised for the selection of teachers. The quality of recent additions to the teaching personnel is evidence of its workability.
Recommendations
1. That the present Board of Education's size and method of appointment be retained unless factional politics should begin to mar its functioning. In this case, a seven-member board, one member elected at large each year for a seven-year term, be legalized.
2. That the three standing committees of the Board be abolished immediately, and that committees, when needed, be appointed, to dissolve upon completion of their tasks.
3. That the Rules and Regulations of the Board be revised so as to
19

eliminate the minute duties of the Superintendent as stipulated under Section 14. 4. That, if and when feasible, and at the discretion of the Superintendent, the administrative staff be expanded as indicated in Table A. Until such can be done, the organization set-up should be modified to correspond, as far as possible, to Chart 2. Some of this can be done without additional cost. 5. Not all of these suggestions are possible of achievement now. Financial and other difficulties will inevitably delay them.
20

CHAPTER II
THE BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOLS
The Administration of Business Affairs
Successful business, large and small, almost without exception vests its authority in a Board of Directors whose duty it is to determine its policies and programs and to select an executive officer to see that these policies and programs are carried out. It is the duty of the executive to set up the organization and to select the personnel. Wherever this policy has been adhered to in the administration of a school system it has almost without exception proved successful. Theory and practice in the fields of business and education alike endorse this procedure.
In accordance with this principle the Director of Business Affairs should be recommended by the Superintendent. The assignment of duties and the organization of this service should be made by the Superintendent who will wish to confer with the Director in preparing same. The Director should be under the direction of the Superintendent and should report to him.
The Committee System
Contrary to the above principles the rules of the Board of Education provide that there shall be a "Committee on Finance," which "shall cause to be made in December a budget of income and expenses, and recommend to the Board a suitable tax for the ensuing year." In addition, the committee is directed to "audit and approve all accounts against the Board."
The rules of the Board also provide that "The Committee on Propsrties" shall recommend to the Board the selection and purchase of sites, the provision of new buildings, shall have general direction of the Superintendent in the purchase, within the budget, of all furniture and school supplies, and audit and approve accounts for all such purchases . . ." The duties of this committee as set up in the rules charge it with the administration of expenditures for capital outlay, operation of plant and maintenance of plant, and with the inspection of and planning for same.
"Standing committees are worse than useless. (!) It is important that the Board consider the recommendations of the Superintendent of Schools as a committee of the whole and not in separate committees which report to the general body. The chairmen of standing committees very often come to believe that they have some particular
(1) Strayer, George D., Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois.
21

fitness or ability in the field represented by their committee assignments. Not infrequently the chairmen of standing committees assume the functions of executive officers of the Board. When standing committees make reports which are accepted by the Board as a whole as a matter of senatorial courtesy, there is little careful consideration of the major issues involved." (i) These committees should be abolished.
There is no evidence that the committees in Savannah perform the duties which the rules of the Board direct, which is another reason why the rules authorizing them should be repealed.
Board members should not be called upon to perform executive duties nor should their time at Board meetings be consumed with the performance of executive duties when they should be devoting their time to a consideration of policies, programs and the consideration through reports of the stewardship of its executive officer. The performance by Board members of executive functions usually results in inefficiency, overlapping, and an inability to place responsibility in addition to a neglect of certain functions which should be performed.
These standing committees and the rules relating to same should be abolished and the executive officer held responsible.
How Business Affairs Are Now Administered
Under the present organization one individual serves as Superintendent of Schools, as Supervisor of Junior and Senior High Schools, and under the Committees of Finance and Properties, as Director of Business Affairs. Another individual serves as Secretary of the Board, as Assistant to the Superintendent, as Supervisor of County Schools and as Assistant in Charge of Business Affairs. Some of the duties usually and logically considered as coming under the head of business management are performed by others in the office and still others by the Accountant.
Unless the Superintendent may be considered as Business Manager, in addition to his other duties, there seems to he no one charged with the responsibility of setting up a business organization, or correlating and harmonizing the business functions, of working out the business details, of directing the business personnel, of planning for the future in sites, buildings, janitorial service, transportation equipment, shop management, and operation and maintenance work and program. Economy and efficiency demand a cohesive business organization charged with and held responsible for business management.
Need for Better Business Administration
The total cost of Public Education in Savannah for the year ending
(1) Strayer, George D., Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois.
22

April 30, 1932, was $840,648.09, $110,404.82 of which was interest imputed and accrued, and depreciation of buildings and equipment. The total valuation of tiie school plant was conservatively estimated at $1,534,955.00. Such a plant investment and such an annual cost demand as nearly a perfect business organization and administration as can be effected under a Director of Business in charge of all business of the school system and directly responsible to the Superintendent of Schools. The Director of Business should be an individual with educational training and experience and with a knowledge of business matters relating to the school system. In addition to the Director there should be an expert accountant, such as the one now employed by the Board, who should be in charge of the office in the absence of the Director and with whom should be filed requisitions of all kinds and time reports of all persons employed in other than instructional positions. The Director of Business should be supplied with such other personnel as may be needed in the efficient management of the business affairs of the school system. Probably the present personnel would be adequate and satisfactory. The cost of this department should be kept as low as possible commensurate with efficiency.
After the business reorganization and assignment of duties to the personnel, a careful study should be made of all forms used in connection therewith in the light of the best theory and practice in school business administration and such changes made as will increase the efficiency and provide complete information relative to how and for what the monies are expended. The present system of accounting is cne of the best, if not the best, system in use in the state.

Director of Business Administration

Some of the functions of a proper business administration seem, according to the local problems and according to the report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago--Administration of Business Affairs, to be:

1. Auditing services. 2. All accounting functions, financial and property. 3. Collections and receipts.

4. Purchasing of materials and supplies and letting contracts. 5. Real estate activities. 6. Budgetary preparations. 7. Financial investigations.

8. Financial statements and reports.

9. Operation of plant, including janitorial service.

10. Maintenance of plant.

:

23

11. The planning, design and supervision of all construction.
12. Management of text-books, supplies and equipment. 13. Cafeteria management. 14. Shop.
15. Transportation. 16. Stock control.
17. Storage, recording and distribution of equipment and supplies. 18. A material budget.
It is not within the scope of this report to discuss in detail the duties, methods and procedures by which these functions may be most completely realized. The most recent and perhaps the most complete discussion of what these functions imply and how they can best be understood and realized is to be found in the "Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois, Vol. 1," Chapters III to VIII, inclusive. This section was written by Fred Engelhardt in collaboration with an able staff of experts in the field. This volume may be secured from the Division of Field Studies, Institute of Educational Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City.
Commendations and Recommendations
The Board of Education and the Superintendent are to be commended for the following:
The minute book is indexed and well kept.
The school budget is for the year of operation beginning July 1st and ending June 30th. Thus the school year and the fiscal year are the same. The educational program must be provided for this period and contracts must be made for this period making this period the only period for which the budget could properly be prepared.
The expenditures follow very closely the prepared budget and the budget is as far as possible based upon unit costs.
The schools are fiscally independent. That is, the Board of Education is responsible only to the people for the conduct of the schools and for the amount of taxes levied, within the limits of the law, and for the purposes and manner of expenditures.
Tax collections are remitted daily during the period of heavy tax payments and monthly at other times. The county authorities, especially the Tax Collector, are to be commended for this fair and just treatment of the people's schools.
The school building programs have been largely provided without resorting to bond issues. Therefore, the interest payments on bonds
24

are very small. However, when large building projects, as the Junior and Senior High School buildings, for the use of the children of the entire county, are necessary the tax values are not adequate to provide sufficient funds out of current revenue for such an undertaking. The people of the county are to be congratulated upon their willingness to provide funds when they are needed.
The receipts and expenditures are audited annually by certified public accountants and kept on file in the office of the Board of Education for public inspection. All non-revenue accounts should be properly kept and so audited.
The financial accounting system is splendid, with the expenditures distributed according to the nationally recognized system of eight major items which show the amount spent for general control, instructional service, operation of plant, maintenance of plant, fixed charges, auxiliary agencies, debt service and capital outlay. An excellent system kept by an able official.
The criteria of a good accounting system, as stated by J. Howard Hutcheson in "School Costs and School Accounting," are as follows:
1. To provide for each transaction an original document that will contain a complete history of the transaction from its beginning to its completion, including the fixing of personal responsibility for each step taken, and will serve as the best evidence obtainable to protect the city in any action that might be taken as a result of the transaction.
2. To make it possible for those in authority to account for funds appropriated for school purposes.
3. To furnish the administrative officers such information as will enable them to decide whether every service is performed at the lowest cost compatible with maximum efficiency.
The forms used are good but could be improved both as to form and as to use. A good discussion of forms to be used to satisfy the above criteria is presented by the same author in the same book.
The accounting for both funds and property should be studied for the book account and the cafeteria.
The Fire Insurance program followed is better than usually found, however it might be improved by carrying five-year policies, onefifth expiring each year and one-fifth of premiums to be paid each year.
Accounting for supplies and properties was not carefully studied but should be done by the Director of Business as soon as possible.
25

CHAPTER III
FINANCING THE SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH AND
CHATHAM COUNTY
Expenditures of the Savannah and Chatham County
Public Schools
In making a financial study of the public Elementary, Junior and Senior High Schools of Savannah and Chatham a number of questions immediately arise, such as: What is your revenue system? What do our schools actually cost? How much was spent for the last fiscal year, for what in detail was it spent? How is the school dollar invested? What are the trends in public school expenditures, and why? Have the expenditures increased? For what and why have they increased? How do the school costs compare with other school units of similar size and conditions? Is Chatham County able to finance her schools? How does her ability compare with other school systems of similar size and conditions? How does the effort made to provide schools in Savannah as measured by tax-rate levied compare with effort made by other comparable communities, and what recommendations can be made for the financing of our schools in the interest of economy and efficiency, assuring our people of the greatest possible educational return for every dollar invested.
The Revenue System
The unit of finance of the public schools of Savannah and Chatham County is considered the simplest and best known to educational theory and practice. It is the county unit. The county unit lends itself to economy in financing and makes possible the greatest educational return for each dollar invested. It is simple, for only one tax of ten mills is levied against all the property of the county, including Savannah, for financing the schools, it is simple and economical because this levy is made on state and county valuations and does not require one or more special digests to be made at some expense. It is simple and economical in that the county tax collector collects the school tax at the same time and place as county taxes are collected. Less bookkeeping is required. There is only one administrative unit to be financed, no need of duplication or overlapping to be paid for and no excuse for unnecessarily small expensive units to increase the costs.
It is simple and economical in that there are no special funds to be accounted for. The tax money is kept in one fund and one budget is made to take care of all phases of the school program as the needs and welfare of the people's children and their schools dictate.
26

It is more flexible, thereby more capable of being adjusted to the ever-changing educational needs of the children in an ever-changing world. This flexibility, while giving greater power to the Superintendent and Board of Education to adjust its budget to a changing educational program for the changing world conditions, also places upon them a greatly increased responsibility.
This relatively small tax levy, together with what money Chatham County receives from the State and the almost inconsequential sum which she receives from the Federal Government, provides all the money the county and city have for the current expenses of the schools. The only other fund available for financing the schools is the revenue from the sale of bonds which is used for the purchase of sites and the erection and equipping of new school buildings and annexes to old buildings.
Education and the Depression
"The Board of Education cannot meet its obligation by concentrating its attention solely upon the issues of economy. It has the duty of presenting to the citizens of the community the need for the development of a program of education extending from the nursery school to the university. These schools must provide at every level that type of education which will result in a more abundant life for all of those subjected to the process of education and in the development of a citizenship able to understand and to modify their society in such a manner as will make for the common good."(i)
The depression has had its effect upon the public conscience in general and upon the conscience of the taxpayer in particular. Many are so hard-pressed that they have raised fundamental questions about all governmental expenditures which is their right. They have a right to demand that no more be spent than is necessary and that each dollar be so spent as to yield the greatest possible returns. There may be a demand that some governmental services be discontinued.
"It should be realized, however, that some governmental services, among which should be included education, are of such vital significance that they should be maintained on a basis of efficiency even though this involves financial sacrifice on the part of a community. Children have but one opportunity to obtain an education. If there has been one ideal which America has stood for it is that every child, irrespective of his social or economic position (2) be given an equal opportunity to develop such talents as he might possess. It is a new doctrine for America that children should pay the price of the economic stupidity of their elders--and that the American principle of equality of educational opportunity should be suspended because times are hard."
(1) Strayer, Geo. D. Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois. (2) Norton, John K. Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois.
27

Some of the corporations of America during the depression have not earned enough to pay interest and dividends and it has been necessary to pay same out of their reserves. The development of the child intellectually cannot be stopped until the depression is over, neither can the time be deferred when they must assume control of the destinies of our nation. Should it become necessary for us to pay for their education out of our reserves, or even our original capital, their welfare and the future welfare of our nation demands that it be done.
The Total Cost of the Public Schools of Savannah and Chatham County
The citizens of every community wish to know what their public Elementary, Junior and Senior High Schools cost annually as distinguished from what was spent during the last fiscal year. Table I answers this question for Savannah and Chatham County. The technique for determining total costs was developed by George D. Strayer and used for the first time in the Educational Finance Inquiry.
The first item of cost includes total expenditures for current expense for the last fiscal year. Current expense includes what was spent for administration, supervision, teachers, and their instructional costs, operation of plant ruch as janitorial service, fuel, water light and power, maintenance of plant, fixed charges such as rents and insurance, and auxiliary agencies including costs of libraries, health transportation and demonstration agents, but does not include cafeteria and book fees as they are paid for by the pupils and not out of tax monies.
The second item of cost was interest. The first interest charge was the interest actually paid during the year on outstanding bonds which was paid by the City of Savannah. The second interest charge was an imputed interest at 4%% on $1,228,955.00 which was considered to be the value of that part of the school plant already paid for.
The third item of cost was depreciation. The total valuation of the plant was valued at $1,534,955.00. The average number of years buildings have been used and considered useful has been fifty years. At this rate a building will depreciate, on an average, 2% annually. The value of the plant, $1,534,955.00, was therefore multiplied by .02 to find the total cost due to depreciation on the buildings. It was considered that school sites in a growing city like Savannah would increase rather than decrease in value, consequently no depreciation was allowed upon investments in sites. By a study of many school systems it was found that the average number of years a desk may be considered useful is twenty years provided proper care is taken of them. This means a five per cent depreciation on furniture and equipment which in Savannah and Chatham County is valued at
28

TABLE I
TOTAL COST OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN CHATHAM COUNTY, MAY 1, 1931, TO APRIL 30, 1932

Total Current Expenses

Total Valuation of School Plant - .

to Net Indebtedness Value of Part of Plant Already Paid For

Interest Actually Paid on Indebtedness

Imputed Interest on $1 ,228,955 at 4J^%_ ........

Total Interest Charge

.

Valuation of Plant. . .

Depreciation at 2% Annually

Value of School Equipment.

Depreciation at 5 % Annually _

Total Depreciation of School Plant

Total Cost of Public Education

$1,534,955 .00 306,000.00
1,228,955.00
1 ,534,955.00 197,355.00

Gross Amount $730,243.27,


Amount Per Pupil in A. D. A.
$50.75

$14,535.00 55,302.97
30,699.10 9,867.75

69,837.97
40,566.85 840,648.09

4 85
2 82 58 42

t~Jn!s is the actual Current Expense after payments for school books have been deducted as these are paid by the students and not from taxes. This table includes interest, actual and imputed, and depreciation on plant and equipment which are not usually included in figures used for comparative purposes.

$197,355.00. Five per cent of this value of furniture and equipment would be the cost due to depreciation on same. The depreciation of the plant plus the depreciation of the furniture and equipment, then, is the cost due to depreciation.
The total cost of public education in Savannah and Chatham County is the sum of the current expense plus the interest and depreciation which amounts to $840,648.09 annually, as shown in Table I. This is an annual cost per pupil in average daily attendance of $58.42.
A Distribution of School Expenditures
The total expenditures for the public schools of Savannah and Chatham County from May 1, 1931, to April 30, 1932, amounted to $737,851.66, as shown in Table II. Of this amount $568,241.96 was spent for the education of white children and $169,609.70 for the education of negro children. A detailed distribution of these expenditures showing the purposes for which they were spent is shown in Table II. The expenditures are distributed according to the eight major items. General Control or administration cost $23,959.17; Instructional Service, which includes supervision, principals' salaries, teachers' salaries, summer school, vocational evening school, vocational opportunity school, Board of Education night school and other instructional costs totaled $590,913.37; Operation of Plant, including janitors' wages and supplies, fuel, water, light and power amounted to $39,742.84; Maintenance of Plant such as upkeep of grounds, repair of buildings, repair and replacement of furniture, equipment and instructional apparatus totaled $21,482.26; Fixed Charges consisting of rents, insurance, contributions p.nd contingencies equaled $15,172.00; and Auxiliary Agencies consisting of costs of libraries, health service, demonstration agents and transportation of pupils amounted to $38,973.61. The total current expense made up of the above items was $730,243.27. The current expense of a school system is fairly constant from year to year and hence is usually used as the basis of cost comparisons between comparable school systems.
The other two of the eight major items are Debt Service and Capital Outlay. The total debt service of the school system consisted of $1,676.51, paid as interest on temporary loans. The total cost of capital outlay for the year amounted to only $15,931.88. There being no bond money for capital outlay and the Superintendent and Board of Education apparently aware that tax values and tax revenue would be reduced acted wisely in spending little for this item. Most of what was spent was for the purchase of additional furniture for old buildings and for the wrecking and removing of the old buildings on the new school site.
30

TABLE II
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL EXPENDITURES BY CHARACTER May 1, 1931--April 30, 1932

Character

General Control(1)

Superintendent's Office:

Salaries

Supplies

Attendance:

Salaries

Supplies

Transportation

Other Expense

Instructional Service

Supervisors' (Salaries)

Principals' Office:

Salaries

Supplies

Salaries of Teachers:

Male:

Elementary

Junior High School

Senior High

Female:

Elementary

Junior High School

Senior High School

Supernumeraries

Supplies--Instructional

Commencement Exercises and Exhibits

Other Expense of Instruction

Summer School

Vocational Evening School

Opportunity Vocational School :..

Night School (Board of Education)

Operation of Plant...,

Wapes of Janitors and Others

Fuel

Water

Light and Power

...

White
$ 17,969.38
14,842.07 530.45
1,350.00 3.75
478.71 764.40 444,409.65 5,150.56
37,739.53 591.54
9,564.41 40,443.30
211,004.10 79,643.73 37,002.72 7,019.66
589.81 456.67
3.64 5,444.89 1,422.03 5,943.03 2,390.03 31,102.19 22,883.88 3,876.86
33.00 1,733.48

Colored
$ 5,989.79
4,947.35 176.82
450.00 1.25
159.57 254.80 146,503.72 1,908.83
8.107,63 6.19
3,336.78 5,936.24 3,269.96
102,141.94 14,507.81 2,862.81 3,077.92
136.87
424.80 149.94 636.00
8,640.67 6,838.28 1,292.18

Total
J 23,959.17
19,789.42 707.27
1,800.00 5.00
638.28 1,019.20 590,913.37 7,059.39
45,847.16 597.73
3,336.78 15,500.65 43,713.26
313,146.04 94,151.54 39,865.53 10,097.58 726.68 456.67 3.64 5.869.69 1,571.97 6,579.03 2,390.03 39,742.84 29,722.16 5,169.04 33.00 1,953.60

TABLE II--(Continued)
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL EXPENDITURES BY CHARACTER May 1, 1931--April 30, 1932

Character
Operation of Plant--Continued Janitors'Supplies Other Expense of Operation
Maintenance of Plant Upkeep of Grounds Repair of Buildings Repair & Replacement of Heating, Lighting & Plumbing Equipment Repair & Replacement of Apparatus Used in Instruction Repair & Replacement of Furniture Repair & Replacement (Other)
Fixed Charges Rents Insurance Contributions and Contingencies
Auxiliary Agencies(2) Libraries: Salaries Books Other Expense Health Service: Salaries Expense Provision of Lunches County and Home Demonstration Agents Transportation of Pupils: Capitol Outlay(3) Gas and Oil (1/5 Colored Estimated) Salaries, Drivers Board of Education Busses Salaries, Bus Repairs Street Car Tickets Chartered Street Cars Ten Cents Per Day By Contract Salaries, Bd. of Ed. Busses Who Furnish Own Gas Repairs on Busses Other Expenses
Total Current Expenditures

White
$ 1 375.11 1 199.86 19 875.16 108.52 ,207.66 ,310.22 723.91 425.03 99.82 ,370.26 ,677.09 ,675.06 ,018.11 ,985.75
,588.26 714.54 26.99
145.14 213.44 570.77 ,510.00
274.88 412.69 195.88 653.22 458.10 412.00 429.50 232.47 497.50 467.79 182.58
$560,712.39

Colored
$ 3.15 286.58
1,607.10 16.22
1,389.39 189.04 10.45 2.00 801.74 801.74
5,987.86
604.65
123.10 1,028.64
710.88 603.17 270.00
10.67 1,552.00
1,083.28 ~~~i~47
$169,530.88

Total
S 1,378.62 1,486.44
21,482.26 124.74
17,597.05 2,499.26
723.91 435.48 101.82 15,172.00 6,677.09 6,476.80 2,018.11 38,973.61
1,588.26 1,319.19
26.99
145.14 213.44 693.87 4,538.64
2,985.76 3,015.86 4,465.88 2,663.89 3,010.10 3,412.00
429.50 7,315.75 1,497.50 1,469.26
182.58
$730,243.27

^_3-

TABLE II--(Continued)
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL EXPENDITURES BY CHARACTER May 1, 1931--April 30, 1932

Character
Debt Serviced) In terest on Loans
Capitol Outlay improvement of New Grounds Equipment of New Buildings Equipment of Old Buildings, Heating, Lighting & Plumbing Equipment of Old Buildings, Furniture Equipment of Old Buildings, Instructional Apparatus Equipment of Old Buildings, Other Equipment
Grand Total Expenditures

White
t 1,676.51 1,676.51 5,853.06 2,001.11 19.65 177.65 2,928.64 472.79 253.22
$568,241.96

Colored
78.82 67.06 11.76
$169,609.70

(l)-Allocation estimated one-fourth based on White and Colored Current Expense. (2)-Book Fees not included as they are paid by the pupils and not out of Tax funds. (3)-Allocation estimated on the basis of the number of trucks. (4)-This item does not include money borrowed and paid back during the year but does include the interest paid on short term loans.

1,676.51 1,676.51 5,931.88 2,001.11
19.65 244.71 2,940.40 472.79 253.22
$737,851.66

How the School Dollar Is Invested
It is not enough to know the total and per pupil cost of the public schools and the total expenditures for same for the last fiscal year, not even when the expenditures are distributed so as to show the exact number of dollars spent for the various items. As long as we are concerned about getting the largest educational returns for each dollar invested it will be important to know just what per cent of the school dollar is spent for the various items included in the budget for the schools and how these percentages compare with the percentages for the same items of expenditures in comparable school systems.
General Control. Chatham County spent 3.1 cents of each current expense dollar for general control--business and educational administration, the same as was the average spent by 188 cities of 30,000 to 100,000 population.
Instructional Service. Savannah and Chatham County invested 80.9 cents of each current expense dollar for instructional service, while the 188 comparable cities spent 76.7 cents. This means that Savannah and Chatham County spent more for instructional service than the average spent by the 188 cities for this service. The Board of Education and the Superintendent are to be congratulated for spending as large a portion of the school dollar for instructional service. Schools are administered, plants are erected, equipped, operated and maintained, pupils are transported, the libraries and laboratories are provided for one and for only one purpose, viz.: that our children may be instructed. The learning process cannot begin until the child meets

TABLE III
HOW THE SCHOOL DOLLAR IS INVESTED IN SAVANNAH AND 188 CITIES OF 30,000 TO 100,000 POPULATION

Character

Per Cent to Major ItemsJ

General Control Instructional Service _ Operation of Plant Maintenance of Plant Auxiliary Agencies Fixed Charges Current Expense Capital Outlay Interest

f-Based upon Survey Figures. j-Based upon Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20. *-This includes bond payments and interest on bonds paid by Savannah.
34

the teacher and the sole purpose of the school is that the child may learn. All other costs can be justified only on the basis that they are necessary as aids to the learning process, therefore the larger the percentage of expenditures devoted to instructional service itself, the larger the educational returns will be for each dollar invested. It should be the purpose of the administration to carefully scrutinize every other present and proposed expenditure and to be sure that it will yield greater educational returns as spent at present or as proposed than if spent for instructional service directly. Even within instructional service it is important that as large a portion as is compatible with efficiency and economy be invested in teachers salaries for the same reasons stated above.
Operation of Plant. For operation of plant Chatham County spends only 5.4 cents of each dollar, while the average expenditure for the other systems is 10.6 cents. Of course this is to be expected since in the marvelously mild climate of Savannah less fuel will be required and less janitorial service may be necessary. The operation of the plant seems to be efficient and certainly it is economical.
Maintenance of Plant. For maintenance of plant Chatham County spends 3.0 cents of each dollar, While the average of the 188 cities is 4 cents of each. The plant seems to be well maintained at a very reasonable cost.
Auxiliary Agencies. For auxiliary agencies Savannah and Chatham County spends 5.3 cents out of every current expense dollar, while the average for the 188 cities is only 3.4 cents. So large a percentage of the local school dollar spent for this item and such a poor showing when compared with other systems seemed to call for further investigation and explanation. It did not seem that a reasonable transportation cost would account for the difference in the percentage going to this item in Chatham County and the other 188 systems. Excluded from this item for Chatham County, however, are expenditures for books which do not seem to have been included under this item by most of the other systems studied. However, when expenditures for books are not included Savannah still has a high rank among Southern cities in the expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance as shown in Table XIX.
Fixed Charges. Chatham County spends 2 cents for fixed charges, which is approximately the same as the average spent by the 188 other systems, which is considered a good showing.
Current Expense. The greatest achievement of the Board of Education and the Superintendent is the fact that 98.97 cents of every school dollar goes for current expense, while the average for the 188 other comparable systems is only 77 cents. This is a real achievement. It is true, as shown in the section of this survey devoted to school buildings, that Savannah and Chatham County are badly in
35

need of some school buildings, however, it seems the building needs in Savannah and Chatham County are no greater than in some systems where a large percentage of the school dollar has been spent for capital outlay and interest charges on capital outlay. Another reason why so large a percentage of the school dollar has been devoted to current expense is found in the fact that interest payments on temporary loans has been almost negligible. This is partly due to the fact that those charged with the responsibility of administering the schools have kept within the budget and partly because the people of Savannah and Chatham County have been willing to provide funds for their schools.
Capital Outlay and Debt Service. Capital outlay and debt service as paid by the Board of Education out of their ten mill levy and by the city of Savannah for the interest on and the retirement of bonds amounts to only 4.86 cents out of the school dollar, while the average for the 188 comparable system is 23 cents out of every dollar.
Trends in School Expeditures Since 1926
Increase in Annual Expenditures. Since 1926-27 there has been an increase in the total annual expenditures for the public schools of Savannah and Chatham County of $173,220.80, as shown by Table IV. All of this increase has been due to an increase in current expense. Table V more clearly shows the increase in total current expense and in current expense per pupil in average daily attendance. Total annual expenditures for Capital Outlay and Debt Service was less for 1931-32 than for 1926-27.
The increase in current expense was due to increases in expenditures for General Control, Instructional Service, Operation of Plant, Auxiliary Agencies and Fixed Charges. The annual expenditure for Maintenance of Plant has shown a decrease.
Changes in Use of Funds. The per cent that the expenditures for each of the eight major items is of the current expense was figured for each year from 1926-27 to 1931-32 and is shown in Table IV. In 1926-27, as shown in Table IV, 3.0 per cent of the current expense was for business and educational administration known as General Control while in 1931-32 it was 3.3 per cent. The average for 188 cities in the United States is 3.3 per cent.
In 1926-27, as shown in Table IV, 84.0 per cent of current expenses was spent for Instructional Service while in 1931-32 the portion spent for Instructional Service had decreased to 80.9 per cent. It should be stated here that this is above the average for the 188 cities studied and commendation should be given for this showing. It should be further stated that the tendency shown in Savannah and Chatham County to decrease the per cent of current expense devoted to Instructional Service is general throughout the State and the Nation.
36

TABLE IV
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL EXPENDITURES BY CHARACTER (> 1926-27 to 1931-32

Expenditures 1931-32 Expenditures 1930-31

Expenditures 1929-30 Expenditures 1928-29 Expenditures 1927-28 Expenditures 1926-27

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 23,959.17

CO -3

Instructional Service- _.

590,913.37 39,742.86

Maintenance of Plant

21,482.26

Auxiliary Agencies(2)

38,973.61

15,172.00

Total Current Expense. .. - 730,243.27

5,931.88

Debt Service(3)

1,676.51

Grand Total Expenditures. - - $737,851.66

3.3
80.9 5.4
2.9 5.3 2.1

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 22,038.30 574,840.80
43,850.16 23,377.61 42,172.72 10,388.65 716,668.24
9,842.49 2,200.94
$728,711.67

3.1 80.2
6.1 3.3
5.9 1.4

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 21,084.66 550,484.97 40,497.78 21,041.83 26,654.04 10,702.65 670,465.93 140,273.92 8,881.87
$819,621.72

3.1 82.2
6.0 3.1 4.0 1.6

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 17,876.67 453,517.55
32,052.13 15,669.99 11,966.54 7,114.53 538,197.41
6,341.09 7,212.16
$551,750.66

3.3 84.3
6.0
2.9 2.2 1.3

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 16,595.61 3.2 443,596.50 84.8 29,950.44 5.7 17,267.96 3.3 8,663.35 1.7 6,778.27 1.3 522,852.13 2,629.29 7,140.09
$532,261.51

Amount

Per Cent of Total

$ 15,457.07 440,915.78
28,970.69 22,651.43 8,832.43
7,843.93 524,671.33
31,648.19 8,311.34
$564,630.86

3.0 84.0
5.5
4.3 1.7 1.5

(l)-Based upon figures in Annual Reports in State Department of Education. (2)-Included in this item are payments for the purchase of books and instructional supplies which are not properly a school cost as the cost of same is paid from rental charges paid by the

students.

...

(3)-Debt Service as here used represents interest on money borrowed and paid back within the year. The only cost to the school system is the interest paid on same. IF the temporary

loans could be reduced, the interest would be reduced also.

TABLE V
CURRENT EXPENSE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE* 1926-27 to 1931-32

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30 1928-29.. 1927-28 1926-27

Total Current Expense

A. D. A.

$730,243.27 716,668.24
670,465.93 538,197.41
522,852.13 524,671.53

14,389 13,757 13,811 13,106 13,311 12,656

Current Expense Per Pupil in A. D. A.
$50.75 52.79 48.55 41 .06 39.28 41.46

Rank
2 1 3 5 6 4

-Based upon figures in Annual Reports in State Department of Education, Bureau of Information and Statistics.
TABLE VI
INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICE AND CURRENT EXPENSES, 1926-1932*

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30 1928-29 1927-28 1926-27

Instructional Service

Per Cent Instructional Service is of
Current Expense

Current Expenses

$590,913.37 574,840.80 550,484.97 453,517.55 443,596.50 440,915.78

80.8 80.2 82.1 84.3 84.8 84.0

$730,243.27 716,668.24 670,465.93 538,197.41
522,852.13 524,671 .33

-Based upon figures in Annual Reports in State Department of Education, Bureau of Information and Statistics.

Although this is a national tendency, I hasten boldly to raise the question--is it wise to decrease the per cent spent for Instructional Service, and if so, to what extent and what scientific evidence is there to justify same?
While we are not ready to subscribe to the statement entirely, Mark Hopkins may not have been far from right when he said a good school consisted of an able, well trained and sympathetic teacher on one end of a log and a capable and interested pupil on the other. It will require a large percentage of the school funds to pay salaries adequate to attract the ablest members of the community to the teaching profession and to justify them in investing large sums of
38

money and much time in training adequately to teach well. Sites, buildings, equipment, laboratories, libraries and school books become as sounding brass and a tinkling symbol unless and until a good teacher is there to interest and aid the learner. The school is only a depreciating mass in summer when the teacher is absent. Transportation at best is only a means to an end and in all too many cases is not a necessary means although it too frequently consumes too large a portion of the school budget which the taxpayer may insist upon but for which he is unwilling to pay.
Provide an educational feast of good teachers and all things necessary will be added. The pupils will make a beaten path to the school although it may be apparently hidden in the forest. They will find the school as they have found California and Chicago and they will go to school as they have gone to Columbia and Cambridge. Tax funds will be provided for such schools as funds have been showered upon these institutions by philanthropists. PHipils under such teachers will blossom like a rose and the people near such a school will flourish like a green bay tree. In Georgia in one decade the per cent that teachers' salaries were of school expenditures decreased almost 10% while the average annual salary paid her teachers is less than that paid in any other state in the Union. Let us pay our teachers more and get the best teachers we can for what we pay. Tables V and VI may make this tendency in Savannah a little clearer than Table IV.
The per cent that teachers' salaries are of Current Expenses in Savannah and Chatham County shows an even greater decrease. The decrease as shown in Table VII is from 83.00% in 1926-27 to 77.74% in 1931-32. This decrease becomes even more alarming when we realize that under teachers' salaries are included salaries of supervisors and principals and supernumeraries.
Another significant change in the use of school monies which may partially explain the trend just discussed is the increase in the expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance for Auxiliary Agencies as shown in Table VIK and the rapid rise in the amount of money spent for transportation since 1926 as shown in Table IX. Table XIX shows that only four of the fourteen comparable cities spend more per pupil in average daily attendance than does Savannah. Table II under Auxiliary Agencies shows the different methods of transportation employed by Chatham County and the detailed cost of transportation. These data seem to demand that a careful study be made of transportation in Chatham County, showing the number of pupils that are transported and the number that should be transported; showing the unit costs of the various methods based on the number of pupils who should, rather than those who are, transported; and of all transportation problems.
Is it possible that pupils may be transported when they are amply provided with transportation facilities at home when they live too
39

TABLE VII TEACHERS SALARIES AND CURRENT EXPENSES
1926-1932

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30 1928-29 1927-28 1926-27

Teachers f Salaries
$567,687.19 544,061 .07 525,918.01 443,187.74 433,433 .26 435 ,489.29

Per Cent Teachers Salaries Are of Current Expense
77.74 75.92 78.44 82.35 82.90 83.00

Current Expense
$730,243.27 716,668.24 670,465.93 538,197.41 522,852.13 524,671.33

t-Und^ Teachers'Sa.aries are included salaries of Supervisors and Principal which would

TABLE VIII
EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR AUXILIARY AGENCIES 1926-1932*

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30 1928-29 1927-28 1926-27.

Cost Per Pupil In Average Daily
Attendance
52.71 3.07 1 .93
.91 .65 .70

Rank

^"^MSStSSSaft^BS RePrtS in State DePa-"' <* Education, Bureau of
far away to walk or when the weather is inclement? Are children sometimes transported when they are in walking distance and some tune during the day are required to take physical exercise, into which they do not enter heartily, in buildings without sunshine and too frequently inadequate or improperly ventilated?
It will be understood, however, that transportation costs may not be entirely eliminated and that the small saving that may be effected m transportation and other auxiliary agencies could wisely be used for teachers' salaries.
40

TABLE IX ANNUAL EXPENDITURE FOR TRANSPORTATION*

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30 1928-29 1927-28.1926-27 -

Equipment

Other Expense

$3 ,496 .25 10,501.75 8,250.14

$26,024.76 22,582.91 15,798.08 10,514.54 7,211.35 8,292.14

Total
$29,521 .01 24,084.66 22,048.22 10,514.54 7,211.35 8,292.14

Per Cent Change
22.57 9.24
109.69 45.80 13.03

*-Based upon figures in Annual Reports in State Department of Education. Bureau of Information & Statistics.
There has been an increase in the percentage of current expense going to Fixed Charges from 1.5% in 1926-27 to 2.1% in 1931-32.

Causes of Increased Expeditures
What were the causes of the increase in school expenditures since 1926-27 of one hundred seventy-three thousand dollars which is an increase of 29%?
Increase in Average Daily Attendance and Enrollment. A careful study of the average daily attendance by years since 1926 as shown in Table X reveals an increase during this period of 1,733, or an increase of 13.69%.
The most revealing cause of the increase, however, appears in Table II which shows the enrollment by grades since 1926 and the per cent of increase in enrollment in each grade. The increase in the total enrollment was 2,670 or an increase for the period of 16.53%. This required increased expenditures. Grades one and four actually shows a small decrease in enrollment and the enrollment in the first six grades combined shows an increase of only seven-tenths of one per cent. The increase in enrollment is therefore found in the Junior and Senior High Schools where the total and per pupil costs are greatest. In the seventh grade there was an increase in enrollment of 15.30%; in the eighth grade an increase of 20.22%; in the ninth of 36.93%; in the tenth of 49.35%; in the eleventh of 45.96%; in the twelfth of 51.77%.
The Night School. During the last three years the enrollment in the night school has increased nearly 300 each year until now 1,354 are in the night school. This increases school costs. The social, economic and political welfare of the community more than justify the expenditure of public funds to provide educational opportunities for those who after working all day want an education so much that they will go to night school to get it.
41

1

TABLE X

AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, 1926-1932



Year

Average Daily
Attendance

Per Cent Change A. D. A.

1931-32
1930-31 1929-30 1928-29_.____ . 1927-28 1926-27

14,389

4.59

13,757

.39

13,811

5.38

13,106

5.30

,

13,311

5.17

12,656

Increase 1931-32 Over 1926-27

1 ,733

13.69

The Pupil-Teacher Ratio. In 1926 there was an average of 46.2 pupils per teacher in the schools of Savannai and Chatham County as shown in Table XII. This large a number threatened the accredited standing of the school system but, what is of much greater importance, it threatened the efficiency of tile school system. The Board and Superintendent wisely increased the number of teachers until in 1932 the average number of pupils per teacher has been reduced to 43.9. This further increased the cost. Savannah still has, however, a pupil-teacher latio greater than the cities of the United States having a population of 10,000 and more as shown in Table XIII.
School Offering Increased. The curriculum has been enriched to include subjects interesting and helpful to the pupils and desired by the people. The breadth of the school offering has come in the elementary and high schools but especially in the junior high schools to meet the needs of an ever changing world social order.
Teachers' Salaries. Since 1926 teachers' salaries have been increased to hold good teachers who might be tempted to go to other systems paying larger salaries. Adequate salaries for good teachers can be justified more easily than any other school cost. Indeed they do not have to be justified, they justify themselves. The only question worthy of consideration of this matter is--are the best teachers always selected that the salary will justify? Too frequently other factors, the most heinous of which is politics, enter into the selection.
Summer School for Teachers. The summer school for teachers or the summer institute for teachers does not require a great deal of money for its operation, but it is that much. There are two fundamental questions to be answered in determining whether it should be continued, one of which is, is it desirable professionally. The negative answer to this question must be given elsewhere together
42

TABLE XI ENROLLMENT BY GRADES 1926-1932 <>)

YEAR

Total

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 Evening Enroll-

School ment

1931-32

- --- 2,892 2,176 2,099 1,853 1 ,722 1 ,454 1,364 1,082 1,016 914

1930-31

2,664 2,130 1,971 1 ,835 1 ,679 1 ,354 1,379 997 934 677

1929-30

.-

2,901 2,013 1 ,960 1 ,900 1 ,657 1 ,332 1 ,237 948 1 ,090 567

1928-29 . -_

- - 2,886 2,205 2,003 1,851 1 ,711 1 ,489 1 ,266 1 ,014 793 613

1927-28

- -.

3,467 2,217 2,093 1 ,930 1 ,706 1,349 1 ,167 874 683 448

1926-27 - .. --- - - 2,907 2,056 2,055 1 ,971 1,697 1 ,427 1 ,183 900 742 612

470 481 474 287 349 322

428 536 470 301 246 282

Per Cent Change

.52 5.84 2.14 5.99 1 .47 1 .89 15.30 20.22 36.93 49.35 45.96 51 .77

1 ,354 1,076
773 503 590

18,824 17,713 17,322 16,922 17,119 16,154
16.53

(l)-Based upon figures in Annual Reports in State Department of Education. Bureau of Information and Statistics.

TABLE XII
PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO IN SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY 1926-27 to 1931-32*

Year
1931-32 1930-31 1929-30.__ 1928-29,. 1927-28... 1926-27

Enrollment
18,824 17,713 17,332 16,922 17,119 16,154

Number Teachers
428 418 417 366 375 350

Pupil-Teacher Ratio
43 .9 42 .4 41 .6 46 .2 45.6 46 .2

'-Reports in State Department of Education, Bureau of Information and Statistics

TABLE XIII
PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO IN CHATHAM COUNTY AND CITIES OF 10,000 POPULATION AND MORE, BASED UPON ENROLLMENT

Elementary Junior High School High School

United States f
37.1 28.6 26.7

Savannah}:
44.8 43.3 41 .2

t-1930 figures based upon Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No 20 Paee 4 t-Report in State Dept. of Education, Bureau of Information & Statistic?.

with the reasons therefor. The other question is, in the light of the returns from the investment and further, in the light of the returns from the use of this money for other purposes and further in the light of the amount of funds available for other purposes which must he provided for out of these funds or not at all and further, in the light of the purposes underlying the authorization of the tax levy from which this money is derived, should this school be or not be continued. The answer seems to be that it should not be continued. Tiis would release funds for use where most needed.
Transportation. One of the causes of increased costs is the increase in expenditures for transportation. This is shown in Table IX and has already been discussed under "Trends in School Expenditures Since 1926."

Underlying Causes of Increased School Costs.(') The rise of school costs ln Chicago is not an isolated phenomenon. Every state and
(l) Norton, John K., Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, 111.
44

large city in the United States is now expending several times as much for schools as was the case in 1915. Expenditures for current expenses of all public elementary and secondary schools in the "United States increased from $503,000,000 in 1915 to $1,801,000,000 in 1930, or 3.6 times. In the cities with their more rapidly growing school populations the rate of increase in expenditures was frequently at a considerably higher rate. New York City, between 1915 and 1931, with a less rapid growth in population than Chicago, increased the expenditures of its public schools 3.6 times.
It would be a mistake to look upon the increases in school costs, which have occurred in all large cities, merely as examples of extravagant public expenditure. It is doubtless true that some school money may have been poorly spent--even wasted in exceptional instances. But it is far more certain that the real force back of the increase in school costs has been the demand of the rank and file of the nation's citizens for more and better educational opportunities for their children. This demand in turn has its roots deep in changes which are taking place in our ways of living.
We have developed a civilization which because of its complexity and interdependence requires not only more but also better educational opportunities than did the nineteenth century. One writer has epitomized the situation by stating that civilization has become "a race between education and catastrophe." The significance of this statement should burn itself into the consciousness of every thoughtful citizen of Chicago. As one observes the disorganization and chaos which afflict various phases of life in some of our large cities, the question may be raised as to whether catastrophe or civilization is leading the race.
Science, technology, and the machine have transformed the economic organization under which we live with a rapidity and completeness which is unprecedented. In a generation the primary economic problem of the nation has become not how to produce enough, but how to guarantee a market for what we can produce. In the United States, even in periods of prosperity, from two to four million workers are chronically unemployed, while in times of depression the figure approaches 10 million.
In such a civilization the labor of children is no longer essential. It is not even desired by modern industry. Even if laws did not limit their employment, the opportunities open to youths from twelve to sixteen and even eighteen years of age would be few. The labor market today is in no position to absorb the five million young persons who are enrolled in the secondary schools of the nation. If all, or even a part, of the 100,000 young men and women now enrolled in the high schools of Chicago were eliminated from school, they would merely increase the army of the unemployed and add to the economic chaos which already exists. More important, they
45

would immediately become the prey of the demoralizing influences which are likely to operate in the lives of vigorous youths who have nothing to do.
Interdependence has come into every phase of our living. Tremendous numbers of our population freely move from one area to another bringing intelligence or ignorance, and civic stability or chaos, largely according to the educational opportunities which they have enjoyed. Prosperity is no longer an individual affair. Hard times in a few industries is likely to unbalance the whole economic machine and communicate itself to all industries. Depression in one section is soon felt in other sections of the country. Today even the farmer would starve if he were cut off from certain supplies which involve the cooperative effort of the nation and in some cases of the whole world.
In a democracy in which life is so interdependent it is essential that the individual citizen's intelligence as well as his devotion to the common welfare, as opposed to the individual welfare, should be lifted to the highest possible level. A breakdown of civilization is the alternative. These considerations offer the soundest of grounds for making every effort to increase the amount and the quality of the provisions for education.
Along with the transformation of our economic organization and the growth of interdependence has come the rise of urban areas, such as Chicago, in which great numbers of people are concentrated in a few square miles. The development of great cities is changing the whole life of the race.
Under the agricultural order which predominated in this country until recent decades the family was a closely knit group. Children participated in the same work as their parents and under their guidance. They learned all the farm operations in their youth. Their vocations and many other aspects of their educational needs were provided for automatically and satisfactorily in connection with daily living.
This situation is not true of a community like Chicago. To a growing extent, a great city robs its youth of worthwhile opportunities to participate in the real work of the world, and to gain the educational values which come from such participation. The .city child's contacts with his parents are often far too limited. His play space is restricted and filled with hazards. Many of the needs of childhood which were formerly provided automatically by the surroundings of every-day life, must now be planned for and paid' for by the public or else they are lacking, to the harm of the child and society as a whole. Great cities which fail to make adequate provision for playgrounds and other essentials for the normal development and education of children are merely deferring and increasing social liabilities which must eventually be met.
46

Changing economic conditions, growing interdependence, the development of great cities, and other new forces, all of which emphasize the importance of a sound educational system as a condition of social health and social'advance, are coming into the life of the race. At the same time a variety of new factors are operating to increase the importance of formal schooling in the mind of the individual.
A high school diploma is the prerequisite to entrance into a growing number of occupations. It is practically impossible today for a person to secure sound training for a profession unless he is at least a high school graduate. A growing range of semi-professional callings requires the same prerequisite. Employers in increasing numbers are giving preference in the filling of clerical and other types of positions in commercial and industrial life to those who have completed a high school course. Business executives once lacked confidence in the college graduate. Now representatives of many important industrial concerns go annually to the graduating classes of the universities to obtain recruits for the positions which offer the greatest opportunity for ultimate success.
Not only has the economic urge forced millions into high schools, but social factors have contributed to the same end. In an agrarian civilization book learning was not essential to any great degree. In fact, too much of it placed a badge of social disapproval upon the possessor. Not so in the modern city. The uneducated man feels his disability keenly, even though he may have achieved success in his chosen occupation. The typical urban parent no longer contends that the schooling which was good enough for him is good enough for his children, but rather desires and even demands that they shall have a better opportunity than he had; and he conceives the corner-stone of that better opportunity to be a high school or even a college education.
These are some of the forces responsible for the increases in school costs which have taken place during the first third of the twentieth century and which are back of the more immediate causes of these increases."
Comparisons and Analysis of School Expenditures in
Savannah and Fourteen Other Southern Cities
In selecting cities for making comparisons with Savannah it was necessary to select cities whose conditions were as nearly alike those in Savannah as possible. It was therefore decided to use Southern cities only. It was further decided to use as a basis of comparison cities having approximately the same population, therefore all cities having a population of 75,000 to 130,000 were chosen. There were eleven Southern cities with a population falling within these limits. It was further felt that at least some Georgia school systems should be included, even though they did not fall within this population
47

TABLE XIV EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE (>

Bibb County Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem Savannah
Savannah Rank
14 Southern Cities Median

TOTAL EXPENDITURES

Population

Average Daily Atten-
dance

Total

Per Pupil A. D. A.

Rank

53

12,998 843,951 $49 .54

15

60 342

9,124 665,013 72.89

10

43 131

8,077 461 ,856 57.18

13

82 675

13,738 1 ,040,931

75.77

9

119 798

19,648 1 ,046,784 53.28

14

102 421

16,463 1,421 ,944

66.37

6

129 549 21 ,223 2,100,945 98.99

5

100 802

16,841 1 ,301 ,751

77.30

8

81 679 13,396 1 ,336,643 99.78

4

110 637 14,584 2,443,512 167.55

1

129 710 22,640 1 ,585.132 70.01

11

76 655 13,267 1 ,475,866 111 .09

3

101 161 20,094 1,719,574 85.58

7

75 274 12,640 1 ,986,742 157.18

2

85 024 11 ,739 771 ,598 65.73

12

13

12

12

91 ,918 14,490 1 ,379,295 81 .44

(l)-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.

CURRENT EXPENSES

Total

Per Pupil A. D. A.

553,176 545,317 385,355 823,687 914,409 1 ,217,968 1 ,332,999 1,156,567 904,439
778,772
1 ,454,359 662,107
1,045 ,873 826,243 616,441 12
864,063

42.56 59.77 47.46 59.96 46.54 73.98 62.81 68.68 67.52 53.40 64.24 49.91 52.05 49.54 52.51
56.59

Rank
15 7 13 6 14 1 5 2 3 8 4 11 10 12 9

group, consequently Augusta, Bibb County, and Columbus were included. This brought the total number of comparable cities, including Savannah, up to fifteen. It was further felt that the averages for the United States formed an additional basis of comparison. Usually at the bottom of the tables Savannah's rank was given. To get figures to be used as a basis of comparison it was necessary to have figures for the same year and from the same source. This could only "be done by using figures gleaned from United States documents. These data relate to the schools of Savannah only.
The purpose in making these comparisons was to determine whether Savannah was spending more or less per pupil in average daily attendance than other comparable cities, and more or less than the averages for the United States. We wanted to make these comparisons for the total expenditures, for current expense and for the various items for which expenditures were made.
In Table XIV is shown the cities used, together with their population, their average daily attendance, their total and per pupil expenditures, and their total and per pupil current expense. Savannah's rank and the median of the fourteen Southern cities is given at the bottom of the page.
The most important figure for the people of Savannah in Table XIV
TABLE XV
CURRENT EXPENSE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE*

City
Bibb County,. Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga. _ El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock___ Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH.. US

Current Expense Per Pupil In Average Daily Attendance
$42.56 59.77 47.46 59.96 46.54 73.98 62.81 68.68 67.52 53.40 64.24 49.91 52.05 49.54 52.51 98.03

t-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.

49

Rank
15 7 13 6 14 1 5 2 3 8 4 11 10 12 9

TABLE XVI
TOTAL AND PER PUPIL EXPENSES FOR EIGHT MAJOR ITEMS < IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES

Cities

G. C. General Per A.D.A. Control Pupil
in A.D.A.

Instructional
Service

1. S. Opera- O. P. Mainte- M. P. Fixed F. C. Auxili- A. A.

per tion per nance per Chgs. per ary per

Pupil of Pupil of Pupil

Pupil Agen- Pupil

in Plant in Plant in

in cies in

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

Total Current Expense

T.C.E. Debt D. S.

per Service per

Pupil

Pupil

in

in

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

Capitol Outlay

CO. Total T. E.

per Expendi- per

Pupil tures Pupil

in

In

A.D.A.

A.D.A.

Bibb County . _ 12,998 10,555

Augusta

9,124 15,219

o

Columbus Charlotte

8,077 11,784 13,738 25,082

Chattanooga... 19,648 25,700

El Paso

16,463 72,285

Jacksonville 21,223 44,920

Knoxville . 16,841 26,852

Little Rock

13,396 80,412

Miami

__ 14,584 30,788

Norfolk

22,040 33,613

Shreveport

13,267 22,285

Tampa

20,094 51,899

Winston-Salem. 12,640 20,978

SAVANNAH.. 11,739 19,285

U.S

Savannah Rank

.81 457,400 1.57 444,644 1.46 326,861 1.83 679,331 1.31 801,144 4.39 1,038,513 2.12 1,109,476
1.59 979,296 6.00 706,312 2.11 620,308 1.48 1,215,645 1.69 511,498 2.58 831,830 1.66 454,686 1.64 496,496 3.30
10

35.19 31,319 48.73 30,020 40.47 19,798
49.45 71,226
40.77 64,429 63.08 68,156 52.28 68,664 58.15 93,496
52.73 74,331 42.53 70,650 53.69 141,454 38.55 38,116 41.40 91,744 35.97 80,654
42.29 40,498 74.88
9

2.41
3.29 2.45
5.18 3.28 4.14 3.24 5.55 5.55 4.84
6.25 2.87 4.57 6.38 3.45 10.49
9

14,469 16,730
11,013 16,120 8,251 21,243 52,008 29,547
13,376 12,328 49,923 27,925 25,172
11,992 21,042

1.11 15,065 1.83 6,587 1.36 3,161 1.17 9,287
.42
1.29 3,423 2.45 21,417 1.75 9,159 1.00 13,472
.85 4,369 2.21 5,288 2.10 2,643 1.25 35,387
.95 7,604
1.79 10,703 4.03
5

1.16 24,368 .72 32,117 .39 10,738 .68 22,641 14,885 .21 14,348
1.01 36,514 .54 18,217
1.01 16,536 .30 40,329 .23 8,436 .20 59,640
1.76 9,841 .60 50,329
1.00 28,417 1.96
5

1.87 553,176 42.56 82,315 6.33 8,440 .65 643,931 49.54

3.52 545,317 59.77 113,562 12.45 6,134 .67 665,013 72.89

1.33 383,355 47.46 57,642 7.14 20,859 2.58 461,856 57.18

1.65 823,687 59.96 147,732 10.75 69,512 5.06 1,040,931 75.77

.76 914,409 46.54 128,000 6.51 4,375 .22 1,046,784

.87 1,217,968 73.98 178,935 10.87 25,041 1.52 1,421,944 86.37

1.72 1,332,999 62.81 767,946 36.18

2,100,945 98.99

1.08 1,156,567 68.68 139,400 8.28

"""34 l,301,75i 77.30

1.23 904,439 67.52 134,163 10.02 298,043 22.25 1,336,645 99.78

2.77 778,772 53.40 678,656 46.53 986,084 67.61 2,443,512 167.55

.37 1,454,359 64.24

130,773 5.78 1,585,132 70.01

4.50 662,107 49.91 665^559 "50"l7 146,200 11.02 1,473,866 111.09

.49 1,045,873 52.05 670,454 33.37 3,247 .16 1,719,574 85.58

3.98 626,243 49.54 324,587 25.68 1,035,912 81.96 1,986,742 157.18

2.42 616,441 52.51 14,882 1.27 140,275 11.95 771,598 65.73

3.37

98.03

5

9

14

4

(l)-Based upon figures in U S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20

TABLE XVII
EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR GENERAL CONTROL IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES, 1929-30*

City
Bibb County.. Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga. _. El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH.

Cost Per Pupil
In Average Daily Attendance

Rank
15 8 13 6 14 2 4 11 1 5 12 7 3 9 10

t-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (19.11) No. 20.
TABLE XVIII
EXPENDITURE FOR INSTRUCTION PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES <

City
Bibb County Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH UNITED STATES

Cost For Instruction Per Pupil In
Average Daily Attendance
$35.19 48.73 40.47 49.45 40.77 63.08 52.28 58.15 52.73 42.53 53.69 38.53 41 .40 35.97 42.29 74.88

Rank
15 7 12 6 11 1 5 2 4 8 3 13 10 14 9

(I)-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20. 51

TABLE XIX
EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR AUXILIARY AGENCIES IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES <

City
Bibb County .. Augusta__ _. .. _ Columbus Charlotte- . Chattanooga El Paso Jacksonville,. Knoxville. Little Rock__ Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH

Cost Per Pupil In Average Daily
Attendance
SI .87 3.52 1 .33 1.63 .76 .87 1.72 1.08 1 .23 2.77 .57 4.50 .49 3.98 2.42

Rank
6
8 13
7 U 10 4 15
1 14 2 5

(l)-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.

is the current expense per pupil in average daily attendance, which is $52.51. Eight of these cities spent more for current expense than did Savannah, Savannah's rank being 9 out of 15. The median for the fifteen Southern cities was $56.59 as compared with $52.51 for Savannah.
Table XV makes this a little clearer and shows that for the United States the current expense per pupil in average daily attendance was $98.03. Savannah, then, is not spending as much for her public schools as the median of these comparable Southern systems and only a little more than half as much as the average for the United States. Table XVI is a master table showing in detail an analysis of how these cities spend their school money. The total and per pupil in average daily attendance annual expenditure is given for each of the eight major items. The only comparable figures of value in this table are the per pupil expenditures. The other figures are given to show how the per pupil expenditures were obtained. At the bottom of the table is shown for the United States the average per pupil expenditure for each of the items.
General Control. Tables XVI and XVII show that nine of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance on general control than did Savannah.

52

Instructional Service. Tables XVI and XVIII show that eight of these fifteen cities spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for instructional service than did Savannah, and that the United States, on an average, spent nearly twice as much as did Savannah for instructional service.
Operation of Plant. Eight of these cities spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for operation of plant than did Savannah, and tiiat the United States spent nearly three times as much as Savannah.
Maintenance of Plant. Pour of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for Maintenance of Plant than did Savannah while the United States spent twice as much.
Fixed Charges. Pour of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for fixed charges than did Savannah, while the United States spent on the average nearly twice as much.
Auxiliary Agencies. Pour of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for auxiliary agencies than did Savannah, and the United States, on the average, spent more than a third more.
Current Expense. Eight of these fifteen systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for current expense than did Savannah. The United States spent nearly twice as much. Current expense per pupil in average daily attendance is the figure always used as a basis of comparison to determine the relative investment made in education by the systems compared.
Debt Service. Thirteen of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for debt service than did Savannah.
Capital Outlay. For this particular year three of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for capital outlay than did Savannah.
Total Expenditures. Eleven of these systems spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for all purposes than did Savannah.
Conclusion. These data are conclusive evidence, then, that Savannah is not spending relatively too large an amount on her public schools.
Financing Capital Outlay
Value of School Property. A study of the value of school property per pupil in average daily attendance as shown in Table XX, shows that fourteen of the fifteen systems have spent more per pupil in average daily attendance for capital outlay (sites, buildings and equipment) than has Savannah. She has therefore not been relatively extravagant for this purpose.
53

TABLE XX
VALUE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES'1)

City
Bibb County-- Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga. _ El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH..

Value of School Properties Per Pupil
In Average Daily Attendance
$163.10 171 .09 209.11 267.94 222.82 190.06 311 .93 222.85 338.46 593.18 258.26 290.72 331 .58 365 .19 124.88

Rank
14 13 11 7 10 12 5 9 3
1 8 6 4 2 15

(l)-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.
School Bonds Outstanding. A comparison of the school bonds outstanding per pupil in average daily attendance In Savannah and other United States cities as shown in Table XXI, reveals that the average for the United States cities is more than seven times the amount per pupil in average daily attendance for Savannah. This is due to the fact, first, that Savannah has not invested so large an amount in capital outlay as other cities, and, second, that much of the capital outlay investment has been from current funds. The latter plan, when

TABLE XXI SCHOOL BONDS OUTSTANDING IN SAVANNAH AND
OTHER U. S. CITIES
AMOUNT OF SCHOOL BONDS OUTSTANDING PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE

Cities of United States f $165.89
t-Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20. J-Survey Reports.
54

Savannah! $21 .27

practicable without sacrificing other items of the school budget, saves interest payments. Caution needs to be exercised here, however, lest other items of the school budget suffer for lack of sufficient funds in order to save interest.
Ability of Savannah to Finance Her Schools
Six of the fifteen comparable Southern cities, as shown in Table XXII, have a larger tax valuation per pupil in average daily attendance than does Savannah. Eight have a smaller tax valuation per pupil in average daily attendance than does Savannah. This means that Savannah is relatively more able to finance her schools than most of fifteen cities studied. Savannah may then be said to be able to adequately finance her public schools since the tax levy is made upon the tax valuations which determine the tax revenue. It will also be remembered that these are state and county valuations.

TABLE XXII
TAX VALUATION PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN FIFTEEN SOUTHERN CITIES >

City
Bibb County. Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga. .. El Paso Jacksonville -- Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem SAVANNAH..

Tax Valuation Per Pupil In Average Daily Attendance
$4,477 3,934 6.000
18,618 6,981 6,308 3,634 9 ,322 4,667 3,428 7,827 9 ,203 2,551 11,604 6,704

Rank
11 12 9
1 6 8 13 3 10 14 5 4 15 2 7

(l)-Based upon figures in U. S. Office of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.

Effort Made by Savannah and Eleven Southern Cities to Finance Her Public Schools
Six of the eleven comparable Southern systems had a higher schooltax rate for maintenance than did Savannah. Data for this item were available for only eleven of the systems. It must be remembered that some of the revenue from this levy has each year been spent for capital outlay. Savannah had a smaller school-tax rate for all
55

TABLE XXIII
SCHOOL-TAX RATE IN SAVANNAH AND TWELVE SOUTHERN CITIES (')

Bibb County. Augusta Columbus Charlotte Chattanooga El Paso Jacksonville Knoxville Little Rock Miami Norfolk Shreveport Tampa Winston-Salem. SAVANNAH*. Savannah Bank

SCHOOL-TAX RATE (MILLS)

For

For

Maintenance Other Purposes Total

9.59

2.94

12.00

.55J

6.00

Figures not avail able,

Figures not avail able.

10.32

1 .67

16.50

7.00

7.52

.88$

21 .00

20.50

13.90

Figures not avail able.

6.50

3.75

21 .25

15.00

6.20

1 .50

10.00

40#

7

10

12.53 12.55
11 .99 23 .50
8.40 21.00 34.40
10.25 36.25
7.70 10.40

(l)-Omce of Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20.

J--BSaovnadnsnaanhddIanttaerteasktenonfrBoomndSsurpvaeiyd

by city hence Records.

figures

not

available.

#-This figure was calculated and means that it would require a levy of four-tenths of a

mill to retire the school bonds and pay interest on same.

other purposes than did any of the eleven systems for which data were available. Her school-tax rate was very much less than eight out of the ten. Only two of the systems for which complete data were available had a lower school-tax rate than did Savannah. This levy is made upon state and county valuations and not city. It may be said then that Savannah is not making as great an effort to support her schools as are most of tie other comparable systems for which data are available when measured by the school-tax rate.

56

CHAPTER IV

TEACHERS: PREPARATION, EXPERIENCE, AND SALARIES
The Personnel
It was not possible to make a complete study of the personnel of the school system of Savannah and Chatham County. A few tables, however, are being included in the hope that they will prove helpful to local authorities in the solution of this problem.
Tables XXIV to XXXV bearing upon this problem follow.

TABLE XXIV
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY WHITE TEACHERS
RECENCY OF TRAINING 1931-32

Year
1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918

Savannah Elsewhere Year

3

56

1917

20

24

1916

18

25

1915

8

13

1912

4

15

1909

2

5

1908

1

15

1905

3

1903

3

1900

2

1898 .

3

1896

1

1895

2

1887

6

Savannah Elsewhere
1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 36

57

TABLE XXV
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY WHITE TEACHERS AGE OF TEACHERS 1931-32

Age

Number

Age

Number

Teachers

Teachers

21

3

44

3

22

3

45

3

23

7

46

3

24

9

47

4

25

6

48

3

26

10

49

5

27

13

50

4

28

19

51

5

29

11

53

8

30

11

54

2

31

7

55

4

32

12

56

6

33

9

57

6

34

11

58

6

35

5

59

3

36

4

61

3

37

9

62

2

38

10

63

2

39

9

64

3

40

8

65

1

41

6

67

1

42

8

Unknown

12

43

5

TABLE XXVI
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID WHITE TEACHERS ACCORDING TO TRAINING 1931-32

Training

Number Average

of

Annual

Teachers Salary

Median Annual Salary

Range

Less than High School

3

High School Graduation.,. 56

1 Yr. Normal or College

24

2 Yrs. Normal or College..

90

3 Yrs. Normal or College. _

23

Bachelor's Degree

79

M. A., M. S., Ph. D

9

$1,185 .09 1 ,366.79 1 ,456.49 1 ,325.62 1 ,583.70 1 ,617.98 2,577.04

$1 ,207 .44 1 ,408.77 1 ,408.77 1 ,342.55 1 ,408 .77 1 ,478.43 2,681 .80

$939-1,408 450-3,000
1 ,006-2 ,098 495-2 ,680 960-3 ,000 450-3 ,300
1 ,865-3,500

58

TABLE XXVII
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID WHITE TEACHERS ACCORDING TO EXPERIENCE 1931-32

Years Experience

Number of Teachers

1

6

2

8

3

16

4

15

5

13

6

18

7

18

8

11

9

16

10

13

11

15

12

11

13

9

14

11

15

9

16

7

17

5

18

6

19

8

20

6

21

4

22

4

23

2

24

3

25

2

26

1

27

5

28

1

29 & Over

41

Average Annual Salary

Median Annual Salary

Range

$ 807.44 1 ,162 .40
998 .07 1 ,304.21 1 ,332.45 1 ,445 .59 1 ,367.19 1 ,434.81 1 ,489.84 1 ,403 .36 1 ,389.90
1 ,431 .70 1 ,534.77 1 ,581 .42 1 ,463.26 1 ,542.70 1 ,765.00 1 ,685 .85 1 ,341 .65 1 ,528.37 1 ,761 .91 1 ,409.07 1 ,443 .60 1 ,688.79 1 ,408.77 1 ,478.43 1 ,450.57 1 ,408.77 1 ,947.72

$ 939.06 $450-1,063 1 ,060.73 1,006-1 ,980
1 ,073.25 675-1 ,293 1 ,230.39 1 ,006-1 ,721 1 ,274.58 936-1 ,632 1 ,443 .60 495-3 ,000 1 ,342.44 939-2 ,520 1 ,342 .55 1 ,073-2,100 1 ,408.77 1,006-3 ,000 1 ,408.77 1,140-1,478 1 ,341 .63 1,140-2,098 1 ,408.77 1,207-1 ,865 1 ,408.77 1 ,140-2,098 1 ,408.77 1 ,207-2,681 1 ,408.77 1,020-2 ,098 1 ,408.77 1 ,073-2,681 1 ,408.77 1 ,207-3 ,000 1 ,408.77 1 ,408-2 ,680 1 ,375 .20 1 ,207-1 ,408 1 ,478.43 1,073-1 ,865 1 ,478.52 1 ,408-2,681
1 ,408.77 1 ,408-1 ,408 1 ,443 .60 1 ,408-1 ,478 1 ,792.00 1 ,408-1 ,865
1 ,408.77 1 ,408-1 ,408 1 ,478 .43 1 ,478-1 ,478 1 ,478.43 1 ,408-1 ,478 1 ,408.77 1 ,408-1 ,408 1 ,543.77 1 ,408-3 ,500

59

TABLE XXVIII
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID WHITE TEACHERS ACCORDING TO WHAT THEY TEACH 1931-32

Grade and Subjects
Elementary. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mixed ._ Principals Junior High .. Senior High.Supervisors-

Number of Teachers
175 27 20 23 18 20 21 38 8 64 41 3

Average Annual Salary
$1 ,351 .58 1 ,351 .58 1,254.28 1 ,254.42 1,231 .39 1 ,322.27 1 ,375.80 1 ,219.66 2,775.00 1 ,489.15 2,053.16 1 ,794.67

Median Annual Salary

Range

$1 ,408.77 $495-3,000
1 ,408.77 1,073-1,408 1,341 .63 675-1 ,408
1 ,274.58 939-1,408 1,207.44 939-1,408 1 ,373.53 1 ,073-1 ,408 1,408.77 1,073-1,408 1 ,303.31 495-1 ,543 3,000.00 1,800-3 ,000
1 ,478.43 900-3,300 1 ,865.61 450-3 ,500 1 ,791 .99 1,791-1,800

TABLE XXIX
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY ANNUAL SALARIES PAID WHITE PRINCIPALS
1931-32

Location
Senior High School Chatham Junior High_. 35 th Street Junior High Abercorn Anderson 49th Street Henry Barnard & Massie 37th Street 38th Street Waters Avenue Average Salary

Salary
$3,500.00 3,300.00 3,300.00 1 ,800.00 3 ,000 .00 3,000.00 2,400.00 3 ,000 .00 3,000.00 3,000.00 3,000 .00 2,936.36

60

TABLE XXX
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY RECENCY OF TRAINING COLORED TEACHERS 1931-32

Year

Savannah

Elsewhere

1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1921
1918 1917 1900 Unknown

1

19

32

18

14

9

1

3

1

4

4

5

3

3

2 1
1

15

TABLE XXXI
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY AGE OF COLORED TEACHERS 1931-32

Age
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

Number Teachers
3 4 5 6 4 3 6 2 1 5 3 8 3 2 1 6 3 1 5

Age
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 51 5? 53 54 55 56 57 58 60 61 65 Unknown .

Number Teachers
2 2 2 4 2 3 2 1 5
2 1 2 2 1 5 2 1
2 24

61

TABLE XXXII
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID COLORED TEACHERS ACCORDING TO TRAINING 1931-32

Training

Number Average

of

Annual

Teachers Salary

Median Annual Salary

Range

Less than High School

1

High School Graduation

27

1 Yr. Normal or College

24

2 Yrs. Normal or College-_

59

3 Yrs. Normal or College. _

6

Bachelor's Degree

17

M. A., M. S., Ph. D

1

Not Reported

1

$979.38 1 ,000 .64 1 ,104.94
951 .10 1 ,069.17 1 ,060.97 2,200.00
711 .09

$979.38 1 ,019.61 1 ,073.17
979.38 1 ,075.34 1 ,001 .16 2,200.00
711 .09

979- 979 360-1 ,500 711-1,363 711-1,108 711-1,469 445-2 ,000 2,200-2,200 711- 711

TABLE XXXIII
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID COLORED TEACHERS ACCORDING TO EXPERIENCE 1931-32

Years Experience
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 27 28 29 & Over Unknown

Number Average

of

Annual

Teachers Salary

Median Annual Salary

Range

2

$684.52 $684 .52 $445- 924

7

861 .70 900 .00 498-1 ,073

6

804 .40 711 .09 711-1 ,057

7

801 .51

776.16 711-1 ,053

7

805 .91

818.37 711-1,053

9

836.87 776.07 360-1 ,363

3

872.07 925 .74 711- 979

2

791 .55 791 .55 791- 791

6

1 ,040.26 977.38 818-1 ,469

4

990.18 979.38 979-1 ,022

9

1 ,095 .44 1 ,022.58 979-1,440

4

999.54 999.54 925-1 ,073

8

1,052.00 1 ,073.34 979-1,108

7

960 .07 975 .69 711-1,256

4

1 ,122.46 1 ,073.34 979-1 ,363

2

1 ,071 .36 1 ,071 .36 1 ,069-1,073

9

1 ,025.55 1 ,072.74 925-1 ,073

1

1 ,073.32 1 ,073.32 1,073-1,073

2

1,091 .07 1 ,091 .07 1 ,073-1,108

3

1 ,106.67 1 ,073.34 1 ,073-1 ,173

4

1 ,058.63 1 ,073.17 979-1 ,108

1

1 ,073.52 1 ,073.52 1 ,073-1 ,073

2

945 .85 945 .85 818-1 ,073

1

1 ,073.34 1 ,073.34 1,073-1 ,073

2

1 ,073.34 1 ,073.34 1,073-1 ,073

20

1 ,203.97 1 ,073.34 974-2 ,200

4

62

TABLE XXXIV
ANNUAL SALARIES PAID COLORED TEACHERS ACCORDING TO WHAT THEY TEACH 1931-32

GRADE AND SUBJECTS

Number Average

of

Annual

Teachers Salary

Median Annual Salary

Range

109

First .. _

19

Two__ _

-_ _

17

Three . _ _

14

12

Five -------

12

Six -. _ -__ -- -_-

8

Mixed - -

22

5

20

7

$983 .45 942 .43 952.34 908.51 996.51 998 .69 912.21 960.70
1 ,363.20 1 ,046.84 1 ,161 .09

$979.87 1 ,026.36
979.38 925 .96 1 ,073.34
1,047 .96 952.19 979.38
1 ,500.00 1 ,108.80 1,057.05

$489-1,163 711-1,073 711-1 ,073 711-1 ,073 711-1,163 818-1,073 711-1,073 489-1 ,469
1 ,069-2,000 360-1 ,256 445-2,200

TABLE XXXV
SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY ANNUAL SALARIES PAID COLORED PRINCIPALS
1931-32

Location
Cuyler High School. Florance Paulsen Woodville Springfield Terrace. College Training

Salary
$2 ,200 .00 1 ,500 .00 2 ,000 .00 1 ,173 .33 1 ,073 .32 1 ,069 .38

63

CHAPTER V*

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

The Testing Program
Educational tests were given in Grade 3-A and 6-A of the public schools, both white and colored, of Savannah and Chatham County, Georgia. The purpose of these tests was to ascertain the facts of the educational achievement in these schools by measuring the results of teaching. The results of teaching in the primary grades can be measured by testing the third grade, and the results of the elementary grades by making tests in the sixth grade.
Since the Savannah and Chatham County Schools require the same qualifications for teachers, have the same course of study, same length of term, and in other ways are administered alike, in this report the results of the tests in both groups will be mainly treated together. The county schools do not have the same elementary supervisor as the city schools. The results from the white and Negro schools are discussed in different sections of this report.
The rural schools of Chatham County have annual promotions, but the Savannah schools have semi-annual promotions. In most of the city schools there are two sections to the class. The pupils of some of these sections are grouped arbitrarily, in others according to mental ability and achievement. In some sections pupils of the highest and lowest group are classified together. There is no uniform method for classifying pupils in these schools. There are two grades to the teacher in most of the rural schools, and in some more than two grades per teacher.
The test used in the third grade was the Metropolitan Achievement Test, Battery A, which consists of tests in Reading (Completion, Paragraph Meaning and Vocabulary), Arithmetic, (Fundamentals and Problems), Language and Spelling. In the sixth grade the test used was the Public School Achievement Test, Form A, which consists of tests in Reading, Arithmetic (Computation and Problems), Language and Spelling.
These tests were administered by two Assistant State School Supervisors, the Assistant Superintendent of the Savannah schools and the Elementary Supervisor of these schools. The tests were scored by the teachers of the schools under direct supervision of the persons who gave the tests, and then were rechecked for errors by the latter persons. Records were also made by the teachers and then checked in the same manner as were the tests.

NOTE . Charts prepared to accompany each table appearing in this chapter were

nomfficpe uorf,pthseesSufpeercionntoemndye,notmoifttSecdhoinolsproinf tCinhga.thaCmopCieosuonftyt,hSesaevacnhnaarht,s

are on file Georgia

in^

the

64

THE SURVEY TEST DATA
This part of the report deals with data secured from the test records, and consists largely of statistical tables, the interpretation of the data, and recommendations for improving the work in question.
Tables present the median scores made by the third and sixth grades in the schools of the city and county. The grade norms are also shown on these tables. The marked differences among schools may be due to several causes--average intelligence of the pupils, local school standards, environmental conditions, home interest, school equipment, quality of teaching, and so on. Some of these causes are inherent in the situation and indicate that such differences in achievement are bound to exist. Hence, one must conclude that city or county norms are valid only as a basis for comparison of average achievement. For the educational treatment of individual pupils local or school standards are more valid than city or county standards. But even comparisons with city or county norms must be evaluated in terms of differences among schools.
The scores made on the tests are recorded in terms of grades, meaning the grade and month of grade. G means Grade Scores, and expressed as a whole number and a decimal, the whole number indicates the grade and the decimal the month of the grade. For example, a pupil making a score of 6.5 in reading means that the pupil's achievement in this subject is equivalent to that of a standard sixth grade in the fifth month.
Gr means Grade in Reading.
Ga means Grade in Arithmetic.
Gl means Grade in Language.
Gs means Grade in Spelling.
Ge means Grade in Education (Average.)
The value of standardized tests is realized in the correction of defects revealed by them. In order to prescribe the best corrective instruction the teacher needs to have as much information as possible. Diagnosis requires time, but it is justified by making possible the planning of more effective instruction.
Median Scores in Total Averages
The median scores in Total Averages by grades for the city schools are shown in Table XXXVI.
Comparisons can be made from this table, and from the following tables, of the city median with the grade norm, or of any school with
NOTE : The testing program was started at the beginning of the ninth month. The grade norms in the report are set at 7.9. Due consideration should be given to this fact in evaluating the report.
65

TABLE XXXVI
MEDIAN SCORES IN TOTAL AVERAGES FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms . . Savannah Median
Abercorn .. Anderson .. Barnard 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.7

6.6

3.6

6.9

3.5

6.1

3.5

6.6

3.7

6.3

3.4

6.7

3.9

7.3

3.7

6.6

4.0

7.5

3.7

6.3

3.8

6.45

the city median or with the grade norm, or with the median of another school. The city median for the third grade is two months below the grade norm. In the ten schools there is a difference of achievement between the highest and the lowest of six months. While the sixth grade scores three months below the grade norm, there is a difference of one year four months between the highest and lowest median. In the third grade two schools reach the grade norm; in the sixth grade three schools are normal or above.
In Total Averages in the third grade the highest median score exceeds the grade norm by one month, and exceeds the city median by three months. The lowest median score of this grade is five months less than the grade norm, and three months lower than the city median.
In the sixth grade the highest median score is six months above the grade norm, and nine months above the city median. The lowest median score is eight months below the grade norm and five months below the city median.
In Total Averages the median for Chatham County rural schools is five months below the grade norm in the third grade and nine months below norm in the sixth grade.
In the third grade the highest median score for any school is one month above grade norm, and six months above county median. The
66

TABLE XXXVII
MEDIAN SCORES IN TOTAL AVERAGES FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms _. Chatham County Median
Bethel Bethesda.. Bloomingdale Fell Avenue Isle of Hope.. Montgomery Pooler Port Wentworth.. Thunderbolt Tybee White Bluff.

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.4

60

3.1

3.7

5.1

3.0

5.2

3.3

56

3.4

65

3.7

7.0

4.0

5.9

3.4

60

3.1

7.3

3.9

7.5

3.6

TABLE XXXVni
MEDIAN SCORES IN READING FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS
GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADES

SCHOOLS

3-A

3-A

3-A

Completion Paragraph

Grade Norms.

3.9

3.9

Savannah Median..

4.0

4.0

Abercorn Anderson _ _ _. Barnard.. 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery . 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue

3.7 3.85 4.0 4.0
3.7 4.0
3.7 4.0
3.85 3.85

4.0 3.65 3.9 4.0 3.9 4.2
3.9 4.6
3.95 4.25

Vocabulary
3.9 3.1
3.1 2.75 3.1 3.05 2.8 3.2 3.2 3.7 3.15 3.7

6-A
6.9 6.7
7.0 5.8 6.6 5.5 7.2 7.6 6.7 7.1 5.9 6.65

67

lowest median score is nine months below grade norm, and four months below county median.
The highest median score made by the sixth grade is six months above grade norm, and one year five months above county median. The lowest score is one year eight months below grade norm, and nine months below county median.
Median Scores in Reading
Prom the median scores made by the third grade the achievement in reading in the completion test does not deviate very far from the grade norm. The city median is only one month above the grade norm. In paragraph meaning the scores range from the third grade sixth month to the fourth grade sixth month--a year's difference in achievement. The range in the vocabulary test is seven months; however, with only two exceptions, the 38th Street and the Waters Avenue Schools, all schools score close to the city median. In this test the city median is eight months below the grade norm.
In the rural schools in the third grade the medians are below the grade norm to two months, two months, and eight months, respect-
TABLE XXXIX
MEDIAN SCORES IN READING FOR ELEMENTARY
WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADES

SCHOOLS

3-A

3-A

3-A

6-A

Completion Paragraph Vocabulary

Grade Norms

3.9

3.9

3.9

6.9

Chatham County

Median

3.7

3.7

3.1

5 .6

Bethel

3.1

3.5

2.8

Bethesda

3.7

3.9

3.1

4.8

Bloomingdale

3.3

3.5

2.6

4.8

Pe'.l Avenue

3.7

3.8

3.2

5.1

Isle of Hope

4.0

4.0

3.6

7.2

Montgomery .

3.7

3.7

2.9

6.3

Pooler . _

3.7

4.4

3.7

6.2

Port Wentworth

4.0

3.8

2.8

5 .5

Thunderbolt

3.5

3.4

2.6

7.1

Tybee..

4.0

4.6

2.6

8.0

White Bluff

3.7

3.9

3.2

68

ively, in each type of reading (completion, paragraph meaning, and vocabulary). The sixth grade is one year three months below the grade median. The separate schools vary among themselves, in the third grade the difference in scores is nine months in reading completion, one year two months in paragraph meaning, and one year one month in vocabulary. In the sixth grade this variation amounts to three years two months.
In the third grade of the city in the completion test the lowest median score is two months below the grade norm and three months below the city median. In the test in paragraph meaning the lowest median score is two and one-half months below the grade norm and three and one-half months below the city median. The highest median score is seven months above the grade norm and six months above city median.
In reading in the sixth grade the lowest median score is one year two months lower than the city median, and one year four months lower than the grade norm. The highest median score is seven months above the grade norm and nine months above the city median.
In the rural schools of Chatham County in the reading completion test the lowest median score is six months below the rural median and eight months below the grade norm; the highest median score is three months above the county median and one month above the grade median. In paragraph meaning the lowest median score is three months below the rural median and five months below the grade median. The highest median score is nine months above the county median and seven months above the grade norm. In vocabulary the lowest median score is one year three months below the grade norm and five months below the rural median. The highest median score is two months below the grade norm and six months above the rural median.
In reading in the sixth grade the highest median score is one year one month above the grade norm and two years four months above the rural median. The lowest median score is two years one month below the grade norm and eight months below the rural median.
In reading in the third grade the test on vocabulary shows the lowest median scores. Special studies of the methods of teaching the several types of reading should be made and those plans and methods be adopted which best meet the needs of the several schools. There should not be so great a discrepancy in the scores of the city and rural schools of Chatham County. With well qualified teachers, ample equipment, same length terms, same regularity of attendance, the results of teaching and the educational achievement of the children of Savannah and Chatham County should be more nearly equal. No study was made of the mental equipment of the children of the city as separated from those of the county. Apparently there is no appreciable difference.

Median Scores in Arithmetic Fundamentals. A study of the median scores made in arithmetic fundamentals shows that both in the city
TABLE XL MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC FUNDAMENTALS
FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms _ _

...

__

Savannah Median

Abercorn

.

_ __

Anderson,. ._.._

.

Barnard __

.

...

49th Street

Henry

Massie__

. - ___

Montgomery- _____

_____ ____

38th Street

37th Street

._

Waters Avenue

.__

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

69

4.1

67

4.0 3.55 3.5 4.25 4.2 4.1 3.5 4.6 4.0 4.35

75 62 61 6 35 67 75 74 71 7i
6 45

TABLE XLI
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC FUNDAMENTALS
FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms Chatham Countv Median

Bethel

Bethesda

Bloomingdale

Fell Avenue_ _

Isle of Hope

__ __

Montgomery

Pooler

Port Wentworth

Thunderbolt

Tybee

White Bluff

_ _ _ __
_

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.8

68

3.8

4.0

4.8

3.7

63

3.9

7i

3.9

67

3.8

58

4.2

64

3.4

66

3.8

69

4.0

67

4.1

70

and rural schools the results are high as compared with other subjects. In the third grade in the city the score is two months above the grade norm, and in the sixth grade two months below the grade norm.
In the third grade the lowest score made by any school is four months below the grade norm and six months below the city median. The highest median score in this grade is seven months above the grade norm and five months above the city median.
In the sixth grade the lowest median score of any school is eight months below the grade norm and six months below the city median. The highest median score in this grade is six months above the grade norm and eight months above the city median.
There is a range of scores in the third grade of one year one month, and in the sixth grade of one year four months.
In the rural schools in the third grade the range of scores is eight months, with a low median score four months below the rural median and five months below the county median. The range in the sixth grade is two years, with a low median score two years one month below the grade norm and two years below the rural median. The high median score in these schools is two months above the grade norm and three months above the rural median.
Median Scores in Arithmetic Reasoning. The results of the tests
TABLE XLII MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC REASONING FOR
ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Savannah Median
Abercorn Anderson Barnard 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue __

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.6

6.5

3.6 3.25 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.6
3.6 4.0
3.5 3.8

6.7 6.1 6.3 6.75
6.4
6.6 6.1 7.0 7.1
6.7

71

TABLE XLIII
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC REASONING FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Chatham County Median
Bethel Bethesda Bloomingdale Fell Avenue Isle of Hope. . Montgomery Pooler Port Wentworth Thunderbolt Tybee White Bluff

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9 3.2

3.0

3.4

5.1

2.8

3.4

7.2

3.2

7.1

3.7

6.5

3.8

6.6

3.4

5 .5

3.0

7.1

3.6

7.0

2.9

in arithmetic reasoning are lower than those in arithmetic computation, which is an evidence that in many schools the former is not receiving proper emphasis.
The city schools score in the third grade three months below the grade norm, and in the sixth grade four months below the grade norm. With a range of seven and one-half months in the third grade the lowest median score is six and one-half months below the grade norm, and three and one-half months below the city median. The highest median score is one month above the grade norm and four months above the city median. In the sixth grade the lowest median score is four months below the city median and eight months below the grade norm. The highest median score is six months above the city median and two months above the grade norm. The range of scores in the third grade is seven and one-half months, and in the sixth grade one year.
In the rural schools the lowest median score is one year one month below the grade norm, and four months below the rural median for the third grade. The highest median score in this grade is one month below the grade norm and six months above the rural median. The rural median is seven months below the grade norm.
In the sixth grade of the rural school the lowest median score is one year eight months below the grade norm and one year below
72

the rural median. The highest median score is three months above the grade norm and one year one month above the rural median. The grade norm exceeds the rural median by eight months. The range of scores in this grade is eight months.
In arithmetic reasoning in the schools of Savannah and Chatham County the scores are lower than those made in arithmetic computation. Is the wide difference in scores made by the several schools justifiable?
Median Scores in Language
In this test in the third grade the city median is seven months below the grade norm, and in the sixth grade three months below the grade norm. The low median score of the third grade is nine months
TABLE XLIV MEDIAN SCORES IN LANGUAGE FOR ELEMENTARY
WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932
SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Savannah Median
Abercorn Anderson Barnard 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue. _
below the grade norm and two months below the city median. The high median score in this grade is two months below the grade norm and five months above the city median.
In the sixth grade the lowest median score is four years below the highest median score, and one year nine and one-half months below the next highest median score. (For some unaccountable reason the 38th Street school scored very high and only a second test could verify the reliability of this score.) The lowest median score in this
73

grade is one year three months below the grade norm and one year below the city median. The highest median score is two years seven months above the grade norm, and the next highest median score is six and one-half months above this norm. These two scores are three years and nine and one-half months above the city medians, respectively.
The medians made by the city schools exceed those made by the rural schools in the sixth grade by five months. They are the same in the third grade.
The range of scores in the third grade of the rural schools is seven months, and in the sixth grade eight months. The lowest median
TABLE XLV
MEDIAN SCORES IN LANGUAGE FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS
GRADES 3-A and 6-A CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms Chatham County Median

Bethel

Bethesda..

Bloomingdale

Fell Avenue

. . __

Isle of Hope _

Montgomery-

Pooler..

_.

Port Wentworth

Thunderbolt

Tybee

White Bluff

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.2

6.1

2.9

3.0

7.7

2.8

5.0

2.8

4.2

3.5

7.5

3.1

8.8

3.5

5 .0

2.9

5 .1

2.9

7.7

3.7

8.7

3.4

score is one year one month below the grade norm, and four months below the rural median. The highest median score is two months below the grade norm and five months above the rural median.
In the sixth grade the range of scores is eight months. The lowest median score is one year nine months below the grade norm, and one year one month below the rural median. The highest median score is one year nine months above the grade norm, and two years seven months above the rural medians.

74

Median Scores in Spelling
The city median for the third grade is one month below the grade norm, and for the sixth grade three months below the norm. (Table XLVI.) In the third grade the highest median score is one month
TABLE XLVI
MEDIAN SCORES IN SPELLING FOR ELEMENTARY WHITE SCHOOLS
GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms ...... . . _ Savannah Median.

Abercorn Anderson .... Barnard..
49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue

. .... ...... . ...
.

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.8

6.6

4.0 3.75 3.7 3.55 3.4 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.25 3.6

7.0 6 .3 7 .0 5 .95 6.9 6.9 7.0 7.3 6.3 6.35

above the grade norm and two months above the city median; while the lowest median score is six and one-half months below the grade norm and five and one-half months below the city median. In the sixth grade Uie highest median score is four months above the grade norm, and seven months above the city median. The lowest median score is nine and one-half months below the grade norm, and six and one-half months below the city median. The range of scores for the city in the third grade is seven and one-half months, and for the sixth grade one year three and one-half months.
The rural median for the third grade is one month lower than the grade norm, and for the sixth grade one year one month below the norm. (Table XLVII.) In the third grade the highest median score is three months above the grade norm and four months above the rural median. In this grade the lowest median score is eight months below the grade norm and seven months below the rural median. In the sixth grade the highest median score is one year three months above the grade norm, and two years four months above the rural
75

TABLE XLVII
MEDIAN SCORES IN SPELLING FOR ELEMENTARY
WHITE SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Chatham County Median
Bethel Bethesda ._ Bloomingdale. Fell Avenue Isle of Hope Montgomery Pooler Port Wentworth Thunderbolt. . ' Tybee White Bluff. .

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

69

3.8

58

3.9

4.2

3.5

3.3

61

3.6

52

3.8

76

3.9

3.4

56

3.1

6.8

4.0

8.2

3.7

median. The lowest median score is two years eight months below the grade norm, and one year seven months below the rural median.
The range of scores for the city is one year one month in the third grade, and four years one month in the sixth grade.

Comparison of Elementary White Schools of Savannah
By ranking the elementary white schools of the city according to achievement in the several subjects comparisons may be made which show the relative achievement of these schools. The rank number given a school is based on the median score made by that school in the subject shown on the respective table. In studying these tables it should be borne in mind that the pupils of the sixth grades of the several schools will in another term be placed together in the classes of the junior high schools. Without agreement among the elementary schools as to standards for promotion many pupils will be greatly handicapped as they go into the junior high schools.

The difference in achievement between the schools ranking highest

and the one ranking lowest is as follows: Total

Grade Averages Reading Arithmetic Language

3-A 6 mo. 7 mo.

1 yr.

7 mo.

6-A 8 mo. 1 yr. 3 mo. 9 mo. 3 yrs. 6 mo.*

Spelling 7% mo. 1 yr.

* Seven months' difference with next highest score. 76

From the above table it is seen that in the third grade there is a difference of achievement in Total Averages of six months, and in the sixth grade a difference of eight months.
Is there any valid reason for this great difference of achievement between the schools of the city?
Tables XLVIII-LII show the ranking of the schools of the city on a basis of the median scores made in Silent Reading, Arithmetic, Language and Spelling. Comparisons like the above in Total Averages may be made for these schools in each subject.
"Excessive retardation may raise almost indefinitely the levels of attainment of various school grades. A good showing created in this manner is most unwholesome as it ultimately leads to elimination of pupils long before they have completed the high school and have the advantages of a differentiated and partly elective curriculum. These advantages are of special value to the child who does not continue into high education."

TABLE XLVIII
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN WITH RESPECT TO ACHIEVEMENT IN TOTAL AVERAGES SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL

38th St

_

Massie

Waters Ave.

49th St

_ _-

Montgomery

37th St.. . _

Abercorn

Anderson

Barnard

GRADE 3-A

Rank

Median Score

1

4.0

2

3.9

3

3.8

5

3.7

5

3.7

5

3.7

7

3.6

8.5

3.5

8.5

3.5

10

3.4

GRADE 6-A

Rank

Median Score

1

7.5

2

7.3

7

6.45

9

6.3

5 .5

6.6

8

6.4

3

6.9

10

6.1

5 .5

6.6

4

6.7

1. Kelley, Interpretation of Educational Measurements, 56.
77

TABLE XLIX
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN WITH RESPECT TO ACHIEVEMENT IN SILENT READING SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL

38th St....

Waters Ave.

Massie

49th St

37th St

Montgomery

Abercorn

Henry

Barnard

Anderson

..

GRADE 3-A

Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6.5 6.5 8.5 8.5 10

Median Score
4.1 3.9 3.8 3.67 3.65 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.4

GRADE 6-A

Rank
3 6 1 10 8 5 4 2 7 9

Median Score
7 .1 6.65 7.6 5 .5
6.7 7.0 7 .2 6.6 5.8

TABLE L
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN WITH RESPECT TO ACHIEVEMENT IN ARITHMETIC SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL
38th St Waters Ave 49th St Massie.. Abercorn.. Henry 37th St Barnard. Montgomery . Anderson

GRADE 3-A

Rank

Median Score

1

4.4

2

4.1

3

3.9

4

3.85

5

3.8

6.5

3.75

6.5

3.75

8.5

3.55

8.5

3.55

10

3.4

GRADE 6-A

Rank
3.5 6 7 3.5 1 .5 8 1 .5 9 5 10

Median Score
7.05 6.57 6.55 7.05 7.1 6.55 7.1 6.2 6.75 6.15

78

TABLE LI
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN WITH RESPECT TO ACHIEVEMENT IN LANGUAGE SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL
38th St. Waters Ave 49th St.
37th St. - _ Montgomery-. -

GRADE 3-A

Rank

Median Score

1

3.7

2

3.5

3

3.35

4

3.3

5.5

3.2

5 .5

3.2

7.5

3.1

7.5

3.1

9

3.05

10

3.0

GRADE 6-A

Rank

Median Score

1

9.6

4.5

6.7

6

6.35

3

7.55

7.5

6.1

2

7.6

7.5

6.1

4.5

6.7

10

5 .6

9

6.0

TABLE LII
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR WHITE CHILDREN WITH RESPECT TO ACHIEVEMENT IN SPELLING SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL

38th St.

Montgomery-

Waters Ave. _ -

49th St.

-

37th St.

-- --

GRADE 3-A

Rank

Median Score

1 .5

4.0

1 .5

4.0

3.5

3.8

3.5

3.8

5

3.75

6

3.7

7

3.6

8

3.55

9

3.4

10

3.25

GRADE 6-A

Rank

Median Score

1

7.3

3

7.0

5.5

6.9

3

7.0

8

6.3

3

7.0

7

6.35

10

5.95

5 .5

6.9

9

6.3

79

Comparative Achievement of Three Schools
Graph No. 3 which follows shows the comparative achievement in the several subjects made by three of the city schools. The tests were given in these three schools by the same person. It is evident there are different standards of achievement in these schools. These schools score higher on certain subjects than others. The lowest scores made by all these schools are in the Vocabulary Test and in Language. Problem solving or reasoning in Arithmetic also should be stressed more.
In the sixth grades represented on Graph No. 4 there is even more variation among the tiree schools represented. Low subject scores in some schools were relatively high in others.

Grade 8.0.

Ga

Gr

Comp. Reas. Gl

Gs

Ge

7.5-

~h

\

\

/

/

7.0-

4.

6.5.

V

6.a

/ "7"

-*-v

.'

\s /

V

5.5.

5.0-
CHART NO. 3. Comparison of three schools with respect to achievement
in the several subjects Grade 6-A, Savannah, Georgia
May 1932

Legend:

Norm

--

---- Massie

..

.--. Henry

---- -- ----- Anderson

80

Grade

Gr

Ga.

4.5. Co m.

Par. Voc. Fund. Prob. Gl

Gs

Ge

-\

4.a

-

3.53.a

H\\
v\

~h ^
/ / /

\\ \

v

/^

/

V.

//

>r

\\ f / / ^^-

A U-

V

8.5-

8.0-

Legend:

CHART NO. 4

Comparison of three schools

with respect to achievement in the several subjects

mmmm.

Grade 3-A Savannah, Georgia

-_

May 1932

Distribution of Scores

Norm .-- Massie
Henry Anderson

A study of distribution of pupil scores by subjects in the sixth and third grades of the school system of the city and county. With a grade norm of (3.9) for the third grade the city median is only (3.7), and the rural median is (3.4). In the sixth grade the grade norm is (6.9), the city median is (6.6), and the rural median is (6.0).

An interesting study of the distribution tables can be made by checking the number of pupils in each group above or below these norms and medians. Evidently there is much overlapping of the work in the grades. Some pupils in each grade made lower scores than should be made by pupils in the grade below; others made higher scores than should be made by pupils in a higher grade. In many instances there are evidences that other factors seem to exert greater influence on promotions and classifications than does educational achievement. "Mass instruction which is highly inefficient has been the custom instead of individualized instruction. The interests of study, instruction, and supervision are identical and focus upon study which is highly individual."(i) Study of the records of the individual pupils should be made and the course he is to pursue should
be adapted to meet his need.

(1) McCall, How to Measure, 114. 81

TABLE LIII
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE METROPOLITAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE WHITE SCHOOLS, GRADE 3-A* SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE

00

5-A & Above--2 yrs. or more

5-B-- \y2 yrs.-2 yrs

4-A--1 yr.-l 3^ yrs. ______ __

4-B--Yz yr.-l yrs... .

_.

3-A Normal

3-B-- Y2 yr.-l yr

2-A--1 yr.-l i^ yrs

2-B--\y2 yrs.-2 yrs

1-A & Below--2 yrs. or more

Comp.

Reading

Para.

Vocab.

11

2

9

4

15

11

82

48

27

6

14

18

6

2

20

4

1

18

2

Arithmetic

Total

Language Spelling Average

Fund.

Prob.

2

6

8

1

6

6

8

11

54

47

43

60

56

11

16

26

20

25

3

15

24

9

6

0

6

7

3

1

2

-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

TABLE LIV
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE METROPOLITAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE WHITE SCHOOLS, GRADE 3-A* CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE

Comp.

Reading Para.

Vocab.

Arithmetic

Fund.

Prob.

Language Spelling Total Average

5-B--\Y2 yrs -2 yrs.

6

2

1

8

3

0.5

4

0.5

8

8

15

3

10

5

3-A Normal

73

51

25

64

42

35

57

51

3-B--Vo yr.-l yr.

._

11

19

21

15

18

28

18

30

2-A--1 yr.-l Vi yrs...

8

7

13

6

23

25

11

13

2-B--1Y2 yrs.-2 yrs.

. .. -

3

1

20

0.5

7

11 .5

2

1

5

8

2

2

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

TABLE LV
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE WHITE SCHOOLS, GRADE 6-A* SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE
8-A or above--2 yrs. or more 8-B--1 y2 yrs.-2 yrs 7-A--1 yr.-l J^ yrs 7-B--Y2 yr.-l yr 6-A Normal 6-B--y yr.-l yr 5-A--1 yr.-l}^ yrs 5-B--\]/2 yrs.-2 yrs 4-A or below 2 yrs. or more__

Reading
11 4 8 9 21 12 13 7 15

Arithmetic

Comp.

Reas.

4

4

7

2

7

10

13

12

31

31

22

18

11

7

3

2

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

Language

Spelling

Total

19

5

2

4

2

4

8

9

7

9

8

9

15

29

32

8

16

19

9

9

15

4

9

24

13

TABLE LVI
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE WHITE SCHOOLS, GRADE 6-A* CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE
8-A or above 2 yrs. or more 8-B--\y2 yrs-2 yrs 7-A--1 yr.--1 J^ yrs. 7-B--y2 yr.-l yr.
5-A--1 yr.-lJ/ yrs. 5-B-- \V> yrs.-2 yrs._ .

Reading

4

2

5

.

5

20

7

11

.

17

27

Arithmetic

Comp.

Reas.

4

1

4

1

7

5

12

33

24

18

18

21

7

3

11

12

19

Language

Spelling

Total

10

3

1

4

10

8

4

10

8

5

15

17

20

6

12

20

8

13

17

7

12

15

30

27

18

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

Percentages of Pupils Achieving Normal, Above Normal and Below Normal
Tables LIII, LIV, LV, LVI are made from the distribution tables of pupils' scores and are designed to show that many children classified together in the same grade are equal in educational achievement to others in grades above or in grades below. In a class where the range of achievement is wide, where the teacher is teaching on a plane which appeals to those pupils whose record of achievement is high it is more than likely that she is teaching over the heads of the "slow" pupil. When she teaches on the level of the "slow" pupil she is apt to "lose" the bright ones. The greater the range in achievement in the class the more impossible becomes the task of tile teacher.
Emphasis in Special Subjects By careful study of the preceding tables, it is found that the scores made in certain subjects are much higher or lower than scores made in other subjects. This would seem to indicate that certain subjects are receiving more emphasis than others. In the third grades of both city and rural schools it appears that Arithmetic Computation is receiving undue emphasis. In the third grade in Reading the pupils scored lower on the vocabulary test than on the Completion and Paragraph Meaning Tests. In the city schools in this grade the Reading score is good in the first two tests. The lowest scores made by this grade were in Vocabulary, Arithmetic Reasoning and Language.
A study of the time allotment for subjects taught, which is given elsewhere in this report, will give more definite information relative to emphasis placed on tie several subjects.
Both the city and rural schools have in the third grade an average score (Ge, Grade in Education) which is below the grade norm. The average score in the sixth grade is still more below grade norm than is the average score in the third grade Does this mean that instead of absorbing deficiencies in the lower grades that they are increasing as the pupil goes from grade to grade?
Conclusions
1. There is a wide range in average achievement from school to school in the Chatham County system. This calls for a careful investigation as to the causes which are responsible for it. Among the causes which might be responsible for it are:
(1) Difference in the average ability of the pupils in the respective schools.
(2) Difference in instructional methods.
(3) Difference in curriculum practices.
86

(4) Difference in classification policies.
(5) Difference in promotion policies.
(6) Lack of coordination in the supervisory program.
2. A slight deficiency of the city norm from the grade norm for 3A grade becomes greater when the 6A grade is reached.
3. Higher average achievement in some subjects than in others indicates that certain subjects are being emphasized possibly to the partial neglect of others.
4. Tie wide range of achievement within a given class indicates that other factors than achievement enter into the promotion and classification of pupils.
Recommendations
1. A careful study of the causes leading to the wide range in achievement from school to school.
2. A study of tie curriculum as now taught with a view to discovering whether it is adapted to the needs of the system both as to content and distribution within the grades.
3. A check on the time alloted to each subject in the daily program of the various schools.
4. Closer supervision of instructional procedure.
5. More objective methods in the classification and promotion of pupils.
6. PYomotion standards adapted to achievement of pupils on at least three levels of ability.
Colored Schools of Chatham County
In the colored schools the same method of precedure as was used in the white schools was used in giving the tests, scoring, and treating all statistical data. In the interpretation of the results from the Negro schools there should be kept in mind the differences affecting these results, such as exist in training of teachers, in buildings and physical equipment in these buildings, in irregular and poor attendance, and in basic social and environmental conditions.
Reading
The results of Reading indicate that Silent Reading is neglected in the grades. Little progress can be made in any phase of school work until the child acquires the ability of getting the thought from the printed pages. Therefore, deficiencies in Reading seriously handicap all educational progress. Careful study of the causes for deficiencies should be made and a program outlined which would remedy these conditions.
87

In the city schools the average score in Reading is in the third grade, four and one-half months below the norm, and in the sixth grade, two years and two months below the grade norm. In the rural schools the median score for the third grade is one year and four months below norm, and for the sixth grade the median score is three years two months below norm.
Arithmetic
The comparatively high scores in Arithmetic indicate that more emphasis is placed on this subject than on others. The third grade score for the city schools is seven months below grade norm., and the sixth grade is one year seven months below grade norm. In the rural schools the third grade scores one year and one-half month below norm, and the sixth grade scores one year and nine and one-half months below the grade norm. Requirements of absolute accuracy in computation should be stressed. More time should be given to problem solving.
Language
The scores in this test were very low as compared with other subjects. The score in the third grade in the city schools was one year below grade norm, and in the sixth grade this score was two years below the norm. In the rural schools the third grade score is one year and three months below norm, and in these schools the sixth grade scored three years below the grade norm. Environmental conditions doubtless contribute much to this deficiency but attention should be directed towards both spoken and written English.
Spelling
The scores in Spelling are higher than in any other subject. The city schools score in the third grade, two months below the grade norm, and in the sixth grade, one year and three months below norm. In the rural schools, the score of the third grade is four months below the grade norm, and of the sixth grade one year and nine months below norm.
Total Averages
The total average for the city schools in the third grade is six months below the grade norm. This deficiency increases until the sixth grade scores one year and seven months below the norm. For the rural schools the score is one year and one month below norm in the third grade, and in the sixth grade two years and five months below norm.
It is agreed that ninety per cent of the value of testing depends on what is done after the tests have been given. The greatest values resulting from a testing program are derived from a correct interpretation of the results followed by remedial administrative, supervisory, or instructional programs which will aid the child in learning more effectively.

TABLE LVII MEDIAN SCORES IN TOTAL AVERAGES FOR
ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932
SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Savannah Medians
Cuyler East Broad Florance Maple Paulsen West Broad

TABLE LVIII
MEDIAN SCORES IN READING FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADES

SCHOOLS

3-A

3-A

3-A

Completion Paragraph Vocabulary

Grade Norms Savannah Medians _ East Broad
West Broad

3.9 3.3
3.7 4.0 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.55

3.9 3.6
2.9 4.0 3.2 3.7 3.7 3.65

3.9 3.4
2.4 2.9 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.95

6-A
6.9 4.7
5.7 4.5 5.0 5.0 4.4

89

TABLE LIX
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC FUNDAMENTALS FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms, Savannah Medians

East Broad St.

Florance

.

Maple

. __ .

Paulsen .

West Broad St

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

69

3.4

51

3.45 3.25 3.8 3.6 3.4

55 5 35 49 52 46

TABLE LX
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC REASONING FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms. Savannah Medians

East Broad_.

Florance

Maple

_ _.

Paulsen

West Broad

. .. _

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

69

3.0

53

3.0

57

3.0

54

3.1

44

3.1

55

3.1

4S

90

)

TABLE LXI
MEDIAN SCORES IN LANGUAGE FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
1
C1
West Broad

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

2.9

4.9

2.7 2.9 2.25 2.9 2.9 2 .95

6.6 4.65 4.7 5 .0 4.6

TABLE LXII MEDIAN SCORES IN SPELLING FOR ELEMENTARY
COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932
SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Savannah Medians
Cuyler East Broad Florance Maple Paulsen West Broad

91

TABLE LXIII
MEDIAN SCORES IN TOTAL AVERAGES FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms__ _. Chatham County Medians

College,.

Ferguson

Rose Dhu _

__ _

Sandfly

Springfield Terrace

Woodville

Eight Small Schools

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9 2.8

3.0

33

2.8

55

1 .9

42

3.0

2.25

2.8

TABLE LXIV
MEDIAN SCORES IN READING FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADES

SCHOOLS

3-A

3-A

3-A

6-A

Completion Paragraph Vocabulary

Grade Norms

3.9

Chatham County

3.9

3.9

6.9

Medians

2.6

2.9

2.1

3.7

College Ferguson _ _ . Rose Dhu Sand Fly

2.8 2.8

3.2
3.1 1 .7

2.3
2.2 2.0

3.1 2.6 6.2 3.2

Springfield Terrace .

2.8

3.2

2.2

Woodville

1 .65

2.35

1 .9

3.7 4.1

8 Small Schools

3.3

2.9

2.2

92

TABLE LXV
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC FUNDAMENTALS FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Chatham County Medians.
College Ferguson Rose Dhu Sandfly Springfield Terrace _. Woodville Eight Small Schools.

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

2.9

4.9

3.4

5 .6

2.9

2.8

6.3

2.2

4.2

3.2

5.5

2.65

4.5

3.0

TABLE LXVI
MEDIAN SCORES IN ARITHMETIC REASONING FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS
Grade Norms Chatham County Medians.
College Ferguson Rose Dhu Sandfly Springfield Terrace. Woodville Eight small Schools.

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

2.8

5.0

3.0

5.8

2.1

2.3

5.9

2.4

4.6

3.0

5.1

2.6

4.0

2.8

93

TABLE LXVII
MEDIAN SCORES IN LANGUAGE FOR ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms Chatham County Medians

College

Ferguson

__

Rose Dhu

Sandf ly

Springfield Terrace

Woodville _

Eight Small Schools. _

. ...

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

2.6

3.9

2.8

4.1

2.4

2.7

4.5

2.4

4.1

2.9

4.2

2.15

3.3

2.8

TABLE LXVIII
MEDIAN SCORES IN SPELLING IN ELEMENTARY COLORED SCHOOLS GRADES 3-A and 6-A
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOLS

Grade Norms

_

Chatham County Medians.

College

Ferguson

Rose Dhu

Sandf ly

Springfield Terrace

Woodville

.....

Eight Small Schools

_ ...
...

GRADES

3-A

6-A

3.9

6.9

3.5

5 .0

3.5

4.3

4.4

3.1

5 .7

2.3

4.7

4.0

5 .3

2.75

4.2

3.6

94

1

TABLE LXIX
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE COLORED SCHOOLS, GRADE 6-A* CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE

Reading

8-A or above 2 yrs. or more

1

8-B -- \y2 yrs.-2 yrs. __ _ _ _ _ _

7-A--1 yr.-l}/2 yrs. .

___

7-B--\i yr.-l yr.

4

6-A Normal

2

3

5-A--1 yr.-l VQ yrs.

6

5-B--1 y2 yrs.-2 yrs

3

4-A or below 2 yrs. or more

81

Arithmetic

Comp.

Reas.

1

1

4

5

9

6

5

23

10

13

24

51

48

-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

Language

Spelling

Total

1

1

1

4

10

4

3

9

6

5

15

8

6

18

15

80

47

67

TABLE LXX
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE METROPOLITAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE COLORED SCHOOLS, GRADE 3-A* CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

HRADF to

5-A & Above--2 yrs. or more 5-B-- \y2 yrs.-2 yrs

4-B--Y2 yr.-l yr

3-A Normal

_

_

i-B--Y2 yr.-l yr

2-A--1 \T.-\14 yrs.__

2-B--\Yi yrs.-2 yrs

Comp.

Reading Para.

Vocab.

Arithmetic

Fund.

Prob.

1

Language Spelling Total Average

1

7

29

27

6

22

20

11

48

18

9

26

11

30

20

26

13

24

16

13

20

28

30

30

11

28

5

20

34

20

23

27

16

16

41

14

29

5

6

5

14

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

TABLE LXXI
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE COLORED SCHOOLS, GRADE 6-A* SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE
CO
8-A or above 2 yrs. or more 8-B-- \y2 yrs- 2 yrs 7-A--1 yt.-\lA yrs 7-B--Hyr.-l yr 6-A Normal 6-B--Y2yr.~\ yr 5-A--1 yr.-lj/<j yrs 5-B-- \y2 yrs.-2 yrs 4-A or below 2 yrs. or more.

Reading
1 1 2 1 1 8 18 9 59

Arithmetic

Comp.

Reas.

1

1

1

2

18

12

10

26

17

16

16

42

37

Language

Spelling

Total

2

2

1

4

1

9

17

6

4

16

13

7

14

21

10

15

15

56

29

44

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

TABLE LXXII
THE PER CENT OF PUPILS ACHIEVING NORMAL, ABOVE NORMAL AND BELOW NORMAL BY SUBJECTS IN THE METROPOLITAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN THE COLORED SCHOOLS, GRADE 3-A* SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

GRADE
4 R 14 vr 1 vr 3-B--V^vr-lvr. 2-B--\Yi yrs.-2 yrs.

Comp.
74 13 6 2 5

Reading
Para.
3 5 9 50 21 6 5 1

Vocab.
1
2 2 23 21 23 22 6

Arithmetic

Fund.

Prob.

Total Language Spelling Average

1

3

5

1

7

2

46

35

16

59

43

25

24

34

18

37

16

26

35

14

13

4

12

14

2

4

2

1

1

*-The status of the pupils is shown both by their grade achievement and by the number of half years.

CHAPTER VI
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
In the preceding chapter the educational results in the Chatham County schools as shown by tests have been discussed. Educational results are, of course, dependent upon the educational opportunities offered. In this chapter will be found a discussion of the opportunities offered in Chatham County schools as indicated by the curriculum, classification and progress of the pupils in the schools. The discussion will indicate that as a whole the opportunities are good but in certain details there is need of improvement.
Chatham County Elementary Course of Study
The course of study offered in the Chatham County school system conforms in the main to that offered in the best schools of the nation. The time allotted to the teaching of the various subjects seems to vary rather widely in the various schools. There also seems to be rather wide variation in the division of time among tool subjects, content subjects, and special subjects. For purpose of comparison the time allotment for the first three grades is shown (Table LXXIII) for three Savannah schools, the average practice in 444 cities of the United States, and the recommendation of the State Department of Education in fifteen states. It will be seen that the time allotted to teaching reading in 2A grade varies from 260 minutes per week in school number two to 425 in school number one. The average for the 444 cities is 410. The time allotted to arithmetic and language in the first grade seems rather excessive when current practice Is considered. School number one, grade 3B, devotes 300 minutes per week to arithmetic as compared with a current practice of less than 200 minutes per week. A further study of the table will show where the Chatham County system varies from current practice in other cities.
Table L.XXIV is given for the benefit of those who wish to compare their time allotments with current practice and professional recommendation. The time allotment proposed by fifteen state departments of education probably represents better practice than that of the 444 cities.
A study of time allotment to subjects will probably explain the wide discrepancy in achievement scores as shown by tests given in the Savannah schools.
99

TABLE LXXIII
A COMPARISON OF THE TIME ALLOTMENT BY SUBJECTS OF THE FIRST THREE GRADES OF THREE WHITE SCHOOLS IN THE CITY OF SAVANNAH WITH AVERAGE OF 444 CITIES AND
15 STATES

SUBJECTS

444 15 School 1 Cities States Grade

School II School III 444 15 School 1

Grade

Grade Cities States Grade

School II School III 444 15 School 1

Grade

Grade Cities States Grade

School II School III

Grade

Grade

11

IB 1A IB 1A IB 1A 2

2 2B 2A 2B 2A 2B 2A 3

3 3B 3A 3B 3A 3B 3A

Tool Subjects: Phonics-Word Drill.

410 386 400 425 475 260 400 400 370 371 450 400 475 450 400

68 18 75 75 75 35 40 50 51 15

50 75 50 50

80 67 100 100

100 125 100 146 105 200 200 200 200 200

86 126 200 75 125 30 75 100 104 127

100 125 60 175

74 62 75 75 75 75 100 75 80 75 100 75 75 75 75

31 27

25

82 65 100 100 75 75 75

100

80

328 322 300 375 325 325 350 350
24 13 100 50 50 50 196 179 300 200 225 250 225 225 136 149 175 175 175 125 225 225 84 79 100 100 75 75 75 75 94 87 100 75 75 100 75 75

::::: TOTAL TOOL SUBJECTS... - 749 686 950 750 830 525 740 725 833 758 850 925 1025 910 975

Per Cent of Total Time

55.6 50.6 60.9 51.4 58.2 33.4 64.6 51.8 58 53.9 55.6 63.4 65.7 64.1 64.4

862 82(1 1075 975 925 925 950 950 56.1 52.6 70.7 65.0 68.8 63.6 59.9 56.7

Content Subjects:

21 39

20

80 45

23 43 75

50

40

21 35

25

25 25

4 14

7 14

58 59 100 90 125 100 125 125

8 24

50 11 24

50 50

26 45

25 25

11 12

12 12

40

14 14

25 25

TOTAL CONTENT SUBJECTS 46 89

20

80 45 50 56 93 75

50 50 130

122 153 100 90 150 100 200 200

Per Cent of Total Time

3.4 6.6

1.3

5.1 3.9 3.6 3.9 6.7 4.9

3.2 3.5 8.6

7.9 9.8 6.6 6.0 1.1 6.9 12.6 11.9

Special Subjects:
Opening Exercises Remedial Work-Supervised
Study
Manual Arts, Projects

71 113 60 30 45 60 60 50 73 107 30 60 60 60 60 74 76 75 75 75 75 75 75 76 82 75 75 75 75 75 111 121 125 100 100 200 100 175 112 120 75 100 75
51 48 75 50 75 75 75 75 53 48 125 75 50 50 50

18

200 200 200 350

200 24

150 100 100 100 100

49 35

50

43 29

30 36

25

75

31 36

75 50 50 50

79 77 75 100 100 30 50 50 79 73 75 50 75 125 75

29 39

60

100

25 23 75

40 35

30 36

74 115 45 60 45 30 60 60

77 80 100 75 75 75 75 75

109 124 100 100

175 75 75

52 48 50 100 50 75 50 40

31

100 150

42 53

37 44

50 50 75 25 75

81 69 50 50 50

50 50

26 24

22 35

TOTAL SPECIAL SUBJECTS- 552 580 610 690 595 965 360 625 546 554 605 535 485 460 410

Per Cent of Total Time

41.0 42.8 39.1 47.3 41.8 61.5 31.4 44.6 38.0 39.4 39.5 36.6 31.1 32.4 27.0

551 592 345 435 270 430 435 525 35.9 37.6 22.7 29.0 20.1 29.5 27.4 31.3

GRAND TOTAL

1347 1355 1560 1460 1425 1570 1145 1400 1435 1405 1530 1460 1560 1420 1515

1535 1574 1520 1500 1345 1455 1585 1675

TABLES LXXIV
TIME ALLOTMENTS IN MINUTES PER WEEK IN FOUR HUNDRED AND FORTY-FOUR CITIES AND
FIFTEEN STATES, LISTED BY SUBJECTS

SUBJECTS Tool Subjects:
Total Tool Subjects Per Cent of Total Time Content Subjects:
Total Content Subjects Per Cent of Total Time Special Subjects:
Total Special Subjects Per Cent of Total Time GRAND TOTAL

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 444 15 444 15 444 15 444 15 444 15 444 15 Cty. Sta. Cty. Sta. Cty. Sta. Cty. Sta. Cty. Sta. Cty. Sta

410 68

386 18

370 51

371 15

328 24

322 13

237 5

264 8

194 1

204 7

176 1

189
7

80 67 146 105 196 179 211 186 215 198 215 198

86 126 104 127 136 149 158 158 169 166 173 174

74 62 80 75 84 79 85 84 82 83 79 82

31 27 82 65 94 87 96 88 93 81 89 80

749 686 833 758 862 829 792 788 754 739 733 730 55.6 50.6 58.0 53.9 56.1 52.6 50.3 49.0 46.7 44.9 45.4 44.1

21 39 23 43 21 35 19 30 17 30 16 30

4 14 7 14 58 59 123 115 160 164 164 166

8 24 11 24 26 45 57 80 94 140 113 132

11 12 12 12 14 14 16 14 19 15 21 25

2

3

3

5

6

6

46 89 56 93 122 153 220 239 296 349 320 353

3.4 6.6 3.9 6.7 7.9 9.8 13.9 14.9 18.3 21.2 19.8 21.4

71 113 73 107 74 115 73 104

74 76 76 82 77 80 80 80

111 121 112 120 109 124 103 120

51 48 53 48 52 48 49 48

18

24

31

49

49 35 43 29 42 53 39 59

2 35 2 36 3 35 6 36

30

22

13

9

8

6

6

5

30 36 31 36 37 44 44 53

79 77 79 73 81 69 81 68

29 39 25 23 26 24 26 12

72 81 79 80 97 119 48 46 49 37 56 18 53 6 4 51 50 80 63 22 12

70 85 77 79 92 117
47 46
52
33 59 30 54
5
2
52 54 80 57 22 15

552 580 546 554 551 592 564 580 563 560 562 566 41.0 42.8 38.0 39.4 35.9 37.6 35.8 36.1 34.9 33.9 34.8 34.5

1347 1355 1435 1405 1535 1574 1586 1607 1613 1648 1615 1649

Size of Class--Elementary Only
The size of the class affects the program of the school in a number of ways. Among these may be mentioned the cost of instruction and the ability of the pupil to take advantage of the educational offerings. Up to the present time there has been no definite decision reached as to the most desirable size for a class. According to a recent study* the average size for a first grade class, taking the country as a whole, is forty children, the second grade class thirty-nine children, the third grade class thirty-nine children, and the median class for city schools in the United States, including 67.5% of the elementary population, is thirty-six children.
* M. B. Davis: Kindergarten Primary Education; Bulletin 1930, No. 30, Office of Education, Washington, D. C.
101

TABLE LXXV
SIZE OF CLASS IN THE CITY WHITE SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, FALL TERM, 1931

GRADE I II III IV V VI

Large 50 45 49 49 46 44

Small 27 35 24 28 33 31

Average 37.2 40.5 41 .4 40.4 40.1 39.1

A study of Table LXXV shows that Savannah varies only slightly in class size from these national averages. The table shows wide variation in size of classes, but these extremes in class size are limited to a very few cases. The great majority of classes vary only slightly from the average shown. It is the opinion of the survey staff that on the whole the class sizes in the various schools of the city are well worked out. Exceptionally small classes should be avoided wherever possible for both white and colored.
In the county schools the actual condition under which the schools exist require in most instances small classes. This condition can be overcome only through consolidation and transportation. There are other important items to be considered in this connection before consolidation is planned.
Age of Entrance
The age at which children enter school materially affects the extent to which they may take advantage of their educational opportunities. Many children drop out of school upon reaching the limit in age of compulsory attendance, many others for financial reasons are compelled to drop out of school. The extent to which children of these types enter school later than the optimum age limits their educational opportunities. In age grade studies a child who enters school later than the optimum age, except in the few cases of special promotion, will go through school as an over-age pupil.
An analysis was made of the age of all pupils entering the first grade in Savannah in the fall term of 1931. The results are shown in Table LXXVI. The normal age span in a system of semi-annual promotions is from six to seven years. In Savannah we find that 91.2% entered
102

TABLE LXXVI
PER CENT OF CHILDREN ENTERING FIRST GRADE BY AGES--FALL TERM, 1931
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, SCHOOLS WHITE
CITY SCHOOLS

AGE

Per Cent

514

0.35

6

_____

-.

82.1

6U

___

_ __

9.1

7

________

5.0

lU,

___

__

8

0.7

%V,

0.35

9

_____ __ __ _

0.7

914

...

0.35

10

______

1 .0

COUNTY SCHOOLS

school at the optimum ages of six and six and a half years. Only 8.45% are seven years of age or older. This is a very favorable showing when compared with 27.1% average for Nashville, Tennessee* (i), and 49.2% for Tampa, Florida (2).
It is evident that with this high per cent of entrance at optimum age, any excessive over-ageness must be due to other causes than age of entrance.
Since Savannah is a twelve-grade system and practically all the surrounding systems are based on eleven grades another entrance
* (1) Nashville Survey. (2) Tampa Survey.
103

problem confronting the Savannah system is the proper placement of pupils from other systems. This should not be done on an arbitrary basis. A fixed policy of placing the child in the grade where he has been before entering the Savannah system or of placing him in a grade higher or lower may involve a gross injustice to the child. Savannah's policy of deciding each case on its merits is the best plan.
The county schools, while not making as good a showing as the city schools, are still doing better than the above-named cities.
Age-Grade Status
In a well-organized school system the curriculum is so planned that a normal child will progress at the rate of one grade each year. If a child enters school at normal age and progresses at the rate of one grade each year, he will go through school at normal age. If he fails to make his grade one or more years he is said to be retarded and is over age for his grade; if he makes more than one grade each year, he is said to be accelerated and is under age for his grade. That school situation is most satisfactory which has the largest per cent of its children of normal age for their grades. Normal age is the desirable condition for most effective development of the personality of the child. A child too old for his grade grouped with children of younger ages is, in general, a social misfit with the group. He is likely to become a problem pupil for the teacher.
It has been shown elsewhere in this report that 92% of children entering Savannah schools are of normal age. Consequently, if there is wide variation from the normal it must be due to other than late or early entrance. Among other things, it might be caused by lack of a properly adjusted curriculum, by improper promotion policies, by attendance problems, by entries from other school systems.
Table LXXVII shows by grades the per cent of pupils over age, normal age, and under age in the Savannah schools.
The over-ageness gradually increases from a minimum of 13.9% in grade IB. For some unexplained reason the over-ageness of 40% in grade 4B and 36% in grade 5A are out of proportion to that in other grades.
A comparison of age-grade status in Savannah with other cities as shown in Table LXXVIII reveals the fact that Savannah makes a better showing in the per cent of normal age pupils than any of the Southern cities listed and better than any of the group except "Watertown. It will be seen that Savannah with 64% normal age is approximately 30% better than Nashville, Tennessee.
An intelligent and well-planned program over the past six years has done much to overcome over-ageness and failure in the Savannah
104

TABLE LXXVII
PER CENT OF PUPILS, UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, OVER AGE, IN SAVANNAH, GEORGIA CITY SCHOOLS, GRADES 1 TO 6, FOR THE FALL TERM, 1931--WHITE
Grade 1B 1A 2B 2A 3B 3A 4B 4A 5B 5A 6B 6A Total
Under Age___ 1 .2 6.0 1 .8 9.0 4.3 12 .2 5.6 15.2 9.5 13.3 7.5 16.0 8.0
Normal _ Age,,_ 84.8 73.1 71 .8 68.2 64.4 51 .5 54.5 52.3 61 .5 50.5 62.2 51 .6 64.0
Over Age___ 13.9 20.8 26.3 22.7 31 .3 30.3 39.9 32.5 28.9 36.2 30.3 32.4 28.0
schools. A continuation of this policy will result in still further improvement along this line.
Table LXXIX shows the age-grade status of the children in the rural schools of Chatham County. While the per cent normal age is not quite so good as the city, It is high in comparison with rural schools in other Southern states.
Table LXXX shows Chatham County to have 59% normal age, while Shelby County, Alabama, has only 44% normal age, a difference of 15% in favor of Chatham. The same table shows a county in a western state to have approximately 70% of normal age. Twelve Alabama counties show a per cent of over-age pupils varying from a maximum of 68% to a minimum of 32%. The last figure is the only one making a better showing than Chatham. Continued effort along the lines followed in the past will improve the situation much more.
Progress of Pupils
"After pupils are enrolled in school at the optimum age it becomes the obligation of the school so to regulate their progress that year by year they are in contact with educational opportunities adapted to their abilities and needs. If this is done, pupils will progress normally from grade to grade year by year. Hence, a further important measure of the efficiency of the administration of educational opportunities is the extent to which pupils make normal progress."*
A study of the records of pupils in the elementary schools of Savannah was made and the results shown in Table LXXXI. This table shows for each grade the per cent of pupils who have made rapid progress through the grades, the per cent of pupils making normal
* Survey of the Schools of Nashville, Tennessee, 1931.
105

TABLE LXXVIII
A COMPARISON OF THE PER CENT OF UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE CHILDREN IN THE WHITE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, WITH OTHER CITIES AND STATES

CITY OR STATE Savannah, Georgia Pennsylvania Elementary
Schools Forth Worth, Texas Birmingham, Alabama . . Nashville, Tennessee. . Tampa, Florida ..
Watertown, Massachusetts

Under Age 8.0
10.0 23.0 11 .0 12.7 10.0 14.0

Normal Age 64.0
61 .0 59.0 53.0 34.4 30.4 70.0

Over Age 28.0
29.0 18.0 36.0 52.9 59.6 16.0

TABLE LXXIX
PER CENT OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE, IN CHATHAM COUNTY RURAL SCHOOLS (WHITE) FALL TERM, 1931

GRADE Under Age Normal Age Over Age

I 2.9 74.1 22.9

II 8.3 58.8 32.9

III 3.1 55 .4 41 .5

IV 3.3 54.9 41 .8

V 4.2 52.9 42 .9

VI Total 7.4 5.0 52.6 59.0 40.0 36.0

106

TABLE LXXX
PER CENT OF UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE CHILDREN IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS (WHITE)
OF CHATHAM COUNTY, COMPARED WITH CERTAIN OTHER AREAS

COUNTY
Shelby County, Alabama Duchesne County, Utah

Under Age
5 .0
3.0
8.5

Normal Age
59.0
44.0
69.8

Over Age
36.0
53.0
21 .7

progress, and the per cent making slow progress. This information is given by half years for each grade, e. g., the table shows that in 5A grade, 7.2% of the pupils enrolled are retarded four half years; 16.9% two half years; 49.3% are normal, and 4.1% are accelerated onehalf year. The last line of the table shows that 47.8% of the pupils have made slow progress, 46% have made normal progress, and 6.2% have made rapid progress. When the age of entrance and promotion policies are considered, the per cent of acceleration is about what one would expect. Large acceleration is not desirable. A policy of broadening and enriching the curriculum for the bright child is much better.
In the matter of slow progress 47.8% seems rather excessive. While it is true that 22.2% of these are only one-half year retarded, 12.4% are retarded one year, 3.4% two years, and nearly 2% three or more years. However, 47.8% retardation is better than Nashville, which shows 53.5%. Watertown, Massachusetts, shows only 19%. For Savannah, "this retardation is a most undesiraable condition. It means that a large number of pupils are forced to work with children who are much more immature in physical development and social concepts or are out of their 'social group,' that they have been struggling with a type of work for which their abilities do not fit them, and that they are developing attitudes which expect failure rather than success." (!)
Table LXXXII gives Chatham County a very favorable showing in comparison with Shelby County, Alabama. A better record is made by Wilcox County, Alabama, which shows rapid progress of 2.9%, normal progress 61.1%, slow progress 36.1%. Favorable comparisons are pleasing but they do not relieve the necessity for continued effort to improve an unsatisfactory situation. A curriculum adapted to the needs of the pupil and intelligent attention to records of individual
(1) Survey of the Schools of Nashville, Term., 1931.
107

TABLE LXXXI
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, WHITE CITY SCHOOLS
PER CENT OF PUPILS IN GRADES 1 TO 6 MAKING SLOW PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS, AND RAPID PROGRESS, JANUARY, 1932

GRADE
M IB o 1A 00 2B
2A 3B 3A 4B 4A 5B 5A 6B 6A
Total

RETARDED Number of Terms (or Half Years)
Retarded
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

NORMAL 1 PROGRESS

ACCELERATED Number of Terms (Or Half Years)
Accelerated
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.2

0.6 0.9 0.4 3.7 5.0 32.9 56.2

0.4 0.8 0.6 2.1 13.3 17.9 61 .9

1 .1 1 .7 3.1 6.9 9.4 27.1 42 .9

0.2

0.2 1 .9 1 .7 3.9 4.6 12.4 19.2 49.4

0.3 0.3 1 .5 0.8 3.0 2.0 8.7 10.0 27.8 35.3

0.2

r.i 0.4

1 .9 1 .9 3.7 5.5 14.9 11 .0 56.6

1 .1 3.2 3.2 7.5 10.8 32.6 35 .3 . .

0.9 1 .8 2.7 4.7 6.5 15.6 17.0 47.2

0.3

0.6 1.7 2.5 4.2 9.6 12.9 25.9 29.7

0.2

1 .8 7.2 4.3 16.6 14.9 49.3

0.3 0.6 0.9 3.4 5.2 12.0 10.6 30.9 22.9 .

0.4 0.6 0.4 1 .7 3.4 4.9 16.2 15.3 48.7

2.9

7.1 0.6

4.4 1 .9

9.5 0.8

1 .6

2.2

4.0 0.8 0.3

2.7 0.9

9.6 1 .4 1 .1 0.3

4.1 0.7 0.2 0.7

11 .5 1 .1 0.6

4.7 3.4

.07 .02 0.1 0.5 0.98 2.1 3.4 6.1 12.4 22.2 46.0

4.8 0.9 0.1 .07 0.2

RETARDED :47 .8

NORMAL: 46.0 ACCELERATED: 6.2

TABLE LXXXII
A COMPARISON OF THE PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN THE WHITE RURAL SCHOOLS OF CHATHAM COUNTY WITH THOSE OF SHELBY COUNTY, ALABAMA

CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA

SHELBY COUNTY, ALABAMA

Rapid Normal Slow

Rapid Normal Slow

GRADE Progress Progress Progress Progress Progress Progress

I

4.9

61 .9

33.2

59.6

40.4

II

4.9

54.8

40.2

40.4

59.6

III

8.2

47.2

44.6

0.8

42.0

57.2

IV

7.8

44.4

47.8

1 .9

46.4

51.7

V

6.6

47.9

45.5

2.0

39.3

58.7

VI

5 .9

52.1

41 .9

3.9

37.3

58 8

Total

6.3

51.9

41 .7

1 .2

45.7

53.1

TABLE LXXXIII
PER CENT OF PUPILS REQUIRING MORE THAN THE NORMAL TIME TO COMPLETE A GRADE IN WHITE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, FALL TERM, 1931

SECTION*
B A

GRADE

I

II III IV V VI

43.8 12.9 17.5 14.3 15.0 12.7

37.8 17.9 17.5 15.8 16.0 12.4

* Semi-annual promotions: B--The Beginning Section; A--The Advanced Section
pupils will go far toward overcoming abnormal progress. Too much either rapid progress or slow progress is undesirable.
Table LXXXIII shows the per cent of pupils requiring more than the customary time to complete a specific grade. This indicates a fairly uniform policy of promotion except for the first grade where
109

the percentage of slow progress is more than double that for any other grade. 43.8% of the children in grade IB required more than a semester to complete the work. 37.8% of children enrolled in grade 1A required more than one semester to complete the work of that grade. The number of children making slow progress at this point seems to be excessively large. The survey staff are of the opinion that a careful study of conditions here will result in materially reducing the number of pupils making slow progress.
The policy followed in Savannah schools of grouping slow pupils into classes and allowing three semesters to complete the work ordinarily done in two semesters is to be commended, provided the interests of the individual pupil are properly safeguarded. Each pupil's achievement should be carefully watched and the organization should be such that he can be readily shifted at any time to the group where his interests are best served. There is always the possibility that once a pupil has been "placed" he is left undisturbed regardless of his record of achievement.
Failure and Promotion Policies
Perhaps the most vicious practice that has ever developed in the evolution of our educational system and the one that is most difficult to modify is that of retarding pupils as a means of adjusting pupils to curriculum. It is invoked most frequently in the case of the "slow" pupils, but it is not infrequently used as a disciplinary measure for the lazy or mischievous pupil.
"Our schools must be made to fit children rather than children to fit schools."
"Retardation in the elementary schools as an adjustment to individual differences in ability to do ordinary school work is coming into disrepute. There is less tendency now to set the same minimum standards of achievement for all children in the skills and habits taught in the elementary schools. . . . There is a strong tendency to establish one set of minimum standards for children of the mentally retarded type, another set for the dull-normal group, and a third set for children of average and more than average ability.
"While this does not necessarily mean that children of the dullnormal type shall not spend more than normal time in the mastery of skills, it seems to point to the conclusion that the lack of mastery of skills shall not be taken as reason enough to keep them from entering the Junior and Senior high school with children of their own age, or from participating in other aspects of education.
110

"The pupil's own welfare should be tiie basis for determining whether or not he should repeat. No pupil should be required to repeat a grade unless it is reasonably certain that he will benefit more by repeating than by taking advanced work. The acceptance of this principle implies that the school accepts as an ideal the elimination of indefinite standards for piomotion. Definite information concerning the pupil's achievement and abilities must be available before nonpromotion can be justified.
"Among the many reasons commonly given for non-promotion there are but two that can be justified, and careful analysis indicates that non-promotion for either of these reasons should rarely occur. Repeating a grade would seem to be justified when a pupil is unable to master the fundamentals of the succeeding grade. Even under these circumstances repeating would be justified only when the comparatively small amount of subject-matter required cannot be obtained from special instruction given by the new teacher or by a coaching teacher while the pupil carries at least the fundamental work of the following grade. Repeating would be justified also if promotion meant the losing of something highly valuable, which could not be secured in a higher grade. The subject-matter lost by going on would need to be of sufficient importance to compensate the boy or girl for the loss that would result from repeating."*
A study of the results of the promotion practices and policies in the Savannah schools gives rise to a number of interesting questions. In studying the last column of Table LXXXV it is seen that in every grade more boys fail in promotion than girls. Why? The excess in per cent of failures for boys over girls varies from six-tenths of one per cent in the fourth grade to 20.1% (or more than four to one) in the fifth grade of the county schools.
In the city schools (Table LXXXIV) the variation is from fivetenths of one per cent in grade five to 8.7% in grade two. For the whole system excess of failures for boys is 4.2%. Are girls as much superior in ability and scholastic achievement to boys as these figures would indicate?
Looking at Table LXXXVII it is seen that taken by schools, the per cent of failures varies from 5.4% in 49th Street School to 21.8% at Barnard. Is there really as much difference in the character and ability of the students in these two schools as these figures would indicate?
Looking at Table LXXXVI it is seen that there is a Wide variation in the per cent of failures from grade to grade in the same school, e. g., the variation is from 0 in grade 5A to 38.5% in grade 3A of Massie School; from 0 in 2A and 3A grade to 31% in 1A grade of Montgomery Street; from 0 in grade 3B to 21.9% in grade 1A of Henry
Paul R. Mort: The Individual Pupil, pages 164 and 165.
Ill

TABLE LXXXIV
PER CENT OF PROMOTION, DOUBLE PROMOTION, SPECIAL PROMOTION, CONDITIONAL PROMOTION,
AND NON-PROMOTION IN GRADES 1 TO 6, FOR THE FALL TERM, 1931, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA,
WHITE SCHOOLS

GRADE

Per Cent
of Pro: motion

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent

of Double of Special of Condi-

Pro-

Pro-

tional

motion motion

Pro-

motion

Per Cent of Non-
Promotion

Boys

80.0

I

Girls____ 84.2

4.0 6.4

0.4 0.2

1 .0

14.6

9 .2

Total. 81 .9

5.2

0.3

0.5

12.1

Boys

II

Girls

76.5 84.7

5.3 7.3

0.9 0.7

1 .5

15.7

0.2

7.0

Total. 80.6

6.3

0.8

0.8

11 .4

Boys

82 .2

III

Girls.... 89.1

0.3

3.1

14.4

0.5

1 .2

Total. 85 .6

0.3

2.2

11 .9

Boys

84.8

0.2

IV

Girls

87.1

0.2

0.5

1 .6

12.8

1 .9

10 8

Total. 85.9

0.2

0.2

1 .8

11 .8

Boys..

87.3

V

Girls.... 88.9

3.5

92

2.4

87

Total. 88.1

2.9

89

Boys

85 .7

VI

Girls.___ 89.7

0.2

3.7

10 4

0.5

2.2

7.6

Total. 87.8

0.4

2.9

8.9

Boys

82.6

1 .7

0.4

2.3

13.0

TOTAL.Girls

87.2

2.4

0.3

1 .3

8.8

Total. 84.9

2.1

0.3

1 .8

10.9

112

TABLE LXXXV
PER CENT OF PROMOTION, DOUBLE PROMOTION, SPECIAL PROMOTION, CONDITIONAL PROMOTION,
AND NON-PROMOTION IN GRADES 1 TO 6 FOR THE FALL TERM, 1931, CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA (WHITE)

GRADE

Per Cent of Promotion

Per Cent of Double
Promotion

Per Cent of Special
Promotion

Per Cent of Condi-
tional
Promotion

Per Cent of Non-
Promotion

Boys _

72.4

I

Girls

75.9

4.1

23.5

8.3

15 .7

Total.. 74.3

6.3

19.4

Boys__

78.8

0.9

0.9

5.8

13.5

II

Girls

93.2

1 .4

1 .4

4.0

Total, _ 84.8

0.6

1 .1

3.9

9.6

Boys III Girls

85 .4 86.1

4.5

10.1

6.3

7 .6

Total,

85 .9

5.4

8.9

Boys IV Girls

89.0 85.7

2.4

8.5

6.3

7 .9

Total.

87.6

4.1

8.3

Boys

V

Girls

65.3 81 .5

1 .4

1 .4

3.1

5.6

26.3

9.2

6.2

Total __ 72.9

0.7

2 .2

7.3

16.8

Boys VI Girls

61.1

1 .4

1 .4

8.3

27.8

80.3

3.0

7.6

9.1

Total __ 70.3

0.7

2.2

7.9

18.8

Boys __

76.0

0.6

0.6

5.0

17.8

Total __ Girls

83.3

1 .1

6.6

9.0

Totals 79.4

0.3

0.8

5.7

13.7

113

TABLE LXXXVI
PER CENT OF FAILURES BY SCHOOLS, GRADES 1 TO 6, SAVANNAH CITY SCHOOLS, FALL TERM, 1931
WHITE

SCHOOL IB 1A 2B 2A 3B 3A 4B 4A 5B 5A 6B 6A

Waters Avenue 5.0 20.6 1 .9 12.3 2.1 10.6 15.2 8.9

1 .7

49th Street

2.7 9.1 3.8 15 .8 10.0 5 .4 10.5 4.8 8.9

Massie

10.3

25.0 18.2 12.0 38.5 7.4 7.7 6.5

15.6

37th Street

12.1 6.7 4.3 14.3 11 .2 17.6 4.8 7.5

2.9 5.4

Montgomery 20.8 31 .0 3.3

23.1

2.7 18.8 11.7 8.3 10.0 23.5

Abercorn

10.8 2.1 15.0 23.1 16.2

21 .7 21 .1 8.8 11 .8 21 .1

Barnard .___ 12.3 12.5 17.6 19.4 19.1 20.6 27.9 24.4 27.3 27.9 33.3 23.5

Anderson

6.3 3.6 15.4 11 .4 14.9 10.4 11 .1 4.9 4.7 8.3 18.6 11 .1

38th Street

14.8 12.8 10.9 8.9 8.0 14.3 12.0 14.3 19.6 17.9 13.6 24.1

Henry Street___ 15 .8 21 .9 10.9 19.5

14.3 17.5 4.9 15.2 12.2 5.1 9.7

TABLE LXXXVII
TOTAL PER CENT OF FAILURES BY SCHOOLS, GRADES 1 TO 6, SAVANNAH CITY SCHOOLS, FALL TERM, 1931, WHITE

SCHOOL

Waters Avenue __ .

49th Street

Massie _ _ _

37th Street

Montgomery ..

Abercorn

Barnard

_

Anderson

38th Street

Henry Street

Per Cent of Failures 67 5 .4 12 8 69 13 .8 14 4 21 8 10 2 13 9 12 .4

114

Street. Is there as wide difference in the ability and achievement of the children in the different grades in the same school as these figures indicate?
Looking at Table LXXXVI it is seen by taking the per cent of failures in each grade by schools that the variation in IB grade is from 2.7% in 49th Street to 20.8% in Montgomery Street; 1A grade is from 2.1% in Abercorn to 31% in Montgomery; 2B grade is from 19% in Waters Avenue to 25% in Mjassie; 2A grade is from 0 in Montgomery to 23% in Abercorn; 3B grade is from 0 in Henry Street to 23% in Montgomery; 3A grade is from 0 in Abercorn and Henry Street to 38% in Massie; 4B grade is from 2.7% in Montgomery to 27.9% in Barnard; 4A grade is from 4.8% in 49th Street, to 24.4% in Barnard; 5B grade is from 0 in Waters Avenue and 37th Street to 27.3% in Barnard; 5A grade is from 0 in 49th Street and Massie to 29.9% in

TABLE LXXXVIII
RANK OF TEN WHITE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH IN PER CENT OF FAILURES* AND IN AVERAGE SCHOLARSHIP AS SHOWN BY SCORES ON STANDARD TESTS, GRADES 3-A AND 6-A, MAY, 1932

GRADE 3A

SCHOOL Number

Rank in** Rank in** Failures Scholarship

1

4.5

1

2

__ --

1

2

3

-

6

3

4 . __:

8

5

5

. .__

9.5

5

6

3

5

7 ._

9.5

7

8

------ ..

7

8.5

9_

2

8.5

10

.

4.5

10

GRADE 6A

Rank in Failures

Rank in Scholar-
ship

1

1

8

2

8

7

8

9

2 .5

5

8

8

8

3

4

10

2.5

6

5

4

*-As Reported by Teachers for Fall Term. 1931. **-School with highest per cent of failures and highest scholarship is ranked 1.
115

Barnard; 6B grade is from 0 in Waters Avenue and 49th Street to 33.3% in Barnard; 6A grade is from 0 in several schools to 24.1% in 38th Street.
Is there as much difference in the ability and scholastic achievement of the pupils in the various grades from school to school as indicated by the figures?
Does a high percentage of failure mean high scholarship?
A study of a single school can lead to no reliable answer to this question, while a study of a group of schools may furnish significant conclusions.
A study of Table LXXXVIII shows that school No. 1 had highest scholarship in both 3A and 6A grades. In per cent of "failed" pupils, it ranked fourth in 3A grade and first in 6A grade. High rank in both scholarship and "failed" pupils.
School No. 9 ranked 8.5 in scholarship in 3A and 6 in 6A. In per cent of "failed" pupils it ranked second in both 3A and 6A. Low in scholarship, high in per cent of failures.
School No. 7 ranked seven in scholarship in 3A grade and three in 6A. It reported no failures in either 3A or 6A. High scholarship in one grade, low scholarship in the other and no failures at all.
School No. 5 ranked fifth in both 3A and 6A grades in scholarship. It reported no failures in grade 3A and ranked next to highest in failures in grade 6A.
Thus it would seem that the number of failures in a grade bears no positive relation to scholarship whatever.
A Study of Individual Cases
Standard tests were given in all schools of Savannah and Chatham County, both white and colored in grades 3A and 6A.
A normal score for a pupil in grade 3A in any subject and as an average is 3.9. In 6A grade it is 6.9.
The following cases of individual pupils were selected from a list of pupils reported as having "failed" to make their grades.
Case One
Ben, whose age is twelve years, ten months, was not promoted. The reason assigned by the teacher was that he was too young. The subjects he was reported as "failing" were reading and history. The average grade given by the teacher was 73. The normal age for entry in grade 7B is twelve years. He was not too young. On standard
116

tests, Ben scored 7.0, one month in advance of his grade. The average class score was 6.6, or four months lower than Ben's score. On reading, the subject "failed," he scored 7.7, or eight months in advance of his grade placement. He was above norm in every subject except computation in arithmetic. Twenty-one out of a class of thirty-five made a lower average score than Ben and only six made a higher score in reading.
Case Two
Yule, whose age is thirteen years, five months, was not promoted. He failed in language and arithmetic. On test he scored 9.5 in language. Only three pupils scored higher. The average score for the class was 6.6. Yule scored 6.2, four months under class average. Ten pupils out of a class of thirty who passed scored from two months to sixteen months lower than Yule. Yule is already more than a year too old for his grade.
Case Three
Moye, whose age is twelve years, six months, was not promoted. He failed English. The reason given was low l.Q, and lack of study. The grade given by the teacher was 69. On test in English he scored 9.2, two years and three months above his grade placement. His average score was 7.5 or six months in advance of his grade placement. The class average was 7.3, two months under Moye's average. Nineteen of the thirty-eight pupils in the class scored as low or lower Khan Moye.
These cases are sufficient to show that other factors than actual achievement of pupils are operating to determine success or failure in the schools.
By way of summary, attention has been called to the excess of failures of boys over girls in the Savannah schools. There is also wide variation in per cent of failures from grade to grade in the same school; also there is wide variation in the per cent of failures in the same grade from school to school; likewise there is wide variation in the per cent of total failures from school to school. A study of individual cases shows that it frequently happens that a pupil reported as having failed a particular subject when tested scores among the highest in his class. It is further shown that it frequently happens that a pupil who failed to make his grade scores higher when tested than from twenty to fifty per cent of his classmates who passed their grades.
The survey staff is appreciative of the fact that in recent years some very effective work has been done on this particular problem and some excellent results obtained. The per cent of failures has been reduced from twenty-six to eleven. In view of the facts set forth in preceding
117

paragraphs a careful, systematic, detailed study of the situation would result in a still further material reduction in the number of failures.
It appears that much of success or failure so far as it affects the pupil is dependent upon the subjective judgment of the teacher. That this is frequently inaccurate is indicated in some of the facts set forth above. As one means of discovering how teachers vary in judgment of the same facts, it would he interesting to have different teachers grade independently of each other the same set of examination papers and submit the results to the supervisor. A tabulation of the results would indicate the degree of agreement among the teachers of the value of contents of the examination papers. The experience of the writer in a similar experiment showed very wide variation.
Objective methods of determining the achievement of pupils should be used as a check upon the opinion of teachers. School practices go far in determining habits of success or failure on the part of individuals in adult life.
Acceleration
Another means of regulating the progress of pupils through the grades is through the use of acceleration. It may be used to advantage in the case of very bright pupils of normal age and physical development for their grade. It may also be used to advantage for children of normal ability but who, for some reason, are over-age for their grade. It is also desirable that pupils who have attained Junior high school age should be allowed to advance to Junior high school even though it may be necessary to provide special instruction in subject matter taught to adapt it to their abilities. There are more than four hundred such pupils in the white schools of Savannah and Chatham County at the present time. As an example, there is a fifteen-year-old girl in the third grade and a sixteen-year-old in the fourth grade. These two girls have gone over the work in these grades again and again. It is not likely that they will ever know more of arithmetic, reading, or grammar. Which will mean more to them in after life, to continue them in the grades where they now are until they leave school, or to give them the advantage of the cooking, sewing and industrial arts of the Junior high school?
In the use of acceleration the Savannah and Chatham County schools have followed a much more progressive policy than some other Southern cities; e. g., Nashville has made practically no use of acceleration while Port Worth seems to have made excessive use of it. Reference to Tables LXXXI and LXXXII indicate that the Chatham County system has used it with approximately six per cent of its pupils. A very great departure either way from this per cent would indicate an undesirable situation.
In general, it is bad policy to accelerate a pupil until he is thrown
118

out of his "social group." A better plan is to provide an enriched course of study.
The results of the testing program given in the Savannah schools show that there are some pupils in the school whose high achievement indicates a need for curriculum adjustments.

Causes of Failure
The reasons for failure as given by teachers is shown in Table LXXXIX. A study of the reasons given places the responsibility for most of these failures upon the school rather than the child.
Low mental ability is assigned as the reason for failure In 23.2% of the cases. The consensus of modern educational opinion is that the curriculum should be adapted to the child and not the child to the curriculum. Different grades of ability should be required to attain to different standards of achievement. The pupil of low ability can never be made to attain to the standard of the pupil of superior ability no matter how often nor how long he is required to repeat. An effort to make him meet such standards results only in a feeling of failure and hopeless defeat. On the other hand requiring the pupil of superior ability to meet standards set for pupils of low or mediocre

TABLE LXXXIX
CAUSES OF FAILURE AS GIVEN BY TEACHERS AND THE PER CENT OF TOTAL FAILURE DUE TO EACH
CAUSE IN GRADES 1 TO 6. FALL TERM, 1931, WHITE. SAVANNAH CITY SCHOOLS.

CAUSES OF FAILURE Low Mental Ability Lack of Study and Interest Irregular Attendance 111 Health and Physical Handicap. _ Immaturity Weakness in Specific School Subjects Disciplinary Difficulties Home Environment Other and Unassigned Reasons

Per Cent of Pupils Failed for each Cause
23.2 16.7 9.0 12 .0
4.0 26.7 0.1
3.5 4.8

119

ability gives him a false conception of his responsibilities which may lead him into habits of carelessness, idleness, and in some instances of viciousness.
"Weakness in specific school subjects" (26.7%) and "lack of study and interest" (16.9%) are also responsibilities of the school and not of the pupil. These failures are also in large measure due to the failure of the school to adapt the curriculum and methods of instruction to the ability and interest of the child.
It becomes the responsibility of the modern school also to provide a curriculum and working conditions adapted to the needs of the "physically handicapped." That this is true is clearly indicated by the "Seven Objectives" of our educational program and by the "Children's Charter."
Conditional Promotion
Conditional promotion is a frequent means used to regulate the progress of pupils. This is a satisfactory means of adjustment and worth while if the school meets its responsibility in the matter and provides specifically and systematically plans for aiding the pupil to overcome his weakness. But if, as frequently happens in many schools, the pupil is given a conditional promotion and is then left to his own resources in removing it, conditional promotion is largely a farce.
Reference to Table LXXXIV shows that conditional promotion is used but little (1.8%) in the white schools of Savannah and only slightly more in white schools of the county (Table LXXXV). If properly provided for, it might be used to advantage in a larger per cent of cases.
Adjustments to Individual Pupil Needs in White Schools of Savannah and Chatham County, Spring, 1932
The discussion of acceleration and non-promotion illustrates the necessity of considering the varying needs of individual pupils in the day-to-day work of the school. The survey staff found that the teachers in the Savannah and Chatham County schools are alive to this problem. Approximately one child in each five in the white schools of the city received one or more individual adjustments while the showing in the county was even better. Here one out of each three was given individual help in solving his problems besides the minimum classes in the various elementary schools organized according to ability.
Table XC shows the various types of adjustments used and the extent to which each was employed. By reference to this table it will be seen that a "conference with the parent" is the adjustment to which the teacher most frequently resorted since it was used in the case of 2.37% of the pupils enrolled. Following closely in frequency of use will be found "individual assistance after school" 2.21%;
120

"individual assistance out of class but during school hours," 2.13%; and "individual assistance during class," 2%. The last item of the table shows 57 cases needing adjustment where nothing was done. This should have attention.
The reports show that while the majority of teachers make extensive use of the numerous devices for individual assistance to pupils a few do not seem to appreciate the value of such work.
TABLE XC
ADJUSTMENT IN INSTRUCTION TO INDIVIDUAL NEEDS, CHATHAM COUNTY WHITE SCHOOLS, SPRING, 1932

TYPE OF ADJUSTMENT

Number of Pupils Re-
ceiving Adjustment

1,--Variation in extent of assignment 2.--Making assignment more difficult 3.--Making assignment easier 4.--Assigning special reports, projects, etc 5.--Giving special drill 6.--Giving individual assistance 7.--Individual assistance during class 8.--Individual assistance out of class but
during school hours 9.--Individual assistance after school 10.--Giving encouragement and guidance
in free reading 11.--If pupil is above average for class ex-
cusing him from part of regular work to provide time for other activities--. 12.--Assigning the pupil additional responsibilities such as library work, etc
CONFERENCE WITH: 13.--A. School Physician
B. School Nurse C. Principal D. Parent E. Psychologist 14.- Correcting Physical Defects 15.- Ability grouping 16.- -Developing correct study habits _ NO ADJUSTMENTS MADE- -
TOTAL

Per Cent of Enrollment Receiving Adjustment
0.13 0.41 0.82 0.69 1 .33 0.81 2.00
2.13 2.21
0.94
0.27
0.80
0.10 0.94 1.76 2.37 0.05 0.83 1 .28 0.63 0.57 21 .07

121

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
"Desirable learning does not all come from the printed page, nor does it arise solely from environment of good buildings. Within the classroom the teacher's method of handling the general situation often has as much effect upon attitudes and habits as do all other conditions combined, if not more. If the teacher can get the pupils to feel that they have a real part in the classroom situation and get them to see the reason behind the classroom activities, she is building a foundation for a very favorable relationship between teacher and pupil and between pupil and pupil. When the teachers and pupils feel that they are partners in a cooperative enterprise the matter of teacher control is reduced to a minimum."*
* Watertown, Massachusetts, Survey.
In most of the classrooms visited in the Chatham County system this attitude seemed to prevail. It is the conscious ideal toward which all seem to be striving.
Prom the Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, III., we quote:
"Ideals and Attitudes Around Which Children in the Elementary Schools Should Be Integrated:
"1. The majority has a right to make decisions in a democracy.
"2. The minority has the right of free speech in attempting to convert the majority.
"3. Change is both an inevitable and a desirable accompaniment of growth.
"4. A good citizen has learned to cooperate in groups of his fellows, each individual contributing to the welfare of the group and benefiting as the group benefits.
"5. The good citizen puts his trust in thinking as the intelligent method, both of learning and of solving his own or state's problems.
"6. Self-appraisal is an essential attribute of a good citizen.
"7. Self-direction is an essential attribute of a good citizen.
"8. Self-control is an essential attribute of a good citizen."
We find, further, from the same source, that many of these ideals are to be developed through an "enrichment of the curriculum through the use of nature study, libraries, assemblies, clubs, orchestras, newspapers, or pupil participation in the management of the school."
The Chatham County system is to be commended for its activities program.
122

The possession of bare facts by an individual may be worthless or even dangerous if the individual has no knowledge of how the facts should be used. Both city and county schools have numerous excellent activities through which acquired facts may be applied to social situations. The citizenship program in operation in the schools is one of the best in the country. The theory of citizenship as taught by books is put into real life situations. One of the best examples of this application is found in the Waters Avenue School. Here a replica of the city government is set up and officers nominated and elected by printed ballot as in a real city, the various officers elected are "on the job" with a full knowledge of their duties and the will to perform them. Needless to say that when these young people come to adult citizenship the duties and responsibilities of citizenship will be familiar to them and the habit of meeting these responsibilities already formed.
Within the confines of "midget Savannah" were found clubs in some one of which every student can find an opportunity to develop any talent which he desires to exercise. Among these clubs may be mentioned: Sewing Club, Glee Club, Band, Art Club, Dramatic Club, Book Lovers' Club, News Reel, Council, The Big Sister League, Girl Reserves, Junior Glee Club, Bird Club, and various athletic clubs. Other activities in "midget Savannah" in which its "citizens" were actively interested were an aquarium and a museum. The activities of all these clubs are reported to the students of the school through the columns of a well-written, well-edited student monthly publication, "Midget Savannah's News Reel." Such a program as the above will necessarily develop a many-sided interest on the part of its pupils. It develops a sense of social responsibility, community cooperation, business judgment, and powers of observation.
Not all of the schools have as well developed programs as Waters Avenue, but all are doing something along this line. It would be well if those schools which have been somewhat backward could revise their programs and place more emphasis upon their activities program. "Impressions which are not followed by expression are positively harmful."
Holding Power
One test of the effectiveness of a school system is how well the children enrolled in the first grade continue in school from grade to grade until they have completed the public school course.
Table XCI shows the holding power of the schools of Chatham, Bibb and Richmond counties as judged by this criterion, e. g., for each one hundred children enrolled in the first grade there are in the second grade in Chatham County, 79; in Bibb County, 82; and in Richmond County, 71. In the seventh grade (first year Junior high) for each 100 in the first grade there are in Chatham County, 68; in Bibb County, 66, and in Richmond County, 51. In the tenth grade (first year Senior high) for each 100 in the first grade there are in
123

Chatham County, 55; in Bibb County, 37; and in Richmond County, 20. The average holding power for all grades (excluding the first) is for Chatham County, 63; Bibb County, 58; and Richmond County, 50.
President Hale, in her annual address before the National Education Association last summer, showed that for each 100 children enrolled in the first grade in the United States, 44 reach the tenth grade, and 26 graduate from the twelfth grade. Compared with these figures for the country at large, Chatham makes a superior showing in the high school grades. It is rather a coincidence that the number graduating as reported in the national figures is the same as the number reported in the twelfth grade of Chatham County, twenty-six in each case.
TABLE XCI
A COMPARISON OF THE HOLDING POWER OF THE WHITE SCHOOLS OF CHATHAM COUNTY, BIBB AND RICHMOND COUNTIES, AS SHOWN BY THE
PER CENT THE ENROLLMENT IN EACH GRADE IS OF THE ENROLLMENT IN THE
FIRST GRADE, 1931-1932

GRADE
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Average Exclusive of 1st Grade

Chatham County
100 79 88 80 77 74 68 56 59 55 29 26
63

Bibb County
100 82 79 80 75 69 66 49 44 37 32 25
58

Richmond County
100 71 62 67 61 58 51 54 36 20 18 Junior College
50

Conclusions 1. The size of classes in the city schools is well worked out and conforms to the average for the cities of the country at large. 2. In the matter of enrolling children in the first grade, the Chat-
124

ham County system is doing an excellent job, more than ninety per cent enter at the optimum age of six years.
3. While the age-grade status of pupils in both city and county schools is superior in comparison with other systems, there is still room for improvement.
4. The grade progress of students in both city and county is better than that of a number of other systems but there is room for much improvement yet. The per cent of retardation can be readily reduced by at least fifty per cent. The per cent of slow progress in the first grade should receive careful consideration.
5. The elementary school system is to be commended for its conservatism in the matter of double promotions. An enriched curriculum is much to be preferred to too rapid promotions in most instances.
6. There is much inconsistency in the promotion practices of the schools. It is difficult to justify the wide variation in the per cent of failures from grade to grade in the same school; from school to school in the same system, and from school to school in the same grade.
7. Other factors than achievement seem to wield a strong influence in the promotion of pupils.
8. The causes for failure of pupils as assigned by teachers are in many instances insufficient to justify failure in achievement by the pupils.
9. The efforts being made to overcome failure in the schools and the type of adjustment used, show that considerable thought and effort are being spent upon this problem. The result has been a steady improvement over the past few years.
10. The holding power of the schools is excellent--superior to the average Southern accomplishment and in the upper grades as good or better than national averages.
11. Continuous attention has been given to curriculum requirements and the curriculum offerings of the Chatham County system compare favorably with those of other systems.
12. There seems to be considerable variation in the schools as to the time allotment to the various curriculum offerings without any apparent reason. Such a policy, it would seem, would affect the achievement in these subjects from school to school.
13. The Chatham County system is alive to the value of school activities and projects and a number of the schools are putting over an excellent program. Other schools could improve their offerings to their pupils by putting on more comprehensive programs of this type.
125

14. In general, it may be said that the administration of the Savannah and Chatham County schools has been alive to the progressive ideas that have been developed from time to time in the field of education and have not been slow to adapt these ideas to the needs of their system. The most outstanding need of the system, in so far as their educational offerings is concerned, is a coordination of the various factors involved in the present program.
Recommendations will be found on page 87.

Colored Schools
The comments made upon conditions in the white schools apply in the main with equal force to the colored schools. For this reason no extended discussion of the colored schools is given.

TABLE XCII
SIZE OF CLASS IN THE CITY COLORED SCHOOLS OF SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, FALL TERM, 1931

GRADE I II III IV V VI

Large 56 56 43 48 43 50

Small 22 30 20 30 26 22

Average 35.7 42.5 33.4 38.4 35 .6 33.4

TABLE XCIII
PER CENT OF PUPILS IN SAVANNAH COLORED SCHOOLS, GRADES 1 TO 6, UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE, FALL TERM, 1931
Grade IB 1A 2B 2A 3B 3A 4B 4A 5B 5A 6B 6A Total
Under Age___ 0.7 5.8 5.3 8.4 1 .8 9.9 8.3 4.7 7.4 11 .9 3.9 8.7 6.0
Normal Age-- _ 72.3 41 .8 41 .3 29.8 35.1 31 .7 31 .7 19.8 23.0 21 .2 31 .8 40.0 37.0
Over Age-__ 26.9 52.3 53.4 51 .8 63.1 58.3 60.0 75.5 69.5 66.9 64.2 51 .3 57.0

126

TABLE XCIV
PER CENT OF OVER AGE PUPILS IN GRADES 1 TO 6, IN SAVANNAH SCHOOLS (COLORED) COMPARED WITH BIRMINGHAM, 1931

Grade IB 1A 2B 2A 3B 3A 4B 4A 5B 5A 6B 6A Total Savannah 26.9 52.3 53.4 61 .8 63.1 58.3 60.0 75 .5 69.5 66.9 64.2 51 .3 57.0

Birming-

ham, Ala___ 33.0 66.0 57.0 63.0 64.0 67.0 63.0 71 .0 70.0 61 .0 62.0 62.0

58.0

The size of classes (Table XCII) in the city colored schools varies only slightly from that of the white schools, the colored being slightly smaller on the average. The practice of double sessions in some of the colored schools is bad and should be eliminated at the earliest possible moment.
Table XCIII shows the age-grade status of children in the colored schools of Savannah. The table shows an unusually large per cent of over-age pupils in the schools when compared to the white schools, but when compared with conditions in colored schools of other cities it is rather favorable.
Table XCIV makes a comparison by grades of over-age pupils in Savannah with those of Birmingham, Alabama. It will be seen that as a whole the showing is favorable to Savannah. Total over-age pupils for Savannah is 57% while for Birmingham it is 58%, and for Nashville, Tennessee, it is 69%. While Savannah makes the best showing of any of the cities, the per cent of over-age pupils is far too high and every effort should be made to reduce it.
Satisfactory data for determining age of entrance was not available for the colored schools. The high per cent of over-age pupils may be due to late entrance. Other factors which cause it may be poor attendance, bad promotion policy, poor instruction, poorly adapted curriculum. Whatever the cause, it should be ascertained and remedied both for the sake of the child and in the interest of economy.
Table XCV shows the age-grade status of pupils in the colored schools of the county to be less satisfactory than those in the city.
Table XCVI makes a comparison of the per cent of over-age pupils in Chatham County with that of Shelby County, Alabama. This shows Chatham County to have slightly higher per cent of over-age pupils than Shelby County (70.5% and 68.6%, respectively).
The comments on the situation in the city schools apply with equal force to the schools of the county.
127

TABLE XCV
PER CENT OF UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE PUPILS IN GRADES 1 TO 6, CHATHAM COUNTY COLORED SCHOOLS, FALL TERM, 1931

GRADE Under Age Normal Age Over Age

I 1 .7 40.1 58.2

II 0.3 32.4 67.3

III 2 .1 19.7 78.1

IV 1 .9 22 .3 75 .7

V 1 .0 16.8 82.2

VI Total 0.8 1 .4 9.8 28.1 89.3 70.5

TABLE XCVI
PER CENT OF OVER AGE PUPILS IN GRADES 1 TO 6, CHATHAM COUNTY COLORED SCHOOLS, COMPARED WITH THOSE OF SHELBY COUNTY, ALABAMA

GRADE

I

Chatham County, Ga

58.2

Shelby County, Alabama 53.8

II 67.3 68.5

III 78.1 70.8

IV 75.7 78.4

V 82.2 77.9

VI Total 89.3 70.5 85.7 68.6

128

TABLE XCVII
PER CENT OF PROMOTION, DOUBLE PROMOTION, SPECIAL PROMOTION, CONDITIONAL PROMOTION, AND NON-PROMOTION IN GRADES 1 TO 6 FOR THE FALL TERM, 1931, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, COLORED SCHOOLS

GRADE

Per Cent Per Cent of Pro- of Double motion Pro-
motion

Per Cent of Special
Promotion

Per Cent of Condi-
tional Promotion

Per Cent of Non-
Promotion

Boys I ___Girls

77 .9

2.1

83.9

4.3

2.1

17.9

0.4

11 .4

Total_ _ 80.9

3.2

1 .2

14.6

Boys II _-_Girls

76.0 83.5

3.6

20.4

0.8

15.7

TotaL_ 80.0

2 .1

17 .9

Boys ITT ---Girls

77.8 83.5

6.4

15 .8

7 .6

8.9

Total-_ 81 .0

7.1

11 .9

Boys

81 .1

IV Girls

82 .4

Total-_ 81 .8

6.1

12.8

2.4

15.2

3.9

14.2

v

Boys ._ _Girls

76.7 81 .1

13.2

10.1

7.7

11 .2

Total. _ 79.4

9.9

10.7

Boys

67.5

VT Girls

73.1

26.3

6.2

17.7

8.2

Total. _ 70.9

20.9

8.1

Boys Tnl al. Girls

76.9

0.6

82 .0

0.9

6.9

15 .5

4.9

12.2

Total __ 79.8

0.8

5 .8

13.6

129

TABLE XCVIII
PER CENT OF PROMOTION, DOUBLE PROMOTION, SPECIAL PROMOTION, CONDITIONAL PROMOTION, AND NON-PROMOTION IN GRADES 1 TO 6 FOR THE FALL TERM, 1931, CHATHAM COUNTY, " GEORGIA (COLORED)

GRADE

Per Cent of Promotion

Per Cent of Double
Promotion

Per Cent of Special
Promotion

Per Cent of Condi-
tional Promotion

Per Cent of Non-
Promotion

Boys. _

65.6

0.3

2.4

31 .6

I

-Girls

71 .3

0.5

0.5

2.6

25.1

Total-- 68.3

0.5

0.2

2.3

28.5

Boys II -Girls

76.9

3.2

75.7

0.7

2.4

17 .5

6.4

17.0

Total.. 76.4

1 .9

4.5

17 .2

Boys III--. -Girls

71 .2

0.9

77.7

4.1

7.2

20.7

7.4

10.7

Total. _ 74.6

2.6

7.3

15.5

Boys IV -Girls

59.7 55.9

13.4 22.0

16.4

10.4

0.9

7.3

13.8

Total.- 57.4

18.8

5.7

10.8

12.5

Boys

76.1

1 .5

V -Girls ... 81 .1

3.3

14.9

7.5

11 .1

4.4

Total- _ 78.9

2.5

12.7

5.7

Boys VI- . -Girls

86.0 81.3

6.7

6.7

16.7

2.0

Total.- 83.3

12.8

3.8

Boys Total. .Girls

70.5

2.6

6.4

20.5

72.9

4.8

0.3

6.9

15.1

Total.. 71 .8

3.8

0.1

6.7

17.6

130

TABLE XCIX
PER CENT OF FAILURES BY SCHOOLS, GRADE 1 TO 6, SAVANNAH CITY SCHOOLS, FALL TERM, 1931, COLORED

GRADE

School IB 1A 2B 2A 3B 3A 4B 4A SB 5A 6B 6A Total

Cuyler__ 13.3

21 .9 18.2 12.1

14 0

Paulsen 14.9

10.2 25.0 15.2

4.5 7.1 13.2 18.5 15.2 3.6 11.1

Florance 13.9 19.0 16.5 20.0 33.3 14.3 5.8 17.9 16.7 13.9 10.0 12.0 14.8

West
Broad 28.4 15.9 11.7 36.1 12.1 13.6 .... 21.7

3.4 5.0 15.4

Maple

Street 9.5 15.2

14.3

4.5

22.4 10.5

11 .8

East Broad 15.6 10.1 20.9 18.7 30.3 10.8 21.4 10.3 17.9 11.5

12.5 16.8

The facts shown In Tables XCVII, XCVIII, XCIX for colored schools correspond to those shown in Tables LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI for white schools. The comments made ttiere apply with equal force to the situation in the colored schools.

131

CHAPTER VII SECONDARY EDUCATION
SAVANNAH PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Educational Results and Opportunities in the Junior and
Senior High Schools (White) Savannah, Georgia,
1931-1932
Standardized tests were used to measure the educational achievement of the 9A pupils of the Junior High schools. Pupils were tested in Reading, Arithmetic Computation and Reasoning, Spelling, Language usage and Grammar. The test results are reported in Grade Scores. For each subject, the grade standard is given, also the median, the first quartile, the third quartile, and the range.

TABLE C
EDUCATIONAL RESULTS IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS (WHITE)'
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

Grade

Test

Reading
Arithmetic Computation
9A____ Arithmetic Reasoning

Language Grammar

No.

vledian First Third

of Grade for Quar- Quar- Range

Pupils Norm Savan- tile tile

nah

4.2

to

400

9.7

8.2

6.9

9.7 + 9.7 +

4.7

to

400

9.7

7.3

6.6

8.4

9.7 +

4.0

to

400

9.7

7 .8

7.1

8.8

9.7 +

3.7 to 400 9.7 8.5 7.6 9.7 9.7 +

3.0 to .. 400 9.7 9.5 7.8 9.7 9.7 +

7.2 400 9.7 9.7 + 9.7 + 9.7 + 9.7 +

132

TABLE CI
DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES MADE BY PUPILS IN THIRTY-FIFTH STREET JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE 9-A IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA May, 1932

Grade Reading

Arithmetic

Lan- Spelling Total Gram-

guage

mar

9.7 + 9.7 9.5 9.2 9.0 8.7 8.5 8.2 8.0 7 .7 7.5 7 .2 7.0 6.7 6.5 6.2 6.0 5.7 5.5 5 .2 5.0 4.7 45 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.2 3.0
Total. ..
Norm
Median

Comp. Reas.

66

10

10

17

7

12

7

8

14

6

10

6

4

11

17

9

13

13

13

8

13

7

16

18

27

12

24

16

19

14

6

28

28

9

12

11

8

22

9

6

17

12

7

12

12

6

9

7

8

6

6

5

5

2

1

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

231 9.9 8.6

231 9.9 7.7

231 9.9 8.1

104 5
20 8 4 18 3 9 16 3 5 10 4 2 3 1 4 7 1
3
1
231
9.9
9.6

34 8 16 15 18 7 21 18 17 8 12 12 10 5 6 10 6 3 2 1 1
1
231
9.9
8.5

17

170

7

7

16

9

18

18

17

9

10

6

28

3

17

2

19

3

23

2

18

1

14

10

10

4

2

1

231 9.9 8.5

230 9.9 9.7

1st Quartile. 7.6

7.0

7.4

8.2

7.5

7.8

9.7 +

3rd Quartile.
Range

9.7 4
4.7 to 9.7-1

8.7
4.7 to 9.7 4

8.7
4.0 to 9.7 4

9.7 4
4.0 to 9.7 4

9.5
3.7 to 9.7 4

9.2
5.5 to 9.7 4

9.7 +
7.5 to 9.7 +

133

TABLE CII
DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES MADE BY PUPILS IN CHATHAM JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, GRADE 9-A IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

Grade
9.7 + 9.7 9.5 9.2 9.0 8.7 8.5 8.2 8.0 7.7 7.5 7.2 7.0 6.7 6.5 6.2 6.0 5.7 5.5 5.2 5.0 4.7 4.5 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.2 3.0
Total.. _
Norm
Median
1st Quartile.
3rd Quartile.
Range

Reading
40 6 11 6 4 6 4 1
12 3 7 9 10 6 13 6 10 5 1 1 2 2 3 1
169
9.9
8.1
6.6
9.7
4.2 to
9.7 +

Arithmetic

Comp.
8 4 2 6 4 3 5 9 4 15 23 11 16 11 16 15 6 7 2 1 1

Reas.
3 4 11 6 3 7 8 14 25 18 15 10 7 8 15 7 2 1 1 2
1

1

169

169

9.9

9.9

7.4

7.9

6.6

7.1

8.0
5.0 to
9.7 +

8.2
4.0 to 9.7 +

Lan- Spelling Total Gram-

guage

mar

88

60

15

90

5

7

3

7

5

16

8

8

8

6

12

8

10

12

10

5

2

12

13

1

11

15

8

7

18

23

8

10

7

12

6

2

9

15

5

8

7

11

3

4

3

11

5

4

2

4

3

6

6

5

2

2

2

2

3

3

1

1

3

3

2

1

1

169

169

169

168

9.9

9.9

9.9

9.9

9.7 + 9.3

8.4

9.7 +

--

8.0

8.3

7.7

8.6

9.7 +
3.0 to 9.7 +

9.7 +
3.7 to 9.7 +

9.1
6.0 to
9.7 +

9.7 +
7.0 to 9.7 +

13 4

1

TABLE CIII
DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES MADE BY PUPILS IN CITY WHITE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, GRADE 9-A IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS SAVANNAH, GEORGIA--MAY, 1932

Grade Reading

Arith metic

Comp. Reas.

9.7 + 106

18

13

9.7

23

9.5

18

9.2

12

11

16

10

25

16

12

9.0

8

15

20

8.7

15

16

20

8.5

17

13

21

8.2

8

25

32

8.0

39

16

49

7.7

19

34

32

7.5

13

51

43

7.2

18

23

21

7.0

18

38

16

6.7

12

28

20

6.5

20

28

27

6.2

12

24

14

6.0

18

12

8

5.7

10

12

3

5.5

2

5

2

5 .2

2

2

2

5.0

3

2

1

4.7

3

1

1

4.5

3

4.2

1

4.0

2

3.7

3.5

3.2

3.0

Total___ 400

400

400

Norm

9.9

9.9

9.9

Median 8.2

7.3

7.8

1st

Quartile_ 6.9

6.6

7.1

3rd

Quartile_ 9.7 + 8.4

8.8

Range

4.2 to
9.7 +

4.7 to
9.7 +

4.0 to
9.7 +

Lan- Spelling Total Gram-

guage

mar

192

94

32

260

10

15

10

14

25

32

24

17

16

21

30

26

4

28

29

19

23

9

22

19

4

32

43

11

16

36

40

10

26

24

31

9

5

17

38

7

13

19

29

4

14

15

25

4

15

14

2

6

10

16

9

6

9

3

10

4

6

8

3

7

3

4

3

1

1

6

1

3 1 2
1

400

400

400

398

9.9

9.9

9.9

9.9

9.5

8.5

8.1

9.7 +

7.8

7.6

7.5

9.7 +

9.7
3.0 to
9.7 +

9.7
3.7 to
9.7 +

9.0
5.5 to
9.7 +

9.7 +
7.2 to
9.7 +

135

The educational results obtained from the 9A pupils of the Savannah Junior High Schools, as measured by standard tests, as a whole, are below the grade standard. The Junior High schools appear to obtain their best results in formal English Grammar. The median
score in this subject is above the grade standard. These schools appear to obtain their poorest results in Arithmetic Computation and Reasoning.

Upon investigation it is found that the practices in pupil failures in the Savannah High School are not so far out of line with those of Fort Worth, Texas; Nashville, Tennessee, and other cities. Regardless of this fact, should the following discrepancies in pupil failures in the Savannah High School be passed unnoticed?

The per cent of failures in the subjects in the Senior High school is given in Table No. CIV. Subject failures range from zero in Home Economics, to 31 per cent in French. According to the Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, the number of subject failures in the high school should rarely exceed ten per cent. The failures in academic subjects range from 11.4 per cent in history, to 31.8 per cent in French.

There are six teachers of Mathematics. The per cent of pupil failures for each teacher is as follows:

Teacher No. 1 Teacher No. 2 Teacher No. 3 Teacher No. 4 Teacher No. 5 Teacher No. 6

10. per cent 17.2 per cent 22.7 per cent 23.6 per cent 39.7 per cent 47.6 per cent

Since there is no ability grouping of students is this wide variation of pupil failures in the classes of these six teachers justifiable?

The same condition is found with the English teachers. The range of pupil failures is from 21.3 per cent to 40 per cent.

Teacher No. 1 Teacher No. 2 Teacher No. 3 Teacher No. 4 Teacher No. 5 Teacher No. 6

21.3 per cent 22.4 per cent 23.3 per cent 24. per cent 28.3 per cent 40. per cent

In French, sixty-four were enrolled during the first semester. Thirty failed. In the fourth semester, nine were enrolled with no failures. In Spanish, there were, during the first semester, failures amounting

136

TABLE CIV NUMBER OF STUDENTS REGISTERED BY SUBJECTS,
NUMBER AND PER CENT DROPPED AND FAILED
IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

SUBJECT
Mathematics
Latin Chemistry
Shop Mechanical
Drawing Domestic
Science _ Drawing
Physical Education
Commerical

Number Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Registered Dropped Dropped Failed Failed

817 1297
779

75 120 51

9 9.2 6.5

200 345
89

24.4 26.6 11 .4

129 142 249

3

2.3

8

5 .6

11

4.4

41

31 .8

40

28.1

57

22.9

91 99 166 104

5

5 .4

6

6

25

15

3

2.8

17

19.8

18

19.3

31

22

6

5 .9

328

12

3.6

34

10.3

118

4

3.3

274

21

7 .6

284

12

4.2

7

2.8

5

1 .6

327 1258

27

8.2

147

11 .6

5 230

1 .1 18.2

TABLE CV
NUMBER OF STUDENTS REGISTERED BY SUBJECTS, NUMBER AND PER CENT FAILED IN THE CHATHAM JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

SUBJECT
Mathematics English History French Spanish Latin Science Civics Geography Hygiene Spelling Manual
Training Domestic Science __ Drawing Music Commerical

Number Registered
937 L084 536 171 218 130 355 270 485 380
287
284 257 718 880 337
137

Number Failed
119 186
55 25 19 13 24 38 84 77 19
15 52 26 82 42

Per Cent Failed
12.7 17.2 10.7 14.6
8.7 10.0
6.8 14.1 17.3 20.3 6.6
5 .3 20.2
3.6 9.3 12.5

TABLE CVI
NUMBER OF STUDENTS REGISTERED BY SUBJECTS, NUMBER AND PER CENT FAILED IN THE 35TH STREET JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

SUBJECT
Mathematics English History French Spanish Latin Science Civics Geography Hygiene Spelling Manual Training Domestic Science Drawing Music Commerical

Number Registered
1104 1519 701 219 230 310 662 434 431 398 821 365 297 431 1116 486

Number Failed
193 276
99 44 22 30 63 72 22 75 35 15 28 40 34 29

Per Cent Failed
17.5 18.2 14.1 22.1 9.6 9.7 9.5 16.6 5.1 18.8 4.3 4.1 9.4 9.3 3.0 6.0

to 25 per cent, 42.8 per cent In the second semester, and 12.5 per cent in the fourth semester. Can this be justified?
Ninety-nine pupils registered for Chemistry. Ninety-nine registered for Physics. In this day of great interest in scientific developments, why is there such a small number enrolled in these two sciences?
Tables Nos. CV and CVI give the pupil failures of the two white Junior high schools. The per cent of subject failures in these two schools is, on the whole, normal. Attention is called to the high per cent of failures in Home Economics and Hygiene in one school and in Hygiene in the other. Referring to Table No. CIV it will be found that there are no failures in Home Economics in the Senior High school. Why is there such a difference in the per cent of failures in Home Economics in the Junior and Senior high schools?
Tables No. CVII, CVIII and CIX show the grade progress of the pupils in the Junior and Senior high schools (white). It is the duty of the school to provide equipment and a curriculum so adjusted as to make it possible for a large per cent of the pupils to progress normally. That is, to make a grade each year.
On observing these tables it will be found that a large per cent of the pupils in the Senior high school is either accelerated or retarded. There is an average of less than forty per cent making normal
138

progress. The per cent making slow progress in the Junior high school is very large. The per cent making slow progress in the Senior high school is much lower than that in the Junior high school. This must be due to the fact that a large number of those who make slow progress in the Junior high school never enter the Senior high school. The reason for the large percentage of acceleration and retardation in the high school may be due to several causes, namely, weak promotion practices, unadjusted curriculum, and poor methods of teaching.
TABLE CVII PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS
NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN CHATHAM SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE
10B 10A 11B 11A 12B 12A

Rapid Progress
44.3 34.6 29 20.2 36 27.7

Normal Progress
23.4 34.1 42 48.3 32 42.5

Slow Progress
32 .3 31 .3
31 .5 32 27 .8

TABLE CVIII PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS
NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN 35TH STREET JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE
7B 7A 8B 8A 9B 9A

Rapid Progress
23.9 9.2 13.7 12.1 28.3 19

Normal Progress
28.3 52.1 23.4 50 20.3 43

Slow Progress
47 .8 38 .7 62 .9 37 .9 51 .4 38

139

TABLE CIX
PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN CHATHAM JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE
7B 7A 8B 8A 9B 9A

Rapid Progress
.9 6.3 12.7 20 16.1 37

Normal Progress
37.2 50.2 18.5 39.4 27.4 43.1

Slow Progress
53.8 43.5 68.8 40.6 56.5 19.9

TABLE CX
CAUSES OF FAILURES AS GIVEN BY TEACHERS AND THE PER CENT OF TOTAL FAILURES DUE TO EACH CAUSE IN GRADES 7-9 OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS (WHITE), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

CAUSES OF FAILURES

Low Mental Ability

-_-_-;.-_

Irregular Attendance _

-_

Disciplinary Difficulties _

Per Cent of Pupils failed for each cause

12.6

49.7

--

7.5

2.2

.4

17 .8

--

.9

1 .1

7.8

Table No. CX gives the cause of failures with the per cent of pupils failed for each cause. In the Senior high school: Lack of Study and Interest, 30.4 per cent, and Weakness in Specific School subjects, 32.9 per cent. In the Junior high school, the per cent of pupils failing for the same cause is 49.7 per cent and 17.8 per cent, respectively. It is the specific duty of the school to stimulate an interest in the pupils to do their work. If a child has the capacity to do, the school
140

TABLE CXI
PER CENT OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVER AGE IN SAVANNAH SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS (WHITE), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA 1931-1932

GRADE Under Age

10B 23.8 46 35.2

10A 25.4 43 .2 31 .4

11B 24.2 53 22.8

11A 19.4 57.6 23

12B 20.7 45 34.2

12A Total

29.9 24

49

47

23.1 29

TABLE CXII
PER CENT OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVER AGE IN THE SAVANNAH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS (WHITE), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA 1931-1932

GRADE Under Age

7B 7A 8B 8A 9B 9.8 9.1 17.2 17.1 19 63 54.7 48.2 48 .2 52 27.2 36.2 34.6 34.7 29

9A Total 25 .9 15 42 .2 54 31 .9 31

should provide an environment that will be conducive to the best work in each subject. The school should reduce these causes for failure to a minimum.
Tables No. CXI and CXII show the age-grade of the pupils in the Junior and Senior high schools (white). Forty-seven per cent of the pupils in the Senior high school is of normal age. In the Junior high school fifty-four per cent is of normal age. About one-half the children of the Savannah high schools is of normal age. Can this be justified?

141

TABLE CXIII
PER CENT OF PROMOTIONS, DOUBLE PROMOTIONS, SPECIAL PROMOTIONS, CONDITIONAL PROMOTION, AND NON-PROMOTIONS IN THE CHATHAM JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

Per Cent of Promotions

Per Cent of Double
Promotions

Per Cent of Special
Promotions

Pre Cent of Condi-
tional Promotions

Per Cent of Non-
Promotions

Boys _ . 60.7

12.1

7-B___Girls

72.1

16.3

11 .4

15 8

6.4

52

Total.. 67.0

14.4

8.7

99

Boys 7-A__.Girls

52.7 79.2

23.6 11 .3

23 6 94

Total. _ 65 .7

17.6

16 7

Boys _ . 8-B... Girls

57.3 66.7

26.5

16 2

21 .3

12

Total-- 62.5

23.7

13.8

Boys 8-A._ -Girls

51 .2

2.4

67.5

24.4

22

22.5

10

Total.. 59.2

1 .7

23.4

16

Boys 9-B__ -Girls

52.1 69.6

35.6

12 3

22.5

78

Total. . 61.7

28.4

99

Boys . 9-A__.Girls

45.6 69.2

39.1

15 2

21 .8

9

Total.. 60.5

28 2

11 3

Bovs Girls
Total..

GRAND TOTAL

55.2

4.3

70.7

5.4

63.7

4.9

23.7 15.7
19.3

16.8 81
12

142

TABLE CXIV
PER CENT OF PROMOTIONS, DOUBLE PROMOTIONS, SPECIAL PROMOTIONS, CONDITIONAL PROMOTIONS, AND NON-PROMOTIONS IN THE 35TH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

Per Cent of Promotions

Per Cent of Double
Promotions

Per Cent

Per Cent of Condi-

of Special tional

Pro-

Pro-

motions motions

Per Cent of Non-
Promotions

Boys_7-B--_Girls

83 87.6

1 .8

.9

14.2

4.9

1 .2

6.2

Total

85

3.1

1

10.9

Boys 7-A .. Girls

66

7

1

61 .5

21 .3

7

19

9

8.2

Total. _ 63.5

14.8

.5

8.1

13.1

Boys

56.1

8-B Girls

73.1

.1

9.2

34

8

18.8

Total-- 66.1

.4

8.5

25

8-A---Girls.

60 80.6

2.3

16.5

21 .2

7.7

11.7

Total. . 71.3

.1

11 .7

16

Boys

65.5

9-B- Girls

73.1

16.5

19

13.1

13.8

Total

69.5

14.2

16.3

Boys 9-A._-Girls

48.8 56.5

20.4 20.6

30.1 22.8

Total

52.7

20.5

26.6

Boys Girls
Total.

GRAND TOTAL

64.2

1 .1

71 .6

3.9

68.1

2.6

11.2

22.5

10.1

13.8

10.6

17.9

143

Libraries and Laboratories
More emphasis is being placed upon the value of the high school library today than ever before in the history of the high school. The Southern Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges has set up definite standards for the library. The Georgia High School Accrediting Commission, each year, is placing more and more emphasis upon the development and administration of the library. The library should be the laboratory of the school. If the daily instruction in the Savannah high schools is to be more than a text-book grind, adequate library facilities must be in every school.
There is an excellent library located in the Senior high school building. It is under the direction of a trained librarian. The books are catalogued and classified in a scientific way. The books and magazines have been well selected. The library is functioning well, but it cannot accommodate the large number of high school students, nor does it meet the requirements of the Southern Association. The Chatham Junior High School has a library, but it is not under the supervision of a trained librarian. The room in which the books are kept is too small to serve the seven hundred or more pupils in this school. Thirty-fifth Street Junior High School has no library at all. It is located near the public library. The public library renders excellent service to the students of the Thirty-fifth Street High School, but there is a real need for a library in the building, consisting of reference books and supplementary material for all departments.
The Science laboratories for Physics and Chemistry in the Chatham Senior High School are well equipped for those who elect these subjects. The Biology laboratory is poorly equipped. In fact, it cannot be said that there is a Biology laboratory. The small amount of equipment is cared for in a regular classroom where the laboratory work is done by the instructor with the help of a group of students. In the Junior high schools (white) the General Science laboratory equipment is even more meager than that of the Biology laboratory in the Senior high school.
The Home Economics departments in the Chatham Junior and Senior high schools are inadequately equipped to meet the needs of the large number of girls enrolled in these departments. The work is greatly handicapped because of a lack of floor space. Thirty-fifth Street School is well equipped for Home Economics. The management of the cafeteria in all three white high schools is superior in spite of the fact that the floor space is meager and the number served is large.
The shops for Manual Training have excellent equipment as far as it goes. In every school the floor space of the shops is too small to accommodate, in an efficient way, the large number of pupils electing this course.
144

Study Halls Study halls seem to be necessary evils in many schools. It is difficult to eliminate all the disadvantages of a study hall. Although the two study halls in the Junior high schools of Savannah are under the supervision of excellent directors, the situation is far from satisfactory. The present study halls provide no advantages to the pupils except to give them a place to sit when not in class. Chatham Senior High School has a more satisfactory way of handling the study hall problem. The study hall is adjacent to the library. Pupils are allowed to leave the study hall, go to the library, secure books for supplementary work, and return to the study hall.
During recent years there has been a definite tendency throughout the country to lengthen the high school recitation period to sixty minutes. "The advantages of the sixty-minute period are numerous. Among these are the following:
1. It provides time for directed study during the class period. 2. It affords more time for students to study during school hours.
3. Study hall evils are reduced. 4. It obviates double periods, thereby making the problem of
scheduling much simpler. 5. Class and laboratory work can be more closely associated.
6. It lessens failure.*
Extra Curricular Activities
The extra curricular activities are regarded as essentials to an acceptable secondary school program. The student council program In the two white Junior high schools is doing a good work. Care should be taken in the supervision of this program in order to hold the respect of the student body for such a program. "The Blue and White," the Senior high school paper, is an excellent publication. It contributes much to the general morale of the school. The various clubs in the Junior and Senior high schools have excellent objectives in the by-laws and constitutions. The efficiency of the clubs depends upon the interest and effort of the faculty supervisors. Some are functioning well. Others are not. The athletic program of the Chatham Senior High School is carried on upon a high plane of sportsmanship. Students participating in the athletic program are required to meet every requirement of the State High School Association Standards.
Survey Report Public Schools of Nashville.
145

Results and Opportunities in Cuyler Junior and Senior High Schools (Negro) Savannah, Georgia,
1931-1932
The same tests were given the 3A pupils of Cuyler Junior High School that were given the 3A pupils of Thirty-fifth Street Junior High and Chatham Junior High Schools. The results are recorded in Table CXV. The median in all subjects ranges from five years and seven months to seven years and seven months. The highest median is two years below the Grade Norm. Tables No. CXVI and CXVII give Age Grade, Grade Progress, Causes of Failures, and Promotions. In observing these tables it will be found that more than one-half the pupils are over age. Retardation is very great. Can this be overcome to any extent?
The Science laboratories of the Cuyler high schools are meagerly equipped. There are no separate rooms for laboratory work. All
TABLE CXV
NEGRO

Grade

Test

Median First Third
No. of Grade for Quar- Quar- Range Pupils Norm Savannah tile tile

Reading

115 9.7 6.2

Arithmetic

Computation 115 9.7 5.7

9A____ Arithmetic Reasoning

115 9.7 6.4

Spelling

115 9.7 7.7

Language Usage

115 9.7 6.1

Grammar

115 9.7 7.7

4.5 7.6 3 .0-9 .7 +
5 .2 7.0 3 .0-9 .7 +
5 .5 3.1 3 .0-9 .5 7.1 9.6 5.0-9.7 +
5.1 7.7 3 .0-9 .7 + 7 .2 8.6 5.0-9.7 +

TABLE CXVI
PER CENT OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVER AGE IN SAVANNAH SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

10B 10A UB 11A 12B 12A Total

Under Age

7.4 12 7.3 9.4 15

5 8.7

48.5 48 43 .9 46.9 55 65 49.5

44.1 40 48.8 43.7 30 30 41 .8

146

TABLE CXVII
PER CENT OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE AND OVER AGE IN THE CUYLER JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA 1931-1932

GRADE

7B 7A 8B 8A 9B 9A Total

4.2 7.1 6.3 3

9 9.1 6.2

Normal Age

24.2 27.3 37.1 18.2 44 32.3 30

Over Age

71 .6 65 .6 56.6 78.8 47 58.5 63.8

TABLE CXVIII PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS,
NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN CUYLER JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

Rapid Progress

Normal Progress

Slow Progress

7B

2.5

23.8

73.7

7A

.9

33.6

65.5

8B

2 .5

14.7

82.8

8A

------

4.2

47 .2

48.6

9B

7.3

30.9

61.8

9A

20.8

54.2

25

TABLE CXIX
PER CENT OF PUPILS MAKING RAPID PROGRESS, NORMAL PROGRESS, AND SLOW PROGRESS IN CUYLER SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

Rapid Progress

10B

.

--

20

10A

- -_ _ --

1 .4

11B

- _ --

13

HA

9.5

12B

12A

-

_. - _

86.7

Normal Progress
53.8 52.9 26.1 66.7 40 10

Slow Progress
26.2 45 .7 60.9 23.8 60
1 .3

147

TABLE CXX
CAUSES OF FAILURE AS GIVEN BY TEACHERS AND THE PER CENT OF TOTAL FAILURES DUE TO EACH CAUSE IN GRADES 7-9 OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

CAUSES OF FAILURES
Low Mental Ability _ . Lack of Study and Interest _ .. Irregular Attendance 111 Health-Physical Handicap . Immaturity Weakness in Specific School Subjects Disciplinary Difficulties Home Environment Other and Unassigned Reasons,

Per Cent of Pupils failed for each cause
11 .4 29 1 14.4
37
36.9
4 41

equipment Is installed in classrooms. The Manual Training shops and the Home Economics departments are not large enough to take care of work so much needed in these departments. Libraries in these schools are conspicuous by their absence. A definite effort should be made to have the Cuyler Senior High School accredited.

148

TABLE CXXI
PER CENT OF PROMOTIONS, DOUBLE PROMOTIONS, SPECIAL PROMOTIONS, CONDITIONAL PROMOTIONS, AND NON-PROMOTIONS IN THE CUYLER SR. HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

GRADE

Per Cent

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent of Condi-

of Pro- of Double of Special tional

motions Pro-

Pro-

Pro-

motions motions motions

Per Cent of Non-
Promotions

Boys 10-B .Girls

55.6 72.6

44.4

23.5

39

Total. . 68.1

29

29

Boys

75

10-A__Girls

83.3

25

5.6

11 1

Total. . 80.7

11 .5

77

Boys _ .. 83.3

11-B Girls

81 .3

16 6

3.1

15 6

Total. . 82

2

16

Boys .

100

11-A--Girls

100

Total. _ 100

Boys

72.7

27.3

12-B-Girls

89.5

10.5

Total. _ 83.3

16.7

Boys

85.7

14.3

12-A.-Girls

100

Total. _ 94.7

5.3

Boys Girls
Total

GRAND TOTAL
75.4 82.5 80.4

18.8

58

11

62

13.5

61

149

TABLE CXXII
PER CENT OF PROMOTIONS, DOUBLE PROMOTIONS, SPECIAL PROMOTIONS, CONDITIONAL PROMOTIONS, AND NON-PROMOTIONS IN THE CUYLER JR. HIGH SCHOOL (COLORED), SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, 1931-1932

Grade

Per Cent of Promotions

Per Cent

Per Cent Per Cent of Condi-

of Double of Special tional

Pro-

Pro-

Pro-

motions motions motions

Per Cent of Non-
Promotions

Boys 7-B Girls - -

81 80.8

4.7

14.3

6.1

13 .1

Total __ 80.8

5 .5

13 .6

Boys 7-A ..Girls .. _

50 19.7

60.5

15

35

8.6

11 .1

Total.

25.7

48.5

10

15 .8

8-B...Girls

68.7 93.5

18.8

12 .5

6.5

Total.. 85.1

6.4

8.5

8-A . Girls-- .

80.5 75 .3

2.4

9.7

7 .3

10.9

13.7

Total

77.2

.9

10.5

11 .4

Boys 9-B._.Girls ...

60.6 9.4

27.3 60.4

3

9.1

20.8

9.4

Total . 29.1

47.7

13.9

9.3

95.2

4.8

9-A . Girls

96.6

3.4

Total . 95.2

4

Boys _ Girls... .
Total..

GRAND TOTAL

75.4

3.6

.4

66.5

16.6

69.5

12.3

.1

7.9

12.7

7.6

9.2

7.7

10.4

150

CHAPTER VIII
SCHOOL BUILDINGS
White
The partial survey by the State School Building Division ot Georgia of the public school plants of Savannah and Chatham County, Georgia, is unusual in that it gives a report only on the present status of the schools and suggestions for the improvement of the present plants. This type of report met with the wishes of the Building Division as the limited personnel could not carry on its regular statewide building service and attempt a complete survey including such matters as population growth and tendencies, school organization, school population, school building status, future school building needs, financial policy, and so on. Throughout this discussion school plant is always taken to mean the complete school building, school site, and instructional equipment provided for publicly maintained schools of the county.
We are attempting to answer the questions as to how tie present school plant compares with others over the nation of a similar size, and in those cases where the school plant doesn't measure up to or above standard, what inexpensive forward-looking changes can be made to more efficiently and economically serve the Chatham County children. The County Board of Education realizes there are some very unsatisfactory conditions which must be relieved and desires to correct these conditions as expeditiously as possible and in a given direction so that the ultimate plant will best serve, but they also realize that very little money can be spared for such progress for the time being without seriously hampering their instructional and administrative program.
Present School Plant Status
Since the utimate school plant depends to a considerable extent upon the present plant it is very important to know the conditions of the existing plant. The ultimate plant aside from the financing of it would be better off sometimes without any usable buildings. Practical considerations demand that a balance be struck between the present plant and the ultimate plant. Many times it is necessary to retain in the immediate plans for the ultimate plant some buildings which are in poor condition but because of the location of the site and general adequacy they will fit into the present and ultimate program.
A school plant must be considered from at least three standpoints to enable one to evaluate it properly and the following factors were kept in mind in studying the Chatham County plants:
151

The buildings must be fireproof or be built so that it may be emptied promptly. The buildings must be well heated, ventilated, provided with ample sanitary features, and be well lighted.
The buildings must not be more expensive than the citizens of a system can well finance. Economy can be practiced by having the program planned and supervised by experienced, practical schoolhouse consultants. Money can be saved the taxpayers in planning a building many times by being well planned from a structural as well as educational point of view, and satisfactorily located with respect to the needs of a system.
The last but not least important factor is that the building should fit into the present educational program and by all means be elastically planned so it may be altered to fit a constantly changing curriculum without the expenditure of much money.
Evaluation of Present Plant
How adequately these children were housed was determined as nearly as possible by objective means. The most accepted objective instrument is the score card when it is in the hands of scorers who understand the bases for standards and who have had experience in judging how nearly the parts of a school measure as compared with the generally accepted standard. The score cards used by the survey staff for this system were those developed by Strayer-Engelhardt. We used four different forms. They are as follows: The score card for high school, score card for junior high school, score card for elementary schools, and the one for rural schools.
Each school was scored by either three or four experienced scorers and the average score was accepted as the final score for a school plant.
The card for elementary buildings, as one may see from printed specimen, is divided into five major divisions, (a) the site, including such items as location, drainage, size, and form; (b) the construction and a general plan for the plant; (c) the service system with such items as electric service, heating, fire protection and sanitary features; (d) the location, construction, equipment and convenience of the classrooms; (e) the essential but special rooms which make the plant more efficient.
Facilities for All White Children
The Chatham County system enrolled 9,620 white children in its system for the session of 1931-32. The pupils were enrolled in 24 schools in different parts of the county.
In considering whether these children were satisfactorily housed we contend that each child is entitled to a seat in a comfortable
152

TABLE CXXIII

CLASSROOM FACILITIES FOR WHITE ELEMENTARY, JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

CHILDREN, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

=====

SCHOOL
Abercorn Anderson Barnard 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue 35th Street Jr Chatham Jr. High_ Chatham Sr. High_
Total

DIVISION 1 Distribution of Pupils

1-6

7-9

10-12

Total

1-12

279

279

480

480

505

505

663

137

800

667

667

242

242

340

340

548

548

628

628

1001

1001

1066

1066

725

725

1227

1227

5353

1928

1227

8508

DIVISION II

DIVISION III

Pupils on half day

All Rooms Planned Classrooms reasonFor Classroom use ably Satisfactory

Session Total
Capacity

Seat Deficit

Satisfactory Capacity

Total Seat Deficit

320 520 520 960 640 400 400 480 640 1080 940 940 1440
9280

279

520

520

960

27

640

27

242

340

68

480

68

640

1080

126

940

126

940

1440

221

8160

1082

TABLE CXXIV
CLASSROOM FACILITIES FOR WHITE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN, CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL
* Bethel
Montgomery __ Thunderbolt White Bluff
Total

DIVISION 1

DIVISION II

DIVISION III

All Rooms Planned Classrooms reason-

Distribution of Pupils

Pupils on For Classroom use ably Satisfactory

half day

Session Total

Seat

Satis-

Total

1-6

7-9

10-12

Total

Capacity Deficit factory Seat

1-12

Capacity Deficit

_-

56

58

21

83

110

74

106

143

209

163

61

28

56

80

79

46

120

83

80

110

160

74

80

106

120

143

160

209

240

163

160

61

120

28

40

80

120

3

80

3

160

80

120

143

240

3

160

3

120

40

1091

21

1112

46

1360

6

1200

149

TABLE CXXV

cirnRFl OF MAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, SCHOOL PLANTS FOR WHITE

SSAIMEA^

STANDARDS AND SCORE CARD

Site

Building

Service Systems

Classrooms

Special Rooms

Total

High and Elementary City SchoolsPerfect Score
Chatham Sr. High Chatham Jr. High 35th Street Jr. High Abercorn Anderson Barnard 49th Street Henry Massie Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street Waters Avenue (Primary) Waters Avenue (Elementary) --
Rural Schools--Perfect Score.
Bethel Bethesda Bloomingdale Fell Avenue Isle of Hope Montgomery Pooler Port Wentworth Thunderbolt Tybee White Bluff

125

165

280

290

140

1000

43

115

133

93

47

110

137

98

52

142

185

117

51

32

72

109

69

123

142

202

75

131

142

196

93

150

162

242

82

117

133

206

58

55

105

118

60

58

97

131

94

125

138

215

88

131

144

216

86

120

139

236

90

125

136

207

72

456

41

433

87

583

4

268

36

572

42

586

56

703

58

596

36

372

16

362

52

624

43

622

54

635

50

608

160

200

250

225

165

1000

122

103

139

174

136

88

81

119

94

115

151

179

111

130

153

148

129

106

151

153

119

149

174

175

99

57

104

116

130

163

188

188

113

112

162

181

139

137

167

166

104

92

150

150

11

549

3

427

9

548

24

566

9

548

12

629

6

382

23

692

14

582

33

642

22

518

hygienic building for a full school day. In order to estimate the seating needs we accepted the standard that a classroom may satisfactorily house 40 children if it has 15 square feet of floor area per child and the school plant in which it is located scores above four hundred based on one thousand as a perfect score.
From Tables CXXIII and CXXIV, column one, Division II, one may see that all classrooms, irrespective of fitness, have a seating capacity of 10,640 children. From the same table one may see that there is a total deficit of satisfactory seats of 1,231. In some buildings there is a surplus of seats and in others there is a deficit. This matter should be adjusted.
Some of the pupils are taught in corridors where it is impossible to heat or light the rooms satisfactorily.
Rating of All White Plants
The rating for these schools is found in Table No. CXXV. This table shows how the school plant scores in each of the five major divisions and then gives the total score. You will note how the schools score as compared with the perfect score shown at the beginning of the table.
A plant Which scores from 700 to 1,000 is considered good A plant scoring under 700 and down to 400 is considered satisfactory Such a building, however, has some faults which should be corrected so the building will serve its needs more adequately. A plant which scores under 400 and down to 300 is unsatisfactory. Such a plant should have little money spent on it. It is usually more economical in the long run to replace such a plant and should have only minor changes made in it. When a building scores under 300 it is lacking in too many features to be worthy of altering and is unusable. Children attending school in a plant which scores below 300 are definitely handicapped by their surroundings.
A study of the scores will show that out of the 24 white schools in Chatham County one should be considered unusable as it scores below 300; 3 of the schools score between 300 and 400 and should be abandoned at an early date; 20 of the plants are very satisfactory, having scores above 400 and under 700. One plant scores over 700 and is very good. If this building had an auditorium, gymnasium, and a few other similar items it would virtually have a perfect score.
In order that one may more readily see wherein the buildings are lacking the scores by major divisions are graphically presented in Chart No. 63.
156

CHART NO. 63 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SCHOOL PLANT SCORES
(White Schools)

Chatham Sr. High

Site IV]

Build-
ing

Service Systems

Class- Special rooms Booms

Total

Chatham Jr. High

^

35th Street Jr. High Abercorn

Z7\

n

Anderson



Barnard 49th Street



Henry

|%|



D



Massie

Montgomery

38th Street 37th Street



Waters Avenue (Prim.) Waters Avenue (Elem.)

^^

D



An analysis and discussion of the scores by the major divisions of the score card follows:
Sites
It is not only necessary that the site of a school be ample in size, but it should be accessible to the students, be in a good environment, be well drained, and have a satisfactory form. In considering the score for the sites one important factor must be seriously considered and that is the size. The size is particularly important in a city school system as the children in many instances live in apartments and have very limited opportunities for play. A good many school sites are small because when district boundary lines are established
157

CHART NO. 63--(Con't.) GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SCHOOL PLANT SCORES
(White Schools)

Bethel Bethesda Bloomingdale

Site


Building

Service Systems

Class-
rooms

Special Rooms

Total

P

n

Fell Avenue

Isle of Hope Montgomery (Rural)



Pooler Port Wentworth Thunderbolt

m

Mu

Tybee

White Bluff

70-100 Per Cent \_

40^69 Per Cent

SO- 39 Per Cent

0-S9 Per Cent

Legend: The white spaces are for characteristics scored good; the
crosshatched spaces for characteristics scored fair; the spaces with crosses for characteristics scored unsatisfactory; and the black spaces
are for characteristics scored unusable.

the people naturally conclude that the building should be located in the exact center of it. Rarely has the thought of the location from the needs of health, playgrounds and opportunities for beautiflcation been the chief consideration. A good walk furnishes exercise that is helpful to students and will help resist ordinary exposure. The site should include at least 200 square feet per child in every-day attendance in the elementary schools, and Junior and Senior high schools should
have a minimum of ten acres for each 1,000 pupils.

158

TABLE CXXVI
SQUARE FEET OF SITE AREA PER WHITE PUPIL ENROLLED (STANDARD: 200 SQUARE FEET PER PUPIL TO BE ENROLLED)1. SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

Square Feet of Site Area

Abercorn Anderson.. Barnard 49th Street. .. .. _ _ Henry Massie. Montgomery 38th Street 37th Street..

35th Street

-

Chatham Sr. High

\

Chatham Jr. High.

/

4,800 26,093 18,000 67 ,800 30,000 12 ,000
5,400 28,214 27,531 28,800 44,184
64,236

Should Be
55,800 96 ,000 101 ,000 160,000 133,400 48,400 68 ,000 109,600 125 ,600 200,200 213,200
390,400

Per Cent of Site Area Owned to
What Board Should Own
9% 27% 18% 42% 22% 24%
8% 26% 22% 14% 21%
16%

TABLE CXXVII
SQUARE FEET OF SITE AREA PER WHITE PUPIL ENROLLED (STANDARD: 200 SQUARE FEET PER PUPIL TO BE ENROLLED). CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

Bethel Bethesda Bloomingdale
Isle of Hope Montgomery Pooler Port Wentworth Thunderbolt Tybee White Bluff

Square Feet of Site Area
44,000 44,000 15 ,000 66 ,000 138,000 59 ,000 44,000 55 ,000 29,300 60,000 20,240

Should Be
11 ,200 15,800 16,600 22 ,000 14,800 21 ,200 28,600 41 ,800 32 ,600 12,200 5,600

Per Cent of Site Area Owned to
What Board Should Own
303% 277%
90% 300% 939% 278% 154% 132%
90% 492% 361%

159

Prom Table No. CXXVI one can see that not a single city school in the system has anything like the area it should have in order to contribute its part to the efficient perfect school plant. Chatham's city schools are definitely handicapped by entirely inadequate area for school sites. The environment in many instances is also detrimental. In some cases the plants have no area not occupied by the buildings and are completely surrounded by other property. It is true that in several instances small city parks are available, which helps very little because of safety hazards, and their area added to school sites in most instances would still give only 100 square feet per child. On the other hand all of the county schools, with one exception, own at least the minimum size site. The soil in all cases is well adapted for school sites, and in most cases is well drained. The small sites are one of the tragic parts of the school system. Especially is this true in the Junior and Senior high schools.
Buildings
The American Institute of Architects for construction purposes has classed all buildings under one of the five following heads:
A. A building constructed entirely of fire-resistive materials, including roof, windows, doors, floors and finish.
B. A building of fire-resistive construction in walls, floors, stairways and ceiling, but with wood finish, wood or composition floor surface, and wood roof construction over fire-resistive ceiling.
C. A building with masonry walls, fire-resistive corridors and stairways, but with ordinary construction otherwise; that is, combustible floors, partitions, roofs, and finish.
D. A builing with masonry walls, but otherwise ordinary or joist construction and wood finish.
E. A frame building constructed with wood above foundation, with or without slate or other semi-fireproof material on roof.
Counting Waters Avenue as two separate buildings, there are twenty-five white plants exclusive of a few temporary structures. None of the school plants are classed as "A" construction. Two of the system's plants are of "B" construction. Fourteen are of class "D" construction. Nine are of class "E" construction. All future one-story buildings should be at least "D" construction; all buildings of two stories at least "C," and all buildings more than two stories in height at least "B" construction.
One reason for the low score of several of the buildings is that they are of class "E" construction. Many of the "E" class buildings are in good shape. The county "E" class buildings are unusually well kept and the Board should be commended highly for keeping them in a
160

good state of repair. The stairways of several city bulidings are insufficient and in some cases have winding stairs. To make matters worse some of these winders do not open directly to exits. In a few buildings combustible materials were stored under the stairs in a small closet. With two or three exceptions, all of the two-story buildings have wooden stairways which create a definite fire hazard. In some of the older buildings the stairways and halls take up too much square footage because of poor planning by the architects. The stairs and corridors should not occupy over twenty per cent of the floor area of a schoolhouse.i Several Chatham County plants exceed this figure from two to eight per cent. The panic bolts in some of the two-story buildings are not in good working order. If a fire were to occur in such a plant there is grave danger of a panic. As a rule more are hurt by panics than by fire.
The orientation of most of the buildings, according to present knowledge, is bad. School buildings should be so orientated that they may receive classroom light from the east or west. Orientation--"In the latitude of our country it is essential, if we hope to light the school rooms properly, to open as many as possible of the windows toward the east or west. The east light is usually best, the south is most trying and troublesome, the west is good, and north is to be used only for those rooms designed for art work, in its various forms."2 The National Council on Schoolhouse Construction and most schoolhouse consultants have the same opinion as Dr. Dresslar.
A few schools had basements that collected water in rainy spells. A county as level at Chatham creates a real problem when basements are necessary. The water in basements can be controlled by running farm drain tile around the building. The tile should be lower than the basement and should drain into a pit or low point. An automatic pump can be installed to pump out the water from basements. Another method of control is to treat the mortar in foundation wall and also paint the outside of the foundation with a good waterproofing material. A wet basement will rot the timbers in a building and make the air in the classrooms bad.
Service System
The kind of heating plant, its installation, air supply, humidity and temperature control account for eighty points in the elementary school standards. The Chatham County schools for white children as a rule have steam plants for their method of heating and this is a good method of heating. The system did not score better because there is little or no attempt made to control air circulation, humidity or individual classroom temperature.
The steam radiators could be provided with shields and this would
1. National Education Association Report on Schoolhouse Planning. 2. School Hygiene--By F. B. Dresslar.
161

distribute the heat over the rooms much better and keep those children close to radiators from getting too hot. All buildings could be provided with gravity exhaust ducts running through the roof or have installed water fan exhausts.
The installation of breeze windows will aid in circulating air during hot weather. All buildings should also have window deflectors to aid in receiving fresh air in winter without creating drafts on the children close to the windows. Virtually none of the classrooms at present are equipped with window deflectors. They may be made of wood or glass and are very inexpensive. It has been determined that 2,000 cubic feet of fresh air is needed every hour by elementary school children. Of course, they will not perish if they get less, but they cannot do their work easily and affectively, without fatigue and lassitude, unless they are furnished with this amount.
The fire protecting system of a plant accounts for sixty-five points of its score. The city white schools scored well, but the rural schools need better protection. Very few city schools have fireproof basements. All future basements should be fireproof. The cost of such protection is negligible.
The cleaning system is inadequate and should be modernized. Janitors in only a few cases have adequate tools or space where they might do minor repairs.
The electric service is very limited. A total score for such service is only fifteen points. The use of too much of this service in small systems is a debatable question in the minds of many school authorities. A radio system is highly desirable but expensive.
The distribution of artificial illumination for night work and dark winter days is very bad in most cases. This should be corrected in some of the older buildings where the glass area per classroom is inadequate.
The water supply system needs improving. Drinking fountains are not adequate in most schools. The lavatory equipment for washing hands, face and drying them is very meager in proportion to needs and in many cases the toilets are located in poorly lighted and ventilated basement rooms. I know of no one thing more detrimental to the general control and tone of a school plant than to have inadequate, poorly located toilets and lavatories. There should be one toilet stool for every thirty boys in average daily attendance, and one for every twenty-five girls. Darkness in toilets invites dampness, bad odor, loitering, marring of property and other evils. Many of the types of flush systems are antique and expensive to keep in repair. The Chatham Senior High hoys toilet system is an example. In Barnard school, with an enrollment of 505, there are only six toilet stools for boys and eight for girls, which is 74 per cent of their needs. The urinals
162

of most of the buildings are inadequate, insanitary, and the equipment is usually obsolete. In most buildings there was no soap for bathing purposes.
Classrooms
The classrooms, with the exception of heating and ventilation control, are convenient, well lighted, good size and color.
At one stage of development the floors of new buildings were made of concrete. This is detrimental to the health of both teacher and pupil. No school building should have bare concrete floors. Those now in use should be covered with battleship linoleum, mastic tile, or with some resilient material which is also a poor conductor of heat.
Some classrooms and exits had the doors swinging inward. There is a state law which says that all exit doors to public buildings should swing outward.
No room used for recitations should be below grade level. They are hard to light, heat, ventilate and keep dry.
According to National Council on Schoolhouse Construction!:
(A) That in addition to classroom space, provisions should be made for heating and ventilatiion, blackboards, bulletin boards, cabinets, bookcases, and means for hanging clothing.
(B) Other desirable features--room clock, temperature control, electric outlets, projection, vacuum cleaning, interphone, radio, lavatory and drinking facilities, project lockers, and other special features as may be required by the school organization.
The glass area in nearly 100 per cent of the room is as much or more than needed, 20 per cent of floor area. This is due in many cases to bilateral lighting. It is an accepted fact now that unilateral classroom lighting is conducive to less eye strain and should be used.
An economy measure practiced in one of the new buildings is that of trying to make one cloak room serve for two classrooms by cutting it in half. In this case one classroom must use a dark cloakroom which is highly unsatisfactory.
Some of the classroom walls are badly marred by teachers using tacks to display work over blackboards. The absence of tacking strips over blackboards is false economy. The same thing might be said about the absence of picture moulding in many rooms.
In two of the newest buildings the floors of the classroom are nearly black with ink. This was explained as due to use of ink with movable seats. This should be corrected.
Guide for Planning Elementary School Clasarooms- -By National Council on Schoolhouse Construction.
163

Blackboard is sold by the square foot. There is no need today of buying blackboard 3% feet wide. This is particularly true when slate or a high grade board is used. There are several recent studies concerning this matter. One by Dr. H. W. SchmidH seems to have reached rather definite ideas as to blackboard widths. Three feet width is ample if the height from the floor is properly adjusted.
Special Rooms
The school plants scored less in proportion on this major division of the score card than any other section. Of course, it is possible to overdo the matter of special rooms, but some are absolutely essential.
The absence of auditoriums in connection with nearly all of Chatham County schools is to be sadly lamented. No other one factor is as important to the general morale of a school. It offers unlimited educational opportunities to a modern school where a good educational program is successfully promoted. P. T. A. organizations are essential to a public educational plant. They are seriously hampered by the lack of auditoriums. The best schools are today promoting a regular program of auditorium activities by all classes. The opportunity of learning to think on one's feet is denied a student body where an auditorium isn't available. Dramatizing, English, Geography, History, opportunity for orchestras, music appreciation, etc., is very limited without auditorium facilities.
Recommendations
I wish to state that there is urgent immediate need to abandon the use of the old church building across from Chatham Senior High School, where commercial work is now taught. There was no attempt made to score this building.
The white schools of Chatham County are in urgent need of a modern high school plant and two or three new elementary buildings.
Colored
The previous preliminary statements made for the white schools of Chatham County apply also for the colored schools of the system. The same forms were also used.
Facilities for All Colored Children
The Chatham County system enrolled 5,492 colored children in its session for 1931-32. The pupils were housed in 24 schools.
Prom Tables Nos. CXXVIII and CXXIX, column one, Division II, one
1. Blackboards: Their Height and Width--By H. W. Schmidt.
164

TABLE CXXVIII
CLASSROOM FACILITIES FOR COLORED ELEMENTARY, JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL CHILDREN, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL
East Broad St. West Broad St Cuyler Sr. High J
Total., _ ___ _ _ - ...

DIVISION I

Distribution of Pupils

16
550 782 452 496 573 163
3016

7-9
739 739

10-12
221 221

Total 1-12
550 782 452 496 573 163
960
4976

DIVISION II

DIVISION III

Pupils on half day Session

All Rooms Planned For Classroom use

Total

Seat

Capacity Deficit

Classrooms reasonably Satisfactory

Satisfactory Capacity

Total Seat Deficit

492

223

400

61

480

75

560

360

58

550

840

52

452

16

480

16

13

573

163

960

800

160

359

3252

139

2120

1914

TABLE CXXIX CLASSROOM FACILITIES FOR COLORED ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN, CHATHAM
COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

SCHOOL

A Antioch__

03 Bloomingdale

* Burroughs

College

_

Ferguson

Flowersville

Fort Argyle,, _

Monteith

Oakland

Rice Hope

Rose Dhu

Sackville

Sandfly

Springfield Terrace.

Woodville

__ _ ._

Total

DIVISION I

Distribution of Pupils

16

7-9

10-12

39 59 67 158 58 32 27 62 33 28 78 41 118 310 406
1516

Total 1-12
39 59 67 158 58 32 27 62 33 28 78 41 118 310 406
1516

DIVISION II

DIVISION III

Pupils on half day Session

All Rooms Planned For Classroom use

Total

Seat

Capacity Defiicit

Classrooms reasonably Satisfactory

Satisfactory
Capacity

Total Seat Deficit

40

39

40

19

59

40

27

67

200

200

80

80

40

32

40

27

40

22

62

40

33

40

28

120

120

40

1

41

120

118

310

160

150

160

150

406

240

166

240

166

716

1280

385

800

822

TABLE CXXX
SCORES OF SAVANNAH AND CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, SCHOOL PLANTS FOR COLORED PUPILS AS MEASURED BY THE STRAYER-ENGELHARDT STANDARDS AND SCORE CARD

Site

High and Elementary City Schools--

Perfect Score

125

Cuyler St Jr & Sr. High Cuyler St (Wood Elementary)
3 West Broad (Primary)

... -_ - -

48

58

66

65

91

48

74

57

55

Rural Schools--Perfect Score

160

Sandfly

92

83

99

111

79

102

83

89

84

79

117

68

- --

77

97

83

Building

Service Systems

165

280

137

155

78

70

87

60

66

86

139

173

57

77

81

93

58

73

58

73

200

250

83

91

62

68

57

73

115

138

122

115

78

102

47

73

63

114

43

69

41

79

112

150

65

68

69

70

174

148

100

83

Classrooms
290
119 176 158 135 258 134 171 95 119
225
86 49 67 138 164 87 76 92 73 66 167 66 69 150 216

Special Rooms
140
44
21 54 20 23 20
5
165
7 0 5 6 57 13 1 4
4 5 4 5 6 10

Total
1000
503 382 371 373 715 336 442 303 310
1000
359 262 301 508 537 382 280 362 269 269 551 271 290 575 492

CHART NO. 64 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SCHOOL PLANT SCORES
(Colored Schools)

Site Build- Service Class- Special Total

ing

Systems rooms Booms

Cuyler Sr.i Jr. High IX]

Cuyler (Stone Elem.) ili 222

Cuyler (Wood Elem.)

D

East Broad Street Florance



Maple

Paulsen

West Broad (Elem.)

West Broad (Prim.)

Antioch

Bloomingdale








KI
m

IS M
mm

C3
IS E3
ta n ca
is Bl
S3

Burroughs

13 E3

S3

College

Ferguson

D ca

may see that all classrooms, irrespective of fitness, have a seating capacity of 4,532. From the same table you may see that there is a total of 2,920 satisfactory seats. There is an actual seat deficit of 524 and a deficit of 2,736 seats that are classed as unsatisfactory. The housing of the colored pupils in the county is very unsatisfactory according to all modern standards. 1,075 colored children have to attend school on half-day session. A good many of the buildings where the colored children now attend school are not owned by the County Board of Education. Several of the present plants are abandoned Negro churches which have been altered to some extent. The unsatisfactory housing of the colored children could be remedied without a large expenditure and something should be done to relieve this situation promptly.
168

CHART NO. 64--(Continued)
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SCHOOL PLANT SCORES (Colored Schools)
Legend: The white spaces are for characteristics scored good; the crosshatched spaces for characteristics scored fair; the spaces with crosses for characteristics scored unsatisfactory; and the black spaces
are for characteristics scored unusable.

Flowersville Fort Argyle

Site Build- Service Class- Special Total ing Systems rooms Rooms

IS

H

IS

Monteith

IS

Oakland

Rice Hope Rose Dhu



Sackville

Sandfly Springfield Terrace Woodville



E l

H

El
IS

70-100 Per Cent LJ 30- 39 Per Cent 23

40-69 Per Cent 0-29 Per Cent

Rating of All Colored Plants
The rating for these schools is found in Table No. CXXX. The table shows the rating by five major divisions. The perfect score is given at the top of the table. The standards for the colored schools are the same as explained in detail for the whites.
A study of the scores shows that out of 24 colored schools scored, six have a score below 300 and are classed as unusable. Ten of the buildings scored between 300 and 400. These buildings are unsatisfactory. Only one-third (8) of the buildings have a score better than unsatisfactory. Only one building scored over 700, which is considered good.
169

TABLE CXXXI
SQUARE FEET OF SITE AREA PER COLORED PUPIL ENROLLED (STANDARD: 200 SQUARE FEET PER PUPIL TO BE ENROLLED). SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

East Broad Street._ Florance Maple Paulsen West Broad Street.. Cuyler Sr. High Cuyler Jr. High Cuyler Elementary.

Square Feet of Site Area
22 ,464 48 ,000
4,500 18,480 17,550
69,000

Should Be

Per Cent of Site Area Owned to
What Board Should Own

110,000 156,000 90 ,400 99,200 111 ,600

20%
31% 5% 19% 15%

224,600

31%

TABLE CXXXII
SQUARE FEET OF SITE AREA PER COLORED PUPIL ENROLLED (STANDARD: 200 SQUARE FEET PER PUPIL TO BE ENROLLED). CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA, MAY, 1932

Antioch Bloomingdale Burroughs College Ferguson Flowersville Fort Argyle Monteith Oakland Rice Hope Rose Dhu Sackville Sandfly Springfield Terrace Woodville

Square Feet of Site Area
24 ,000 11 ,000 44 ,000 440 ,000 16 ,500 132 ,000 6 ,900 42 ,750 110 ,000 20 ,736 198 ,000
9 ,000 44 ,000 31 ,258 110 ,000

Should Be
7,800 11 ,800 13,400 31 ,600 11 ,600 6,400 5,400 12,400 6,600 5,600 15 ,600 8,200 23 ,600 6,200 81 ,200

Per Cent of Site Area Owned to
What Board Should Own
308% 93%
328% 1392%
142% 2062%
127% 344% 166% 370% 127% 109% 144% 504% 135%

170

The scores of the colored schools are given graphically by major divisions of its elements so one may see what parts scored particularly bad.
The key for the scores are shown at the bottom of Chart No. 64.
An analysis and discussion of the scores by the major divisions of the score card follows:
Sites
The sites for the colored city schools are very inadequate. They score less than the white schools and the white sites are very bad. As new plants are built the size of the sites should have serious consideration before a new location is chosen. The present city sites should be enlarged.
From the tables given one may see that Maple school has 5 per cent of the area needed per pupil in average daily attendance. This means that instead of having the needed 200 square feet per child that this school has only 10 square feet of site area available. This 10 square feet is not all play area, as the space occupied by the building and walks is included in the 200 standard. The Florence and Cuyler Schools have the largest area per child available and they have only 31 per cent of their need.
With one exception, Bloomingdale, all of the rural schools have above the minimum needs for sites and the Board should be congratulated. It is a pity that the city schools couldn't have been the ones with excessive areas as they need it more because of their pupils' crowded living conditions in many cases. The colored city schools are not located near parks and therefore do not have the opportunities that some of the crowd white schools have for play.
Buildings
According to the American Institute of Architects for construction purposes all buildings are classed under heads as previously explained. None of the colored buildings were classed as type "A" or "B" construction. One building may be classed as "C" construction, 6 of the buildings were classed as "D" construction, and 17 were classed as "E" construction. Since class "A" construction is considered as ideal and the majority of Chatham colored schools were of "E" construction they scored low when this feature was considered.
Three of the city colored schools are virtually fire traps and some of them do not follow the state code relative to having two different stairways for two-story buildings. The old house used at West Broad Street is one of the worse examples.
The orientation of the colored schools does not follow the standard of classrooms receiving their light from the east or west.
171

Several of the city buildings are so constructed that serious inroads would be made on the now meager playgrounds if additions were made to them.
There was practically a total lack of furring outside walls to keep the plaster from getting wet and coming down in the brick buildings.
In some instances there were classroom doors which swung to the inside of the classrooms.
The stairway treads in most cases had treads which were not constructed of non-slipping material.
The basements where used were not fireproof nor provided with self-closing doors.
Service System
In most cases the heat for the colored schools was furnished by heaters with homemade jackets. They were unsightly and did not provide for fresh air intakes. There was no attempt made by mechanical devices to control humidity nor temperature. There was a total lack of window ventilators which would relieve this situation to some extent.
The stoves used in many cases had flues which were swung from the ceiling and in the rural schools in some cases the stove pipes were allowed to go out through a window pane space.
In those cases where steam radiators were used they did not have shields to help distribute the hot air more evenly.
The fire protection system consisting of gongs, chemical extinguishers, sprinkler system, etc., is deficient in most cases and caused the buildings to score low in this respect.
The cleaning system in most cases still consists of antique methods and because of the types of buildings they are used in would not warrant the use of modern cleaning equipment. The buildings were clean considering the material used.
The use of artificial lighting was rather limited and should be until there is opportunity for more night work in the school. This, however, must necessarily lower the score of such a building.
The water supply for most of the rural schools consisted of a driven well. Such a supply is subject to pollution and is hard to keep in satisfactory working condition. There was practically a total lack of facilities for washing and drying face and hands.
The toilets in the city schools were of flush type. The urinals were troughs and they are hard to keep sanitary. The rural toilets WBre
172

in good shape as a rule, but consisted of pit type construction. The proportion of toilet stools to pupils present in most cases were inadequate. The toilet equipment in the old city schools that are to be kept should be replaced.
Classrooms The classrooms were bilaterally and trilaterally lighted in far too many instances. In several rural schools children are required to face windows, which is very detrimental to beginners' eyesight. In the better buildings the classrooms were in good shape and scored well. There was little space provided for wraps in most buildings. The glass area compared with floor area in several city schools was not sufficient to light the rooms properly. This is particularly true in the old home used at West Broad Street. The classrooms should bo provided with tack strips over the blackboards for display work.
Special Rooms There were very few special rooms provided for in the colored schools. The absence of auditoriums is a serious handicap to the successful operation of the colored plants.
Recommendations There is need for some consolidation of the colored schools and an urgent need of several new buildings.
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GEORGIA
State School Items
Published by the State Department of Education

Volume IX

DECEMBER, 1932

No. 8

REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS of
THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS to
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
M. L. DUGGAN STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS

Entered as second-class matter October 5, 1923, at the Post Office of Atlanta, Georgia, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized October 5, 1923.
ATLANTA, GA.

THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
Members Ex-Officio
RICHARD B. RUSSELL, JR., Governor, President MELL L. DUGGAN, State Superintendent of Schools,
Secretary and Executive Agent
Members by Appointment
JOHN G. HARRISON, MACON MISS NINA COX, ASHBURN
S. D. TRUITT, ATLANTA L. A. WHIPPLE, COCHRAN
STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
MELL L. DUGGAN, State Superintendent of Schools MRS. A. N. POUND, Clerk
MISS VIRGINIA PORTER, Secretary MRS. LUCILLE M. CONOLY, Secretary J. 0. MARTIN, State School Supervisor, Covington MRS. J. O. MARTIN, Assistant to State School Supervisor, Covington I. S. SMITH, State School Supervisor, Reidsville
MISS ELIZABETH DONOVAN Assistant to State School Supervisor, Wadley PAUL ELLISON, State School Supervisor, Vienna
MISS SARAH MELL DUGGAN, Assistant to State School Supervisor, Atlanta
MRS. J. C. LAURENT, Secretary W. L. DOWNS, State High School Supervisor, Atlanta
MRS. W. T. MOORE, Secretary GORDON G. SINGLETON,
Director of Information and Statistics, Atlanta MRS. DOROTHY LOEB, Secretary
J. I. ALLMAN, Supervisor School Administration, Atlanta MISS JULIA NAPIER, Secretary
J. L. GRAHAM, Supervisor of Schoolhouse Construction, Atlanta JAMES A. STRIPLING, Draftsman, Atlanta MRS. LUCY HUGHES, Secretary
J. C. DIXON, Supervisor Negro Education, Atlanta ROBT. L. COUSINS, Assistant Supervisor Negro Education, Atlanta
MRS. DOROTHY MILLSAP, Secretary MISS EVELYN CREW, Secretary
MISS JANIE HEARN, Assistant Director of Certification MISS MARTHA HAMMOND, Clerk
MISS MARTHA CHAPMAN, Stenographer

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
MELL L. DUGGAN, Executive, Atlanta PAUL W. CHAPMAN, Director, Athens PAUL W. CHAPMAN, State Supervisor of Agriculture, Athens L. M. SHEFFER, State Supervisor of Agriculture, Athens M. D. MOBLEY, Assistant State Supervisor of Agriculture, Tifton J. F. CANNON, State Supervisor of Trades and Industries, Atlanta
MISS EPSIE CAMPBELL, State Supervisor of Home Economics, Athens
MISS ELIZABETH MAYES, Assistant State Supervisor of Home Economics, Athens
MISS DORA MOLLENHOFF, State Supervisor of Home Economics, Athens
VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION
GEORGE D. GODARD, State Supervisor, Milner LUTHER ELROD, District Supervisor, Augusta
F. M. GREENE, District Supervisor, Perry R. A. BRASWELL, District Supervisor, Atlanta
MRS. L. G. REYNOLDS, Secretary
GEORGIA EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION
J. E. MATHIS, President, Americus KYLE T. ALFRIEND, Secretary, Macon
COUNTY SCHOOL OFFICIALS' ASSOCIATION
MELL L. DUGGAN, President, Atlanta
STATE SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS OF GEORGIA
APPOINTED JAMES R. LEWIS, 1870-1872 GUSTAVUS J. ORR, 1872-1888 JAMES S. HOOK, 1888-1891 STEPHEN D. BRADWELL, 1891-1895 GUSTAVUS R. GLENN, 1895-1903
ELECTED BY PEOPLE
WILLIAM B. MERRITT, 1903-1907 JERE M. POUND, 1907-1910
MARION L. BRITTAIN, 1910-1911
STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
MARION L. BRITTAIN, 1911-1922 MARVIN M. PARKS, 1922-1923
NATHANIEL H. BALLARD, 1923-1925 FORT E. LAND, 1925-27 MELL L. DUGGAN, 1927-

REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS
of
THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS
to
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
All business minds readily agree that adequate, certain and prompt support is the one basic essential to the success of any business. The state's biggest business enterprise is its public school system, but this most important public interest has never been placed upon a basis of support which was adequate, certain or prompt. Every State Superintendent from Dr. Gustavus J. Orr to the present day has recognized and deplored the lack of proper support as the greatest hindrance to satisfactory progress of the common schools and each one has pleaded annually for better consideration of the educational interest of the state's children. This perhaps can never be until the voters of the state are more fully informed upon this subject. It has been my first concern to inform the people concerning this and other matters pertaining to their public school system, and such progress as has been achieved is due to the constantly increasing demand of the public resulting from their better understanding of the needs of their common schools.
The General Assembly gradually increased annual appropriations to the support and maintenance of the common schools until 1926 when it reached the maximum of $5,002,300.00. This appropriation for 1927 was paid in full, but not promptly. The appropriations remained at the same maximum amount ($5,002,300.00) for the years 1928, 1929, 1930, and 1931, but for these years were neither paid promptly nor in full. The failure of the state to pay its promises for these years amounted to $3,740,802.00. However, reacting to an informed and aroused state-wide public sentiment, the Legislature provided for and there has been paid $1,652,538.58 ($1,036,685.76 paid in 1931--$615,852.82 in 1932) on the above deficits, and provided for a further payment of $307,962.41 to be paid thereon by the first of April, 1933. When this amount shall

have been paid there will still remain unpaid balances on the appropriations for the years 1929, 1930, and 1931, amounting to $2,816,986.77, the payment of which is still unprovided for. By joint resolution the General Assembly has recognized this as both a moral and legal obligation against the state. (See Resolution No. 45, Acts of 1929.) It is my earnest recommendation, as it is the expectation of the friends of our common schools, that early and full provisions will be made by the current General Assembly for the payment of this debt to the common schools. The appropriation made for the support and maintenance of the common schools for 1932 was reduced to $4,411,250.00, but not all of this has been or will be paid. The unpaid balance on the appropriation for 1932, however, will not remain as a debt against the state because of a peculiar condition written into the general appropriation bill of 1931.
In addition to the general appropriations from the state treasury for the support and maintenance of the common schools since 1927 nearly all of the counties and a few of the independent systems have benefited more or less from the equalization fund resulting from the allocation of one cent per gallon on sales of gasoline and kerosene. This fund is distributed, as the law directs, according to "the educational needs and financial ability to meet such needs" to the several school systems, and is paid promptly each month. The equalization fund for 1931 amounted to $2,353,249.10. While the equalization fund is subject to variation as the sales of kerosene and gasoline vary, it has been the only school fund the payment of which could be depended upon promptly each month and has probably been the salvation of the public school system-
In addition to the above named sources every county must levy locally not less than one or more than five mills for the support of its schools, and in order ro qualify for participation in the equalization fund every county does levy the maximum amount of five mills for its schools. Under a permissive law several hundred school districts by two-thirds majority vote have imposed upon their property further levies varying from one to five mills. The support of the common schools is primarily a state function and it was never contemplated that local levies should be depended upon for the main support. For the past several years, however, state support has failed us to such an extent and demand for better schools has grown so much that the total of local levies have resulted in double the

amount paid from the st;ite treasury. These local school taxes by the counties and districts are mainly against unprofitable real estate and have become entirely too burdensome. The General Assembly can, and I earnestly hope will, provide for larger state appropriations for the support of the common schools from other than taxes on ad valorem property in order that the counties and districts may lessen the burden -which they are now imposing upon their real estate without decreasing educational opportunities for the children. The public school system is the state's most important public interest and should have consideration in the matter of its support proportionate to its importance. Proper consideration of relative importance of the state's various public interests in making appropriations for their support can never be expected so long as the Legislature pursues the unjust and unbusiness-like policy of allocating certain fees or taxes to particular interests without reference to what the amounts may be. When the policy of making legislative allocations is prohibited by constitutional amendment, as it should be, then Legislatures will give due and proper consideration to the relative importance and needs of the various public interests.
Georgia's School Code has long since been antiquated, complicated, conflicting, and difficult of understanding or administering. Several times we have asked for a code commission to rewrite the whole body of school laws. In response to such requests, the last General Assembly appointed three members from the House and two from the Senate with instructions and authority to "revise, simplify and rewrite the School Code of Georgia, and submit their report with such recommendations as they deem proper to the next Legislature of Georgia." This committee, composed of Hon. J. Scott Davis, Chairman, Hon. W. R. Mixon, Hon. C. S. Hubbard, Senator Hamilton McWhorter, and Senator Guy Jackson, have held many conferences in my office and have given much study to this important problem. They have been furnished with the recent laws from many other states and have had aid and advise from Peabody College for Teachers through Dr. Bachman and Dr. Campbell. After much earnest labor, they will present a new code of school laws for the consideration of the General Assembly. To this I invite careful and earnest attention. Georgia's common school system cannot be administered to the best advantage until we have a reorganization of the entire body of school laws.

The summer schools for teachers under the supervision of the State Department of Education, authorized for a number of years past at an annual expense to the state school fund of $20,000.00, may well be discontinued. They have served a good purpose and have justified their cost, but we now have an over supply of teachers which is being added to rapidly by the several teacher training colleges. These colleges are also offering ample facilities for summer school opportunities.
Under the reorganization plan of the last General Assembly, the School Auditing Division of the State Department of Education was transferred to the Department of Audits. The State Department of Education, therefore, no longer has any facilities for checking up school expenditures by the various county and city school systems. This transfer has relieved the Department of Education of much responsibility and some expense, but has deprived it of any direct means of information as to the proper handling of public school funds after it has been sent out to the various school systems.
For many years the greatest number of complaints reaching the State Department of Education have been concerning the "too frequent changes" and the "high cost" of textbooks. The changes have not been as often as has appeared to the patrons. The lack of uniformity in textbooks as between the various counties and cities of the state has made it appear that changes have been made as often as patrons had changed their residence. There will never be uniformity in the use of textbooks in Georgia until the state furnishes free textbooks. My predecessors have often urged free textbooks for the state and in my last report to the General Assembly I undertook to show that the free use of textbooks to all the children of the elementary grades would be a matter of real economy to the state. It was shown then that the total annual cost to the state would be far less than is generally supposed, and at the greatly reduced prices prevailing now, the cost would be still less. The expense to the state of paying salaries to teachers, so many of whose pupils are without or only partially supplied with textbooks, is a policy of wasteful extravagance in money paid out and a tremendous loss in education to the children. I would again earnestly and strongly recommend that the state furnish the free use of textbooks to all of the children of the elementary grades, beginning with the first three grades and adding one grade each

year. It is useless for me to multiply reasons or add arguments. It is no longer a mooted question. Many of the states and many of the cities in our own state have furnished textbooks beyond an experimjental period and no state or city, in so far as I am informed, has ever discontinued the policy of furnishing books to the children. It is the only policy that will settle the troublesome textbook problem. Georgia will come to it eventually. Why delay ? The Textbook Act, approved December 19, 1923, provided that "the change of textbooks shall not exceed fifty per cent of the entire list for an adoption period." Has this limitation been repealed by any subsequent legislation conflicting therewith? It would be highly advisable to prohibit the changes of textbooks in more than one subject in any one scholastic year.
Beginning in 1920 when there were a number of Georgia counties without any senior high schools and the consolidations of small elementary schools were making little headway, $100,000.00 was set aside out of the common school appropriations under what was commonly called the Barrett-Rogers law for the purpose of promoting the consolidations of elementary schools and creating and strengthening one high school in each county. This amount was increased by legislative action from year to year until it has reached $500,000.00. This one-half million dollars to be given to a limited number of schools has been such an encouragement that now there is at least one senior high school in every county in Georgia and no county without several modern consolidated elementary schools while in many counties the program of consolidation has been completed. The cause has been greatly promoted by this movement but while a limited number of schools are profiting financially the general school fund is lessened one-half million dollars each year by these allocations and the many schools not receiving the bonus are suffering accordingly. In my last Biennial Report I recommended that the Barrett-Rogers allocation be made from a separate appropriation over and above the general appropriation for the support and maintenance of the common schools. I would again strongly recommend that this be done, or, failing to do it, that the Barrett-Rogers fund be abolished. The decreased and decreasing state appropriations to the public schools can no longer stand the taking away of one-half million dollars for the benefit of a limited number of schools.
9

TRANSPORTATION
The Georgia school laws vest the sole responsibility and authority in matters of transportation of children and teachers to the schools in county and local boards of education and the State Department of Education is given no initial authority in this important matter. As a consequence, there is much confliction in methods and regulations of this important function and many complaints come to the State Department. It is important that the State Superintendent should be given more authority in regulating and controling transportation in the interest of economy, efficiency, and safety to the children.
ECONOMICAL ADMINISTRATION
Increased efficiency makes for best economy. But costs of administration of our State Department of Education has been kept at an extremely low figure considering the constantly increasing demands of modern education and the services rendered. The state school administration and supervision to Georgia, according to the State Auditor's report to the Governor, has been as follows: In 1924, 1.04%; in 1926, 1.07%; in 1927, 1.29%; in 1928, 1.18%; in 1930, 0.90%; in 1931, 0.92%. Particular attention is called to the supervisory and office personnel on page --, all of whom have rendered most efficient service and always loyal to the cause of the common schools. Attention is, also, called to the reports of the several divisions as printed elsewhere in this report. During the twenty-one years that I have been connected with the State Department of Education (sixteen years as Supervisor and five and one-half years as Superintendent) there has been no lack of cooperation or loyalty to the cause, and to this cordial team work more than to any one person is due the progress of the system during the past two decades. To these devoted workers of the schools and to the county superintendents and higher educational institutions throughout the state, I am deeply appreciative and indebted.
The remarkable progress achieved in our public school system within the past few years, in spite of the lack of adequate and prompt financial support and an out of date and complicated system of school laws, is due to the unusually strong and efficient supervisory staff and clerical force which has been built up in the De-
10

partment of Education without increased cost to the state. Since the Legislature, twenty-one years ago, authorized the beginning of this staff, no personal or political consideration has influenced appointments. Not only so, but during this score of years, under five administrations, no change has been made in the supervisory staff except on account of deaths or promotions. Therefore, through appointments made solely on the basis of efficiency and a continuity of service the entire force has gained an accumulation of experience and acquaintance of the school problems of the state until it is generally recognized that the Georgia Department of Education has the strongest and most efficient supervisory staff and office force of any Southern state. Because of this uniform policy pursued through successive administrations, the General Education Board has generously awarded scholarships to such members of the staff as desired advanced training in their particular work. This has added greatly to the professional strength of the Department. The General Education Board has also contributed to the development of a larger and stronger staff by the payment of the salaries and expenses of many of them, which contributions now amount to nearly $40,000.00 a year. This is more than half as much as the State pays for public school administration.
It will be gratifying to all good citizens to know that race relations have been much improved and are reasonably satisfactory. This condition has been brought about mainly through the wise and tactful administration and supervision of negro education under the direction of Mr. J. C. Dixon and his assistant, Mr. R. L. Cousins, and the generous donations for school buildings from the Rosenwald Foundation.
The Division of School Building Service, under the direction of Mr. J. L. Graham and his assistant, Mr. J. A. Stripling, has rendered invaluable services in the matter of planning and supervising the construction of better appointed school houses as well as in the saving of many thousands of dollars to the school funds.
It would be difficult to estimate the value to county and city administrations of aid and advice which they have received from Mr. J. I. Allman, Supervisor of Administration. His services in this field have been sought for and appreciated by schools and ad-
11

ministrative units throughout the State, He has also directed the difficult Equalization distribution.
The costs of salaries and traveling expenses of all of the above mentioned and, also, of Dr. G. G. Singleton, Director of Statistics and Information, has been borne by contributions by the General Education Board, and without expense to the State. In addition, the General Education Board has paid the salaries of the secretaries of Dr. Singleton and Mr. Allman. The contributions of the General Education Board have made it possible to build up a, strong professional supervisory staff in our Department of Education, and their liberality is greatly appreciated.
The work of Mr. W. L. Downs, Supervisor of High Schools, has been greatly appreciated by the high school interests of the State, which he has served faithfully and well. His expressed intention of severing his connection with the State Department of Education in order to pursue advanced studies at Peabody College will be regretted by the entire educational interests of the state. Supervisor Paul Ellison has served as State School Supervisor seven years in the southwestern section of the state; Supervisor I. S. Smith fourteen years in the southern and eastern sections; and Supervisor J. O. Martin nineteen years in the northern section of the state. These veteran supervisors with their assistants, who have also served long and most efficiently, have been largely responsible for the better organization and the remarkable progress in the public schools of the state. By reason of their long services they have had better opportunity to know the local school needs than any other group of educators, and by their consecrated interest and faithful efforts they have made contributions to public education in Georgia that will abide.
To the constructive policies begun by my predecessors and consistently followed and enlarged upon by successive administrations, to the entire supervisory staff working loyally and in cooperation, and to the entire clerical force who have achieved increased efficiency through length of service and loyalty to the cause, I am indebted for whatever progress has been achieved. To each and every one of them I have been under very great obligations and I am profoundly thankful.
12

Particularly have I been greatly indebted to Mrs. Alma Pound, Chief Clerk under five administrations. There have been no more faithful or efficient services rendered during all of these years in any of the State Departments than those rendered by Mrs. Pound. Five successive Superintendents have endoised and highly commended her work and federal and state auditors have annually praised it and testified to its thoroughness and accuracy.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
With more than 37,000 persons enrolled in vocational classes in Georgia during the past school year only Texas, among the southern states, had a more extensive program, and no state in the South carried on this phase of their educational program at a lower per capita cost. This is a great tribute to the vocational teachers of Georgia, for the relatively low cost of this program, in relation to the number reached was due to the fact that these teachers organized part-time and evening classes for which, in many instances, they received no compensation.
At the same time the work was of such a high standard that many national honors were won by vocational students and two members of Georgia's vocational staff were elected as officers in the National Vocational Education Association, to-wit: Director Paul W. Chapman as President, and Thos. H. Quigly as VicePresident.
There have been but two changes in the personnel of the voca* tional staff since the program was inaugurated in 1918, and they were brought about when one of the supervisors was called to a national position in which he was placed in charge of the work in twelve southern states, and when one of the supervisors was elected to the position of State Superintendent of Schools.
13

UNIVERSITY_0F GEORGIA LIBRARIES
3 ElDfl 0533=1 m3=i
GENERAL LIBRARVl
SEP 14 1946 UNIVERSITY Of GEORGIA