School leaders manual: program of educational development for Georgia, part I [Oct. 1944]

A500
31
In 01
P t ITHE LIBRARIES
THE
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA2
SI
School Leaders Manual
PART I
Program of Educational Development
for Georgia
GENERAL LIBRARY
MAY 14 ijtfo
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
ISSUED BY
EDUCATION PANEL
Agricultural and Industrial Development Board of Georgia
Athens GeorgiaAGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT BOARD
OF
GEORGIA
Blanton Fortson Chairman
L Vaughan Howard Executive Director
Name of Member Address
Ivan AllenAtlanta
T F AbercrombieAtlanta
Charles L Bowen Macon
W N BanksGrantville
Cason J CallawayHamilton
MDCollinsAtlanta
RyburnG ClayAtlanta
Mrs Frank C DavidColumbus
Blanton Fortson Athens
Charles B GramlingAtlanta
Robert W GrovesSavannah
Alfred W JonesSea Island
TomLinderAtlanta
Wiley LMooreAtlanta
Walter R McDonaldAtlanta
Henry McIntoshAlbany
W H McNaughtonCartersville
J L PilcherMeigs
Robert StricklandAtlanta
M King TuckerWaynesboro
Wilson WilliamsAtlanta
EDUCATION BULLETIN No 1
OCTOBER 1944EDUCATION PANEL
M D Collins ChairmanAtlanta
Mrs Frank C DavidColumbus
Wilson Williams Atlanta
O C Aderhold DirectorAthens
Written in Collaboration
by
O C Aderhold
Paul Carroll
S P Clemons
Johnnye V Cox
Charles F Hudgins
J E Greene
Claude Purcell
r d pulliam
T E Smith
W A Stumpf
r h tolbert
Nell Winn
Material appearing in this manual may with the usual
acknowledgment be reproduced for the advance
ment of Education Permission to use materil quoted
from other sources should be secured from the
original publisherPREFACE
The material presented in the School Leaders Manual is
meant for limited circulation The manual resulted from the
efforts of the staff of the Education Panel to formulate clearly
its task and to devise effective ways and means of achieving
desired outcomes
The manual is in four parts i Introduction to Educa
tional Planning and Development in Georgia 2 Planning
the Program of the School 3 Planning the Program of
County and Local School Administration and 4 Basic Data
Needed in Educational Planning Each part is bound sep
arately The leader in making preparation for initiating a
program of educational planning should have copies of the
four parts
The primary purpose of the manual is to provide sugges
tions for leaders in carrying on educational planning on the
county and local levels It also contains some information
that will be helpful in working with planning groups An
examination of Parts II and III will reveal however that the
manual does not contain a blue print of an educational pro
gram for any county or community It does contain a de
tailed outline of procedures appropriate for use in getting
groups of professional and lay people to do their own planning
Members of the field staff of the Education Panel will use
the manual as a guide in twelve to sixteen selected counties
in the State The use of the manual in these spot counties
will give a basis for further revision and refinement of pro
cedures It is hoped that the manual in its revised form may
be of value to principals and other educational leaders in car
rying on local planning and developmental programs
The manual was developed by the staff of the Education
Panel in cooperation with several groups and individuals Those
giving considerable assistance to the staff were the following
1 The members of the School Leaders Workshop held
at the University of Georgia during the summer of 1944 madeimportant contributions This group made up largely of
principals and teachers from the twelve selected counties
worked with the staff for a period of approximately six weeks
in developing a point of view and procedures to be used in
county and local planning
2 The supervisory staff of the State Department of Edu
cation worked hand in hand with the Panel staff during the
workshop period and certain members of the supervisory
staff gave assistance throughout the preparation of the manual
3 The staff of the University of Georgia helped during
the workshop period and certain individuals were called upon
to make specific contributions to the development of this
publication
Many others have assisted either directly or indirectly The
State Health Department the Panel on Trade Commerce and
Business and the Public Works Panel of the Agricultural and
Industrial Development Board along with many writers in
the field of education The Panel staff has endeavored to give
due credit to authorities in education where they have drawn
upon them for information in published form TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface 3
PART I
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
IN GEORGIA
Chapter I Overview of the Work of the Education Panel 7
Agricultural and Industrial Development Board 7
The Need for Educational Planning and Develop
ment 7
A Point of View Regarding Educational Develop
ment 8
Problems for Study and Development 9
StateWide Problems 10
County and Local School Problems 11
Chapter II A Philosophy of Education 13
Introductory Statement 13
The Individual 13
Environment 15
Purpose of Education 17
Purpose of the School 20
School Procedures 22
Problems Classified 24
Problems in Personal Living 25
Problems of Primary Social Relationships 26
Problems of Secondary Social Relationships 16
Economic Relationships 27
Chapter III Procedures in Educational Planning and De
velopment on County and Local Levels 28
Developing a Felt Need for Educational Develop
ment 28
Establishing Relationships 28
Discovering Problems 29
Determining the Groups to be Reached 29
The Use of the Manual 3r Chapter I
OVERVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE
EDUCATION PANEL
Public education in Georgia is administered by two con
stitutionally established boards The State Board of Educa
tion and the State Board of Regents The State Board of
Education through the State Department of Education is
charged with the responsibility for leadership in the opera
tion of the public schools of the State The State Board of
Regents through the office of the chancellor of the Univer
sity System of Georgia has a similar responsibility in the realm
of higher education These responsibilities obligate the two
agencies to provide personnel and materials for assisting edu
cational administrators and teachers in instructing the children
the youth and the adults of the State
The Agricultural and Industrial Development Board
The State of Georgia through an act of legislation approved
March 19 1943 established the Agricultural and Industrial
Development Board and charged this board with the respon
sibility for initiating developmental programs in all areas of
the economic and social life of the State
The Board is organized into seven panels each of which is
made up of three members of the Board The panels are as fol
lows 1 Agriculture 2 Industry 3 Trade Commerce
and Business 4 Public Works 5 Government 6
Health and 7 Education Each of the panels is organized
with one of its members having been designated as chairman
The Need for Educational Planning and Development
The evershifting scenes of local and world affairs make it
obligatory that schools at all levels constantly adjust their total
programs in the light of the problems that emerge from these
changing situations
To shift the emphasis in the school programs at all levels
7in order to meet wartime objectives was not very difficult be
cause of the emotional stimulus furnished by the war Many
of the warstimulated changes are being recognized as worthy
of permanent places in the curriculum Perpetuating the de
sirable elements that came into the program during the past
two years and planning for the peace that is to follow are
immediate and urgent responsibilities of all the educational
forces of the State
There is other evidence of the need for careful study of the
educational offerings of Georgia Selective service statistics
again point up some of the failures Illiteracy physical un
fitness and deficiencies in mathematics science and mechanical
skills An alert educational leadership in the State has stressed
the need for finding proper solutions to several problems of
immediate urgency Determining effective administrative and
attendance units providing for economical location of schools
and adequate school plants providing appropriate school pro
grams and adequate guidance for all age groups etc The
extent to which these problems are faced and solutions are
found for them will in a large measure determine the future
social and economic welfare of Georgia
The solution of these problems will require the time at
tention and energy of all the school forces of the State The
Education Panel has set as its task the assisting of the educa
tional forces at the State county and local level to develop
effective programs of action that will result in better educa
tion for all of the people of Georgia
A Point of View Regarding Educational Development
The ideals of democracy are attained in a society to the ex
tent that the masses of the people think intelligently and plan
cooperatively in the solution of their problems The educa
tional program of the State contributes to the ideals of democ
racy to the extent that it stimulates and gives guidance to the
development of individuals to become reflective and skillful
in the tasks with which they are confronted and to the extentto which it stimulates individuals to work together in the pro
motion of the common interests of the community state na
tion and world
An improved educational program in Georgia will not come
as the result of a few leaders providing the answers to the
problems encountered in educational development on the
other hand it will come only as the direct result of the par
ticipation of the masses of the people in the undertaking Edu
cational planning on any level when it is done apart from the
participation of the teachers and the general public perhaps
will produce books and bulletins and blue prints to be placed
in storage rooms to gather dust and to be eaten by moths
Plans formulated by teachers school officials students and
patrons in a community county or state however will re
sult in better school organization better teachers more ade
quate buildings and more effective programs of instruction
Criticism of school surveys has been justifiable because so
little usually comes of them The reason seems to lie in the
fact that officials who have the responsibility for directing and
promoting the schools have had little or no part in getting
at the underlying facts and interpreting them Lasting progress
in a community a county or a state must be based upon the
earnest thought and hard work of its own people
Problems for Study and Development
The staff of the Education Panel has made and will con
tinue to make careful and systematic endeavors to discover
the problems of education in Georgia most in need of study
In this process the Panel has made and will continue to make
contacts with the following persons and groups i The
State School Superintendent and his staff 2 the chancellor
of the University System 3 college administrators and
teachers 4 public school administrators and teachers and
5 lay groups From each of these groups came suggestions
regarding problems which should claim the attention of the
PanelAt the annual meeting of the State Association of Superin
tendents and Board Members in April 1944 six problems were
suggested for study In the summer of 1943 the superintend
ents in conference at the University summer session listed sev
eral problems needing further study In their 1944 meeting
this latter group urged the Education Panel to deal with four
important problems These problems were also suggested
by a large workshop group of principals and teachers during
the summer of 1944
From all of these suggestions the Panel determined upon
two approaches to educational development for 194445 The
Panel concluded that there were certain problems that should
be attacked on a state basis and others on a local and county
basis
StateWide Problems
Several problems of a statewide nature were proposed A
majority of the persons in the abovementioned groups thought
four of the problems of immediate concern They are 1
Administrative organization 2 school buildings3pupil
transportation and 4 teacher education It is important to
study these on a statewide basis since there is probably a need
for state legislation regarding each and because there are
preparations that should be made looking toward a probable
postwar schoolbuilding program
Statewide committees have been established to guide the
study and the planning regarding each of the four problems
These committees are composed of from twelve to twenty
members One from each congressional district and one or
more from the State at large These committees with the tech
nical assistance of Panel staff members will analyze the prob
lem gather data organize and interpret the data draw con
clusions and make recommendations These recommenda
tions will be transmitted to the Board for further study and
action
Other problems that will receive the attention of the Panel
as soon as time permits are 1 State library program 2
10reorganization of the curriculum in secondary schools and
junior colleges when the twelfth year is added to the common
school program 3 schools for handicapped persons schools
for the blind and the deaf 4 programs of public education
agencies and other agencies with educational functions and
5 relationship of higher education to secondary education
County and Local School Problems
Sixteen counties have been selected for carrying on intensive
developmental programs Twelve were started in August
1944 and four will be started at a later date The counties
were selected by representatives of the State Department of
Education and the Education Panel staff The following
criteria were used in making the selections
1 Counties with professional leadership county school super
intendent county board of education and principals
2 Counties with continuous services of county school superinten
dent
3 Counties where good relationships exist between the superin
tendent and the board of education and between the superin
tendent and the principals
4 Counties willing to send representatives to Planning Workshop
at the University of Georgia during the summer of 1944
5 One county or more with independent systems within the coun
ty and one county or more without independent systems
6 Some counties that employ a county supervisor and some that
do not
7 Counties that are typical of an area in terms of the following
a Population
b Farm population
c Business and industry
8 Counties with reference to landuse areas in Georgia
9 At least one county in each of the State Department of Educa
tion supervisory districts general
10 Counties selected in relation to distribution in State Department
of Education special supervisory districts Vocational Agri
culture and Home Economics
n At least one county from each congressional district
The following counties were selected Floyd Heard
11Rabun Hart Walton Morgan Jones Pulaski Bulloch Atkin
son Calhoun and Decatur The four to be included later
are Whitfield Spalding Tattnall and Clinch
The selected counties sent representatives to a sixweeks
planning conference in the summer 1944 to work with the
Panel staff and other consultants to make preliminary plans
for inaugurating the program in the counties Here it was
agreed that certain problems would be of concern in each of
the counties and that these problems should be attacked by the
superintendent board of education local trustees principals
teachers students and patrons It was further determined
that the Panel would provide the services of a staff leader for
each county on a halftime basis
The Education Panel representatives in the county will work
in harmony with the representatives of the State Department
of Education Each agency will assume certain responsibil
ities in the county developmental program
12Chapter II
A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Introductory Statement
This chapter is an effort to give expression to a point of
view or philosophy of education emerging from several
months of cooperative work by members of the staff of the
Education Panel This staff in cooperation with the repre
sentatives of the State Department of Education and other
educational leaders has the responsibility for initiating compre
hensive educational planning and developmental programs in
Georgia
It was our belief that more effective leadership would re
sult if the staff members could spend some time in arriving
at a common philosophy of education and mapping out pro
cedures for implementing countyplanning programs This
chapter is a statement of our basic beliefs There is no at
tempt to go into details or to show the application of the
point of view to educational planning The other three parts
of this manual indicate how we expect to take the first steps
toward the attainment of the philosophy expressed here
Beliefs regarding education are based upon conceptions of
the individual and the environment in which the individual
has his being Let us therefore take a look at the individual
The Individual
The individual is characterized by activity an urge to
action This urge to action has the effect of bringing the
individual into conflict with his environment and these con
flicts or blocks to action produce tensions or problems
We find the human being is active dynamic striving He is an
energy system the equilibrium of which is easily disturbed Once
disturbed the organism seeks to achieve the condition that will relieve
this tension The individual then is dominated by some urge to
action He is a goalseeking being and finds satisfaction in the suc
cessful achieving of his purposes1
iCG Brim The Changing Curriculum New Xork D AppletonCentury Co 1937
13The breaking of ones tensions especially in the achieve
ment of ones purpose leads to other tensions or problems
This process is continuous from birth to death The con
tinuous solving of problems and the attaining of purposes
provide the basic joy and satisfaction of living No normal
individual unless he has been conditioned wants the answer
handed to him He wants to discover the answer and
achieve for himself the goals sought
There are many theories regarding the learning processes
of the individual The background out of which these theories
grow is a concept of the mind Dewey2 suggests that all the
thinking of an individual can be placed into three categories
i Chain thinking which consists of a chain of disconnected
thoughts as the desk makes me think of lumber and that of
saw mills and that of workmen and that of machines etc
2 fantasy thinking which is sometimes called imaginative
thinking day dreaming aircastle building and the like and
3 reflective thinking which is the highest type of thinking
because it involves conscious purpose and recognized goals
Thought in the first two categories mentioned may be harmful
to the mind because it distracts attention from the real world and
because it may be a waste of time On the other hand if indulged
in judiciously these thoughts may afford genuine enjoyment and
also be a source of needed recreation But in either case they can
make no claim to truth they cannot hold themselves up as something
that the mind should accept assert and be willing to act upon They
may involve a kind of emotional commitment but not intellectual
and practical commitment Beliefs on the other hand do involve
precisely this commitment and consequently sooner or later they de
mand our investigation to find out upon what grounds they rest
Thinking reflective begins in what may fairly enough be called
a forkedroad situation a situation that is ambiguous that presents
a dilemma that proposes alternatives As long as our activity glides
smoothly along from one thing to another or as long as we permit
our imagination to entertain fancies at pleasure there is no call for
reflection Difficulty or obstruction in the way of reaching a belief
brings us however to a pause In the suspense of uncertainty we
metaphorically climb a tree we try to find some standpoint from
whichwe may survey additional facts and getting a more command
John Dewey How We Think New York D C Heath and Company 1933
14ing view of the situation decide how the facts stand related to one
another
Demand for the solution of a perplexity is the steadying and guid
ing factor in the entire process of reflection Where there is no ques
tion or a problem to be solved or a difficulty to be surmounted the
course of suggestions flows on at random3
Many analyses have been made of the reflective thought
process Dewey breaks it down into five steps Kilpatrick into
seven and Bode into four Bodes analysis has the virtue of
the fewest number of steps He says these are i Recogni
tion of the problem and desire to solve it 2 drawing infer
ences as to a possible solution 3 testing the inferences this
step includes the skills involved in getting it solved and 4
conclusions and generalizations
Understanding the mind and the thought processes pro
vides the basis for beliefs regarding the function of educa
tional institutions especially the school Later in this chap
ter emphasis will be placed upon the responsibility of the
school Suffice it to say here that it is our belief that the
school should exert its influence to break up chain thinking
to stimulate fantasy thinking with some students and discourage
it with others and to assume as its primary responsibility the
promotion of reflective thinking The school then would
begin with the problems or tensions of the individual and
assist him in making intelligent decisions in choosing plan
ning and carrying out wise programs of action Intelligent
choosing planning and acting in all areas of living lead the
individual toward the attainment of such desirable goals of
education as 1 good citizenship 2 health in body and
mind 3 effective use of the tools of learning 4 social ad
justment 5 ability in creative expression 6 ability to earn
a living and the like
Environment
The kinds of tensions or problems confronting individuals
grow out of the environment They may or may not be
IMd pp 7 8 and 14
15recognized Their nature depends upon many factors the
most important of which are age and experience The prob
lem facing the writerthat of organizing and putting into
readable form beliefs regarding education is quite different
from the problem of making a dress for a doll which hap
pens to be the problem with which the nineyearold daughter
is joyfully struggling
It is of course impossible to think of the individual apart
from his environment he is so much a part of it that he is con
tinuously changing it and the environment is continuously
changing him The farmer in order to achieve a purpose sells
his mules and buys a tractor He has changed his environ
ment and the process has changed him his pattern of farm
activity and his way of thinking regarding farming have
been radically changed
Although problems are individual and grow out of specific
environmental situations one should not conclude that these
situations must necessarily be in the locale or physical environ
ment of the individual Hitlers blitz into Czechoslovakia de
veloped tensions with most adults in all parts of the world
The degree to which the problem was felt depended upon
many factors Location race occupation religious belief and
the like The Czechs were concerned with it in quite a dif
ferent way from that of the French the English the Scandi
navians and the Americans Even in the United States those
living on the Eastern Seaboard recognized the problem and
telt more keenly about it than did those living in the Midwest
All parts of the world constitute fertile ground in which
prob ems may grow For the sixyearold child they will
argely come from home and family neighborhood and school
living for the adolescent they will develop not only out of
these primary relationships but also from his relations with
institutions national and even international in scope The
environmental scope from which problems emerge increases
with age and educational experience
The breaking of tensions or the solving of problems is a
step toward the development of an environment that serves
16the individuals purposes but since these purposes are con
tinuously being remade the environment is continuously be
ing developed
Purpose of Education
The abovementioned concepts of the individual and his
relationship to his environment determine the purpose of edu
cation Education throughout history has tended to reflect
the broader social purposes and objectives of the society in
which it functions Rome with her social philosophy point
ing toward a world empire saw to it that the educational pur
poses were in line to produce a Roman citizen who could make
a contribution toward this larger social goal
The problem of education assumes one form in Ancient Athens
in the time of Pericles Another in China during the Tang dynasty
another in Medieval Saxony another in Modern Japan still another
in Russia under the Communists and yet another in twentiethcentury
America1
In the last analysis an educational system is successful only
when in all of its aspects it contributes to the ends of the
society in which it lives and has its being6
Throughout the world today there are many social orders
or ways of life operating and functioning within a pattern
of social values These larger social patterns are the result of
a combination of environmental circumstances such as natu
ral resources characteristics of neighbors and cultural back
grounds The total program of individual and social action in
various countries operates within the framework of the respec
tive patterns For example in Germany all educational action
in fact all types of action and thinking must conform to
and fit into the framework of the national social pattern
This pattern in Germany is made and remade by a relatively
small percentage of the population in many instances by one
man
The educational program in a democracy should be in harmony
with the dominant democratic social values and aspirations The
G S Counts Social Foundations of Education New York Charles Scribners Sons
19W FPKussell School Administration and Conflicting American Ideals Teachers
College Record October 1929
17educational philosophy should grow out of the democratic social
philosophy and the organization and methods in education should
reflect the highest conception of the democratic way of life The
school system should be thought of as societys chief formal agency
to develop in its people the vision the creativeness the initiative the
en icalmindedness the understanding the philosophy and the dis
cipline which will enable them to live noble personal lives and
jointly to build a culture and a society which give expression to the
democratic social ideals for which the people share responsibility in
defining and m reconstructing as new conditions emerge and as our
civilization is raised to higher levels Other groups and forces in
American life may depart from the democratic philosophy the
chool has an unequivocal mandate to vitalize the democrat ociai
ideal and to develop an educational program in harmony with it
The commission on the social studies of the American His
torical Association concluded
tofjTT PUrPSe fueducation in e United States in addition
tion of T Pment f nCh 3nd manided Personalities is the prepara
tion of the rising generation to enter the society now comininto
being through thought ideal and knowledge rather than ti4uS
coercion regimentation and ignorance and to shape the form of
that society in accordance with American ideals of popular democracy
and personal liberty and dignity uemocracy
In America through the years we have been developing
a pattern that is radically different from those in other part
froLnew T7 Paem develoPg
r Sin r f freedm frCd0m f SPeech Pss
religion along with new attitudes toward concepts of taxes
private property and States rights to name only a few Free
dom of the press in I9oo meant something different from what
it does in i944 Private property in 1850 when we had an
undeveloped West was thought of quite differently from what
it s today by those living in congested industrial areas of the
nation Participation in the present world conflict is giving
new meanings to private property especially as it regard
certain resources such as oil rubber and timber The four
edomsif effectuated in the world will give new meanings
ASTiiBlPP0urrteutum Deveiopment
18to certain kinds of fredom in this country All of these and
many other factors were important in bringing about a pe
culiar pattern or way of life to which we have given the
name democracy Dr Bode points out that it is the one con
tribution of the American people to world civilization It is
uniquely American and a heritage of which all Americans are
proud
What is this way or pattern of life called democracy It
may be inferred that one of the most dominant characteristics
of democracy is continuous change gradual changes in con
cepts concerning our basic institutions and resulting changes
in programs of action If the school is to be concerned with
fostering the democratic ideal democracy must be more
definitely and specifically defined At least a tentative work
ing definition must be formulated
Democracy is a way of life It involves common interests
and purposes and concerns itself with the promotion of these
Cooperation is involved in the formulation of purposes and in
the execution or attainment of the ends desired Democracy
is concerned with developing the intelligence of all individuals
and providing for their effective participation in social activ
ities while emphasizing sensitivity to social problems and
sharing in their solution This definition of democracy gives
it a much broader meaning than a political concept
Down through the years our American way of life has
been concerned about each individual his growth and de
velopment his rights and privileges his freedoms of all kinds
especially his freedom to think to plan and to carry out plans
It has also been concerned with the common interests of the
group In the early days it took its form in log rolling
corn shucking community protection and the like Now
we see it evidenced in legislation Soil Conservation as an
example and in voluntary community activities such as the
Community Chest Red Cross etc One of the major dif
ficulties in training our military personnel for the war has
been that the youth are too much concerned about the welfare
of others to wage a war of destruction
19In a democracy then two concepts are basic i Respect
for the worth and intelligence of each individual and 2
the spirit of sharing common interests and purposes Educa
tion can play an important pan in promoting and in enrich
ing these concepts of democracy
Purpose of the School
There are many institutions in our social order that exercise
an educative function The more important ones are the
home the church civic organizations the neighborhood and
vocations The one institution in America charged exclu
sively Wlth educative responsibility however is the school
If democracy is to survive the school must be concerned with
promoting the democratic way of life This is forcefully
ZTfu t0 uUr T Whn We 0bserve the tensions felt
and the problems faced by individuals and groups as a result
of participation m the national war effort Millions face dif
ficulties involving occupational adjustment rebuilding homes
egaimng and rebuilding health and hundreds of otlfer proS
ouTwt S0nSTf Whkh m Pions for
our way of life It is imperative for the nation that each of
he problems faced by each individual group be solved intel
hgently and with concern for all of thosf affected by the solu
tion to the problem Dewey once said Democracy wSl
be a farce unless individuals are trained to think for them
elves to judge independently to be critical to be able to de
tect subtle propaganda and the motives which inspire k
Intelligence and the spirit of sharing common interests and
purposes must be developed if these major problems ofhi
are to be solved in an orderly manner that will promote p IS
ful relationships within the nation and among nations
theffi Schrl PrSram would lead toward
the Good Life through democratic processes United States
Commsloner 0f Education John W Smdebaker pointed ou
Jthose forelgn countries where democracy is most virile and the
19 SSSfc Modern cation School and
20possibility of success for dictatorship is most remote countries 1 ke
Sweden and Denmarkthe educational base is both broad and vital
This education is not merely vocational or cultural It is concerned
with the pursuit of happiness through democratic processes Such
educational programs are founded upon the proposition that demo
cratic action must come from mass understandings of the problems
the people face as citizensThe assumption in democracy is
that the people shall be free to direct the pursuit of happiness for
themselves Democracy more than any other form of social organiza
tion requires a mass educational system for its perpetuation and an
educational process which fits the social organization and contributes
to its stability and growth I am contending for an educational
technique that actually prepares and assists people not only as chil
dren and adolescents but as adults to function effectively in democ
To perpetuate this great American heritage the school must
become a dynamic positive force The major objective of the
school should be the promotion of reflective thinking con
cerning all basic aspects of life and the promotion of group
living on an intelligent basis of cooperation in the school and
in all other institutional and group life This objective gives
direction to the school program
To say that the primary concern of the school is to loster
the ideals of democracy through the development of reflection
and sharing is not to say that this is the only purpose and
function of the school It was pointed out in the discussion
of the individual in the first pages of the chapter that indi
viduals experienced other kinds of thinking fantasy and
chain thinking The school should exert itself to decrease
chain thinking and assist with fantasy thinking
Literaturepoetry biography etc should be used ex
tensively for promoting fantasy thinking From these it
properly taught may come new emotional drives establish
ment of nobler ideals and better understanding of problems
at hand and those to be met in the future
Activities should be planned to provide adequate rest
recreation or diversion from participation over too long a
period of time in any type of thinking and endeavor lne
V Studebaker Education for Democracy The Nations Schools March 1936
21school should make its maximal effort to provide an environ
ment that healthful and beautiful andthe faciUti a
wide range of creative activity
Although there are other purposes of the school the heart
SwSS lts major shouId be with
Making choices ZrdtTell theactions of someone else
asoecr of XT tf Lemployment of time in school is only one
rendeouptTtmhe herrs phhiy n
give zrizTmamrethan
is best UnL there an fTS t0 jdge WeIf what
be urged t mak 1 n7 danf Ration the child should
that he may iTarn frlTorrfT8 gd r Pr in
clothing fool ml fhboks ys
may be difficult fnr h o u Iriends and even behavior It
is importantThat t do o If f role here
than to sit sdll do the U 7 f n ther chice
the room only on schedut u direCted and Ieave
opportunity to geLm an Td T be
matter thmJSdelStn J chicemakinS This is a
bined efforts ofT Lultfu f t T Wil1 take the c
intelligently cooperathfe I v f wh have become
situation invhkh there is Z71 f mUSt Prvide a scho
privileges and ulj Irn w I fr ChiIdren between fusing
childreLnd gorfbounherat I0 Wkh oth
LlJ l between
School Procedures
flective thinking and concern for 1 encouraging re
on S3SS3Z tfSg Won 6 D c Tne National BUuea
22cedure What should the school do The school should be
so organized and administered that the teacher will
i Study each individual and understand him physically mentally
and emotionally
2 Know firsthand each students environment
3 Become skillful in sensing and discovering tensions or problems
faced by each student It should be emphasized here that the
teacher should deal with problems other than those of which
the student is conscious In other words this chapter does not
mean to imply that pupils should work only at what suits their
fancy or passing concern It is rather our belief that students
should be led when necessary to work at the real and vital
problems of living
4 Become intelligent and skillful in promoting reflective thinking
This involves helping the pupil
a Discover recognize and desire to solve problems in all aspects
of living
b Draw inferences or formulate hypotheses about the problems
faced
Test the inferences Perhaps at no other point in the pro
cess of developing reflective thinking is the school and its
influence so needed It is here that all pertinent facts and
information must be brought into the picture weighed in
the light of the hypotheses formulated and evaluated with
concern for what is best for the total social order
Arrive at sound conclusions based upon socially evaluated
facts draw generalizations from these conclusions and use
these generalizations in further thinking and in appropriate
c
action
In steps c and d above the pupil will develop the
necessary skills for solving the problem The solution of all
problems involves some skills The amount of skill involved
depends upon the nature of the problem For example the
building of a bird house will require more skill than the pro
curing of a lunch at the cafeteria Both problems if thought
through reflectively require some skill Skills are therefore
a definite part of the reflective thought process and as such
should be developed in connection with problemsolving
23Problems Classified
If problems are to be dealt with effectively some method or
plan for attacking them must be devised In modern society
increasingly complex environments have produced increasing
ly complex problems hence the present urgent need to clas
sify problems as an important step in an overall educational
program Endeavoring to make a suitable grouping of prob
ems has been a favorite pastime of educational writers Lee
the time of Plato In most instances however it appears that
they have been more interested in setting up appropriate areas
for classifying our present world of subject matter than o
suggesung areas or studying need The statement of the
Ordinal Principles of Secondary Education made by the
w r SOdati0n m I918 was an aempt
oZ7 T the SubJecer aPFoach to education and
to place emphasis upon the learner and his problems The
statement suggested that education should contribute to i
health 2 command of fundamental processes 3 worthy
Iziztr 4ocadon5 S3
ed that d5 Z Wnhy of leisure time It was intend
ed that all education contribute to each of these principles
In practice however these principles were interpreted in
such a way as to become merely new ways of organizing subject
oTLltIaterlhrS or epical clSct
Tm A f heiS 3nd Scho1 ganizations were built
ah d Th PnndpIeS r bJeCtiVS aS to b
hisacenhTPTentahZad0n and Cnfusi0n resuing
tendon and phlISPh and Practi have demanded the at
tention and concern of American educational leaders for twen
tyfive years Recent educational literature is full of sugge
nons for classifying needs The Proposals for L Revfion
ng 0Mf SchoHo1 srdards
motionalftT f 0 Psica1 intellectual and
Sophy oflif V0CtinaI and develPing a
philosophy of hfe or point of view Many of these more
recent divisions could be used for classifyingVoblemt
24We believe however that the philosophy expressed in this
chapter makes necessary a new classification of needs along
lines somewhat different from those usually made If we
really mean to base an educational program on the tensions
or problems of individuals and groups and to guide them
toward the attainment of the ideals of democracy we must
study the individuals in their personal living in their primary
group relationships in their secondary group relationships and
in their economic activities
A few years ago the committee on Science in General Edu
cation11 suggested a classification of needs With some major
adaptations this classification is used here
I Problems of personal living
A Personal health
B Acquiring the tools of learning
C Creative expression
D Choosing a vocation making vocational choices
II Problems of primary social relationships
A Home and family living
B Neighborhood living
C School living
III Problems of secondary social relationships
A Government
B Organized groups
IV Problems of economic relationships
A Earning a living
B Utilizing money and other resources
There may be other categories just as serviceable as bases
for organizing problems The virtue claimed for the above
mentioned classification is that it is in agreement with psycho
logical and sociological divisions of needs
A brief description of each of the four categories may be
helpful
Problems in personal living
There is no thought here of attempting to isolate the indi
vidual from his environment That would be foolish On the
other hand observations of individuals of all age levels inter
JTnce in General Education New York D AppletonCentury Company 1938
P 25 25acting with their environment point to the fact that certain
problems arise which are largely individual Choosing a diet
an occupation recreational activities trying to read a book
or a sign writing a letter making a kite creating a picture
and building a house are a few specific examples It is believed
that most of the problems of personal living may be classified
in the following areas x Health 2 using the tools of
learning 3 creating things and ideas and 4 choosing an
occupation b
Problems of primary social relationships
These are problems growing out of facetoface contacts
Sociologists characterize the primary social relationships as
those having facetoface contacts an unspecialized character
of association relative permanence a small number of per
sons involved and relatively great intimacy among participants
Persons of all age levels experience tensions emerging from
these relationships These tensions probably come largely
from 0 home d family living 2 neighborhood livinj
coulibe mng Ma Pl f specific problems
could be listed but two or three will illustrate the type Plan
ning a family budget organizing a community recreation club
and beautifying the school grounds
Problems of secondary social relationships
As a person grows out of childhood into maturity he en
Try uf Th th3t rt beynd CnfineS Pri
mary group The person becomes a part of a lamer world
made up of lnstimdons and RP g
ns WnT ChUtCthe gOVer dvic 4
t onS frat organizations business establishments and the
hke Some of these relations may approach primary relation
Sta set in EICCtlng a Pfesident of the United
States settling an issue m court procuring a pastor of the
Charles ScHbneS Sns19A33Up d U J Carr Introductory Sociology New York
26church organizing a civic club etc are a few examples of
problems growing out of secondary relationships
Economic relationships
It is recognized that economic relationships are involved in
the three categories described in the preceding paragraphs yet
it is believed that economic problems so profoundly affect the
lives of adolescents and adults that they should be segregated
for special consideration Two types of economic problems
are listed i Earning a living and 2 utilizing money and
other resources
We believe that the abovementioned grouping indicates an
organization of problems which not only is convenient and
logical as a basis for instruction but which also will assist teach
ers in putting their instruction on a basis that will achieve the
purposes of education previously outlined in this chapter
It should be pointed out that the classification is by no means
exclusive that is a problem placed in one category extends
over into many other areas For example the problems of
family living listed as emerging from primary social relation
ships certainly extend over into all other relationships and into
personal living The listed divisions are merely convenient
categories for locating and classifying problems The solution
of any one problem reaches into all aspects of living
Chapters IVVIII in Part II of this manual suggest pro
cedures for implementing this philosophy in comprehensive
educational planning and development
27Chapter III
PROCEDURES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING ANn
DEVELOPMENT ON COUNTY AND LOCAL IEVELS
and communities The Panel staff leader wiltoA Z
following groups The county board of Xation 7
ssteachersLstees ftw
dwping a Felt Need roR Educational Dewu
only when ETwho 2 TZ T
cern for its solution On8 ft probenl have a real cen
ts to stimu ate d he groups Ltll ft fader
dearly the need 5 f f J
m many ways Bew are a fewTg be dM
i Picture situations existino in h 5Scions
for ri V have
StaSpJ v done through
3 SSESsome ndKirable situri cm
4 Focus attention upon a situation lu
gready improved Tji
Establishing Relationships
velopment Board and the p Md Indl De
28ing the answer but that of organizing materials that may be
helpful in finding an answer to the problem at hand and of
leading the discussion of the members of the group to an
orderly and systematic solution based upon the facts and in
formation available The leader should also serve as a co
ordinator of the several groups in the communities and county
and should assist in setting up countywide committees to con
solidate the conclusions of the several groups into a unified
system plan He should also devote a part of his energies to
implementing the plan as it is formulated
Discovering Problems
The staff leader after devoting considerable study to pub
lic education in the county and local communities should aid
the planning groups in discovering the major problems of edu
cation that should receive consideration Some progress has
been made in arriving at these problems Representatives from
these counties at the summer school workshop concluded that
at least four major problems should receive consideration
i The program of the school 2 administrative organiza
tion 3 pupil transportation and 4 school buildings There
may be many others
Determining the Groups to Be Reached
One of the first tasks faced by the leader in the county will
be that of determining the kinds of groups with which to deal
It is believed that on the county level the following groups
are interested in educational planning or can be led to become
interested
1 County level
a County board of education and superintendent
b Principals
c Committees of trustees
d Committees of laymen
e Special groups such as the Health Department Library
Service and the like
292 Local level
a Teachers
b Adult groups of lay citizens
c Selected highschool pupils
d Bus drivers
e Special groups
shouW prceed as folows in workin P
prigkLprns to in md
to asume some
3 Organize a planning group to deal with the problems
4 pirnsotcS0 tWnk thf0Ugh Prblems and date
trits8rUP intCreSted 3nd d solving
b doroCto draw inferences e
C ZcoIcluZs0 infCrenCeS
d Leading the group to arrive at conclusions and to develon
and to initiate a plan of action P
The Use of the Manual
berlnnf001 iS for P staff mem
bers supervisors superintendents principalsand other lea
places emphass upon the democratic waof life
lin conte 7 f T f
plannir The alr hHCCdUreS h SP
and niyfive e 1 thtT TeTg
below The chaPrs are listed
Chapter V Bjjjfa the Mviduas and fc
30Chapter V Planning a Program in the Problems of Personal Living
Unit i What Kind of Health Program Should the School Pro
vide
Unit 2 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to
Assist Individuals in Acquiring the Tools of Learning
Unit 3 What Kind of Program of Creative Expression Should
the School Provide
Unit 4 What Kind of Program of Occupational Guidance
Should the School Provide
Chapter VI Planning a Program in the Problems of Primary Social
Relationships
Unit 1 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to
Deal With the Problems of Home and Family Living
Unit 2 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to
Deal With the Problems of Neighborhood Living
Unit 3 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to
Deal With the Problems of School Living
Chapter VII Planning a Program in the Problems of Secondary
Relationships
What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to Deal With
the Problems Arising Between Individuals Organized
Groups and Governments
Chapter VIII Planning a Program in the Problems of Economic
Relationships
Unit 1 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide in
Assisting Students to Deal With the Problems of Earn
ing a Living
Unit 2 What Kind of Program Should the School Provide to
Deal With the Problems of Utilizing Money and Other
Resources
Part III Planning the Program of County and Local School
Administration contains outlines content and procedures for
planning administrative problems of the county and local
school unit There are seven chapters in this Part The
titles of the chapters follow
Chapter IX Planning an Administrative Organization on County
and Local Levels
Unit 1 What Administrative Unit Should Be Set UatQ Serve
This County
31
Unit
2
Unit 2 What Administrative Organization Should Be Set Ud
Within the Local School System
Unit 3 What Should Be the Size of the Attendance Units in
the System
C1Xer n PlanninS a Prgram for Financing the Schools
What Program Should Be Formulated for Financing the Schools
or the County or System
ZT XIwflanpning a Program for peratingthe Scho
Unit What Program Should Be Developed for Efficient Busi
ness Operations
Unit 2 What Program Should Be Developed for Efficient Plant
Uperation and Maintenance
CUnrXILP1Ting 3 cTm fr the Sch0Gl Persnnel
pZrShouId Be Develped in Relation
DeteIoPerdf3m InStrUCtional Supesion Should Be
Chapter XIII Planning a Program of Public Relations
Planning the Physical Plant to Provide for the
school Program
Planning a Program for Pupil Transportation
Part IV Basic Data Needed in Educational Planning con
tains census and other factual data needed for sound educa
pZrlfZJ T Try lVeI in the Manual
forThe it fi lSP0t CUndeS USefuI and essal
tor the specific county but would have little or no value for
planning groups in other counties For leaders other than
m the spot counties this Part may provide sugge donsofthe
kind of data to procure and how to organJtheiu for USe
nisheT 1 am HI and IV are limited d will be fi
nished only upon request
Unit 3
hapter
Chapter XIV
Chapter XV
32I OF GEORGIA LIBRARIES
3 21D6 Q54BM 4013