STATE c^ __ ^'ICi * >- mm SftVAf^NAH STATE COLLEGE UBkAK| "^ STATE COLLEGE BRANCf fiBK^lM ^. -\ SAVANNAH, GA. ^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from LYRASIS IVIembers and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/facultyresear1921965sava f r "^ ^ FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION of The Savannah State College Bulletin ^^ STATE COLLEGE L/B... I^^TATE COLLEGE BRANCH ' Volume 19, No. 2 December, 1965 Published by SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE STATE COLLEGE BRANCH SAVANNAH, GEORGIA u o'S^ Us Editorial Policies Which Govern The Savannah State College Research Bulletin 1. The Bulletin should contain pure research, as well as creative writing, e.g., essays, poetry, drama, fiction, etc. 2. Manuscripts that have already been published or accepted for publication in other journals will not be included in the Bulletin. 3. While it is recommended that the Chicago Manual of Style be followed, contributors are given freedom to employ other ac- cepted documentation rules. 4. Although the Bulletin is primarily a medium for the faculty of Savannah State College, scholarly papers from other faculties are invited. FACULTY RESEARCH EDITION of The Savannah State College Bulletin Published by The Savannah State College Volume 19, No. 2 Savannah, Georgia December, 1965 Howard Jordan, Jr., President Editorial Committee Blanton E. Black J. Randolph Fisher Mildred W. Glover Joan L. Gordon Elonnie J. Josey Charles Pratt Forrest O. Wiggins John L. Wilson, Chairman Articles are presented on the authority of their writers, and neither the Editorial Committee nor Savannah State College assumes responsi- bility for the views expressed by contributors. Contributors Raymond Pace Alexander, Judge of Commons Pleas Court, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Alma C. Allen, Professor of Romance Languages, Norfolk Division, Virginia State College (On leave), Bluefield State College, West Virginia Venkataraman Ananthanarayanan, Professor of Physics and Mathematics Sarvan K. Bhatia, Professor of Economics Clyde W. Hall, Professor and Head of Industrial Education Miles W. Jackson, Jr., Chief Librarian, Atlanta University, Georgia John W. Jordan, Instructor of English Elonnie J. Josey, Associate Professor and Librarian Sheldon Marcus, Educational and Vocational Counselor, New York Public Schools Charles Pratt, Professor of Chemistry Kamalakar B. Raut, Professor of Chemistry Robert D. Reid, Dean of Faculty Tommie M. Samkange, Associate Professor of Psychology, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama Philip D. Vairo, Associate Professor of Education and Chairman Department of Education, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte Nazir A. Warsi, Professor of Mathematics and Physics 1 67294 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 60-53452 Preface Through the publication of the Faculty Research Bulletin the Committee on Faculty Research affords the faculty and staff an opportunity to share with their colleagues their academic endeavors and accomplishments. The use of research methods to solve institutional, as well as indi- vidual problems, is a desirable characteristic of college faculties. Therefore, the publication of this bulletin has served as a stimulus for encouraging new contributions and interests. It is hoped that this bul- letin will encourage and stimulate the present contributors and other members of the staff to initiate and/or continue studies which pro- vide for better educational opportunities here at the College and in the fields of higher education. Moreover, an active growing faculty helps students to develop habits that lead to continuous growth. The ultimate goal of the Administration, Faculty and Staff of Savannah State College is to upgrade the intellectual tone, as well as strengthen ourselves and our students academically, thereby molding a firm foundation from which to continue to build an Institution second to none. This issue of the Bulletin lends itself to this objective. How^ARD Jordan, Jr. President Table of Contents Page On the Dependence of O-H Bond Length in Hydrogen Bonded OH O Systems Venkataraman Ananthanarayanan 6 An Approach to the Fiction of Miguel de Unamuno Alma C. Allen 10 The Problem of Theoretical Approach in Economic Investigation Sarvan K. Bhatia 15 The Development and Status of Industrial Arts in Georgia Schools Clyde W. Hall 22 Synthesis of 4:6 Thio 1, 3, 5-triazine Derivatives [1] Kalmalaker B. Raut 29 Flow Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock Wave Nazir A. Warsi 31 AbiUty Grouping: Pros and Cons John Wesley Jordan 34 In Our Other America Raymond Pace Alexander 50 Isolation of Lignoceric Acid from Acorns Charles Pratt 58 Why Climb Mount Parnassus Miles M. Jackson, Jr 60 An Appraisal of a Pre-Freshman Summer Program Robert D. Reid 65 Desegregation and Library Education Elonnie J. Josey 72 4 Table of Contents (Continued) Page Certain Condensation Reactions with Copper Powder as a Catalyst Kamalakar B. Raut 78 Qualifications of College Teachers: 1918- 1962 Philip D. Vairo 80 A Study of the Second Year Female Academic Probates at Tuskegee Institute Tommie M. Samkange 90 Experimental Studies Exploring the Effectiveness of the Group Method in Counseling Philip D. Vairo and Sheldon Marcus 108 Thermodynamic Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock Wave Nazir A. Warsi 112 Development Planning Under Democracy: The Case of India Sarvan K. Bhatia 116 Synthetic Preparation of Apiose from Dihydroxy Acetone Charles Pratt 126 Deflection of Streams Behind a Curved Shock Wave Nazir A. Warsi 131 On The Dependence of 0-H Bond Length on The 0-0 Bond Length in Hydrogen Bonded O-HO Systems by V. Ananthanarayanan Introduction In recent times several experimental and theoretical studies on the hydrogen bonded O-H O vibrations have been made. During the studies on such vibrations in carboxylic acids made by the author [1, 2], certain interesting evidences relating to the O-H bond length (r) in monomeric and dimeric carboxylic acids were observed. The location of hydrogen atom positions by conventional x-ray diffrac- tion methods is usually accompanied by uncertainties and thus the estimation of the O-H bond lengths by other methods capable of giving more certain bond lengths is of great interest. Vibrational Spectra Data The lowering of the O-H stretching frequency (^oh) from its free or unbonded value ofoo3600cm-^ in the vapor state to lower values due to the hydrogen bond formation is well known. Thus when the 0-H...0 bond length (R) is about 2.6 A, theS/oH fre- quency is c-^ 2000cm-^. The correlation of the '^/qh and R have been extensively used to judge the strength of the hydrogen bond. Studies made on the vibrational spectra of carboxylic acids show that one observes characteristic frequency due to O-H bond at 2.84/i (3521 cm-^) in monomers and at 3.25 /x (3073 cm ^) in dimers, lowered due to the formation to the hydrogen bonds between the acid dimers. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VALUES r, R and ^^OH IN HYDROGEN BONDED SYSTEMS Empirical correlations of the interdependence of r, R and 'S/qh values are available in the literature [3]. While many potential models which treats the vibrational spectrum of the hydrogen bridges are available, the one developed by Lippincott and Schroeder [4] is most successful in explaining the various aspects of 0-H...0 Systems. The author applied this model to explain the low frequency hydrogen bridge vibrations in carboxylic acids [1] with considerable success. 6 This force field visualizes the hydrogen bond to be made up of two bonds O (I) H. . .(II) O where bond I is equivalent to a slightly stretched typical covalent bond and the bond II is a weak bond which is equivalent to a highly stretched bond. The hydrogen atom is located along the line of centers between the two oxygen atoms making up the bond and a repulsive Van der Waal's potential and an attractive electrostatic potential is assumed to exist between the two electronegative atoms of the hydrogen bond. Through the appli- cation of conditions describing a stable equilibrium the following expression has been derived by Lippincott and Schroeder: r-r. --(1) where R = equilibrium distance r = equilibrium length of bond I = 0.96x10-8 cm = r,;==: equilibrium length of bond II n = a constant of potential function for bond I = 9.18 x 10^ cm-i b = repulsion constant of the potential function = 4.8 X 108 cm-i r = length of bond I r*= length of bond II = (R-r) n*=: gn, where g = 1.45, and n* being the constant of potential function for bond II. This equation is suitable for calculating Ar i.e. (r-ro) as a function of R by the method of successive approximations. Similar expres- sions for the relationship between 2-^ OH and R have been reported and extensively used. For greater details the original papers should be referred to. There are several ways in which the observed "Z^ Oh frequencies could be used to calculate the OH bond lengths in monomers and dimers. First a diatomic model with the reduced mass of the O-H bond could be used to calculate the stretching force constants (Kqu) of the OH bonds in dimers and monomers. The simple relation for this is as follows: -(2) where C = velocity of light jx = reduced mass of the system These values of KoH could be substituted in the Badger's relation [5], ^ where C^ and d^ are constants, tabulated by Badger, which depend on the atoms forming the bond. The force constants were calculated to be 6.85 x 10"' dynes per cm in the monomers and 5.21 x lO'^ dynes per cm in the dimers. Substitution of these values in the Badger's relation leads to the O-H bond length values of 0.98 A in monomer and 1.04 A in the dimers. There is one very interesting evidence for such bond length changes available in literature. In the case of the diatomic O-H the vibrational and rotational constants for the electronic states are well known. Fortunately for two electronic states the values of the stretching frequencies and the internuclear distances are known very precisely [6]. They are as follows: 3735 cm-^ and 0.9706 A in the 2x1 state; 3181 cm-i and 1.0121 A in 2 2: "^ state. The "frequency dif- ference" A'2^ oh = 554cm"^ is fairly close to the case under con- sideration in our discussion. The value A r for this change of fre- quency corresponds to 0.042A. Substitution of these frequencies in relation ( 1 ) gives the results that A r could be as much as 0.044A for this order of change in OH frequencies. This is easily verified since Z\ r values for relation (1) as function of R and2^0H are tabulated at convenient intervals by Lippincott and Schroeder. Due to favorable scattering factors of hydrogen atoms, neutron diffraction studies are of great help in locating hydrogen atom posi- tions in molecules and crystals. Such studies on many O-H O bonded crystals have been reviewed by Hamilton [7] . It had been proposed that the following type of relation connecting O-H and O O bond lengths is generally valid: r(O-H) = 1.574 - 0.2145R(O O) (3) Although precise, comparably accurate, individual O-H bond lengths for monomers and dimers are not available, it is well known that the O-H O bonds in many carboxylic acid dimers are reported to be 2.65 A long. The data used to formulate relation (3) has been also plotted in the form of smooth curve relating R and r by Pimentel among others [3]. 8 Such curves predict that in a non bonded case O-H bond length is as low as 0.96A. From these data also it seems the actual O-H bond length changes involved may be as much as 0.05A. Conclusion There seems to be considerable evidence derived from diverse types of experiments supporting the view that the O-H bond lengths in car- boxylic acid dimers and monomers differ as much as 0.04X. References [1] V. Ananthanarayanan, Spect. Chim. Acta., 20, 1964, 197-210. [2] V. Ananthanarayanan, Proceedings of the Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, 1964. [3] G. C. Pimentel and A. L. McClellan, The Hydrogen Bond, W. H. Free- man, San Francisco (1960). [4] E. R. Lippincott and R. Schroeder, J. Chem. Phys. 23 (1955), 1099; Hydrogen Bonding p. 361. Pergamon Press, New York (1959). [5] R. M. Badger, J. Chem. Phys., 3, (1935), 710. [6] G. Herzberg, Spectra of Diatomic Molecules, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1963. [7] W. C. Hamilton, Ann. Rev. Phys. Chemistry, 13,(1962), 19. An Approach to the Fiction of Miguel De Unamuno by Alma C. Allen The unifying element in the fiction of Miguel de Unamuno is the realistic attitude toward man's existence. The world is made not so much for objective commentary as for inner conflicts and emotions. Further Unamuno reduces the world of emotions to the struggle against annihilation. This broad sentiment, undergirded by a pre- occupation with death, pervades all his novels. In Niebla the failure of reality to conquer unreality is death; in Amor y Pedagogia the irreconciliation between life and scientism is tragedy; Abel Sanchez is death by passion; La Tid Tula epitomizes human and spiritual conflict; Ties Novelas Ejemplares illustrates the drive from self identi- ty to death; finally, San Manuel Bueno, Mdrtir is the unsuccessful confrontation with the problem of immortality of the soul. Certainly, the predominant negativism and the preoccupation with suffering and death join each novel to its successor and all to one central idea. The form is the novel; yet it is to the philosophy rather than the artistic form that the author attaches importance. With Unamuno a prerequisite is a study of his early impressions, for early problems begun in his youth were further accentuated in his mature years. Miguel de Unamuno was born in Bilbao, a town where, in the mid-nineteenth century, ruralism and civic and spiritual conflicts were at great heights. The leaders of Bilbao, rebelling against the concept of Spain as an idea, were liberal workers for mild social and rehgious reforms. Unamuno was born in 1864 which meant, chronologically, th^t the first of the interminable civil wars had ended (1833-1840). The Second Carlist War which Unamuno witnessed covered the years 1870 to 1876. The brutal violence of a community divided against itself greatly disturbed the author. So great was his psychic scar that Paz en la Guerra (1897) is the verbal rendition of the bombardment and liberation of his birthplace. The struggle between the Liberalists and Monarchists grew for two decades, and became an obsession with Unamuno. Eager for a new message, Unamuno was a reaction against narrow patriotism, the orthodox, and national disintegration. 10 II The largely autobiographical Paz en la Guerra (1897), the long novel on the Carlist War (1874), was to share with his countrymen the native tradition. On the one hand, realism abounds in the long passages of the land and the people. On the other, the novel, while part of the author's realistic concept, is the only one which does not belong to his pessimistic, agonizing philosophy of the later years. ^ Amor y Pedagogia came a few years after the Carlist novel in 1902. Avito Carrascal, attempting to gain scientific perfection for his son Apolodoro, encourages absurdities from Fulgencio Entra- bosmares, the scientist. In the end the son commits suicide, an ob- vious failure. Amor y Pedagogia is unconvincing. To the detriment of artistic details, the novelist ridicules science, though Barea con- tended "the distortion of science [was] the 'killing force'.- Before the third novel appeared twelve years later, Unamuno had been appointed to and relieved of the position as Rector of Salamanca University. Vida de D. Quijote y Sancho (1905) and Del Senti- miento Trdgico de la Vida en los Hombres y en los Pueblos (1913) were already gathering momentum. To some extent Unamuno had come into his own in 1898, for the 'generation' was now accepting his points of view. By this date, too, Unamuno was championing the 'inward tradition'. When Niebla appeared in 1914, therefore, it was projected against a political and intellectual storm. The author had succeeded as the 'despertador de las almas durmiendas'. Niebla belongs to this struggle of the eternal conflict. By method, it refuses conventional emphasis upon character-portrayal and setting. Again, by method, it seeks its own genre the 'nivola'.'^ By content. ^The keynote of peace within sombre despair is apparent throughout the story. The varied quotations below will illustrate sufficiently: "Pedro Antonio sentia una calma grande, como no la habia sentido desde la muerte de su hijo, una calma que le llenaba el espiritu de la libertad del aire, de la serenidad del cielo . . ." [Unamuno, Miguel de, Paz en la Guerra, (Libreria de Fernando Fe Carrera de San Jeronimo, 1897) p. 319.] "Empezo el pueblo a gustar la paz como la salud el convaleciente; volia todo a su cauce antiguo, a sus casas los emigrados e iba a recobar lozania la vida del trabajo, y a re-enquiciarse los negocios en suspense. . ." [Ibid. p. 324] The following passage shows the author's probable contradictory stand. However, war may be regarded as a means toward the end of peace. "Paz . . . paz . . .; la paz puede ser una apostasia, un pacto nefando con el infierno . . . i No, paz no!" guerra con- tinua a los enemigos de Dios ... el grito de Julio IT 'fue'^a los barbaros!' Todo eso de religion de paz, hay que entenderlo ... Nuestro Sefior Jesucristo no vino a meter en la tierra paz, sino espada y fuego, lo dijo el mismo. vino a poner disension y guerra y a dividir a los de cada casa . . . i Paz, paz!, si, con Dios y consigo mismo, pero guerra, guerra continua contra los malos . . ." [Ibid. p. 328.] Compare the idea in the above quotation with this: "La guerra ha sido siempre el mas completo factor de progreso . . ." [Unamuno, Miguel de, Del Sentimiento Trdgico de la Vida, Espasa Calpe, Argentina, 1950, p. 94.] -Barea, Arturo, Unamuno, Bowes and Bowes. Cambridge, 1952. pp. 19-20. ^Unamuno, Miguel de, Niebla, Renacimiento, San Marcos, Madrid. Chapter 31. 11 Niebla develops great interplay between reality and unreality. Augusto Perez, the hero, speaks often thus: "Y la vida es esto, la niebla. La vida es una nebulosa."^ From the artistic point of view the story, like some others, lacks strength. Besides, the philosophical theme had been used many times before, even by the author himself in an essay called "La Vida es Sueno" (1898). The main thread of the story stems from Augusto Perez, unrealistic in his unrequited love from Eugenia, a pianist, who herself is in love with the irresponsible Mauricio. As if in a dream, Augusto is pushed into a foolish offer of marriage of presumed mutual benefits. Eugenia solves the financial problem and elopes with her lover to blast the hopeful dreams of the hero. One may comment upon Tres Novelas Ejemplares (1920), though the three are novelettes. Included are Dos Madres, El Marques de Lumbria and Nada Menos que Todo un Hombre, the latter perhaps the best-known of the group. In both Dos Madres and El Marques de Lumbria, the willpower resides in the heroines. The last novelette, by strong contrast, embodies strong willpower in an eccentric hus- band who, when he brings about the death of his unsuspecting wife, is himself strangely conquered by lack of will. Abel Sanchez and La Tia Tula appeared in 1921. These two novels, in addition to San Manuel Bueno, Mdrtir, may be his best. The three are the best integrated, the most human, and the most acceptable as novels in the conventional use of the word. Abel Sanchez, being patterned after the Cain and Abel theme, shows the successful painter Abel Sanchez as the constant object of jealousy by Dr. Joaquin Monegro, the sensitive but intelligent 'brother'. By spuming Joaquin's earnest offer, Helen creates greater cause for envy in accepting marriage to Abel. The plot increases with torture, suffer- ing, and frustration. When Abel's insult upon Joaquin causes the latter to shock him into death, Joaquin becomes Cain. From this point on, he never recovers.^ Though the question of immortality is laid bare, passionate hope outweighs any despair given, and there is enough substance to satisfy the mind, the last element in the author's search for truth. Hbid. p. 33. ^Lessons on human frailties are evident in such passages as the following: "Titulariase Memorias de un medico viejo y seria las mies del saber del mundo, de pasiones, de vida, de tristeza y alegrias, hasta de crimenes ocultos, que habia cosechado de la practica de su profesion de medico. Un espejo de la vida. pero de las entranas, y de las negras, de esta; una bajada a las simas de la vileza humana; un libro de alta literatura y de filosofia acibarada a la vez . . ." [Unamuno, Miguel de, Abel Sanchez, The Dryden Press, New York, 1947. p. 164.] 12 In his last work, San Manuel Bueno, Mdrdr, the author again makes known his search for immortahty. Here, however, the search finds a solution in this life." Ill It is well to re-emphasize well known tendencies in the fiction of Unamuno and in terms of new ones suggested to reach a synthesis of the perspectives. Broadly speaking, the fiction of Unamuno discourses upon either an idea or a passion. In Paz en la Guerra, Amor y Pedagogia, Niebla and San Manuel Bueno, Mdrtir, if we regard the first as fiction, he has chosen the idea: war, science, reality, and immortality. In Dos Madres, El Marques de Lumbria, Nada Menos Que Todo Un Hombre, Abel Sanchez and La Tia Tula, it is passion; the first two novelettes and La Tia Tula are motivated by the maternal instinct and willpower, the third novelette by willpower, and Abel Sanchez, by jealousy. Unamuno's subject matter is confined, to be sure, to human suf- fering. However, it is equally true that he deeply dramatizes death. His insistence on both attributes makes for a general overtone of frustration, gloom, and unhappiness. Such is the exterior world about which Unamuno writes. Generally speaking, the interior world is a duplication and is pursued according to a 'pseudo-literary' method. Indeed, the leading characters are plagued by conquering obsessions and frailties. Con- sequently, the dream conquers Augusto Perez; scientism destroys Apolodoro; blinding willpower makes murderers out of Raquel and Caroline; and jealously destroys life's meaning for Joaquin. There is one exception: San Manuel Bueno. Yet, Unamuno's preoccupa- tion with a sick humanity still serves as a generalization. The unifying element in all the fiction is man's earthly existence. Various aspects of human life are explored in this perspective. His emphasis ends in man's hunger for immortality which he was to develop at length in 1913. Philosophy of human endeavor was equated with uncovering the truth and the thirst for preservation for immortality. Prior consideration has been given the likelihood that Unamuno through his fiction will fulfill his probable expectation to arouse in more and more men the importance of man's preserva- tion. What the author communicates is challenging to serious minds, but even to them the overwhelming indulgence in philosophy, how- ^Observe, then, the following lines: "Hay que vivir! Y el me enseno a vivir, el nos enseno a vivir, a sentir la vida, a sentir el sentido de la vida ... El me enseno con su vida a perderme en la vida del pueblo de mi aldea, y no sentia yo mas pasar las horas, y los dias y los anos, que no sentia pasar el aqua del lago. Me parecia como si mi vida hubiese de ser siempre igual. No me sentia envejecer. No vivia yo ya en mi, sino que vivia en mi pueblo y mi pueblo vivia en mi." [Unamuno, Miguel de, San Manuel Bueno, Martir, Espasa Calpe, Argentina, South America, 1951. pp. 56-57.] 13 ever praiseworthy and scholarly, his difficult language, and his con- stant repetition markedly decrease the possibilities of impressing num- bers of people. Again the author's determined lack of consideration for literary form has created a serious impasse. Yet, one does not deny all value to the message. Unamuno reveals an astonishing awareness of human problems. A prolific writer of distinct vitality, he established connections with the intelligentsia in his unswerving concentration of mind and of purpose. These qualities largely account for an influence which has been tremendous in the past few years. It seems destined to continue. IV Unamuno's anti-monarchial, anti-materialistic, anti-intellectualist stand has been given, and his attack upon superstitutions and un- thinking has been well documented. Perhaps, less well developed is the author's treatment of evil. The literary technique is interesting, for it is not the symbolic representation of evil as was the case, for example, with Melville's Moby Dick or Camus' La Peste. There is scholarly agreement that Camus' La Peste, by means of a bubonic plague of epidemic pro- portions, states the interaction between man and evil as one universal force. Captain Ahab's exciting, painful pursuit of the white whale, moreover, is but man's struggle against the problem of evil. Both Camus and Unamuno are moderns, but the Spaniard's internalization of emotion is uppermost. Unamuno the psychologist puts man the individual in the position of showing stage by stage what goes on in the human mind during mental stresses. A daring challenge against feeble convictions or exaggerated pas- sion shocks the reader into new sensibiHties. The reader becomes involved in the probing of an emotional crisis. He is more apt to know what is happening than to tolerate or be in sympathy with the character. In Hugo's Les Miserables or Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov the emotional experience broadens the reader's sense of humanity. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin and Dickens' Nicolas Nickelby are said not only to mirror but also to influence society or history. Contrasting sharply with these authors, Unamuno shows evil in its most dominant form; it is then to become a force to action. Thus is described the anatomy of evil made simultaneous with a sense of urgency. Analysis of evil must share equal advantage with the cre- ation of tolerance or with critical appraisal of the role of death. 14 The Problem of Theoretical Approach in Economic Investigation By Sarvan K. Bhatia What is the nature and the source of theory? How is it related with facts? Can we consider a fact without relating it to other facts? "Facts by themselves are dumb; before they will tell us anything, we have to arrange them and the arrangement is a theory" argues Clay.^ According to Schumpeter, "Our science cannot, any more than others, dispense with that refined common sense which we call 'theory', and which provides us with the tools for approaching both facts and practical problems."- A fact cannot be considered in isola- tion; the need for theory to analyze and interpret the data, statistical and factual, seems obvious. The true relation between facts and theory is a complementary one. Accordingly, we find that there is no "true" answer to the question, "which comes first in the scientific process, fact-gathering or theorizing?" They progress together. Broadly speaking, the theory is both an arrangement and interpre- tation of facts, or an analysis of common behavior. What we seek thereby are the principles which may be put for future analysis. Yet, according to Byers, in the discipline of economics, the nature and the source of theory are not very generally understood. Parsons points out that economic theory is the name we give to the series of propositions which are deduced, by rigorous attention to possible implications, from the original insights formulated into propositions. "^ Theoretical work is defined by Koopmans as consisting of reasoning and the construction of premises from which to reason. The collec- tion of facts is necessarily a selective process. Ideas concerning the relationship of various facts, if stated clearly and formally so that they are testable, may be called hypotheses. They provide a standard for selection as well as a scheme for arranging facts in a useful form and order. On the other hand, ideas and hypotheses themselves are not generated in a vacuum. Observations, even if only of an informal sort, ordinarily contribute to their formation. The ultimate aim of economic study is, however, not to theorize or to analyze; it is neither curiosity nor the knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Rather, it is the necessity to explore ways and means whereby human welfare can be maximized. In order to discover the principles in the developing and fast-growing economy, more so with increased scientific innovations and technological improvements, in- vestigations have to be made and the data has to be collected, ar- ranged and analyzed. Advances in economic theorizing are made by constantly discarding the "torn-out" generalizations rendered obsolete by the revelation of facts and devising new generalizations which will cover and explain new facts. 15 In the evolutionary nature of human society, the theoretical systems are not absolute; it is rather an institutional approach. Adam Smith, whose Wealth of Nations (1776) is the germinal book of modem economics or political economy, had an atomistic view of society. To him, the society was the sum total of the people in it. Since each man can judge what is best for him better than any government, Smith assumed the prime psychological drive in man as an economic being as the drive of self-interest. Thrilled by the recognition of an order in the economic system, he enunciated the principle of the "invisible hand" or the "divine hand" whereby each individual in pursuing only his own selfish good, was led to achieve the best good for all. And combined with the existence of a natural order in the universe, he concluded from these postulates that the best system was economic liberalism. On the other hand, Commons believed in the early twen- tieth century that the individuals are not self-sufficient, independent entities and the society is not the summation of the individual mem- bers. "Individuals are what they are through their participation in the institutions or going concerns of which they are members."* Thus, the ideas of Commons are grounded in his conception of social relations and accordingly he proceeds from a postulate of the economy as a social organization rather than as a mechanism or organism. It follows from above that there has come to be recognized a differ- ent premise for economic theorizing. The traditional theoretical structure was considered to explain adequately the economic condi- tions of earUer days. But as time lingered on, the evolutionary process brought in new problems which demanded a new look; the older theories dealing with earlier cause-and-effect relations of economic phenomena in general could not cope with new economic problems and they had to yield before new economic analysis. The old economic theorizing, then, became a past historical interlude. The new eco- nomic outlook required a fresh, coordinated interpretation and so a change was enunciated in the realm of economic thought. The change in premises, therefore, requires fertilization of thought which grows out of a fresh attack upon new developments and a new theoretical structure is erected. These theories not only bridge the gulf between the basic economic theory and economic policy but also help in the formulation of new economic policies based upon the changed economic environment. For example, institutionalism uses the theory of capitalism as a springboard for recommendation of economic policies in an institutional set-up. It stands for a unified economic theory, instead of diffused ones, for various fields of econ- omy. The need for change is justified because of the change in environments from the time when traditional theories were formu- lated. In Veblen's view, it is not that the economists' inquiry isolates material civilization from all other phases and bearings of human culture and so to study the motions of an abstractly conceived "eco- nomic man". On the contrary, he points out that no theoretical in- quiry into this material civilization that shall be at all adequate to any scientific purpose can be carried out without taking this material 16 civilization "in its causal and genetic relations to other phases of the cultural complex."^ But a study which is exclusively to be concerned with human nature under given and stable institutional conditions can achieve statical results only. An adequate theory, on the other hand, has of necessity to deal with man's habitual relations to his fel- lows in society. An individual always lives in a social relationship. Being of an institutional character, these social and habitual relations vary as the institutional scheme varies. "The wants and desires, the end and aim, the ways and means, the amplitude and drift of the individual's conduct are functions of an institutional variable that is of a highly complex and wholly unstable character", writes Veblen.'' A question may be asked as to why the change is enunciated in the economic sphere. Or, to phrase the question slightly differently, why changes have to be made in economic analysis? Since economic analysis reveals the rules and principles of economic relationships under given circumstances, a part of the answer lies in the fact that because of the complexity of human and social behavior, it is diffi- cult to obtain the kind of precision in economic theoretical framework as is being obtained in a few of the physical sciences. An economist simply cannot perform the controlled experiments of the chemist or biologist. The laws and principles of economics, therefore, are not as universal as are some of the laws of physical sciences. And a part of the answer is also to be found in the evolutionary and developing nature of social sciences and the basic assumptions made therein, although the physical sciences are also not quite immune from this process. Newtonian theories have become obsolescent with the new discoveries made by Einstein and others and with the new concepts of space, time, and nuclear physics. The science of physics has de- veloped and progressed, and many of Newton's basic assumptions and their derivative theories, held for a long time as authoritative, have now been discarded. So is the case with scientific point of view between pre-Darwinian and post-Darwinian times. In case of social sciences, which cannot be subjected to harsh, rigorously-controlled laboratory system, the changing pattern of life and habituation have much to explain for changing emphasis over the course of years. The characteristic feature by which post-Darwinian science is contrasted with what went before is a new distribution of emphasis whereby "the process of causation, the interval of stability and transition be- tween the initial cause and and definitive effect, has come to take the first place in the inquiry instead of that consummation in which causal effect was only presumed to come to rest."" This change of the point of view was not abrupt or catastrophic. According to Veblen, because the prime postulate of modern scientific inquiry is of consecutive change, it can come to rest only provisionally. Things change consecutively, and therefore every goal of research is necessarily a point of departure. This implies that there cannot be anything static; it has to be evolutionary and transitional. The human life is a dynamic one, and the social sciences being en- gaged in its behaviorial aspects have to take due cognizance of it. Because of its transitional character, any theory based on its premises 17 could at best be a transitional one. The need for change with the evolution of society and economic progress is, therefore, apparent. Although the institutionalists have a different approach to economic problems, they do not repudiate basic economic theory. The funda- mentals of traditional economics, and also of the neoclassical eco- nomics, are accepted, but are put in a larger setting of the evolving economic system. Clark has, as the end-product of his scientific analysis, a theory of our mixed enterprise system whose proportions of public and private enterprise change with the times. According to Hamilton, the value theory, aside from some accidental statements regarding the organization of industry upon the principle of free competition, is a specialized subject of inquiry with as little right to the dignity of economic theory as the theory of money or of ac- counting. He lays down five tests for any body of doctrine which aspires to be an economic theory and points out that only the insti- tutional economics meets these tests 1. Economic theory should unify economic science. 2. Economic theory should be relevant to the modern problem of control. 3. The proper subject matter of economic theory is institutions. 4. Economic theory is concerned with matters of process. 5. Economic theory must be based upon an acceptable theory of human behavior.^ According to Commons, the early nineteenth century economists patterned their work upon the materialistic sciences of phvsics and chemistry, instead of on a volitional science of the human will. It was formerly considered, as stated above, that individuals acted like atoms. This factor has since undergone a transformation. "The free bargain- ing transactions among individuals were the legal foundations of the early science of economics."^ These have increasingly been replaced by collective action. As Commons puts it, "Collection action means more than mere 'control' of individual action. It means liberation and expansion of individual action; thus, collective action is literally the means to liberty."^*^ This collective action was condemned by classical economists, and even court decisions till a few decades ago have been against collection action in many countries. Similarly, the banking and credit system has replaced the barter economy of traditional economics. Free competition and its under- lying assumptions are no more valid in the modern world. Instead, Commons has come forward with five assumptions or hypotheses after his experience in collective action. These are sovereignty, scarcity, efficiency, futurity, and custom. According to him, these are logical assumptions made for the purpose of attaining systematic interpretation and understanding in a world of diversity. These are therefore the mental tools for purposes of investigations and are con- sidered as elementary assumptions with which human beings un- consciously or habitually guide their economic activities. At the same 18 time, Commons recognizes that each individual, each race of individ- uals, each corporation or labor union is a special case where only special investigations can ascertain and explain the relative predomi- nance of the several simplified assumptions which serve as clues or mental tools to enable the investigator to find his way. We have thus observed different points of view: those advanced by the classical economists and also those found in the neoclassical and institutional economics. In all fairness to the classical economists, it can be stated that they were also seeking to explain the broad basic principles as they perceived economic environments. Smith's principles and their elaboration, the notion of "divine hand" which guides each person in pursuing his own gain and thereby to contribute to the social welfare, Malthusian theory of population, Ricardian theory of rent, to name only a few, have since been modified. For example. Smith's notion of "divine hand" led him to believe that any interference with free competition by government was almost certain to be injurious. While Smith did recognize some of the realistic limita- tions on this doctrine, it was not until later that the economists dis- covered the truth: the virtues claimed for free enterprise are fully realized only when the complete checks and balances of "perfect competition" are present. As Max Lerner has pointed out that al- though the Wealth of Nations is undoubtedly the foundation work of modern economic thought, yet you can pick it to pieces and find that there is nothing in it that might not have been found somewhere in the Hterature before and nothing that comes out of it that has not to a great degree been punctured by the literature that followed." A person's thinking is shaped by his inward beliefs, conscious and/or subconscious, and there are as many preconceptions as postulates. For instance, taking the case of Ricardo, we find that he assumed as permanent and universal the physical environment, social organiza- tion, industrial techniques, and human nature, as he saw it in England and yet his system was not "perfect" as pointed out by Newman. However, Ricardo made a great start in systematizing economic theory. And again, the problems and premises change over the course of time. At the time Adam Smith wrote his masterpiece, the chief economic problem was man's struggle to conquer nature in the pro- duction of material wealth. As a matter of fact, historically, the pro- duction of goods and rendering of services has been the most impor- tant and pressing economic problem. Through his historical career, man has labored hard to produce the necessities of life, becoming an expert in "brinkmanship" in the process. In the period following Adam Smith, the problem of production continued to be an urgent one, but it became overshadowed by the problem of distribution. Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817, sets forth as its aim the discovery of the principles that govern the distribution of national incomes among different classes of society. Just as the opulence of modern times has diminished the urgency of the problem of production, so it has made possible great contributions to the solution of the problem of distribution. Neither production nor distribution is however, any longer the economic problem in the west- 19 em world, though it continues to be the single most important problem in a large number of countries in the world. On the other hand, in the modern view, the basic problem is how to allocate given resources among different uses so as to maximize consumer satisfaction. And though Malthus had developed the concept of "effective demand", a century passed before Keynes brought it to the public notice, and it stirred the imagination of the people. The concept of effective demand could not gain wide popularity because of the "lack" of knowledge of economic problems and their complexities. Yet in spite of all their deficiencies and shortcomings, the science of economics is proud of its founders. The basic reason why economics was not an evolutionary science is that the requisite premises and the point of view had been wanting. According to Veblen, "the process of change is a gradual one: economic science began with the study of what had happened in the past, then moved to what is now happen- ing in the present; finally, it is concerned with the hopes and fears of what may be expected to happen in future time."^^ The classical economists were not clear cut on these time dimensions. All of them took past, present, and future for granted, without investigation, just as time was taken for granted in the physical sciences** before the incoming of the recent theories of relativity. Commons has pointed out that one reason why early economists did not separate out future time for special investigation in their theories of value was the as- sumption, taken from the physical sciences, that "cause precedes effect . . . labor precedes its product, sensations precede action . . . But here is an effect that precedes its cause. "^^ In conclusion it can be stated that economic theories reflect the thinking of persons as they perceive the economic environment. f **Dr. Vannevar Bush, honorary board chairman of M.I.T. says that as a matter of simple fact "science never proves anything in an absolute sense. It ac- cumulates data by observation and measurement. From an assemblage of such data the scientist constructs a hypothesis, a formula that expresses the relationships he finds." As soon as further observation shows that the working hypothesis is faulty, it is replaced by another which seems more nearly cor- rect. "Fortunately, scientific endeavor does not have to be perfect to yield results. The magnificent structure of dynamics was based on a differential calculus that was logically full of holes." Kepler's laws explaining planetary motion were based on calculations now shown to be mere approximations. Even the Euclidean underpinnings of Newton's iron law of gravitation have become only one of the possible systems of geometry. For future details, see Times, The Weekly Magazine, Vol. 85, No. 19, May 7, 1965, p. 81. fThe small band of U.S. thinkers who are today developing "process theology" believe that the way to discover a God compatabile with the findings of physics and psychology is to assume that God himself is in a process of change and growth. See Times, Ibid., p. 68. Dr. Bush points out that many people believe that "scientists can establish a complete set of facts and relations about the universe, all neatly proved, and that on this firm basis men can securely establish their personal philosophy, their religion, free from doubt or error." All this, however, is a crass mis- conceptions. Dr. Bush explains that so exaggerated a faith in the powers of science is a residue of a naive 18th century belief in absolute "Laws of nature, based on observation and measurement." Times, Ibid., p. 81. 20 These are influenced by their preconceptions and inward beHefs, conscious and/or subconscious, and these are seldom, if ever, sub- jected to searching examination. As the evolutionary process goes on, the "old" theories have to be modified because of the changed nature of problems and their premises. The old assumptions have to be discarded, and new ones have to be worked out. All institutions are subjected to evolutionary development and growth. Theorists and theories are products of their own times. To under- stand them, we must understand their environmental context. References 1. Henry Clay, "Facts and Theory in Economics", in Paul A. Samuelson, ed. Readings in Economics (New York, 1958), p. 9. 2. Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1949), Preface p. x. 3. Kenneth H. Parsons, "Discussion of Institutional Economics Paper", American Economic Review, vol. 47 (May 1947), p. 24. 4. John R. Commons, The Economics of Collective Action (New York, 1959), p. 32-106. 5. Thorstein Veblen, 'The Limitations of Marginal Utility", in Journal of Political Economy, vol. 17, (November 1909), p. 5-12. 6. Ibid, p. 6. 7. Thorstein Veblen, "The Evolution of the Scientific Point of View", Uni- versity of California Chronicle, vol. 10, (May 1908), p. 5. 8. Walton H. Hamilton, "The Institutional Approach to Economic Theory", American Economic Review, vol. 9 (March 1919), pp. 309-318. 21 The Development and Status of Industrial Arts in Georgia Schools by Clyde W. Hall The rise of industrial arts in Georgia has roughly followed the same course it has taken in many other states, but probably during its early years at a much slower pace. The retardation of this pro- gram during its formative stages in Georgia can be attributed to many things, but possibly its greatest obstacles were caused by the economic structure and cultural composition of this state. It is well known that Georgia was a major cotton producing state long before and after the Civil War, and that its people possessed many deep-seated agrarian ideals which have, until recently, hampered the industrial development of the state with the largest land area east of the Missis- sippi River. Industrial arts, being an urban industrial subject, has remained for a long time in the shadows of agricultural education in Georgia; however, it has evolved from manual training as conceived in the late 1870's by Calvin M. Woodward and John D. Runkle, and has passed through the manual arts stage of Charles A. Bennett to its present form here the same as it has in other states. This educational evolu- tion had its beginning in Georgia at Atlanta University in 1883. At which time, Clarence C. Tucker introduced manual training to the male secondary pupils of that private Negro institution for its edu- cational and exploratory possibilities. His three-year program con- sisted of a combination of courses in woods and metals which met seven and a half hours per week and included basic hand tool opera- tions in those areas. This program was so successful that a three- story brick structure was erected to house it in 1884 and it became a required subject of all male students at that school.^ Charles H. Ham- made a study of manual training in the United States between 1883-1898 and found 101 public high schools in 23 states, 54 public primary schools in 20 states, 35 private schools in 12 states, and 17 pubhc normal schools in 14 states offering manual training to predominately white student bodies. However, only one of these schools was located in Georgia and that one was Georgia Normal and Industrial College at Milledgeville, Georgia, which is now called Georgia State College for Women. This institution has a very rich history of pioneering in the practical arts. The law passed in ^W.E.B. DuBois, ed.. The Negro Artisan (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1902), pp. 33, 61. -Charles H. Ham, Mind and Hand: Manual Training the Chief Factors in Education (New York: American Book Company, 1900) pp. 387-395, 397- 401. 22 1889 establishing this college specified that first class normal and industrial training should be provided college women at this institu- tion. Manual training was established there in 1891, and Ham found during his investigation that 15 teachers taught this course and 284 pupils were enrolled. This institution, in 1906, was also the first institution in the South to offer home economics as a normal course and to award a diploma in this area. As late as 1922, the President of Georgia Normal and Industrial College reported to the State Depart- ment of Education that persons were being graduated from his insti- tution qualified to teach manual training.^ Between 1883-1898, Ham^ reported that 69 institutions for Negroes in 21 states and the District of Columbia offered manual training to their students. Eight of these institutions were in Georgia and were private institutions supported mainly by agencies outside the state. The presence of manual training in so many more Negro institu- tions than whites in Georgia during this early perod can be attributed mostly to the following three factors: 1 . The activities of this discipline generally followed closely many of the jobs which Negroes performed as slaves on the planta- tions before the Civil War. Generally speaking, they were the artisans of this region at that time, and there was a feeling among many former plantation owners of this state and others that this tradition should be continued. 2. The private schools which offered this work such as Atlanta University, Spelman Seminary, Ballard Normal and Industrial School, and Beach Institute were primarily financed by philan- thropists from the North who had industrial backgrounds which caused them to have a feeling for this type of education. These people established funds which fostered industrial training in many Negro schools during this period. The John F. Slater Fund is a typical example of this. It was established in 1882 by a wealthy manufacturer from Connecticut for the purpose of aiding southern school authorities with the development of comprehensive systems of schools for Negroes.^ Many manual training programs in Negro institutions were chiefly funded by this source between 1 882-1903. "^ However, when this money was withdrawn at the close of the above period, practically all these manual training programs went out of existence and those in Georgia were no exception. 3. Possibly the greatest impetus given manual training in Negro institutions near the turn of the century was an address de- ^ Fifty-First Annual Report of the Department of Education to the Georgia Assembly of the State of Georgia for the School Year Ending December 31, 1922, p. 221. *Ham, op. cit., pp. 396-397. ="The John F. Slater Fund," Southern Workman, LXII (June, 1933), 280. "Willard Range, Tlie Rise and Progress of Negro Colleges in Georgia, 1865- 1949 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1951), p. 75. 23 livered by Booker T. Washington, founder of the famous Tuskegee Institute, at the Cotton State Exposition in Atlanta in 1895. This occasion hfted him to national prominence be- cause of his advocacy of the Negro casting down his bucket in the South and learning the dignity of labor and the thrift of honest toiU However, there was some opposition to Washing- ton's philosophy but many manual training and trade programs came into existence because of it. Even though Georgia passed appropriate legislations in 1858 and in 1868 to establish free schools in the state, very little was done in this regard until the adoption of the Constitution of 1877. At this time, provisions were made to earnestly support elementary schools for both races through taxation and other means. '^ The first evidence of statu- tory support for manual training in Georgia schools came from the Legislature in 1885. Legislation authorized and recommended school boards to introduce manual training in the public schools, but it had very little practical effect in either the Negro or white schools.^ The first significant form of manual training in white public second- ary schools appeared indirectly in the twelve congressional district agricultural and mechanical schools established in 1906. The Honor- able H. H. Perry, of Gainesville, introduced a bill in the State Legis- lature which provided the machinery and support for these schools to be organized in Statesboro, Tifton, Americus, CarroUton, Monroe, Barnesville, Powder Springs, Madison, Clarkesville, Granite Hill, Douglass and Cochran. ^^ These district agricultural and mechanical schools attempted to provide for the white youth of Georgia a high school education and vocational training in an agricultural environ- ment during a four year period. Prior to 1924, when the complexion of these institutions started changing because of the rapid rise of other public high schools in the state, carpentry appeared to be the best organized industrial subject offered. At times, this subject pos- sessed qualities of a manual training course, and, at others, it ap- peared to be purely a vocational course organized to help these schools build and maintain their physical plants. Between 1924 and 1933, six of these institutions went out of existence and six were advanced to institutions of higher learning. Georgia Southern College at States- boro, which came into existence as the First District A. & M. School, had a mechanical course which has developed into one of the leading industrial arts programs of this state. With the coming and passing of World War II, and with a great migration of persons from rural areas to the urban centers, Georgia started shifting from an agricultural state to an industrial empire. ^E. Davidson Washington, Selected Speeches of Booker T. Washington (Garden City, Doubleday, Doran and Company, Inc., 1932), pp. 31-36. "John C. Meadows, Modern Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1946), pp. 139-141. *Ham, op. cit., p. 403. ^Fifty-First Annual Report, op. cit., pp. 22, 31. 24 Georgia, as well as the entire nation, became conscious of the many disadvantages of the little red school house with its rich history and pleasant memories, and began initiating programs to consolidate its schools into larger and more meaningful educational units. In 1949, Georgia passed a Minimum Foundation School Law which has revo- lutionized education in this state, and industrial arts has been a part of this revolution. ^^ The acceleration of industrial arts programs under the Minimum Foundation School Law can be greatly attributed to the tranquility and cooperation which exist in Georgia between the people in indus- trial arts education and those in vocational education. The Georgia Division of Vocational Education has given industrial arts its unusual support and has included it as a facet of its activities. Because of the hostility which exists between these two groups, such a union is almost unthinkable in many other states. An example of this cooperation was vividly exhibited in 1952, when the Division of Vocational Education discovered during an in- vestigation that 90 percent of the new school buildings approved under the Minimum Foundation School Law had no planned facilities for industrial arts, although a School Building Authority was estab- lished under this Law to insure the construction of modern school buildings for up-to-date functional educational programs. As a result of the concern of the Division of Vocational Education, a committee was formed of state officials, teacher trainers, school superintendents and industrial arts teachers to study this problem and take action concerning it. This committee, after making a careful study, de- veloped and distributed a bulletin containing recommendations for industrial arts facilities in the public schools of this state. ^- These recommendations in a revised form were later included in the State Department of Education's publication A Guide for Planning and Construction of School Facilities in Georgia, which is widely used by local school officials and architects when planning new school plants. Practically all new secondary school plants now constructed in this state have some facilities for industrial arts. Another great step forward in industrial arts in Georgia was taken when the Division of Vocational Education in 1958 created the posi- tion of Consultant for Industrial Arts and employed Raymond S. Ginn, Jr., as its first consultant. This office has nurtured this subject in the public schools by collecting and disseminating information con- cerning this area, by assisting with the certification of industrial arts teachers, and, above all, by administering the unique equipment aid program for industrial arts which was started in 1960 with a $20,000 allocation from the Division of Vocational Education and grew to a fund of $200,000 in 1964 to be matched by local school systems for the purchasing of industrial arts equipment. ^^ Donald F. Hackett, "The Status and Need for Industrial Education in Geor- gia" (Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, The University of Missouri, 1953), p. 9. "^'Ubid., pp. 9-10. 25 The technical complexion of industrial arts in the secondary schools of this state has been shaped largely by institutions of higher learning within its borders. The entrance requirements of these schools, as well as their graduates, have determined to a great extent the areas of specialization in the industrial arts programs at the secondary level. Mechanical drawing has recently become a very prominent indus- trial arts course in the secondary schools of the urban centers, largely because of entrance and curricular requirements at Georgia Institute of Technology. At one time, drafting was stressed in engineering education and was a skill one expected to develop while enrolled in a professional engineering curriculum, but today engineering schools, and Georgia Tech is no exception, expect freshmen to possess certain basic drafting skills when they enroll. This being true, many young- sters in the large cities of the state have requested drawing as an elective in their secondary programs because of their interest in Georgia Tech. The industrial arts offerings of the high schools of Atlanta and DeKalb County vividly reflect this need. Savannah State College has almost singlehandedly shaped the tech- nical content of predominately Negro industrial arts programs. A vast majority of the Negro industrial arts teachers in this state were graduated from Savannah State College since World War II. Even though this college was founded in 1890 under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 and introduced a manual training course as early as 1892,1^ it conferred its first degree in industrial arts under the umbrella of industrial education in 1948. The author was the re- cipient of that degree. To a great extent until 1961, graduates of this industrial education program had received mostly specialized vocational training in auto mechanics, masonry and woodwork, and these were the areas which they most frequently established in the industrial arts programs in Negro secondary schools where they worked. However, this situation began changing in 1960 when the equipment aid program promoted the introduction of the areas of metals and electricity and the composite industrial education program at Savannah State College was replaced in 1961 with specialized programs in industrial arts education; trade and industrial education. Donald F. Hackett,^^ in his study of industrial arts programs in white schools of this state in 1952-53, revealed that most of the teachers in these programs were graduated from Georgia Southern College (Georgia Teachers College), Martha Berry College and University of Georgia, and the most frequently offered course was a general shop course with a woodworking core. This course reflected greatly the offerings of the above schools at that time, and as these institutions have diversified their programs, a greater variety of tech- nical content can now be found in general shop courses in the pre- dominantly white secondary schools of this state. ^^Range, op. cit.. p. 72. i-'Hackett, op. cit., pp. 21, 31. 26 The approved program approach for the certification of teachers in Georgia has greatly helped to expand and standardize industrial arts substance in all schools of this state. This system necessitates the establishment of criteria governing pre-service educational pro- grams of teachers. These criteria are developed by personnel from the teacher training institutions in the state, in cooperation with public school officials and teachers, and the State Department of Education staff. They are used by the State Department of Education to approve or disapprove teacher training programs. Once a program is approved, graduates of the program are automatically certificated when they are recommended by the institution involved. Criteria for industrial arts programs under the above arrangement were first developed in 1953 and were later revised during the early part of 1964. The current criteria require institutions preparing in- dustrial arts teachers to make all candidates functional in drafting, woods, metals, electricity-electronics, and power mechanics or graphic arts. These candidates are expected to teach the above technical areas in grades 7, 8, and 9 as exploratory and discovery experiences and in grades 10, 11, and 12 as occupational preparatory training for some learners and foundation training for advanced study for others. These standards will plot the course and shape the destiny of industrial arts in Georgia schools for several years to come. 27 Selected Bibliography Bennett, Charles A., ed., Vocational Education, Vol. II (Peoria: The Manual Arts Press, 1913). Bowden, Willie C. "A Survey of Course Offerings in Industrial Arts in the Negro Public Junior and Senior High Schools of Georgia During the Year 1959-60" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Minnesota, 1960). Clarke, I. C, Arts and Industry Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts in the United States, United States Department of the Interior: Bureau of Education, Parts 2 and 4 (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1898). DuBois, W.E.B., ed.. The Negro Artisan (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1902). Fifty-First Annual Report of the Department of Education to the Georgia As- sembly of the State of Georgia for School Year Ending December 31, 1922. Hackett, Donald F., "The Status and Need for Industrial Education in Georgia" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation. The University of Missouri, 1953). Hall, Clyde W., "A Survey of Industrial Education for Negroes in the United States up to 1917" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Bradley University, 1953). , "Development of Industrial Education for Negroes in the United States Prior to World War I," Faculty Research Edition of the Savannah State College Bulletin, XVI, No. 2, (December, 1962). Ham, Charles H., Mind and Hand, (New York: American Book Company, 1900). Meadows, John C Modern Georgia (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1946). Orr, Dorothy, A History of Education in Georgia (Chapel Hill: The Uni- versity of North Carolina Press, 1950). Range, Willard, The Rise and Progress of Negro Colleges in Georgia 1865-1949 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1951). State Department of Education, A Guide for Planning and Construction of School Facilities in Georgia (Atlanta: Division of Administration and Finance, 1961 ). "The John F. Slater Funds." Southern Workman, LXII (June, 1933). Washington, E. Davidson, Selected Speeches of Booker T. Washington (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran and Company. Inc.. 1932). 28 Synthesis of 4:6 Tliio 1, 3, 5-triazine Derivatives (I) by Kamalakar B. Raut The present work describes the synthesis of 4:6 thio 1,3, 5-triazine derivatives for biological studies, by condensation of 1-ethyl dithio- biuret with different aromatic aldehydes. The reaction takes place as follows : C2H5 I N =/^ H-N H + H N-H C2H5 N OH H-N N-H II S Ethyl dithio- biuret Salicylaldehyde Y 1 -ethyl-2-O-hydroxy phenyl 4:6 dithio 1, 3, 5-triazine Experimental A mixture of ethyl dithiobiuret and salicylic aldehyde [1:1] in ethanol was cooled to 0C. Dry hydrogen chloride gas was passed through this mixture for thirty minutes. The reaction mixture was poured in IN sodium hydroxide, warmed to 50 and filtered. The filtrate was acidified with dilute acetic acid and cooled overnight. The solid that precipitated was separated by filtration and crystallized from ethanol or ethyl acetate. Similarly, other derivatives were prepared. 29 With ethyl dithiobiuret, the following aldehydes were condensed. Aldehyde 1 . Salicylaldehyde 2. m-hydroxy benzaldehyde 3. m-chloro benzaldehyde 4. p-tolu-aldehyde 5. Veratric aldehyde 6. 5-Bromovanillin 7. VanilHn 8. Anisaldehyde 9. p-dimethylamino benzaldehyde Further work is in progress. M.P. of the Product 228 =C 171 =C 230 =c 227 =c 226 =c 224 =c 226 =c 227 =c 222 =c 30 Flow Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock Wave by Nazir A. Warsi 1. INTRODUCTION The jump conditions for the flow of a perfect gas in Lagrangian Coordinate system is given by [1] (1-1) [u'] + K^/k]x' = (1-2) [|)]+h^/[u'Jx''=0 (1.3) tev^;+i] = o In order to determine the flow parameters behind the shock wave we take help of the idea of the shock-strength. The strength of the shock is defined as the ratio of the change in any flow parameter from the backside to the frontside to the flow parameter in front of the shock surface. The idea of shock strength is important from the physical point of view as it determines whether the shock is weak or whether it is to die out soon. As the values of a parameter in two regions approach one another, the discontinuity is removed and the shock dies out. According to the definition of the shock strength if F is a flow parameter, we have (1.4) 8f/=:f]/fv where [F] stands for Fo^ Fi. In particular the specific volume strength Sz/ is given by (1-5) Sc/=[cVci/ 2. FLOW PARAMETERS. We have the following theorems. THEOREM: 2.1: The law of conservation of mass in terms of Sc/is given by (2.1) nu']=-L/83/^i/x' PROOF: In virtue of (1.5), (1.1) gives (2.1). COROLLARY 2.1: The equations (2.1) are equivalent to (2.2)a [Un.] = - L/ S^/ ^1/ or ' / ' ' (2.2)b CUh/]= Sc/ Vin/ 31 or and ^ ' (2.3) [Uj] . PROOF: Multiplying (2.1) by X' and summing with respect to i, we get (2.2)a. With the help of the relation -hn/^L/ =Viri/ , equation (2.2)a gives (2.2)b which is evidently equivalent to (2.2)c. Multiplying (2.1) by x',^summing with respect to i and using the fact that (2-4) X1^X'=0, we get (2.3). COROLLARY 2.2: For a stationary shock wave, we have (2.5) CUrx/> Sr/Um/ __ PROOF: For a stationary shock wave Urv/= Therefore, putting \/tn/'-UArv/ and\4/i=U.dL/i in (2.3 )b, we get (2.5). THEOREM 3.2: The law of conservation of momentum can be put in the form (2.6)a Ct)l--kn/ Szf "^V (2.6)b Ll=-krv/ hx,/ Vlh/ (2.6)c [:^>-kn/Sc/Vi/iy.' which, for the stationary shock, reduces to (2.7)aC|o>-U/ 53/ Um/ or . . (2.7)bi:|.>-Kh/ 8c/Ui/i)C' PROOF: Multiplying (1.5) by X' and summing with respect to i, we get (2.8) i:f]+kn/ CUh/J-U which, in consequence of (2.2)a gives (2.6)a. Equation (2.8) also gives (2.6)b if the value of C Un/l is substituted from (2.2)b. Obviously, (2.6)b is equivalent to (2.6)c. For a stationary shock, Vlh/ = Ulh/ and Vi/i -Ul/I Hence, (2.6)b and (2.6)c reduce to (2.7)a and (2.7)b respectively. THEOREM 3.3: The law of conservation of energy at the shock surface can be put in the form ^ (2.9)aCIJ=-Ji U/^z/(5^/i-2)'^l/ or o (2.9)bri]=--k Sv (Sc/ + ^; Vin/ 32 or or which, for the stationary shock, reduces to (2.10) cn = -i 83/(s^/t2) uiV/ .PROOF: (1.3) gives (2.9)a if (1.5) is used. The relation -Wr\/'^i/ = Viv\/ reduces (2.9)a to (2.9)b. For a stationary shock Vin/= U. in / Hence, (2.10) is obvious from (2.9)b. THEOREM 3.4: The specific volumes on the two sides of the shock surface are related by the equation (2.11)aCTl^ -^ Vin/ or (2.11)br2:i= -M- Vi/i V Kn./ which, in the case of a stationary shock, reduce to (2.12)ar2.:= -^ ULm/ or ^"^Z (2.i2)bCrl= -ii/ ULiAX' PROOF: Substituting ?i/ = - N/in/hn/ in (1.5), we get (2.11)a which is obviously equivalent to (2.1 l)b. For a stationary shockVm/^ Um/ and Vi/i=Ull/i Hence, we get (2. 12) a and (2.12)b. THEOREM 3.5 : In the case of unsteady flow of a poly tropic gas is given by, %z/ ^ ^ ; r. ^ (2.13) S^/ -SrTi 'kn/^ ^i/ PROOF: In the case of a polytropic gas, the energy and specific enthalpy equations are written as and ' (2.15)I^/ = e,/ + K/^^/ respectively. (2.15), by virtue of (2.14), gives which gives (2.17) CIJ-^^ Cf^r]. If T^ / , \i x/ and [I] are eliminated from (2.17) with the help of (1.5), (2.6)a and (2.9)a, then an equation containing Sz./ and the flow and thermodynamic parameters of region 1 / ,is ob- tained. This equation gives the value of ^z / as shown in (2.13). References 1. Warsi, N. A. (1965) On Geometry of Shock Waves in Lagrangian Co- ordinate System. Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin. Vol. 18, No. 2. 2. Mishra. R. S. On Stream Lines With Reference to a Shock Surface. Pro- ceedings of National Institute of Sciences. Vol. 26, No 6. 33 Ability Grouping: The Pros and Cons by John W. Jordan The purpose of this study is to focus on a central problem in American education and society, namely, the dilemma of the group- ing of students in different classes. The scope of the study will cover many facets of the controversy surrounding the issue of ability group- ing in the American educational system. The task of determining whether it is best to group students homogeneously or heterogeneously according to ability poses two immediate problems. First, which method or type of grouping will yield the greatest possible gains for the majority of the students without any detrimental effect on others? It is the broad nature of this problem that piques the concern of educators; the concern is for the gains or advantages of all students, and not just a few that may be helped while others may be hindered. Secondly, what criterion is to be used to measure the gains of one type of grouping against another; what is the mandate or pur- pose of the American educational system; the function of the school in providing the maximum benefits for all; and the objectives, values, standards, ideals, and norms of education? The way in which students are grouped in the American school systems has a great effect on the schools, students, and society. In fact, the problem demands that the democratic idea of education be re-evaluated. Moreover, the controversy of grouping students demands that the problem be treated and delineated immediately if the educational ob- jectives within the school and society are to survive. The procedure in the treatment of the dilemna of ability grouping will be to focus attention on certain pertinent facts and studies which will reflect the pros and cons of the problem that is upsetting and challenging the rationale of the American school system. The method will be to define important terms, present the issue, survey some relevant literature concerning the problem, measure the results and findings, and draw a conclusion. In order to understand the problem of ability grouping it will be necessary to clarify three important words that will be used throughout this paper: grouping, ability grouping, and heterogeneous grouping. The word "grouping" has a broad meaning, but as it is used in this paper it has the following meaning: The act or process of combining all the observations that fall within a given range, bound by the class limits, into a single group, which is then usually treated either as if all the 34 observations in the group had the same value or as if the observations were distributed evenly over the interval.^ The synonymous use of homogeneous grouping and ability group- ing often creates confusion since the word "homogeneous" is usually used to refer to the classification of pupils for the purpose of forming instructional groups having a high degree of similarity in regard to sex, industry, age, previous experience, abihty, and other factors which affect learning. This study is concerned with homogeneity as it denotes grouping according to ability. Chester Harris defines ability grouping as one of the several devices for bringing students together on criteria of likeness or homogeneity. In ability grouping an attempt is made to divide the students into classes or within a given class according to their ability to attain. ^ The type of grouping that is compared with homogeneous group- ing is called heterogeneous grouping. It is defined by Carter Good in The Dictionary of Education as the classification of pupils for the purpose of forming certain groups having a high degree of dissimilarity.^ These terms are essential to understanding the consideration of the issue to be discussed in this paper: namely, the pros and cons of ability grouping. In the educational system of today with the current emphasis on integration of the schools and segregation of the students into special classes according to ability, it is plainly clear that the American educational system is in a state of crisis. Central to the crisis as it affects education society specifically is a national controversy; it is the controversy over how to group students for instructional purposes. Many competent teachers and educators argue vigorously for ability grouping and cite the reasons for their choice. In justifying ability grouping they say that students of widely different academic abilities and reading skills should not be in the same class. They give many valid reasons in support of their hypothesis, but not without stirring old arguments against it; reasoning that justice can only be done to the bright students and the slow students if both receive instruction in the same classes which by their nature should be diversively heter- geneous. The issue of whether or not students of like ability should be grouped together for instructional purposes has been debated for many years. There is evidence that concern in the issue of ability grouping developed around the 1900's. At that time people paid little attention to adjustment of classes, standards, or subject-matter to individual pupils. With the passing of the public school's com- ^Carter Good, Dictionary of Education, p. 256. ^Chester Harris (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research, p. 223. 'Carter Good, op. cit., p. 256. 35 pulsory school atendance law, the schools were faced with the task of educating all children. To cope with this great change in the edu- cational system, administrators tried to make adjustments by organ- izing pupils in ability groups. To identify the groups, they were usually referred to as Robins, Bluebirds, and Orioles or X, Y, and Z groups. When ability grouping first came into existence, it should be noted that teachers had little or no knowledge of child growth and learning, and individual differences. They also had very little knowl- edge of mental ability and their relation to the various school subjects and skills.'* One may ask the following questions regarding the grouping of students for instruction. Will students achieve more if they are grouped with children of about the same mental maturity and mental ability? Or are they better off in a group with varying abilities? What is better for the slow learner or for the gifted child to be with others hke themselves or in a mixed group? The evidence for these questions will be considered and answered. The first consideration will be the argument and evidence for homogeneous grouping: I. Ability grouping makes a differentiation of curriculums easier. There is a wide range of individual differences in a regular classroom ability grouping makes the teacher's task easier, and it enables him to adapt methods of teaching to meet the needs of the varying groups. II. Above average students tend to form habits of idleness, inattention, and mental laziness when in class v/ith average and below average pupils; they may develop a false sense of superiority from a lack of challenge or effective motiva- tion; and underachievement is more likely to occur in the regular classroom. III. Slower learners in separate groups are not discouraged by superiority of other, but compete on more equal terms students compete with others of fairly equal ability, and competition is keener for pupils of all groups since the students are more likely to work up to their capacities. IV. The gifted children in the regular class stimulate the average and below average children at the expense of their own learning. V. Ability grouping stimulates a new leadership. VI. Association with other pupils does not insure the de- velopment of adequate social and personal relationships students can be friends outside of the classroom.^ ^Martin Essex, "How Good is Ability Grouping?", National Parent Teachers, LIV (September 1959), 14-16. ^A. H. Passow, "Enrichment of Education for the Gifted", Education for the Gifted, Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 193-221. 36 Evidence has been secured to favor the characteristic argument of abihty grouping. Some trials of abihty grouping show favorable evi- dence, although, in the many cases, the originator of the study was the judge. The evidence and research are indecisive, and a look at some of the experiments and findings will illustrate this. Catherine Miles in her review of studies in the field of grouping declared that: The experimental work with the gifted child in which segre- gated are compared with non-segregated groups seems to point to the more favorable progress of the former as com- pared with the latter.*^ Paul Rankin reports in "Pupil Classification and Grouping" that Worlton did a study dealing with bright pupils in 1924. He com- pared 714 pupils in homogeneous classes with 426 in heterogeneous classes in one large school, with 326 pupils in heterogeneous classes in one large school which had adopted ability grouping, and with 766 pupils in heterogeneous classes. The chart on the following page presents the essential data from the study. The results of the study show that with one exception the means for the homogeneous groups were higher than the means for any of the three types of hetero- geneous control groups. The pupils in homogeneous groups excelled those in mixed groups in practically all levels of ability which were studied." It should be noted that this study is too short and the data too little to be com- pletely convincing. Furthermore, the slight advantage of abihty grouping in this study is not enough to be significant. A. G. Breiderstine presented evidence in favor of ability grouping. The data was on differentiated and undifferentiated groups. He con- cluded that pupils of high intelUgence did slightly better when in classes where differentiation is not practical than when in differ- entiated groups; pupils who are average in ability do as well in segregated as when in mixed classes. The dull pupils in differentiated classes excell in comparison with their mates in undifferentiated classes. Virtually, the study concludes that the undifferentiated were shghtly superior to the differentiated except for a few isolated grades.^ This study shows that ability grouping is not entirely advantageous for all grades it brings in a weakness that is not solved by ability grouping, that is, the study did not show advantages in ability group- ing for all students and the results are generally inconclusive. ''Catherine Miles, "Gifted Children", Manual of Child Psychology, (ed.) Leonard Carmichael, 1032. Taul Rankin, "Classification and Grouping", Review of Educational Research, Part I. (1931), 18. ^A. G. Breiderstine, "The Educational Achievement of Pupils in Differentiated and Undifferentiated Groups", Journal of Experimental Educational, Vol. V. (1936), 91-135. 37 o H O .S ^" c rG OS 60 -H (JON i ^ H <^ ca C? ^ 3 hJ s v< Levels or Jam 3 (U M 1 ^ w ^ f) lyi n c e QJ S:: o igei cor a a a-? 5 J5 C/5Q c .-d -^ u '^ 1 ^ en X 3 03 1 ' o 03 > ^ ^ S ca o ^ ^ C/3 rd o l-ol o c 1 ^ 14-1 O Eg C2 U -3 00 13 a ca 1^ c "S. 2 o o (D Vh u. 2 ii o o - q o '^ ^ ON en o T 1 vO ON r-H T 1 11 o o o m 11 00 en Ti- (N en ON o 11 in in o6 o\ d OS 00 d 11 lO (N en in On oo oo o 1 I O 1 1 '^ 11 T 1 11 11 O r- en en NO en en rt- in 00 en d '"^ = (N d On 00 ON M5 NO 00 o r 1 en 11 11 r-H 00 11 11 1 ( GO O 11 NO in 1 H NO O o oo >n in Ti- en o d 1 ( d OS ON 00 ON On IT) ^ in ON On ^H T ( 00 r4 H 1-H 11 ON m o\ o Tt en O oo' NO 0^ ON o 0\ ON 11 ON en > o cd 1 O 1 o o 1 o 1 ( 6 O en 6 m o NO NO o NO ON O V-i PLh 8 'i^ o 6 _ ^ e 3 ^ 4 2 - r^ m ro < I ON r^ in f<^ 1 ON CN r<-) ^_ n in VO r-; oo ON ON 1 o 1 oo 1 1 (N 1 o 1 oo M3 Tt 'n Poor Academic Background C Lack of Application O Poor Study Habits P^ Lack of Adjustment Figure 6. Reasons Given by Probates for Poor Academic Performance. The major influences were lack of adjustment, which was reported by twenty-eight and eight tenths per cent; lack of application, which was reported by eighteen and six tenths per cent; poor study habits, reported by twenty-three and seven tenths per cent; and poor aca- demic backgrounds, which was reported by ten and four tenths per cent of the subjects. Table 2. shows how many extracurricular activities were engaged in by subjects last year as compared to the current year. Table 2. Number of Extracurricular Activities Participated in by Fifty-nine Probates. 100 None One Two Three or More Last Year 49% 23.7% 22% 5% This Year 45.7% 31% 18.6% 5% Approximately forty-nine per cent belonged to virtually no organi- zations last year and approximately forty-six per cent belong to none this year; approximately twenty-four per cent belonged to one organization last year and about thirty-one per cent belong to one this year; about twenty-two per cent belonged to two organizations last year as compared to nineteen per cent this year; five per cent affiliated with three or more organizations last year and the same percentage affiUates with three or more organizations this year. Since approximately seventy-three per cent of the probates belonged to no more than one organization last year, it can hardly be con- cluded that extra-curricular activities had a negative influence on the academic performance of the probates; thus, the third and fourth hypotheses were refuted by the study. Other Findings Figure 7. reveals the responses of probates concerning their per- formances this year as it relates to last year. Approximately eighty- eight per cent of the subjects feel that their performance has im- proved over that of last year; ten per cent feel that they are per- forming at about the same level; and about two per cent reported that their performance level seems to be lower than it was last year. Figure 7. Probates' Performance as It Relates to that of Last Year. Table 3. indicates that approximately thirty-seven per cent of the probates' fathers are engaged in unskilled work, while twelve per cent are engaged in professional work; that approximately sixty- eight per cent of the mothers are engaged in unskilled work, and about fourteen per cent are in professional work. 101 Table 3. Occupations of Probates' Parents. Father Mother Professional Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled No response Deceased 7 6 7 22 7 10 8 5 40 2 4 Total 59 59 Figure 8. reveals that probates come from family sizes ranging from one to eleven children. The model family size is four and the average number of children is five. Figure 9. reviews the sources of financial assistance used by the probates. Nearly sixty-nine per cent depend upon parents alone for financial assistance; approximately twenty- two per cent depend on earnings from work; and approximately seven per cent depend on other relatives. 14 r f 3 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 2 9 10 11 Figure 8. 3 4 5 6 7 Number of Children Number of Children in the Families of Fifty-nine Probates. Work 22.03% Parents 69.36% Relatives 8.61% Figure 9. Sources of Financial Assistance for Fifty-nine Probates. 102 A distribution of probates according to majors may be viewed in Figure 10. The pattern ranges from a high of thirty-one per cent, in Education and twenty-five per cent in Arts and Sciences to a low of approxirriately seven per cent in both Mechanical Industries and Physical Education. These percentages have more significance when viewed in knowledge of the fact that Mechanical Industries and Physical Education combined have a population which is fifteen 6.8% Mechanical Industries ' " " 30.6% Education 6.8% Physical Education 20.2% Home Economics 10.2% Nursing \X / ^5.4% Arts and Sciences Figure 10. Comparison of Potential Drop-out Rate of the Several Schools Enrolled in by Probates. per cent of the whole; whereas Arts and Sciences and Education combined have a population which is approximately forty-nine per cent of the whole, which was 2386 as of June, 1964. Summary The purpose of this study was to discover the underlying factors contributing to the failure of Tuskegee's 1964-65 academic probates. The author began the study with the following hypotheses: (1) Many students find themselves on college probation and drop lists because they come ill-prepared, (2) because they have had little or no professional guidance in choosing their majors and educational institutions, (3) because they devote too much time and energy to the social realm of college life and too little to the academic phase, and (4) because their work obligations leave them too little time in which to adequately fulfill their academic requirements. The study involved the use of fifty-nine second year students who are currently on academic probation. High school grade point aver- ages, college entrance examination scores, and college grade point averages were utilized along with questionnaires to provide pertinent data. According to Tuskegee's "definition of preparedness," the first hypothesis was negated: ninety per cent of the subjects were "pre- 103 pared" to do college work because they had the required grade point for unconditional entrance to Tuskegee; ninety per cent fell within the average or above average stanine classes for the School and College Ability Test; and eighty-six per cent were in the upper half of their graduating classes. The second hypothesis was supported by the study because only five and seven per cents respectively had professional help in choosing their majors and educational institutions, and because of the number of students who are having their greatest difficulty in the area of their major. The third and fourth hypotheses were refuted by the study be- cause it was found that work was listed as an influence on poor performance by only five per cent of the students, and extra-curricu- lar activities was listed by only eight and five tenths per cent of the subjects. Lack of adjustment and poor study habits along with poor aca- demic backgrounds were given precedence by subjects as being areas of influence on their performance. Other interesting findings indicate that (1) eighty-eight per cent of the subjects feel that they are doing better work this year than they did last year; (2) thirty-seven per cent of the probates' fathers are engaged in unskilled work as are sixty-eight per cent of the mothers; that twelve per cent of the fathers are engaged in professional work as are fourteen per cent of the mothers; (3) the family sizes of probates ranged from one to eleven children and that the modal and average family sizes respectively are four and five; (4) sixty-nine per cent of the probates receive their financial assistance from parents, twenty-two per cent from work, and seven per cent from relatives; and (5) the Department of Education has the highest potential drop-out rate while Physical Education has the lowest (using the majors of the probates as indices). 104 Bibliography 1. Christensen, Oscar C. Jr., "A Study of the Influence of An Early Orienta- tion, Advising and Counseling Program for Selected Freshmen Enter- ing the University of Oregon." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Department of Education, University of Oregon, 1963. 2. Cook, David R. and Martinson, William D., "The Relationship of Certain Course Work in High School to Achievement in College," Personnel and Guidance Journal XI (April, 1962), 628 pp. 3. Drener, Charles L., "Similarities and Differences Between Over- Achieving and Under-Achieving Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal XXXVIII (January, 1960), 396 pp. 4. Gardner, Marion Edmund, "Predictions of Academic Success in College from Personality Trait Ratings Obtained for High School Graduates," Unpublished Master's thesis. Department of Education. University of Pittsburgh, 1958. 5. Haggard, Ernest, "Social Status and Intelligence: An Experimental Study of Certain Cultural Determinants of Measured Intelligence," Genetic Psychology Monographs XXXIX (May, 1954), 141. 6. Horrall, B. M., "Academic Performance and Personality Adjustments of Highly Intelligent College Students," Genetic Psychology Monographs LV (February, 1957), 258. 7. Ikenberry, Stanley O., "Factors in College Persistence," Journal of Coun- seling Psychology VIII (August, 1961), 322-29. 8. Jones, Edward S., "The Probation Student: What Is He Like and What Can Be Done About It," Journal of Educational Research XXXII (October, 1955), 328. 9. Mahone, Charles, "Fear of Failure and Unrealistic Vocational Aspiration," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology LX (February, 1960), 253-261. 10. Nicholson, Arthur Freas, "A Study of Student Mortality in a State Teachers College," Journal of Educational Research. Unpublished Master's thesis. Department of Education, New York University, 1960. 11. Slater, J. M., "Influences on Students' Perception and Persistence in the Undergraduate College." Journal of Educational Research, LIV (September, 1960), 217. 105 Appendix Questionnaire Name Age Date of Birth Sex: M . _ F____ Major 1. What is your father's occupation? 2. What is your mother's occupation? 3. How many sisters do you have? 4. How many brothers do you have? 5. What is your main source of financial assistance for your col- lege expenses? (Parents), (Scholarship), (.Federal Loan), ( Campus Work), (Specify Other ) 6. Do you utilize any of the other sources to supplement your main source? Yes. No _ 7. If the answer to question # 6 is yes, name the sources 8. If you entered Tuskegee on a scholarship, from what organiza- tion or institution did it come ; how much was the scholarship grant per semester ? 9. Approximately how many students were in your graduating class? 10. Approximately what was your rank in your graduating classs? 11. In what subject matter area did you have your greatest difficulty at Tuskegee Institute? 12. Did you experience difficulty in this general area in high school? Yes No 13. Have you changed your major since you have been here? Yes __ No__-... 14. If the answer to question :^13 is yes, what was your major before you changed it? 15. Who and or what was instrumental in your choice of a major? 106 16. Who or what influenced you to come to Tuskegee? 17. Do you like it here? Yes No 18. Would you like to change schools? Yes No 19. If your answer to question :#:18 is yes, what school would you like to attend? Why? 20. Was Tuskegee your first ( _), second ( J, or third (____) choice as an educational institution? 21. With what organizations did you affiliate last year? 22. With what organizations do you affiliate now? 23. Which of the following best describes your participation in areas of college life other than academic? ( not involved enough), ( _. involved enough), or ( involved too much) 24. How do you feel Tuskegee could have or should have better helped you to improve your academic performance last year? 25. Judging from your perception of your abilities, which of the following best describes your feelings concerning your level of performance during the past year? ( slightly shocked), ( moderately shocked), ( greatly shocked) 26. Which of the following best describes your level of academic performance this year as it compares to last year? (.___ about the same), ( lower ( higher) 27. What factors do you attribute to this change or lack of change? 28. What do you think were the causes of your low level of academic performance last year? 107 Experimental Studies Exploring the Effectiveness of the Group Method in Counseling by Philip D. Vairo and Sheldon Marcus Hoppock/ a leading student of occupational information, points out that the group technique has been considered by many educators less important and less effective than individual counseling. He chal- lenged this concept as an absurd hypothesis and advocated that the group method, not individual counseling, be considered the indis- pensable part of the guidance program. This article summarizes nine experiments in which the value of the group method as a technique for disseminating occupational in- formation was explored. Conflicting results from different studies indicate encouraging success in some cases and failure in others. Apparently the success or failure of disseminating occupational in- formation depends upon many factors about which the writers of this article can only speculate. The experiments are arranged ac- cording to school level. Secondary School Level Bruch- compared four classes of tenth-grade pupils at Abraham High School in San Jose, California, using one as a control group during the experimental period. No occupational information was presented to this group. A second group divided its time between activities geared toward acquiring occupational information and taking interest and abilities tests. A third group spent all of its time studying occupational information. The last group spent most of its time taking a battery of tests and devoted very little time to occupa- tional information per se. Bruch found that the pupils in the experimental groups acquired more understanding of the world of work and the advantages of- fered by particular occupations than the pupils in the control group. "^Robert Hoppock, 'Current Concepts and Status of Group Guidance in Secondary School," Paper read before the Guidance and Counseling Training Institute, University of Missouri, June 29, 1961, p. 1. (Mimeographed) -Barbara Bruch, "Vocational Plans as Influenced by Three Experimental Guidance Procedures," Abstracts of Dissertations, Stanford University (1951), 16. 108 The experimental group spending all its time studying occupational information acquired the most occupational information. On the other hand, the group spending its time taking a battery of tests acquired the least information about occupations among the three experimental groups. Cuony'^ undertook to determine whether or not the group method of disseminating occupational information would produce an amelio- ration of an individual's earning power and job satisfaction. He taught a course, Job Finding and Job Orientation, to an experi- mental group of high school seniors. He compared the experimental group with an equated control group not given occupational in- formation, in terms of job satisfaction and earning power. The combined annual earnings of the experimental group exceeded those of the control group by $7,719.00. Job satisfaction was found to be more prevalent among the members of the experimental group than those of the control group. There was less unemployment among the pupils in the experimental group than those in the control group. Four years later after the first study was made, Cuony^ again compared the same experimental group and control group used in his first experiment. The average pupil in the experimental group was earning $3,105.00 per year, while the pupil in the control group was averaging $2,614.00 per year. The combined earnings of the experimental group exceeded those of the control group for the same year of $14,226.00. The entire cost of the course to the school was $1,542.00. Dobberstein's^ experiment involved three groups of equated eighth- grade boys and girls, each consisting of 50 pupils. Two groups were exposed to occupational information. No occupational information was presented to the third group. Before and after the experiment all the pupils took tests on occupational information. The two ex- perimental groups showed significantly greater gains than the control group. Jessup*^ taught a 10-week unit on occupations to a ninth-grade class. The objective of the course was to impart occupational in- formation that would be helpful to the pupils in choosing vocations. After completion of the course, a test based upon material covered in the unit was given to all the pupils in the class. Jessup also gave the test to an eighth-grade class which had not received any occu- ^Edward Cuony and Robert Hoppock, "Job Course Pays Off," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXIl (March, 1954), 389. ^Edward Cuony and Robert Hoppock, "Job Course Pays Off Again," Person- nel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI (October, 1957), 116. ^W. P. Dobberstein, "A Study of Two Methods of Occupational Orientation for Junior High School Pupils," Dissertation Abstracts, University Micro- films, Ann Arbor, Michigan, XIII (1953), p. 1086. 'Robert Hoppock, Group Guidance Principles, Techniques, and Evaluation (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1949), p. 190. 109 pational information. From the results of the tests, Jessup concluded that a course in occupations does not impart enough occupational information to justify itself at the ninth-grade level. Kutner' conducted an experiment with two successive graduating classes at Paterson Technical and Vocational High School in New Jersey. The January class of 47 pupils was divided into an experi- mental and control group, and the June graduating class of 73 pupils was similarly divided. The January experimental group was taken on 10 occupational field trips and the June group was taken on 8 occupational field trips. The control groups did not go on any occu- pational field trips. The experiment was followed up a year later using the following criteria: (1) employer ratings, (2) weekly wages, (3) job satis- faction. Kutner found that there were no significant differences in the experimental and control groups according to the criteria. College Level Lowenstein^ attempted to discover the effects of an occupations course taken by students in high school on their adjustment to college during their first year. He found that a higher percentage of the students in the experimental group said they based their occupational selection on interviews with people in their chosen profession. Sec- ond, the experimental group chose a wider variety of occupational fields than the control group. A smaller percent of the experimental group indicated that they were influenced in making their career selection by their parents or close relatives. Hoyt^ organized three groups of twenty male freshmen each at the University of Minnesota. Each student was individually assigned by a random method to one of the three groups. The first group received vocational counseling on an individual basis; the second group participated in the group program; and the control group was not exposed to either of the two programs. All sixty of the students indicated their tentative occupational choice, how certain each was of it, and how satisfied each was with his choice before and after the experimental duration. He concluded from these samplings that both the individual and group methods were effective in producing positive changes in occupational choice. ''J. E. Kutner. "An Evaluation of Occupational Field Trips Conducted by Paterson Technical and Vocational High School in Terms of Vocational Success," Dissertation Abstracts, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michi- gan, XIII (1958), p. 2030. ^Norman Lowenstein and Robert Hoppock, "High School Occupations Course Helps Students Adjust to College," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXIV (September. 1955), 21. "D. P. Hoyt, "An Evalaution of Group and Individual Procedures in Voca- tional Education," Journal of Applied Psychology (February, 1955), 26-30. 110 Miller^ divided Fairleigh Dickinson freshmen into three equated groups of 33 each. With two groups Miller used the group method to disseminate occupational information. He left the third group without instruction as to occupational information. Before and after the experiment, all the participants took an occupational information test. The test results revealed significantly greater gains in learning about occupational information for the experimental groups. At the University of Minnesota, Stone^^ found that a course in occupational information decreased the number of students who were judged by their counselor to have made poor occupational choices in relation to their abilities. In addition, he found that a course in occupational information plus individual counseling decidedly helped improve their social adjustment. Summary The purpose of this article has been to investigate the effective- ness of the group method as a means of disseminating occupational information. This has been attempted through a careful reading of experiments dealing with the group method as a technique of dis- seminating occupational information. Nine experiments were studied in this investigation. Seven experiments, in varying degrees, cor- roborated the effectiveness of the group method as a means of im- parting occupational information; two did not corroborate the ef- fectiveneess of the group technique. Six of the experiments studied were conducted on the secondary school level and three on the college level. Recommendations This investigation revealed several areas where further study is needed. The first of these is the need for study of the group method as a technique for disseminating occupational information. Second, is the group method more or less effective than individual counseling? Third, this study has led to another important question to be con- sidered: Which are the most effective activities that will best pro- mote learning occupational information through the group method? Several additional problems that have also suggested themselves as a result of this research are : 1. When should a course in occupations be taught? 2. What material should a course in occupations include? 3. Who should teach a course in occupations? 4. Should a course in occupations be required in high school? In college? 'R. A. Miller, "Teaching Occupations Using Films and Field Trips," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXI (March, 1953), 373-375. 'C. H. Stone, "Are Vocational Courses Worth Their Salt?" Educational and Psychological Measurement, VIII (Summer, 1948), 161-180. Ill Thermodynamic Parameters Behind Three Dimensional Shock Wave by Nazir A. Warsi 1. INTRODUCTION. The author has determined the flow parameters behind three dimensional shock wave using Lagrangian Coordinate System [1]. The object of this paper is to study the thermodynamic parameters using the same techniques. 2. THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS. We have the following theorems. THEOREM 2.1: The sound velocities of the jhiid, behind and in front of the shock surface, are related by the equation or (2.1)a [ C-] = -^ ^z/(^./+0^./ V which, for the stationary shock, reduces to (2.2) [c-]= ^r^Sz/{Sy^^)u,^} PROOF: The soimd velocities in two regions are related by (2.3) [ c^] = r[\>z~i The pressure and specific volume behind the shock surface are given by [ 1 ] (2-4) Sr, = [^] Av and ' , / / Substituting the value of^w ^^^ t^^/ ^^^^ (2.4) and (2.5) in (2.3), we get (2.1 )a which, in consequence of the relation - ^ n/ Ti/ = ^1 n/ gives (2. 1 ) b. For stationary shock y-m/ - U 1 7)/ Hence, we get (2.2). THEOREM 2.2: The Mach number behind the shock surface is given by (2.6)a M = ^-^n/-^-^/ ^^/^^/ (2.6)b M = [^ Y^Ai-'Ty ^T( ^ ^ (2 6)c M - ^"^"^f ^ ^^' ^i y/ 112 / "y C^y - ^ f ^/ ^-^"^Z ^^-^ l/a ^> PROOF: From the definition of Mach number, we have (2.7) V\xr,/ = ^^'^/^y Also, the velocity behind the shock is given by [ 1 ] (2.8) [U^/J :. -1^'n//^:/^l/ If we substitute the value of C a , , U :in / from (2.1 )a, (2.8) in (2.7), we get (2.6)a which in turn gives (2.6)b in virtue of the relation d*/ =/pi/ ^2/ Using the relation -Jr.-n/^n.i ~ ^im/ and equation (2.6)a, we easily obtain (2.6)c. THEOREM 2.3: The components of obliquity behind the shock surface are given by (2.9) %,. - ^V^' ^^^^ . PROOF: The components of obliquity in a region /S / is given by , r -^ (2.10)Yy3/^= ^/V- '-^ whence, we have ^^/ (2.11) Yi/^-^1^^3^ . Substituting for U 2. /^ and Li xn / and applying the fact that (2.12) X;. x;^ = 6> , we get (2.9). THEOREM 2.4: For a stationary shock wave, we have (2.13) 7^^ + ^ - 1 where yW //?^ obliquity strength of the shock wave is defined as (2.14) Cf^i = ^v/r,/^ PROOF: Since ^H/^7/- Vjw/and V4^/ :^ Ujh / for a stationary shock, (2.9) can be written as (2.15) y^/. =: k!^^LZik_, Now, putting /?^"1 in (2.10), we get (2.16) S^a//? "t^V^ ^A/t^ay This and (2.15) give (2.17) fa/^ =fa/^/(/+^/) which, with the help of (2.14), gives (2.13). 113 THEOREM 2.5: The obliquities behind and in front of the shock surface are related by the equation PROOF: In consequence of (2.9) and (2.16), we get (2.18). THEOREM 2.6: // C be the specific internal energy of a polytropic gas, then we have (2.19) U]--rr- \')^-^j PROOF: For a polytropic gas, we have (2.20) lo^/^^^/ + f-^/ V whence, we get (2.2i)a ri] C HOH2C CHoOH 6. H HO C-OSOsNa C + KCN- HOH2C CH2OH HoO HO H C-CN ^6h H0H2C CH2OH HO H I C-CN 'OH + HCl HOH2C CH2OH H I HO C-COOH HOH2C CH2OH H HO C-COOH \/6h Na-Hg pH 2.5 HOH2C CH2OH H O HO C-C-H OH ^ C HOH2C CH2OH Figure 2. 129 References 1. Hudson, C. S., Advances In Carbohydrate Chemistry, Vol. 4, p. 57 [1949]. 2. Pratt, Charles, "Isolation of Apiose from Parsley", Faculty Research Bul- letin. Savannah State College, 16, 37, [1962]. 130 Deflection of Streams Behind a Curved Shock Wave by Nazir A. Warsi 1. INTRODUCTION. If the angle between the tangent to the stream line and the unit normal vector C X ^ ) to the shock surface be , then (1-1) V^v =V^/. x^-v/^^v where \^/^ is the velocity vector in the region w . If the space components of a vector field tangential to the surface are "t^ , then The law of conservation of mass at the shock surface is given by [1] (1.3) [V^] -c^/l/in/X^ Multiplying it by ;^'^ and summing with respect to -^ we get (1.4)a W^]^^ =0 or (1.4)b V^^^Sz^e^y =-Mi/S^n 0y =2^ 2. DEFLECTION OF STREAMS. We have the following theorems. THEOREM 2.1: The angle that the stream line makes with the unit normal X^ ^^ given by (2.1) C<^e^/ =-( gives (2.4) -^ / / THEOREM 2.4: The specific volume strength of the shock is defined as the ratio of difference of cotangent of the angle of emergence and the cotangent of the angle of incidence to the co- tangent of angle of incidence. PROOF: From (2.1), it is obvious that (2.6) cr2.^ = [c6^e]/Cg^0i/ 3. MAXIMUM DEFLECTION. Mishra (I960) studied the deflection and found that Q^/ > 6j/ Angle of deflection of the stream behind the shock is given by TQl Therefore, the angle of the deflection, J\ is given by (3.1) C^Jl = c^[M=^^^^^|^ Substituting for CjytOx/ from (2.1), the equation (3.1) gives (3.2)a CotJl =-'!^klQS^l^/L^ or -^*i6(ft&ii (3.2)b C^Jl =.^ (\S^/(L^'-(9i/) or <^2-/ ?= ^ (3.2)c(2^yL ^ ^^y^l-r^-- ' where ^^t<^ ^y -^/^ Hence, we have the following theorems. THEOREM 3.1 : In the case of maximum deflection for a fixed f^^ , we have PROOF: For the maximum deflection, we have (3.4)2^ ^ O Differentiating (3.2)c with respect to ^ (t-y.-.^ using (3.4), we get (3.3) 132 THEOREM 3.2. In the case of the maximum deflection for a fixed Sz.1 , the ratio of specific volume of two regions is the same as the ratio of square of tlie tangent of the angle of incidence to unity. PROOF: For the maximum deflection, we have (3.5)a -fe^"0:z/ = / ^cTr/ or (3.5)b -ta^^6j/ ; 1 -\y : ^y THEOREM 3.3. Maximum deflection for a fixed (^-c/ i^ given by ^ (3.6) C^Jl = -^o^Z^ PROOF: In consequence of (3.3), the equation (3.2)c gives (3.6). References 1. Warsi, N. A. Flow Parameters Behind 3-Dimensional Shock Wave (Under publication) Savannah State College Faculty Research Bulletin. 2. Mishra, R. S. (1960): Deflection of Impinging Streams Through a Shock Wave in a Perfect Gas. Tensor (N.S.) Vol. 10, No. 3. 3. Liepman, A. W. & Pucket, A. E. (1947) Introduction of a Compressible Fluid, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 133 Ad ( N378 - -. . ; 6729^^ (5352s Georgia. State nollege Faculty research edition of the SSC Bulletin Pale Doe '''n i '%/^' 1 SAVANNAH STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY Savannah, Georgia ^^n ^"'' . ^r^ ^^ 7?