John Ross (a.k.a. Cooweescoowee)

b. October 3, 1790 - d. August 1, 1866

Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation for nearly forty years, John Ross was one of the most astute negotiators and dedicated leaders of his era. Born in the Cherokee Nation of Scottish and Cherokee descent, Ross had connections to both Indian and white worlds. His fluency in English, political skill, and steadfast commitment to the Cherokee Nation resulted in his emergence as a leader. Although he was a controversial figure, Ross remained popular among a majority of Cherokees throughout his career.

In 1813, during the Creek War, Ross fought with the federal forces against the Red Stick Creeks. Shortly afterward, he began his political career, traveling to Washington, D.C. and participating in diplomatic proceedings as part of a Cherokee delegation. He would become expert in such negotiations during his lifetime, making many trips to the capital and defending the autonomy of the Cherokee Nation, arguing against further land cessions and removal, and insisting on payments due from past treaties. Ross became popular with Cherokee leaders Path Killer and Charles Hicks, rising to the position of President of the Cherokee National Council in 1818. After the deaths of these men in 1827, Ross was chosen as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, during the first election held in accordance with the Cherokee Constitution. Ross served in this capacity until his death in 1866.

The most challenging period of Ross's career was the decade of the 1830's. While the Cherokees were struggling to repel the encroachments of Georgians, Andrew Jackson's administration began unrelenting pressure for Cherokee removal, introducing the Indian Removal Bill (enacted 1830). As anti-Indian legislation and violence increased, a faction of prominent Cherokees (including Major Ridge and Elias Boudinot) came to believe that removal was the only option for the nation. Ross, who remained optimistic and continued his negotiations with the United States, was increasingly viewed by the pro-removal faction as autocratic and unreasonable. On December 29, 1835, without Ross's knowledge or approval, the removal advocates signed the Treaty of New Echota, relinquishing the Cherokee homeland for land west of the Mississippi River. Ross continued to fight against removal, arguing that the treaty was fraudulent, but he was ultimately unsuccessful and forced removal of the Cherokees began in 1838. The Cherokees were treated with brutality, and approximately one-fourth of the people perished during the Trail of Tears (among them Ross's wife). Despite the chief's attempts to heal and unify the nation in the west, civil unrest and factionalism continued, culminating in violence that lasted through the U.S. Civil War. Ross participated in the negotiations that followed the war, but did not live to see their conclusion.

This portrait of John Ross by Charles Bird King appears in McKenney and Hall's History of the Indian Tribes of North America, a copy of which is part of the De Renne Collection at the University of Georgia's Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

William McIntosh (a.k.a. Tustunnuggee Hutkee or White Warrior)

b. 1775-78(?) - d. April 30, 1825

Prominent Creek warrior and Speaker of the Lower Towns, Chief William McIntosh was an instrumental figure in southeastern politics during the Creek War and removal era. During that critical period in Creek history, McIntosh's associations and activities initially brought him the respect of the people, but ultimately resulted in his own death. Situated as a leader, McIntosh belonged to the politically central Creek town of Coweta and the prestigious Wind Clan of his mother, Senoya. He was raised by his mother and uncles in accordance with Creek custom and had minimal contact with his Scottish father, Captain William McIntosh. However, McIntosh was not without insight into the world of the whites and was literate in English. This enabled him to make an impression on both his Creek colleagues and United States officials during a Creek delegation's trip to Washington D.C. in 1805, when he eloquently debated with President Jefferson over the establishment of a federal road through Creek territory.

As his presence in politics increased, McIntosh tended to align himself with Benjamin Hawkins, U.S. Agent to the Creeks. Hawkins's policies of acculturation were not embraced by many Creeks, particularly those of the Upper Towns who tended toward nationalism and traditional spirituality. The growing factionalism within the nation was further exacerbated in 1811 when Tecumseh visited, inspiring many of the Upper Townspeople to fight white encroachment and embrace ancestral ways. Animosity toward McIntosh developed during this time because he led a police force of Creeks that was established by Hawkins to suppress such uprisings. When the Creek War broke out in 1813, McIntosh fought with the United States against the Red Stick Creeks. His power and influence increased as he displayed adroitness as a commander and warrior. In 1813, McIntosh became the Speaker of the Lower Towns, and he was commissioned as a general in the U.S. Army during his service in the first Seminole War.

In the years following his military service, McIntosh's career was marred by his close association with the disreputable Indian agent David B. Mitchell (Governor of Georgia, 1809-1813, 1815-1817), and he fell out of favor with Creek headmen such as Little Prince. McIntosh was censured by the Creek National Council for signing the Treaty of Indian Springs in 1821. A few years later he was "broken" as Speaker of the Nation for defying Creek anti-cession laws, having engaged in private talks with U.S. treaty commissioners. When federal officials pressed for further negotiations in 1825, McIntosh was warned against selling Creek land. Despite the admonitions of Opoithle Yoholo, McIntosh signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, 1825, illegally ceding millions of acres of Creek land to the U.S., including nearly all of the territory within the limits of Georgia. McIntosh was well aware that the penalty for his action was death, so he requested protection from his cousin, Georgia Governor George M. Troup. On April 30, 1825, a party of Creeks sent to execute McIntosh converged on his plantation, known as Lockchau Talofau, and killed him.

This portrait of William McIntosh by Charles Bird King appears in McKenney and Hall's History of the Indian Tribes of North America, a copy of which is part of the De Renne Collection at the University of Georgia's Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

Sequoyah (a.k.a. George Gist, Guess, or Guest)

b. 1770-76(?) - d. 1843

Famous for his ingenious creation of the Cherokee syllabary, Sequoyah is the only person known to have independently invented a written language. Sequoyah was born in the town of Tuskegee in the Cherokee Nation. His mother was Cherokee and his paternity is uncertain, although it is generally accepted that Gist was the surname of his father. Educated in the traditional Cherokee manner, Sequoyah had little knowledge of written language systems. Stories about Sequoyah indicate that he was a talented man of superior intellect: inquisitive, creative and sagacious. He engaged in trade and craftsmanship of various types but was best known for his excellent silversmithing. Sequoyah fought against the Red Stick Creeks during the Creek War and was occasionally involved in political negotiations.

Sequoyah developed the syllabary from 1809 to1821. Utilizing a systematic process of trial and error, he rejected several methods of assigning symbols to the Cherokee spoken word before arriving at syllabic representation. His first attempt was to create pictures of creatures in the natural world whose vocalizations mimic the sounds of speech, but this became too complex. Next, he began to make signs for whole words which meant creating thousands of characters. Determining that this system was as cumbersome as the first, Sequoyah attempted to create characters that represented spoken syllables. He spent time listening to people speak in order to collect all of the syllabic sounds in the language and matched these to arbitrary symbols. This approach was successful and resulted in a writing system of 85 characters that is brilliant in its simplicity. Although it is said that Sequoyah was often shunned and ridiculed during the years when he was so focused on his invention, the Cherokees embraced him as they realized the benefits of the syllabary.

After he had perfected his system, Sequoyah set out to introduce it to the people. His first pupil was his young daughter, who learned quickly. While many were initially skeptical, Sequoyah's efforts at demonstrating the practicality of writing were soon successful. The system was so sound that many young people learned it in a few days, and within a year much of the nation was literate. Some works, especially those of a Christian nature, were translated into Cherokee, and in 1828 a newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, began publication. The Phoenix was printed in both English and Cherokee and was boldly political in an era of virulently anti-Indian and pro-removal sentiment.

In 1824, Sequoyah was nationally honored for his contributions to the Cherokees and awarded a silver medal, and in 1828 as part of a delegation to Washington, D.C., he received much attention from the public. Shortly before his death, he was awarded a yearly pension by the Cherokee Nation that was subsequently paid to his wife.

This portrait of Sequoyah by Charles Bird King was painted during his diplomatic trip to Washington, D.C. in 1828 and is the only extant image of him. It appears in McKenney and Hall's History of the Indian Tribes of North America, a copy of which is part of the De Renne Collection at the University of Georgia's Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

Text by Tara Hottenstein