G-/f /\} ;YCD. Gi.f ~-SJ f'7 Assessment of Environmental Research and M,J.) Nonmineral Resources Offshore Georgia Lewis Taylor, James Harding, Vernon J. Henry, John Kelly and Heather Trulli GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION DIVISION GEORGIA GEOLOGIC SURVEY Atlanta 1995 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND NONMINERAL RESOURCES OFFSHORE GEORGIA By Lewis Taylor, James Harding, Vernon J. Henry, John Kelly, and Heather Trulli Prepared in cooperation with U.S. Mmerals Management Service under MMS Agreement No. 14-35-0001-30496 This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with Georgia Geologic Survey editorial standards and stratigraphic nomenclature. DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Joe D. Tanner, Commissioner ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION DIVISION Harold F. Reheis, Director GEORGIA GEOLOGIC SURVEY William H. McLemore, State Geologist Atlanta, Georgia 1994 Project Report No. 21 CONTENTS List of Tables iv List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv List of Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V EXECUTIVE SUMMARY E-1 TECHNICAL SUMMARY T-1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................... . 1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Scope of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Methods and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4 Report Organization ................................ . 4 2.0 LITERATURE SEARCH AND REFERENCE CITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1 Information Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1.1 Methods and techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2. l.1.1 Computer-database searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1.1.2 Telephone surveys and correspondence . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1.1.3 On-site investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.1.2 Effectiveness of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2. 1.3 Modifications in methods and techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2 Results of Literature Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.1 Profile of collected data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.2 Peripheral data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2.3 Unpublished data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.3 Reference Citations and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4 Reference Descriptions/Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.5 Electronic Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.0 ANALYSIS OF THE EXTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION .. . 37 3.1 Data Analysis Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1.2 Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1.3 Structure of the discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2 Regional and Baseline Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.1 Environmental studies program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.2 Major baseline studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.3 Extent of the baseline studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.4 Relevance of baseline studies to environmental assessment .... . 47 3.3 Extent of Environmental Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.3.1 Physical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.3.2 Chemical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.3.3 Biological environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.3.4 Socioeconomic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4 Analysis of Environmental Information by Resource Topic . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.1 Physical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.4.1. l Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.4.1.2 Physical oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.4.1.3 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.4.2 Chemical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.4.2.1 Water column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.4.2.2 Geochemistry of the sediments and sea floor . . . . . 58 3.4.3 Biological environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.4.3.1 Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.4.3.2 Macroalgae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.4.3.3 Phytoplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.4.3.4 Zooplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.4.3.5 Upwelling and productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.4.3.6 Outwelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.4.3.7 Miscellaneous macroinvertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.4.3.8 Benthic invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.4.3.9 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.4.3.10 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.4.3.11 Threatened and endangered species . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.4.3.12 Benthic habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.4 Socioeconomic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4.4.1 Commercial shellfish and crustacean fisheries . . . . . 74 3.4.4.2 Commercial fmfish fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4.4.3 Recreational fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.4.4 Resource management and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4.4.5 Cultural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.0 ANALYSIS OF MODELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.1 Guidelines and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2 Review of Physical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2.1 Historical reviews of physical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2.2 Review of physical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.3 Review of Biological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3.1 Parameters and topical areas considered in the analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.3.2 Types and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.3.2.1 Population dynamics studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.3.2.2 Fishery yield studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.3.2.3 Shelf ecosystem pelagic dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.3.2.4 Ecosystem metabolism and material flow . . . . . . . . 94 4.3.3 Strengths, weaknesses, and needs for models and modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.0 IDENTIFICATiON OF DATA GAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5 .1 Procedures and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.2 Data Gaps in Research for the Georgia Bight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.3 Data Gaps Relating to Mining and to Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.3.1 Marine mining methods and impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3.2 Site-selection criteria and constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 ii 6.0 RESEARCH NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................ . 113 6.1 Research Needs Regarding Non-Mineral Resources ............. . 113 6.2 Research Needs Related to Marine Mining and Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 6.3 Recommendations for Research and Related Actions ............ . 113 6.3.l Hydrogeology of the Floridan Aquifer System under the Georgia Continental Shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6.3.2 The economic and environmental feasibility of bore-hole mining on the Georgia shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6.3.3 Fluxes in ambient and episodic turbidity conditions and effects on benthic, planktonic, and nektonic organisms on the Georgia shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.3.4 Development of a predictive/dispersion model for the Georgia Inner Shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.3.5 Marine mammal studies ......................... . 116 6.3.6 Ecological and process-response studies of selected live bottoms and other critical habitats ................................ ___ _ 116 6.3.7 Detailed bathymetry and imagery of the Georgia Shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 6.3.8 Instrumentation of the Navy Towers (TACTS) to measure atmospheric and oceanographic parameters on the mid- and outer-shelf regions of Georgia ................... . 118 6.3.9 Development of a comprehensive data management system for the Georgia Shelf and coastal zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 6.3.10 Development of a coastal and ocean management plan for Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 7.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................... . 121 8.0 REFERENCES 123 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Appendices A List of Information Sources ................................. . A-1 B Bibliography of Database Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . B-1 C Annotated Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 iii list of Tables 1. Resource Topics and Organization of Environmental Information . . . . . . . . . . 8 2. Guidelines for Evaluating References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5. Experiments Conducted in the South Atlantic Bight for DOE Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 6. Numbers of Fish Biology and Fishery Management Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 7. Protected Fauna of the Georgia Bight 69 8. Summary of Selected Physical Studies 82 9. Summary of Selected Biological/Ecological Modeling Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. . . . . . . . . 99 11. Data Gaps Relative to Potential Site-Specific Mining Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 12. Summary of Operational Methods for Marine Mining and Their Environmental Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 13. Considerations when Selecting a Mining Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 list of Figures The Georgia Bight and Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 Structure-contour map of top of Middle-Miocene-age sediments . . . . . . . . . . . 110 3 Structure-contour map of top of Oligocene-age sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 iv List of Acronyms BIOTRANS BLM CZM DOE DOI EEZ FLEX GABEX GIS MARMAP MMS NASA NDBC NMFS NOAA NRC NTIS ocs SEAMAP SPREX TACTS TED USACE USFWS Biological Transformation Study Bureau of Land Management Coastal Zone Management Department of Energy Department of Interior Exclusive Economic Zone Fall Removal Experiment Georgia Bight Experiment geographical information system Marine Areas Management Program Minerals Management Service National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Data Buoy Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Research Council National Technical Information Service outer continental shelf Southeast Area Marine Assessment Program Spring Removal Experiment Tactical Aircrew Combat Training System (Navy Towers) turtle excluder device U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service V vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Increasing industry interest in heavy-minerals exploration on the Georgia continental shelf, and the occurrence of large deposits of phosphate, led to the formation of the Georgia-Federal Nonenergy Minerals Task Force in 1986. The Task Force, chaired jointly by the Georgia Geologic Survey and the U.S. Department of Interior Minerals Management Service (MMS), was charged with examining the economic potential of offshore phosphate and heavy-mineral resources, the technologic and economic feasibility of mining, and the environmental constraints to mining offshore Georgia (Amato, 1990). The Task Force determined a need for creating a database containing a comprehensive inventory of available information on non-mineral resource and environmental studies of areas offshore Georgia, and identifying significant data gaps for those areas. To address those needs, the Task Force sponsored this major study to Assess the extent of information that describes the Georgia shelf environment (exclusive of economic-mineral investigations); Determine gaps in oceanographic, environmental, and subsurface-environmental data pertaining to the Georgia shelf; and Prioritize the areas most critically in need of additional research in order to determine potential impacts of marine mining on offshore non-mineral, natural resources. To accomplish these objectives, an extensive literature search and review was conducted on the extent of knowledge of non-mineral resources, habitat distribution, and marine mining of the Georgia shelf. This report presents the findings and conclusions of the study and includes a comprehensive bibliography of references that describe the non-mineral resources of the Georgia Bight. Study Area The study area encompasses the waters, seabed, and shallow subsurface of the continental shelf, and extends from the mean high-water shoreline to the 200-m isobath, between 3245' N (Charleston, South Carolina) and 3015' N (Jacksonville, Florida). The study area extends along the Sea Island section of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and is known as the Georgia Bight (Figure 1). The E-2 Georgia Bight is part of a larger geographic area known as the South Atlantic Bight, which extends from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to West Palm Beach, Florida. Study Approach The literature search and summary encompassed all studies conducted after 1977. The 1977 study published by Texas Instruments, Inc., entitled South Atlantic Outer ConJinental Shelf Benchmark Study', was treated as the baseline because it was the first comprehensive study of the Georgia Bight. To fulfill the study objectives, the study was completed in the three major phases: Information collection and annotation, which consisted of the literature search and reference collection, annotation of a limited number of references, and incorporation of reference citations to the reference database; Analysis of information, which consisted of analyses of the extent of information, analyses of models, and identification of data gaps, and research priorities; and Report development, which included development of the manuscript and the electronic database of references formatted in dBase m. Copies of references collected during the study are stored at the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography Library in Savannah, Georgia. Report Organization The report is organized into several sections according to activity and conclusions. Section 1.0 includes the introduction and background information. Section 2.0 summarizes the conduct and results of the literature search, and the development of the electronic database. Section 3.0 discusses the extent of the environmental information located during the literature search and presents abbreviated summaries of the information. Section 4.0 contains a brief analysis of physical/chemical and biological oceanographic models. Section 5.0 presents and briefly discusses data gaps in the context of marine mining methods. 1 Texas Instruments, Inc. 1979. South Atlantic benchmark program: Volume I Executive Summary. Final report prepared for Bureau of Land Management under Contract AA550-CT7-2. Texas Instruments, Inc., Dallas, TX. 5pp. E-3 Section 6. 0 presents research needs and recommendations in regard to non-mineral resources, marine mining and site selection. Section 7.0 presents a technical summary. Section 8.0 lists the references cited in the report. Appendix A presents the comprehensive database bibliography. Appendix B presents a list of key words used during the electronic literature searches, a list of information contacts, and a list of key words in the study database. Appendix C presents selected annotated citations. INFORMATION COLLECTION AND ANNOTATION A comprehensive literature search was conducted to meet the study objectives. Data were identified and recovered from sources such as computer databases, libraries, universities, research facilities, state and federal agencies, resource managers, individual researchers, and environmental organizations. Data collection methods also included telephone surveys, written correspondence, and on-site investigations; these methods recovered a variety of gray literature and unpublished materials that could not be located through electronic-database searches. The types of collected information ranged from the papers of refereed scientific journals, to the unpublished or gray literature (i.e., technical reports, books, conference abstracts, dissertations, and theses). Over 1600 references were identified and recorded into an electronic database. A reference description [author(s), date, title, source, publisher, and other information necessary to obtaining the reference] was included with each citation, and abstracts were included in the database when available. The electronic database may be searched through the title and author(s), and by using key words. The database may be expanded and updated on a regular basis by adding new citations and reference descriptions. In this sense, the database may be seen as a starting point or a baseline for the future management and use of resources in the Georgia Bight. ANALYSIS OF THE EXTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION A review of the collected data was conducted after the literature search. The three-step process used to characterize the data analysis was (1) organizing individual references into resource topic categories; (2) reviewing and analyzing the type, nature, and relevance of citations in each topic area; and (3) analyzing of the extent of information. E-4 The references were organized first into four major environmental study areas: physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic. Results of the literature search show that approxmJately 29% of the citations describe the physical and chemical environments, 40 % describe the biological environment, and 31 % describe the socioeconomic environment. The four areas were further divided into the specific topics listed in Table E-1. Many interdisciplinary studies were conducted in the South Atlantic Bight under the aegis of the Bureau of Land Management (Outer Continental Shelf responsibilities were given to MMS in 1982). These interdisciplinary studies, which were typically performed as assessments for oil and gas activities, provide baseline data for the region and the study area. A general summary of the extent of environmental information for each of the four major areas is presented below. Physical Environment - Dynamic processes from the seafloor through the water column to the sea surface have received thorough study. Movements of water masses, such as circulation patterns, Gulf-Stream intrusions, upwelling, and outwelling are relatively well-defined, especially in regard to the coupling of meteorological activity with water mass motions. Chemical Environment - Processes of transport, exchange, and transformation of dissolved and particulate constituents in the water column are well described. Baselines are established for concentrations of various trace elements in shelf waters and seafloor sediments. Biological Environment - Biotic components of shelf environments that are subject to resource management programs are described and understood better than other aspects of biological systems. The biology of several commercially important species of fish and shellfish is documented in detail. A baseline for hard-bottom habitat areas is established for the area, however, detailed site-specific assessments of the live-bottom areas are needed. Socioeconomic Environment - Research related to fisheries management, including shellfish and fmfish, dominate the socioeconomic literature. Few references pertain to the socioeconomic facets of offshore and coastal environments of the study area. Publications on coastal and marine management and public education are more common from South Carolina and Florida than from Georgia. Regulations and legislation concerning ports, .navigation, and pollution comprise most of the remainder of work in this area. Archeological resources, primarily shipwrecks, may number in the thousands in offshore areas, but these resources have not been assessed recently. E-5 Table E-1. Resource Topics and Organization of Environmental Information. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Meteorology Physical Oceanography Water Masses Waves, Tides and Currents Geology Bathymetry and Seabed Morphology Sediments and Sediment Transport Aquifers Geologic Hazards and Environmental Studies Stratigraphy and Shallow Structures CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT Water Column Geochemistry BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Microbes Macroalgae Phytoplankton Zooplankton Upwelling and Productivity Outwelling Nektonic Invertebrates Benthic Invertebrates Fish Birds Threatened and Endangered Species Sea Turtles Whales and Other Marine Mammals Benthic Habitats Hard grounds Artificial reefs SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries Commerical Finfish Fisheries Recreational Fisheries Resource Management and Use General Coastal Management Beaches Ports and Navigation Pollution Cultural Resources E-6 ANALYSIS OF MODELS Literature relevant to models of physical and biological processes and systems of the Georgia shelf is analyzed. The applicability of selected models is discussed with emphasis on their strengths and weaknesses. These data are of particular interest because of the possible use of models to predict and characterize potential effects of marine mining. Reviews of models for the South Atlantic Bight were performed as early as 1979, when Jaycor2 conducted an extensive evaluation of all available physical oceanographic models applicable to the South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Jaycor concluded that highly theoretical models involving ocean circulation were of little use because of the complexity of the water movements in the South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf, and that the database extant in 1980 was inadequate to define boundary conditions or to drive any of the models beyond a diagnostic state. This report supports the critical need for final verification in all the models to support realism in the predictive models. A comprehensive review was recently completed for MMS that discusses the use of predictive models to forecast dynamic events and their effects with regard to marine mining activities'. The review concluded that the only models that adequately address sediment-plume dispersion are those designed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to describe plumes generated during dredged-material disposal. The biological models located and reviewed during the present study provide insight into forces affecting the Georgia-shelf ecosystem, and highlight critical features that should be considered by modeling efforts concerning environmental effects of marine mining. However, none of the models could be directly applied to the study of a potential biological effect of marine mining on the Georgia shelf; instead, question-specific models must be developed. For example, none of the models addressed major concerns to be considered when predicting potential effects such as perturbations of the benthic and demersal-fish communities, and the interactions of particle fields with the biological environment. Therefore, reviews of the model studies accessed by the literature search indicated a low degree of applicability between the models and any site-specific mining activities that might occur on the Georgia 2Jaycor. 1980. Physical oceanographic model evaluation for the South Atlantic OCS Region. BLM Report No. BLM/YM/ES-80/10. National Technical Information Service, Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA. 327pp. 3Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1993. Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Marine Mining. OCS Study MMS 93--0006. Minerals Management Service, Herndon, VA. 392pp. E-7 continental shelf. The models may, however, highlight key areas that should be considered when developing models for the Georgia-shelf environment. IDENTIFICATION OF DATA GAPS IN THE LITERATURE For this study, a data gap is defined as a lack of documented information within a specific area of research or current understanding of environmental resources and processes. This report identifies gaps in Geologic, biologic, physical, and chemical processes on the shelf and in the shelf subsurface; Distribution of known and potential non-mineral resources on the shelf; Habitat distribution relative to shelf topography and oceanography; Environmental data for marine mining impacts, methods, and site-selection processes; and Information relevant to socioeconomic concerns. Nineteen data gaps were identified relating to marine mining activities and the physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic environments of the Georgia shelf, and 41 additional data gaps were identified for the non-mineral resources in general (Table E-2). Eleven data gaps pertaining to sitespecific mining activities are listed also in Table E-3. Five significant gaps in the U.S. literature database regarding environmental effects of mining were identified by the recent Continental Shelf Associates, Inc., study (19934). Those data gaps that may be relevant to the Georgia shelf environment are (1) Water quality modeling of the generation and dispersion of particulate and dissolved materials in the water column, based on, or at least confirmed by empirical data acquired from marine mining operations; (2) Effects of significant alterations of the seabed on adjacent coastlines; (3) Characteristics, behavior, and recolonization response of organisms in various mine sites under the stress of production operations; (4) Effects of processing discharges from onshore mines on coastal biota; and (5) Relationship between mining activities and other natural processes and man-induced activities. 4See footnote 3 on previous page. E-8 Table E-2. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] Physical Environment (1) Projections of potential effects of climatological change on the centers of high-pressure fields. (2) Effect of northeasters/extratropical cyclones on nearshore sediment dynamics, water column processes, and water masses. (3) Post-storm effects of hurricanes on physical, chemical, and biological processes across the shelf. (4) Regional response of water masses/currents to large-scale wind forcing. (5) Relationship between density-driven, wind-induced circulation in the inner-shelf frontal zone and the means by which circulation confines near-bottom particles and dissolved materials to the inner shelf. (6) Role of bottom currents on patterns, dynamics, and sediment-transport mechanisms across the shelf over broken bottoms and planar bottoms, and effects of sediment fluxes on benthic communities. (7) Inwelling/advection stndies of shelf-to-estnarine transport of organics and sediments, and interaction of estuaries with continental shelf circulation. (8) Further quantification of levels, transport, and input of particulate and dissolved organic matter from rivers and estuaries to the shelf, including definition of sinks and sources of lignin with regard to shelf biological processes. (9) Fluxes in turbidity levels for periods of sediment suspension due to episodic events, such as storms, as compared to ambient conditions. (10) Hydrogeology, depth, and areal extent of the offshore Floridan Aquifer System. (11) Detailed imagery, bathymetry, and seabed characterization of the Georgia shelf. (12) Degree and frequency of Gulf Stream intrusions into the central portion of the South Atlantic Bight shoreward of the 20-m isobath. (13) Exchange rates and particle transformations through the life cycles of Gulf Stream intrusion events on the outer shelf. (14) Processes responsible for cross-shelf diffusion of freshwater in autnmn. (15) The position, extent, and ages of relict shorelines of former sea-level stillstands since the late Pleistocene. (16) The role of oxic sand sediments in the biogeochemistry of the shelf system. (17) The fate of high, suspended-particle loads in inner-shelf waters, especially in regard to the alongshore and cross-shelf transport mechanisms. E-9 Table E-2. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Chemical Environment (18) Transport and chemical exchange across the atmosphere/water/ sediment boundaries. (19) Biogeochemical cycling within and between the water column and the sediments. (20) Chemical exchange processes associated with resuspension of sediments during normal (ambient) and high energy (storm) conditions. (21) Levels, fluxes, and fates of point and nonpoint sources of organic and inorganic pollutants in coastal and shelf waters. (22) Atmospheric contribution of particulate matter (organic material and trace elements) to the Georgia Bight. (23) Significant trace-metal concentrations in the biota, sediments, and water column. Biological Environment (24) Detailed investigations of shelf and shelf-edge live-bottom/hardground habitats. (25) Sediment-microbial interactions regarding productivity, metabolic activities, and substrate relationships. (26) Laboratory modeling studies regarding turbidity effects on selected indicator biota. (27) Population distribution and fluxes of microbes in water-column and benthic environments in response to physical and chemical factors, particularly after periods of disturbances. (28) Benthic biological productivity on the shelf relative to substrate characteristics. (29) Inwelling of larvae of commercial species from nearshore areas into estuaries, including abundances of larvae offshore versus abundances of adults in estuaries. (30) Relationships between primary production and higher pelagic trophic levels. (31) Effect of Gulf Stream intrusions and associated upwelling on primary and secondary productivity and offshelf transport. (32) Quantification and relative importance of benthic ("new") production. (33) Coupling mechanisms between the systematics and ecology of benthic invertebrates on the shelf and their role in sediment water column exchanges and processes. (34) Regulation of population biology by meteorology and physical circulation. E-10 Table E-2. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (.I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Biological Environment (continued) (35) Relationships between tidal fronts and abundances of marine turtles. (36) Effect of tidal outwelling of organic carbon and fine particles to photosynthesis in the inner shelf. (37) Migration route(s) of right whales from the northwest Atlantic to the Georgia Bight. (38) Responses of right whales to noise from shipping traffic, mining operations, etc. (39) Studies of other marine mammals, especially bottle-nosed dolphins and pygmy sperm whales. (40) Movements, distribution, and abundance of juvenile and sub-adult sea turtles. (41) Status of species of concern, including endangered and threatened species, commercial/recreational species, species-in-decline, and indicator species. (42) Data management system (Geographic Information System/electronic clearinghouse) to integrate information from different disciplines. (43) Long-term, process-response studies of the ecology of hard-bottom communities in inner-, middle-, and outer-shelf areas (e.g., effects of sedimentation). (44) Ecology of macroalgal communities in inner-, middle-, and outer- shelf areas regarding rates of productivity, annual recruitment vs. year-round, multi-year populations. (45) Stock status of sharks, including coastal and large pelagic species. (46) Population size, distribution, and life history of whelks in nearshore habitats and for other shellfish species that may be targeted for new fisheries. (47) Composition, distribution, transport, and fate of ichthyoplankton in shelf waters. (48) Life history aspects for important commercial and recreational finfish species, and reef fish complexes, especially the snapper-grouper complex. (49) Movements, distribution, population fluxes (breeding/transient), and ecology of pelagic seabirds and coastal marine birds. (50) Identification of unique and/or critical habitats for rare and depleted finfish species, especially in regard to designation of marine reserves. (51) Harvest levels of offshore finfish species. E-11 Table E-2. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Socioeconomic Environment (52) Most probable locations for prehistoric habitation sites on the shelf and development of site-selection criteria. (53) Determination of maximum levels of exploitive activities, such as mining and fisheries, to be allowed in order to maintain sustainable development. (54) Socioeconomic responses to the decline of commercial and recreational fishing industries. (55) Social research on the offshore recreational and commercial fisheries industries. (56) Educational materials regarding offshore resources of the Georgia Bight to be used by the general public, planners, legislators, educators, etc. (57) Management mechanisms for addressing conflicts between mining and non-mineral resources. (58) Management structure for resolving resource-use conflicts between neighboring states. (59) Assessmem and prediction of cumulative effects of numerous individual development actions (planning, resource management, and permitting). (60) Coastal ocean management policies and regulations for the State of Georgia. E-12 Table E-3. Data Gaps Relative to Potential Site-Specific Mining Impacts. (I) Detailed information concenring the depth, areal extent, and hydrogeology of the Floridan Aquifer System. (2) Distribution and abundance of live-bottom habitats. (3) Effects of habitat modification on benthic communities. (4) Recolonization of benthic areas after cessation of the mining operations. (5) Effect of turbidity plumes on benthic and water-column biota. (6) Effect of turbidity, acoustics, and pollution on marine mammals and reptiles. (7) Predictive models for marine systems to forecast ecological impacts of mining. (8) Effect of nearshore mining on beach erosion. (9) Methods and mechanisms for resolving conflicting uses of mineral and non-mineral resources (e.g., mining, commercial and recreational fisheries). E-13 Only two existing mining techniques - excavating and fluidizing - are likely to be used on the Georgia shelf. The excavating technique, which uses a cutter-head suction dredge, creates an open pit on the seafloor, thereby significantly disrupting the benthic communities on the seafloor. The technique also produces a sediment plume during the overboard-disposal of tailings by the surface vessel; the plume would likely affect the water quality in the mining area. The fluidizing bore-hole mining technique will minimally impact the shelf environmental because the technique produces little turbidity or disruption of the seafloor. However, the technique has not been fully tested offshore. Recent smdies suggest that economically accessible middle-Miocene phosphate deposits are present on a sub-bottom feature known as the Outer Shelf High, located 70-100 km off the Georgia coast, and also in the vicinity of the Savannah Light Tower. Constraints to mining exist in these areas because live bottoms occur in both areas. In addition, the Oligocene-age sediments that comprise the aquiclude of the_ Floridan Aquifer System are only 15 m below the seabed at the Savannah Light Tower. There is no prior experience, except by analogy, on which to base data gaps and correlative research needs that relate specifically to mining in the study area. With the exception of navigationchannel dredging and beach nourishment, no mineral resources mining or petroleum production has ever occurred in either the Georgia Bight or the South Atlantic Bight. Based on current levels of knowledge, the hard minerals of potential economic value on the Georgia shelf are phosphate and, to a lesser extent, sand and graveL RESEARCH NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The existing research for the Georgia Bight does not adequately address all areas of interest to environmental and resource management. The ten most significant research needs identified by this smdy concerned the water column; biota (including endangered species); substrate (sediments, habitat, and the aquifer); and mining-related activities (site selection, impacts, constraints, and mitigation) (Table E-4). As additional research efforts increase the understanding of offshore systems and processes, other data gaps may become evident. The research recommendations within the smdy report pertain to both the enhancement of the smdy database (literamre characterizing non-mineral resources), the potential impacts of marine mining, and site-selection criteria. The advent of mining of phosphate and other minerals in the marine environment may be decades away and, in the meantime, many studies will be initiated or completed. E-14 Table E-4. Considerations When Selecting a Mining Site. [Adapted From South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (1990)] (!) Identify potential impacts to the Floridian Aquifet System. (2) Prohibit mining on or closely adjacent to live-bottom habitat or other special biological resources. (3) Design facilities associated with mining exploration, development, and transportation to avoid impacts on coastal wetlands and sand-sharing systems. (4) Avoid migration routes of the northern right whale and other marine mammals. (5) Identify site-specific fishery resources, including both pelagic and benthic communities, that inbabit, spawn, or migrate through the potential site. (6) Identify on-site species described as endangered, threatened, or of special coneetn, i.e., shortnose sturgeon, striped bass, blueback herring, American shad, sea turtles, marine mammals, pelagic birds, and all species regulated under a Fedetal Fisheries Management Plan. (7) Determine impacts on fisheries resources of all pre-mining exploratory and developmental activities and acnial mining operations prior to approval of mining permits. (8) Characterize the proposed site in terms of physical oceanographic and geological condition prior to approval of mining permits. (9) Study potential impacts by noise, turbidity, smotheting, cavetn collapse, fuel spills, and incidental impacts. E-15 MMS Agreement No. 14-35-0001-30496 TECHNICAL SUMMARY STUDY TITLE: An Assessment of Environmental Research and Non-Mineral Resources Offshore Georgia REPORT TITLE: An Assessment of Environmental Research and Non-Mineral Resources Offshore Georgia CONTRACT NUMBER: MMS Agreement No. 14-35-0001-30496 SPONSORING ENTITIES: Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Georgia Geologic Survey; U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service COMPLETION DATE OF REPORT: July 1, 1994 CUMULATIVE COST: $85,000 PROJECT MANAGER: Ms. Heather Trulli AFFILIATION: Battelle Ocean Sciences, 397 Washington Street, Duxbury, Massachusetts 02332 PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS: Mr. Lewis Taylor, Dr. James Harding, and Dr. Vernon J. Henry (Independent Consultants), and Dr. John Kelly and Ms. Heather Trulli (Battelle Ocean Sciences) KEY WORDS: Georgia Bight, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, literature review, environmental assessment, data gaps, research priorities, oceanography (physical, chemical, biological), socioeconomics, non-mineral resources, marine minerals, mining. BACKGROUND: The Georgia-Federal Nonenergy Mineral Task Force was established in response to industry interest in potential mining for large phosphate deposits and potential deposits of heavy minerals offshore Georgia. Subsequent to investigations of the engineering and economic feasibility of such mining, it was determined that a study and assessment of environmental research on nonmineral resources offshore Georgia was necessary to obviate potential concerns regarding deleterious environmental effects of mining. This study was designed to address such concerns and conflicts. OBJECTIVES: The major objectives of this study were to (1) assess the existing literature of the Georgia shelf waters and subsurface geology relative to non-mineral natural resources, habitat TS-1 distribution, and marine mining; (2) determine basic data gaps in oceanographic, environmental, and subsurface knowledge of the shelf (exclusive of economic mineral investigations) relative to shelf processes, habitat distribution, non-mineral natural resources, and marine mining; and (3) prioritize the most critical areas of future research relative to conserving non-mineral natural resources. DESCRIPTION: The study area extends west-to-east from the mean high water line on coastal beaches to the 200-m isobath, and north-to-south from Charleston, South Carolina, to Jacksonville, Florida. Because the literature search was very broad in scope, material was excluded from consideration if the writings pertained to economic marine minerals or if a reference predated 1977, the baseline date for the study. The literature search investigated several sources including computer databases, research facilities, universities, libraries, resource management agencies, and individual researchers. Search methods utilized computers, telephone surveys, correspondence, and on-site investigations. Collected information included journal papers and gray literature, such as technical reports and unpublished items (i.e., cruise reports). These materials form an electronic database in which each reference is annotated with a description of the resource, research methods, location of work, and summary. Reference citations of each item were created for a bibliography. The extent of environmental research relative to non-mineral resources offshore Georgia was determined through analysis of the collected literature. Separate analyses were conducted for major categories of physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic resources. All collected references that pertained to models of processes or systems were analyzed for their significance and any constraints. This information provided the foundation for further analyses of data gaps in the existing work and for recommendations for future research. Data gaps are identified by category in the text and tables of this report. A review of the extent of research, as well as a survey of selected researchers and resource managers, facilitated this effort. The primary data gaps for the non-mineral environmental resources were assessed in separate summaries for each resource category. Data gaps regarding specific mining techniques and site selection are highlighted separately with emphasis on resources likely to be affected by mining. Priorities for future research are identified in regard to the need for filling data gaps prior to the TS-2 initiation of any mining activities. Typically, data gaps in areas of critical concern were addressed by the suggested research efforts. Research priorities considered the type of resource, objectives, methods, project length, locations of the work, approximate costs, and justification for the research relative to the environment, affected resources, and mining. The research priorities are reported individually by project. SIGNIFICANT CONCLUSIONS: The information describing the study area is dominated by gray literature typically collected by State and Federal natural resource management agencies. Sixty data gaps, of which 11 relate to mining, are identified for the offshore resources. Ten research priorities are recommended to fill data gaps and allow assessment of potential impacts of marine mining, and aid in site selection. Research priorities include the Floridan Aquifer System, sediment dispersal, and distribution of live-bottom and benthic communities. Site-specific investigations are necessary regarding marine mining, but shelf-wide work is ideal. STUDY RESULTS: Over 1600 references were accepted for inclusion in the project database. The majority of the material consists of gray literature from resource management agencies and research facilities. Approximately one-quarter of the collected literature is comprised of journal articles. A substantial amount of unpublished data was also located. The physical and chemical processes are relatively well-defined for water mass movements and for the transport, exchange, and transformations in the water column. Regional studies associated with-oil and gas exploration provided baseline data for the physical and biological aspects of the Georgia Bight. Research by various researchers and agencies provides a relatively well-defined base of information for many of the resources, but several major systems and processes have not been investigated. In general, a paucity of collected material appears to be evident for the following resource areas: bathymetry and seabed morphology, aquifers, macroalgae, sediment and water column chemistry, benthic invertebrates, seabirds, coastal and marine management, and cultural resources. Sixty data gaps were identified in the non-mineral database for the study area. One-third of these gaps exist for the physical and chemical environments, particularly for processes at the sedimentwater boundary, the Floridan Aquifer System, and seabed morphology, especially in regard to hardbottom areas. The 27 data gaps identified for the biological environment pertained to the benthic environment, especially in regard to the distribution of resources and habitat areas. Whereas some TS-3 resources, such as the seabirds, have received little study, better-documented resources may be considered to be a higher priority because of the potential impacts of marine mining. Gaps in the socioeconomic database pertain to the management of coastal and marine resources, however, cultural resources, archeological research in particular, is perhaps the least-researched field for the entire study area. Eleven of the data gaps were highly relevant to marine mining. Areas in which additional research is needed prior to the advent of marine mining include aquifers, sediment transport, and benthic environments including live-bottom areas. Ten research projects were recommended in order to address the data gaps relative to marine mining and site selection. Proposed research priorities include the Floridan Aquifer System, effects and/or feasibility of mining methods, fluxes in turbidity and sediment dispersal, right whale migrations, livebottom areas, seabed morphology, coastal management, and data collection and management. STUDY PRODUCTS: Taylor, L, J. Harding, J. Henry, J. Kelly, and H. Trulli. 1994. An Assessment of Environmental Research and Non-Mineral Resources Offshore Georgia. Final Report prepared by Battelle Ocean Sciences under contract to the State of Georgia Department of Environmental Resources, Georgia Geologic Survey. MMS Agreement No. 14-35-0001-30496. Project Report No. 21. 160pp. + appends. TS-4 1.0 INTRODUCTION Increasing industry interest in offshore, heavy-mineral exploration on the Georgia continental shelf, and the known occurrence of large phosphate deposits underlying the shoreline and inner shelf, led to the formation of the Georgia-Federal Nonenergy Minerals Task Force in 1986. The Task Force, chaired by the Georgia Geologic Survey and the U.S. Department of Interior Minerals Management Service (MMS), was charged with examining the resource potential of offshore phosphate and heavy minerals, the technologic and economic feasibility of mining, and the environmental constraints to offshore mining (Amato 1990). In 1988, a study was contracted to determine the economic and engineering feasibility of mining on the Georgia Shelf. The report concluded that additional geological and geophysical information is needed (Zellars-Williams Company 1988). Following the acquisition of additional geologic data, the Task Force determined the need to establish a database of all existing information on non-mineral resources and environmental studies in the area as well as to identify significant gaps in the database. To this end, the Task Force contracted with Battelle Ocean Sciences (Battelle) to prepare an assessment of the current status of environmental research relative to the non-mineral resources and the effects of offshore mining. 1.1 Objectives This study is intended to meet three major objectives: Identify, review, and summarize the existing literature regarding the Georgia shelf waters and subsurface geology relative to non-mineral natural resources, habitat distribution, and marine mining. Determine gaps in oceanographic, environmental, and subsurface geological data of the shelf relative to shelf processes, habitat distribution, non-mineral natural resources, and marine mining. Prioritize the most critical areas of future research relative to conserving non-mineral natural resources on the shelf. 1.2 Scope of Study The study area encompasses the waters, seabed, and shallow subsurface of the Georgia continental shelf extending from the mean high water shoreline to the 200-m isobath; and between 3245' N (Charleston, South Carolina) and 3015' N (Jacksonville, Florida) (Figure 1). The study area essentially Depths in fathoms 1 fathom = 1.83 meters Figure 1. The Georgia Bight and Study Area. 2 includes the Sea Island sections of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Together with the adjacent shelf, this area is known as the Georgia Bight. Much of the reviewed literature includes regional studies of the South Atlantic Bight, which is the broad embayment extending from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to West Palm Beach, Florida. The Georgia Bight an integral part of the South Atlantic Bight. Rather than provide a database on which to recommend new baseline studies, a major focus of this study is to identify data necessary to determining if, when, where, and how mining operations can be conducted on the Georgia shelf. Although a broad range of topics are investigated during the study, literature on economic minerals of the shelf concerning topics such as mineral potential and exploration efforts is excluded. References for minerals studies are included only if they relate to environmental aspects of the shelf. Additional topic areas that are not considered by the study include studies of the subsurface strata below the Eocene, human histories of the study area, and research on nutritional values, storage, and preparation of seafood. The study begins with the South Atlantic Benchmark Program (Texas Instruments, Inc., 1979a-e) which, along with earlier baseline studies and environmental inventories, provides an excellent foundation upon which to build this study. 1.3 Methods and Approach The study objectives and major tasks guided the methods and approach for the study. The study was conducted in three phases: (1) information collection and annotation, (2) analysis of information, and (3) production of a report and electronic database. Information collection and annotation preceded the other two phases of the study. The database of pertinent information was assembled through a literature search. Material was identified and recovered by a variety of techniques including searches of computer databases; on-site investigations at research, education, and resource management facilities; and correspondence with agencies and colleagues working in the area. Copies of references collected during the study are stored at Skidaway Institute of Oceanography in Savannah, Georgia. All pertinent reference citations were compiled to create a comprehensive study bibliography, and selected references were annotated with details about the nature, location, and contents of the research. All citations are entered into the study database. Section 2.0, Literature Search and Reference Citations, details the information collection and data management methods. The analysis of information included several tasks in which the collected literature was reviewed and evaluated. The extent of environmental knowledge of shelf resources was defined by summarizing the data according to the general field of research and the resource topic. Models of biological and 3 physical processes and systems were described separately, and model type, strengths and weaknesses and relative significance were highlighted. Data gaps in the existing literature were identified for each resource, especially regarding marine mining and site selection. Recommendations of research needs were based on the analyses. 1.4 Report Organization The report is organized according to the requirements of the Georgia Geologic Survey, as described briefly below. Section 2.0, Literature Search and Reference Citations, discusses collection of information, preparation of reference citations, and description of the references, and reviews the products of the study, including the electronic database. Section 3.0, Analysis of Extent of Environmental Information, summarizes the results of the literature search according to topic category. Section 4.0, Analysis of Models, contains an analysis of physical- and biologicaloceanographic models for the Georgia shelf. Section 5.0, Identification of Data Gaps, discusses significant deficiencies in the current knowledge of Georgia shelf environments and processes. Section 6.0, Prioritization of Research, recommends specific research to precede site selection or marine mining. Section 7.0, Summary and Conclusions, contains a brief technical summary of the report. Section 8.0, References, presents the complete citations for all references cited in the text. Appendix A, Key Words and Information Contacts, includes an index of common terms that used during the literature searches, a list of individuals from whom information was obtained, and a lit of key words in the electronic database. Appendix B, Bibliography of Citations, contains a complete listing of references included in the study database. Appendix C, Annotated Citations, contains annotations for two references that are representative of each resource topic. The Program Manager for this study is Ms. Heather Trulli of Battelle. Ms. Trulli provided liaison with the Georgia Geologic Survey and MMS, managed individual tasks, and provided technical guidance and editorial assistance during report preparation. Mr. Lewis Taylor, Dr. James L. Harding, and Dr. Vernon J. Henry, hereafter known as the Georgia authors, were responsible for performing all research, technical work, and report preparation (except Section 4.3) under subcontract to Battelle. Dr. John R. Kelly of Battelle authored the analysis of biological models in Section 4.3. Mr. Thomas Nitroy 4 of Battelle was responsible for constructing the final electronic database (dBase ID). Ms. Nancy Padell of Battelle provided editorial assistance during the draft and final report preparation. This report provides a means to assess or plan research in the Georgia Bight. The electronic database is a valuable reference tool that may be updated and expanded in the future. In addition to providing guidance in regard to potential marine mining, this study is expected to benefit resource managers, planners, and researchers concerned with the offshore environments of the Georgia Bight. Educators, legislators, and conservation groups may also find the report and database useful to their investigations. 5 6 2.0 LITERATURE SEARCH AND REFERENCE CITATIONS A literature search was conducted to establish the database for review and analysis in the study. Excluded from consideration were references pertaining to resources of areas outside of the study boundaries, publication dates prior to 1977, mineral resources, and subsurface features below the aquifer. Essentially, all other data pertaining to the Georgia Bight were included in this study. The broad scope of this study required a comprehensive literature search. 2.1 Information Collection The Georgia authors identified the potential sources of data in coordination with the MMS, the Georgia Geologic Survey, and Battelle. The data sources included computer databases, libraries, universities, research facilities, state and Federal agencies, individual researchers, resource managers, and environmental organizations. Appendix A contains a list of data sources that were contacted. 2.1.1 Methods and techniques The comprehensive literature search was guided by word identifiers, or key words, specific to major resource topics (Table I). These key words were identified by Battelle with suggestions from the authors, the Georgia Geologic Survey, and MMS. The key words provided starting points from which to launch literature searches of electronic and printed databases. Resource topic titles of Section 3.0, Analysis of the Extent of Environmental Information, are based on these key words. Complementary methods were employed to locate, identify, and recover information. The main procedures included searches of computer databases, telephone contacts, written correspondence, and on-site investigations. Efficient collection of large amounts of data was accomplished by the computerdatabase searches. Personal communication with select individuals, however, was effective in identifying and recovering unpublished data, technical reports, and other such material, hereafter referred to as gray . literature. 2.1.1.1 Computer-database searches The major sources of data were several electronic databases of information relevant to the study topics. Extensive searches of some databases on CD-ROMs (Computer Disk-Read Only Memory) were 7 Table 1. Resource Topics and Organization of Environmental Information. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Meteorology Physical Oceanography Water Masses Waves, Tides and Currents Geology Bathymetty and Seabed Morphology Sediments and Sediment Transport Aquifers Geologic Hazards and Environmental Studies Stratigraphy and Shallow Structures CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT Water Column Geochemistry BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Microbes Macroalgae Phytoplankton Zooplankton Upwelling and Productivity Outwelling Nektonic Invertebrates Benthic Invertebrates Fish Birds Threatened and Endangered Species Sea Turtles Whales and Other Marine Mammals Benthic Habitats Hard grounds Artificial reefs SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries Commerical Finfish Fisheries Recreational Fisheries Resource Management and Use General Coastal Management Beaches Ports and Navigation Pollution Cultural Resources 8 conducted on-site in the library at the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography (Savannah, Georgia). Three databases on CD-ROM, Aquatic Science and Fisheries Abstracts, Biosis Reviews (Biological Abstracts), and Selected Water Resources Abstracts, are in the library collection at Skidaway. A fourth database on CD-ROM, Dissertation Abstracts, was searched at the University of Georgia library (Athens, Georgia). Additional CD-ROM databases that were searched on-site include the Bibliofile Intelligent Catalog of bibliographic records in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) libraries and the LS-2000 system of the Savannah District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Some information requests to agency libraries were filled through the searches of library and agency databases by each agency librarian. The computer databases were also accessed on-line through DIALOG Information Services, Inc., at the library of the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography. Simultaneous, comparative searches of several databases produced comprehensive, non-repetitive results. Appendix A (Table A-1) includes a list of key words used during the computer database searches. Data collected from the DIALOG computer databases were downloaded for storage in electronic files before entry into the study database. Raw data were manipulated by editing and organizing the information into formats suitable for transfer to the study database. Data management is described in Sections 2.3 through 2.5. The following electronic databases were accessed during the literature search: Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, Biosis Previews (Biological Abstracts), Dissertation Abstracts, GeoRef, Life Sciences Collection, National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Oceanic Abstracts, Pollution Abstracts, and Selected Water Resources Abstracts. 2.1.1.2 Telephone surveys and correspondence Information was gathered through telephone surveys and through correspondence with universities, state and Federal agencies, research facilities, and colleagues. The telephone surveys identified and recovered publication lists for agencies and organizations, manuscripts by individuals, and technical reports. Requested investigations of libraries, files, and data banks at several research, education, and management facilities aided in recovering much of this literature and in locating much unpublished data. A list of individuals contacted is presented in Appendix A (Table A-2). Telephone surveys were conducted throughout the study to determine the extent of available information. Occasionally, follow-up calls and letters were necessary to prompt responses and to obtain additional data. The literature search plan was expanded and modified in response to the information 9 gleaned from telephone surveys. The telephone survey also aided in locating additional researchers and identifying studies. Written correspondence typically followed contacts by telephone or facsimile. In comparison with time invested in telephone surveys, very little effort was given to written requests in the initial phases of the study. Written correspondence was usually effective in reinforcing or amending requests made during telephone surveys. Several responses included information about unpublished data, current projects, and other information sources. 2.1.1.3 On-site investigations Whereas data collection by using computer searches and telephone surveys proved to be most effective, the investigations of some data sources were best accomplished through site visits. For unpublished data sets and resource management projects, the only source of such information was usually the facility where the original research was conducted. Likewise, progress reports and annual reports for projects typically were available only through the sponsoring agencies. The labor-intensive, on-site investigations recovered reports and unworked data that otherwise would have remained in researchers' files. Public libraries in the coastal region and private libraries of resource management and research facilities were the most productive sources for these on-site investigations. Gray literature that was not recovered through other methods was often located in this manner. 2.1.2 Effectiveness of methods Evaluating the effectiveness of information-collection methods may be based upon ease of implementation, scope of application, labor intensity, numbers of recovered citations, and relative efficiency. In this study the searches of computer databases through an on-line service such as DIALOG was an effective means for recovery of data. The searches of the individual computer databases on CD-ROM were also effective. Because cost and time limits on use of the CD-ROMs did not apply as strictly as for the on-line services, CD-ROM searches generally were more extensive. The type of data recovered by computer searches differed from data types that were located by telephone, letters, or on-site visits. The latter methods generally recovered unpublished data and some types of gray literature. On-site investigations required a greater amount of effort and time compared to 10 surveys by telephone and letter. All of the methods needed to be used in concert in order to conduct an effective search of the literature. 2.1.3 Modifications in methods and techniques Modifications to the scope of the study and to the key words list were the first changes to affect the literature search. In July 1992, the open-sound regions were eliminated from the study area, which, consequently, also removed most estuarine-related papers from consideration. The list of key words used in the literature searches (Appendix B, Table B-1) was expanded to include a few additional categories. These changes affected the literature-search strategies. Although the study guidelines for information collection established relatively straightforward parameters for acceptance or rejection of a specific reference, many citations were difficult to accept or reject based only upon the title, key words, and abstract. To create a standard for data assessments and to reduce bias, the Georgia authors developed indices for evaluating both the reliability and applicability of collected citations. The applicability scale, which incorporated these guidelines, allowed for the relevance of citations to study objectives to be determined. Peripheral citations were assessed by the applicability scale for inclusion into the database. The reliability scale allowed for the significance and relative importance of a citation to the body of data to be determined. The parameters of this index also guided decisions for including peripheral data in the database. The parameters and variables considered in the indices are noted in Table 2. Many of these parameters were used in assessing citations for the extent of data analysis and for identification of data gaps. 2.2 Results of Literature Search 2.2.1 Profile of collected data The sources of collected information included refereed scientific journals and the gray literature of technical reports, books, dissertations, and theses. The bulk of journal papers were located through searches of computer reference databases and review of bibliographies of current scientific publications. Approximately 25 % of the citations in the database are from peer-reviewed journals. The remainder of the collected references comprised various forms of gray literature. These references are primarily technical reports of both state and federal resource management agencies. Technical reports and data reports from the scientific community also comprise much of the gray literature. Conference- 11 Table 2. Guidelines for Evaluating References. Parameter Variables RELIABILITY INDEX SCALE Type of Source Significance of Research Area of Study Author(s) Cited Documentation Methods and Techniques Best Professional Judgement Refereed journal Non-refereed publication Unpublished material Relative significance within the specific field of research Experience and contributions to the field of study Strength, nature, and extent Application, validity, strength Georgia authors APPLICABILITY INDEX SCALE Location of study Topic of study Nature of Work Relevance to Marine Mining Best Professional Judgement Within the study area Possibly within the study area Outside the study area Included on topic list Tangential to items on topic list Not on topic list Studies major systems/processes Addresses facet of one of the above Narrowly-focused or minor study Georgia authors 12 paper abstracts do not contain much information, however, they do provide information on the types of research being conducted. Theses and dissertations comprise a small portion of the gray literature. A total of over 1600 individual references comprise the study database. Table 3 presents the numbers of references in each resource topic area, excluding biological and physical models that are considered in Section 4.0. [Note: Because Table 3 is 20 pages in length, it is presented at the end of Section 2.0, beginning on page 16.] Information collected during the literature search was stored in an electronic format. Whether entered manually or downloaded in ASCII format from a computer database, the data were stored in WordPerfect5.1 files prior to entry into the database. Initially, all recovered data were organized into the structure used by the Compact Cambridge Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts database. The citations were eventually transferred to Citation Utility, a database software format designed by Battelle specifically for this study. This intermediate database format allowed for data transfer into the dBase ID database format and subsequent transmittal to MMS and the Georgia Geologic Survey. Key words were also incorporated into the database (Appendix A, Table A-3). 2.2.2 Peripheral data Many peripheral citations were excluded from the database after review or evaluation by using the reliability and applicability scales. Although several peripheral citations were inappropriate for consideration because of the date or topic, many referred to resources of the study area. The following are estimates for the number of citations that were not accepted during the literature search: Pertain to geographical areas adjacent to study boundaries: 142 references. Describe economic minerals (oil, gas, phosphates, etc.): 25 references. Deep stratigraphy (below level of aquifer): 25 references. Predated the 1977 South Atlantic Benchmark Program Study (Texas Instruments, Inc., 1979a-e): 101 references. Field research and laboratory work that was conducted outside the study area, even if applicable to processes or systems within the study area, were also excluded. 2.2.3 Unpublished data Unpublished data are typified by observations that are not analyzed, synthesized, and published. In some cases, only portions of the data may have been reported formally. The locations of some of the 13 unpublished data are mentioned under "Comments" in Table 3. The unpublished data includes meteorological data, biological data on turtles, and observations of hard-ground habitat and fauna. In the future a more thorough investigation may be necessary to assess the extent, significance, and value of the unpublished material. Citations for unpublished data references are incorporated into the study database. 2.3 Reference Citations and Bibliography A complete citation was prepared for each reference in the database. The citation includes the publication date, author, title, volume and series numbers, page numbers, and publisher. A standard format is used for each type of citation - journal article, book or technical report, thesis, and map. Citation contents and format differ slightly between the different types of references. These citations are not characterized by lengthy comments, as in an abstract or by key identifiers for the contents of the references. The database bibliography (Appendix B) includes citations for all of the pertinent references identified during the literature search. The bibliography is arranged alphabetically by author, and comprises the extent of research efforts in the Georgia Bight since 1977. The format is based upon that used in American Sdentist. 2.4 Reference Descriptions/Annotations The data collected during computer-database searches were usually in a format suitable for entry into the study databases. Generally, the abstracts collected during computer searches were entered verbatim. The geographical coordinates, sponsor(s), and contract number(s) for the research are also included when available. Data were collected, stored on disk, and electronically transferred into the database. When hard copies of documents were obtained, the abstracts and conclusions were entered manually. The hard copies are stored at Skidaway in Savannah, Georgia. Due to the unexpectedly large number of references located during the literature search, the preparation of annotations (i.e., descriptions) for each reference was discontinued at the midpoint of the study. However, descriptions were added to the study database in cases where they were included in the searched electronic databases. Selected annotated citations were included in Appendix C to illustrate the range of types, sources, and content of the collected references. Each annotated citation includes the basic citation information 14 as well as the type of resource studied, the method(s) of research, the location of the research, and a summary of the abstract and/or conclusions from the reference description. Toe contents of the annotated citations are the same as the contents of reference descriptions in the database, except the annotated citations include an abbreviated abstract/summary. 2.5 Electronic Database Electronic storage files were created after collecting the raw data. Toe initial database of edited raw data was maintained as WordPerfect 5.1 files in a format based upon the structure of the Compact Cambridge Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts database. Subsequently, the WordPerfect files were loaded into the Citation Utility database that served as a way station for transfer into dBase III. Toe structure for the records in the study database was developed by Battelle based upon the study objectives and scope. The key words in the database, presented in Appendix A (Table A-3), are identifiers that may be used to locate and retrieve references from the database. Toe electronic database was designed to be flexible and comprehensive, and provides a valuable tool for resource management, research, planning, and education in the Georgia Bight. The electronic database can be expanded and updated regularly through the addition of new citations and reference descriptions. Toe final study database in dBase ID format is compatible with the MMS Minerals/Mining database. By using this reference database, MMS and the Georgia Geologic Survey will be better able to anticipate conflicts and needs regarding potential marine mining offshore. 15 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the literature Search. Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments METEOROLOGY Tropical Cyclones (24) Winds (7) Air-Se_a Interactions (13) Miscellaneous (3) Historical reviews; data sets; storm tracks; storm surges; hindcasting; forecasting errors; effects of storms Surface fields; historical reviews; data sets; data buoy and Savannah Light Tower records; reports of DOE studies [e.g., Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment (GALE)] Wind stress/atmospheric forcing of patterns, currents, and circulation; data sets Forecasting of fog and stratus; transport of pollutants; haze; rainfall Meteorological or climatological data encompassing all atmosphere-related subjects. Types of Citations: Technical reports, progress reports, journal articles. Sources of Studies: National Climatic Data Center, National Data Buoy Center, National Hurricane Center (National Weather Service); U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; BLM; DOE; Environmental Protection Agency; South Carolina Water Resources Commission; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography. Unpublished Do.ta: Meteorological and hydrological measurements by offshore weather buoys are available as data sets and also summarized infrequently by the National Data Buoy Center in "Climatic Summaries for NDBC Buoys and Stations." Atmospheric data is compiled as unpublished-measurements by the National Hurricane Center and the National Climatic Data Center. Areas of Overlap: Studies of effects of wind stress, atmospheric pressure, and storms on sea-surface flux, currents, circulation, and exchange. Also Baseline Studies and Pollution. WATER MASSES River Discharges (16) Gulf Stream Intrusions (15) Freshwater transport on shelf; estuarine plumes of freshwater and nutrients; coastal frontal zones at inner and mid-shelf regions; DOEfunded studies such as the Spring Removal Experiment (SPREX) and the Fall Low Salinity Experiment (FLEX); tracing origin of freshwater runoff to shelf (piedmont vs. coastal plain) Effects on physical processes and shelf waters by upwelling, eddies, meanders, and filaments; vertical vorticities These citations include studies of the processes, events, and dynamics of water masses that move onto and over the shelf. Various research fields, from physical to chemical to biological, are involved in these significant interdisciplinary studies. Types of Citations: Journal articles; technical reports; progress reports; dissertations; theses. Sources of Studies: Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences of University of Miami; University of North Carolina and Old Dominion University; NOAA Unpublished Do.ta: Data may exist from DOEfunded projects at sites of original research. (cominued) 16 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments Circulation, Forcing and Exchange Processes (34) Progress reports of DOE-funded studies such as SPREX and FLEX; transpon and fate of pollutants; nrixing; frontal zones on inner and mid-shelf regions as affected by atmospheric forcing and water masses; influence of wind and Gulf Stream on water masses; deflections of Gulf Stream due to changes in bottom topography (Charleston Bump); models (continued from previous page) Areas of Overlap: Meteorology, Currents, Water Column, Outwelling, Upwelling and Productivity. Miscellaneous (22) Reports of hydrographic conditions during cruises funded by NOAA and DOE since the 1970's; shelf circulation; surface flux; general shelf processes; oceanographic research programs and plans; hypsometry; sea level flux; postHurricane Hugo conditions WAVES, TIDES, AND CURRENTS Waves (4) Nearshore - direction; production of longshore currents; Kings Bay/Cumberland Island/St. Mary's River inlet area monitoring; Deepwater - archival data sets; hindcasts; extreme and climatic wave estimates; scattering due to bottom topography; satellite imagery; birds associated with oceanic waves Citations in this category penain primarily to studies in nearshore and inner shelf areas of the dynamics of waves, tides and currents. Offshore wave action is also included for consideration as are tidal actions and selected current movements over the mid- and outershelf areas. Types of Citations: technical repons; conference papers; journal articles Sources of Studies: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; U.S. Navy; NOAA; University of Florida; University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography Unpublished Data: Weather buoy data from the National Data Buoy Center and National Climatic Data Center, beach erosion control monitoring surveys by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and various consulting firms, and archival data sets by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Physical Oceanography Division of the National Ocean Service compiles and maintains databases of (continued) 17 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Tides (5) Tidal regime of South Atlantic Bight; influence of shelf width on tidal range; tide tables, current tables and charts; tidal mixing of shelf waters Currents (4) Longshore currents in littoral zone; measurement at Grays Reef of velocity and direction; distribution of currents offshore BATHYMETRY AND SEABED MORPHOLOGY Bathymetry (IO) Historical reviews of changes in bathymetry and mean high water shoreline positions; nautical charts; bathymetric maps Seabed Morphology (5) Topographical features and bathymetrical changes associated with the Charleston Bump area; in-place indicators of Pleistocene Age sea level stands; local elevation changes on the SC shelf region Comments (contim,ed from previous page) oceanographic information on tides that are available in different formats. Areas of Overlap: Water Masses (current data), Sediments and Sediment Transport, and Beaches, Baseline studies, Models. This category evaluates citations that pertain to bottom features, bathymetry, and seafloor morphology. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; maps; charts Sources of Studies: NOAA; U.S. Geological Survey; Geology. Departments of the University of Georgia and the University of South Carolina Unpublished Data: Unpublished data sets of relevance may be at the Coastal Resources Division of Georgia Department of Natural Resources; the Marine Resources Research Institute of the South Carolina Department of Wildlife and Marine Resources; the Marine Resources Division of the Florida Department of Natural Resources; and U.S. Geological Survey. The National Ocean Service of NOAA compiles and maintains a digital hydrographic database of bathymetric data from NOS surveys of coastal waters. The maps or blueprints of unpublished bathymetric information may be obtained through NOAA also. Areas of Overlap: Stratigraphy and Shallow Structure, Geologic Hazards and Environmental Studies, Hard Grounds (Hard-Bottom Areas), and Resource Management and Use. The amount of research on seabed morphology, therefore, is more extensive than indicated above. 18 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT Nearshore Transpon (11) Composition and Distribution (12) Bottom Transport (Offshore) (10) Miscellaneous (1) Estuary-shelf exchange; inlet processes; longshore drift in littoral zone; storm-induced transpon Petrologic analyses; nearshore heavy mineral distributions as indicators of transpon processes; general properties; sedimentation history; sediment cover Bottom current processes and sediment mobility; transport patterns Sedimentation at ocean dredge spoil disposal site Citations within this section deal primarily with the characteristics and dynamics of seafloor sediments, sediment structure and type, distribution and abundance, and transpon, and deposition. Types of Citations: technical repons; conference papers; journal articles; books; theses Sources of Studies: U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, DOE, University of Georgia; Old Dominion University; Skidaway Instimte of Oceanography; Emory University Areas of Overlap: Data on sediment and sediment transport is also in references on Water Masses, Currents, Geologic Hazards and Environmental Snidies, Geochemistry, Beaches, Pollution, and Baseline Srudies. AQUIFERS Nearshore (14) Offshore (6) General and specific data on coastal aquifers and groundwater resources; descriptions of the hydrogeology and the hydrogeochemistry of aquifers areas at nearshore/island boundary; surveys of Cumberland Island, GA/Fernandina Beach, FL area; Hilton Head/Pon Royal Sound, SC area; Savannah, GA region Hydrologic data from drill sites for oil-test wells; data re: salinity levels in the offshore aquifer; offshore extension of the aquifer; saltwater-freshwater interface of the offshore Floridian Aquifer Attributes of offshore extensions of the Floridan Aquifer and groundwater are the subject of papers evaluated in this category. Mainland studies of the aquifer or of groundwater use and management were not collected for consideration by the literamre review. Work that occurred on barrier islands, and which could be extrapolated to apply to offshore areas is considered. Types of Citations: technical repons; journal articles; conference papers; theses Sources of Studies: U.S. Geological Survey, Georgia Geologic Survey, South Carolina Water Resources Commission; Georgia State University Departtnent of Geology; National Ocean Service; U.S. Navy Areas of Overlap: Some data which concern the offshore aquifers are considered in the Stratigraphy and Shallow Structure category. Model srudies of flow regimes in the aquifer are discussed in Section 4 .0. 19 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments GEOLOGIC HAZARDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Oil Lease Block Surveys (13) Geologic Hazards (18) Environmental Sllldies (II) Geophysical surveys for geologic hazards; in GA and FL; prepared for Exxon, Tenneco, Getty Oil and Transco Geological and environmental papers regarding oil and gas lease sales 43, 56 and 90; maps Geological research by U.S. Geological Survey in the South Atlantic Bight; fiscal year reports and products; Environmental Impact Statements This calegory considers references to the geological investigations for oil and gas resources in the South Atlantic Bight. The publicalions are directed more towards identification and description of geologic hazards to proposed work than towards assessment of energy resources. This work provides additional data on the seafloor and subsurface. Types of Citations: technical reports; geophysical survey reports; conference papers and abstracts; maps Sources of Studies: U.S. Geological Survey; consulting companies; BLM; MMS Areas of Overlap: Contents of this section are related closely to citations in Stratigraphy and Shallow Struclllre and in Bathymetry and Seabed Morphology. STRATIGRAPHY AND SHALLOW STRUCTURE Shallow Seismic Stratigraphy (45) Navy Towers (TACTS) Area Data (14) COST GE-1 Well Site (10) Shallow seismic stratigraphy: Neocene struClllres; Tybee Trough area; Southeast Georgia Ernbayment; development and structure; vibracores; phosphate deposits TACTS Area Data: seismic stratigraphy; phosphates Data reports on lithology, stratigraphy, and petrography Foraminifera (16) Stratigraphic distribution; identification; depth occurrences; recurrent groups; biotopes; taphonomy The references concern Tertiary and Quaternary shallow seismic stratigraphy and associated geological struClllres in the upper 1-200 m of sub-bottom deposits. Types of Citations: journal articles; .technical reports; conference papers; maps; dissertations; theses Sources of Studies: U.S. Geological Survey; Georgia Geologic Survey; University of Georgia Marine Geology Program; Louisiana State University; South Carolina Geological Survey Areas of Overlap: References with data on Stratigraphy and Shallow Struclllre are considered in Geologic Hazards and Environmental Sllldies, Bathymetry and Seabed Morphology, and Aquifers. Miscellaneous Field Sllldies Maps (5) Miscellaneous Field Stlldies Maps: seismic reflection profiles; isopach and contour maps 20 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) WATER COLUMN Trace Metals (12) Geochemical composition; sources, cycles, budgets, concentrations; physical processes causing flux; types of flux; transport and fate in sediment-water, estuaty-shelf, plankton uptake; measurements of levels for aluminum, arsenic, copper, iodine, lead, mercury, zinc Seston (9) Components; description; fluxes; pathways; turbidity; interstitial solutions of sediment (sedimentsediment flux) Radioisotopes (4) Concentrations; measurement of; fluxes (estuaty-shelf, watersediment); Ra 224; Ra 228 Miscellaneous (4) Alkalinity; sulfides; hydrography; nutrients Comments References in this category deal with the chemical and physical constituents and dynamics in the water column offshore. Research papers on the sources, concentrations, fluxes, transport and fate of materials are considered within this category. The materials investigated include dissolved and suspended, organic and inorganic materials, such as trace metals, sediment, radioisotopes, and nutrients. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; progress reports; books; conference papers Sources of Studies: Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; Old Dominion University Research Foundation; DOE; U.S. Geological Survey; BLM; University of South Carolina; University of South Florida Areas of Overlap: Some references in this category contain data that are also applicable to Water Masses, Sediment, Geochemistry, Upwelling, and Pollution. GEOCHEMISTRY Trace metals (15) Natural concentrations of Al, As, Co, Cr, Cu, Cd, Fe, Hg, Pb, Mn, Ni, Zn; distribution; chemistry; cycling, transport and release of arsenic; fluxes; DOE-funded studies; in burrow walls of Callianassa sp. Radioisotopes (4) Presence of barium in sediments; tracers indicative of marine origin of estuarine sediments; Pb-210 Research that pertains to the chemistry of sediments, as well as to geochemical processes of flux at the sediment-water boundary layer, are considered in this section. The literature survey did not collect papers on marine minerals; however, the references on noneconomic aspects of minerals are considered. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; books; conference papers Sources of Studies: DOE; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; U.S. Geological Survey; BLM. (continued) 21 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic (No. References) Miscellaneous (5) MICROBES Metabolic Activities (13) Trophic Relationships (6) SedimentMicrobial Relationships (4) Miscellaneous (11) MACROALGAE Various (10) Content Sediment-water interactions; pore fluids and formation fluids; hydrocarbons in sediments; chemical analysis of TACTS cores. Recycling of nutrients (mineral); uptake of amino acids; synthesis of proteins; biomass production; rates of growth; productivity; respiration; decomposition of organic materials (detritus, feces) Heterotrophic-autotrophic interactions; protozoans in food webs; zooplankton consumption of protozoans Fluxes of materials; production Distribution and abundance; taxonomy; measurements; biodegradation of pollutants; pathogenic bacteria; shell-boring Protista Floristics, characteristics and taxonomy; benthic species; new species; overview of mactoalgal flora of Georgia Bight (69 total species as of 1986); reproductive morphology; seasonal variations in flora; profile of communities of nearshore, rock jetties, Grays Reef and deepwater Comments (continued from previous page) Areas of Overlap: Sediments, Water Masses, Water Column, Outwelling, Stratigraphy, and Pollution. This category considers references to the microbial inhabitants of the water column and sediments, such as bacteria, protozoa, yeast, and fungi. Papers on phytoplankton and zooplankton are considered elsewhere. Types of Citations: journal articles; progress reports; conference papers; books Sources of Studies: Sapelo Marine Institute, Institute of Ecology, and Department of Zoology of the University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; DOE Areas of Overlap: Sediments and Sediment Transpon; Water Column; Phytoplankton; Zooplankton; Outwelling; Productivity References to macroscopic marine plants, macroalgae, are considered in this category. Types of Citations: journal articles; conference papers Sources of Studies: Marine Biology Depanment of Savannah State College; Department of Botany at Duke University; Harbor Branch Foundation; BLM Areas of Overlap: Hard Grounds; Anificial Reefs; Baseline Studies. 22 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments PHYTOPLANKTON AND ZOOPLANKTON Phytoplankton Metabolic Activities (7) Phytoplankton Distribution and Abundance (6) Physical Processes Affecting Phytoplankton (5) Chlorophyll Pigment Concentrations (9) Respiration; measurements; consnmption of nutrients (nitrates, phosphorus, organics); nutrient fluxes Measurements; general descriptions Irradiance flux; eddies; advection; turbidity and seston flux Controlling processes; ratios of chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b; distributions; variability; CZCS (Coastal Zone Color Scanner) satellite imagery measurements These categories consider papers on the biology, ecology, and dynamics of planktonic organisms. The DOE funded mnch of the work in these areas. Types of Citatwns: Phyt0plankton - journal articles; progress reports; conference papers; PhD dissertations. Zooplankton - journal articles; progress reports; technical reports Sources of Stwii.es: Phytoplankton - Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; Institute of Ecology and Department of Zoology at University of Georgia; University of Rhode Island; Old Dominion University; Zooplankton - Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; South Carolina Department of Wildlife and Marine Resources Areas of Overlap: Water Column; Microbes; Productivity; Outwelling; Baseline Studies. Miscellaneous Phytoplankton (7) Productivity; estuarine influences; progress reports of DOE-funded studies (BIOTRANS, FLEX) Zooplankton Trophic Relationships (9) Food webs; feeding behavior; feeding rates; diets; sources of food; predator-prey interactions Zooplankton Populations (4) Abundance and distribution; structure of; larval Miscellaneous Zooplankton (5) Progress reports on biological processes in water column of the SAB; concentrations; catch levels 23 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments UPWELLING, PRODUCTIVITY, AND OUTWELLING Physical Components (6) Biological Components (4) Estuarine Expon of Organic Material (11) Organic Materials in Shelf Waters (5) Miscellaneous (5) Eddies; shelf and Gulf Stream dynamics; circulation; temperature flux and spatial variations; nutrient transpon Food chains; plankton productivity; fish distribution Salt marshes as sources; transpon processes; composition; distn"bution of organics; concentrations; progress repons for DOE studies (SPREX, FLEX) Nitrogen cycling; composition and stability; transpon of panicles by bubbles Estuary-shelf interactions; outwelling descriptions Each category refers to the dynamic physical processes and biological processes that effect transpon of water masses and nutrients onto the shelf through different input and transformation mechanisms. Upwelling occurs at the shelf break; outwelling originates from the estuary to the inner shelf. The nutrient inputs from each process stimulate rates of productivity. Types of Citations: Upwelling - journal; progress repons; books; conference papers; Outwelling - journal anicles; conference papers; books; progress repons Sources of Studies: Upwelling - Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; Sapelo Marine Institute and Institute of Ecology at University of Georgia; DOE; BLM. Outwelling Institute of Ecology and Sapelo Marine Institute of the University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; DOE Areas of Overlap: Water Masses; Water Column; Plankton PELAGIC INVERTEBRATES Mollusca (6) Squid biology; squid distribution; octopus biology and pelagic fishery potential in SC Cnidaria (6) Guide to common jellyfishes; taxonomy; life history of StoT1UJlophus sp.; Physalia Crustacea (12) Parasitic copepods and isopods on other crustaceans; diseases and toxic responses; metabolism; distribution; abundance; taxonomy; guidebooks and keys for identification References to pelagic invertebrates are considered in this category with the exception of those concerning aspects of commercial shellfish and crustacean fisheries. Types of Citations: journal articles; books; conference papers; technical reports; PhD dissenations; cruise repons Sources of Studies: Institute of Ecology and Marine Institute of the University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Depanment; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; NMFS; South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium; University of South Carolina; Florida Department of Natural Resources (continued) 24 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments ChordataUrochordata (8) Distribution and abundance of Thaliacea; feeding rates and behavior; growth rates for Dolioletta and Thaliacea; seston production; epizoan communities (continued from previous page) Areas of Overlap: Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries; Baseline Studies. Miscellaneous (6) Parasites of dolphin, Pomocanthus, squid and fish; descriptions and inventory lists for the phyla Rhyncocoela, Entoprocta, and Ctenophora in SC BENTBIC INVERTEBRATES Communities (10) Cnidaria (5) Annelida (7) Mollusca (10) Recruitment and development; seasonal cycles; grazing rates (on bacteria and diatoms); nutrient and oxygen fluxes; inventories and surveys; computer analyses; jetty assemblages Renilla renifonnis; biochemistry of bioluminescence Polychaete mats on shelf; polychaete metabolism; taxonomy Taxonomy; populations and growth of Busycon whelks; range; species profiles References to marine invertebrates which inhabit bottom environments of the shelf, the benthos, are in this category. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; conference papers; cruise reports; books; M.S. thesis Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; University of South Carolina; Marine Institute and Institute of Ecology at the University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; Savannah State College; NMFS; BLM; Smithsonian Institution Areas of Overlap: Sediments; Fish; Hard Grounds; Pollution; Baseline Studies. Crustacea (12) New species; seasonal populations; population size; inventories and surveys; lobsters - identification, behavior; studies of Marine Areas Management Program (MARMAP) and Southeast Area Marine Assessment Program (SEAMAP) Echinodermata (3) Feeding on microbes; morphology; new species Miscellaneous (11) Taxonomy; biota checklist; densities; effects of nutrient inputs; surf zone fauna; nematodes; bryozoans; pycnogonids 25 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic (No. References) FISH Populations (34) Life Cycles and Biology (35) Larval and Juvenile Stages (25) Taxonomy and Morphology (14) Miscellaneous (21) Content Size; distribution and abundance; range and habitat; structure; seasonal variations; fluxes Reproductive biology; mortality; age and growth; food sources; trophic relationships; ecology; cruise reports; surveys and inventories Transport; distribution; abundance; SEAMAP cruise reports; Boothbay ichthyoneuston net test results; age and growth Descriptions and reconls of rare species and of new species; anatomy; length and growth; sex ratios Synopses of biological data for individual species; bibliographies and literature reviews; species profiles; general overviews; information sources Comments These references concern the biology and ecology of fish in the Georgia Bight. References to aspects of commercial and recreational fisheries and the associated industries are considered in other categories. Also, references to fish communities of hard grounds and artificial reefs are considered in other categories. Table 3.3 lists fish species and topics of collected citations. Types of CitoJions: journal articles; technical reports; conference papers; M.S. theses; data reports; books Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; NMFS labs; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; University of Georgia; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; College of Charleston; NC Department of Natural Resources; Rutgers University; University of South Florida Areas of Overlap: Hard Grounds; Artificial Reefs; Commercial Finfish Fisheries; Recreational Fisheries; Baseline Studies. BIRDS Nearshore Species and Shorebirds (7) Marine and Pelagic Seabirds (8) Nesting and colonial birds (terns, gulls, pelicans); distribution and abundance; surveys; feeding behavior; population structure; parasites Regional survey; management and status of populations; interactions with offshore physical processes (upwelling, frontal eddies); distribution and abundance; petrels; shearwaters This category considers studies of seabirds of offshore areas and references to coastal species common to nearshore areas and ocean beaches. Studies of birds tha1 are primarily estuarine were not collected. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; books; PhD dissertation Sources of Studies: Department of Zoology of University of Georgia; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; BLM; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography Areas of Overlap: Water Masses; Baseline Studies. 26 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments THREATENED/ENDANGERED SPECIES - SEA TURTLES Populations (11) Adult Loggerheads (22) Nesting Loggerheads (48) Adult Mortality (31) Distribution (leatherback, Kemp's ridley); habitat; genetic variance; population model (loggerheads) Status reports; movements; life history; winter surveys; morphology; monality Tagging project reports; aerial surveys of nesting activity and nest distribution; overlap in regard to island nesting sites and migration patterns; clutch size; incubation length variations; heayy metals in eggs; role of temperature in nest in affecting sex and site; mortality from predation and rain; genetic variability; hatchlings movement in response to lights; offshore migration; success rates (1) incidental catch by shrimp trawlers - annual reports; monality data; development of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs); federal regulations on use of TEDs by shrimpers; (2) strandings - state and national reports of sea turtle stranding network on numbers of dead sea turtles found washed ashore beaches; (3) entrainment intake of turtles by dredges in Kings Bay navigation channel; (4) sea turtles and oil This category considers all references to the species of endangered sea turtles of the GA Bight - Kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempi), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), leatherback (Demwchelys coriacea), green turtle (Chelonia mydos). Types of Citations: conference papers and abstracts; journal articles; technical reports; data reports; M.S theses; books; PhD dissertations Sources of Studies: Institute of Ecology at University of Georgia; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; South Carolina Marine and Wildlife Resources Department; NMFS; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; National Park Service; Florida Department of Narural Resources; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Unpublished Data: Island-based projects; Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia Areas of Overlap: Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries citations concerning TEDs Miscellaneous (8) Status reports on the conservation and management of sea turtles (leatherback, Kemp's ridley, green and loggerhead); sea turtle conservation workshop proceedings 27 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments THREATENED/ENDANGERED SPECIES - WHALES AND OTHER MA.RINE MAMMALS Right Whale Populations (16) General Right Whale (9) Miscellaneous (8) Population biology; calving; migration; distribution; identification of individuals; monitoring efforts; species recovery plan Speciation; heavy metal concentrations; mortality; status reports and overviews Overviews of marine mammals and endangered species; pilot whales heavy metal concentrations, strandings; humpback whales species recovery plan; ecology of dolphins References to the right whale (Eubalaena gladalis) are considered in this category. A few papers concern other marine mammals that occur in the area. Types of CiJalions: journal articles; conference papers Sources of Studies: New England Aquarium; NMFS; International Whaling Commission; MMS; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; University of Rhode Island; Institute of Ecology at University of Georgia. Unpublished Data: Cumberland Island National Seashore; Institute of Ecology at University of Georgia; monitoring reports by dredging companies to the NMFS HARD GROUNDS Surveys (15) Reef Fish (22) Mapping methods and maps; morphologic and bathymetric features; abundance/extent; distribution; identification and measurements of sites; descriptions of biota; geophysical surveys Population inventories and stock assessments; habitat; population structure; communities; species associations; range in regard to physical conditions; distribution; food; feeding habits; trophic relationships References to physical and biotic components of hard ground environments are considered in this category. These areas are also referred to as hard bottoms and live bottoms, but hard ground regions may be planar with little topographic relief whereas live bottom areas may be characterized as reef-like. Types of Citations: journal anicles; technical reports; conference papers; PhD dissertation; books. Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Dept.; NMFS; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; Marine Geology Program at University of Georgia; Continental Shelf Associates, Inc.; University of South Carolina; U.S. Geological Survey; BLM; MMS; Savannah State College Marine Biology Program; SEAMAP. (continued) 28 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During tbe Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic (No. References) Reef Invertebrates (7) Content Co=unity descriptions and development; surveys and inventories; community metabolism; nutrient cycling; co=unity size, extent and distribution; sponge-coral habitat ARTIFICIAL REEFS Biota (7) Fish - population sizes, co=unity structure, food and feeding behavior, effects of Fish Aggregation Devices (FAD). Invertebrates - communities, site colonization, abiotic factors Management (15) Maps and lists of sites in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina; construction - materials, procedures, permits, plans; economic benefits and effects; management considerations Comments (continued from previous page) Unpublished Data: Jacksonville University (data for offshore northeast Florida gathered by Reef Research Team); Florida Institute of Technology (invertebrates collected by SEAMAP survey offshore northeast Florida); Natural History Museum, University of Georgia (invertebrate collection of Milton Gray from Grays Reef); Coastal Resources Division of Georgia Department of Natural Resources (data gathered offshore Georgia); Marine Resources Research Institute of South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department Areas of Overlap: Currents; Bathymetry and Seabed Morphology; Stratigraphy and Shallow Structure; Microbes; Macroalgae; Benthic Invertebrales; Fish; Fishery categories; Artificial Reefs; Resource Management and Use; Baseline Studies. All references to artificial reefs are in this category, however, overlapping references are considered in the related categories noted below. Types of Citations: technical reports; journal articles; conference papers; books; maps; brochures Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; University of Florida Sea Grant Program; South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; NMFS; Rutgers University; Savannah State College Marine Biology Program; Florida Department of Natural Resources; University of Georgia Sea Grant Program. Unpublished Data: NMFS regional office (annual reports of managers of each state program); State natural resource agency management programs (data reports) Areas of Overlap: Benthic Invertebrates; Fish; Fishery categortes; Hard Grounds; Resource Management and Use 29 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH AND CRUSTACEAN FISHERIES Crustacean FisheryManagement (22) Crustacean Fishery-Landings (15) Shellfish Industries (16) Industry profiles; economic analyses; Fisheries value of landings; incidental catch; efficiency of trawl nets; effects of Turtle Excluder Devices on catch; management plans Annual data reports; stalistics; stock assessments; distribution; surveys; populations Potential for octopus (Octopus vulgaris) fishery; profile and history of whelk (Busycon sp.) fishery; squid (Loligo sp.) fishery; scallops; pollutant concentrations; diseases and parasites; publications list; shtimp baiting fishery References in this category pertain to the commercial fisheries for shellfish and crustaceans in offshore waters with an emphasis on the monitoring, management and economic aspects of industries. Papers on the biology and ecology of the organisms in these fisheries are considered in separate categories. Types of Citations: technical reports; journal articles; conference papers; management plans Sources of Stllilies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; Georgia Department of Narural Resources; NMFS; South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council; University of South Carolina; Marine Extension Service of University of Georgia; University of Florida Sea Grant Program; North Carolina Sea Grant Program; Georgia Coastal Area Planning and Development Commission Unpublished Data: Annual statistics on landings of the shellfish and crustacean fisheries are maintained in databases at the narural resource management agencies for each state. Areas of Overlap: Benthic Invertebrates; Pelagic Invertebrates; Models COMMERCIAL FINFISH FISHERIES Cruise Reports (78) MARMAP trawls; SEAMAP trawls; cruise reports of RN J. W. Fanning and RN GA Bulldog on finfish projects; survey results; data reports; landings data on size, composition References in this category pertain to the commercial fisheries for finfish in offshore waters of the study area with an emphasis upon the monitoring, management and economic aspects of the industries. Papers on fish biology and the recreational fishery are considered in separate categories. All citations on fish and fisheries are shown by species in Table 3.3. Types of Citations: journal articles; technical reports; management plans; conference papers; cruise reports; books; annual reports; maps; brochures. (continued) 30 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments Fisheries Management and Gear (16) Fish Biology (9) Management - Federal and State regulations, management plans, economic analyses; fishing gear tests of efficiency, nets, gill nets, finfishing with shrimp boats, bottom longlining Recruinnent; mortality; guide to fishes; by-catch; feeding behavior; stock assessments; distribution (continued from previous page) Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; NMFS; South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council; Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; University of Georgia Marine Extension Service/Sea Grant Program; National Coalition for Marine Conservation; Florida Department of Natural Resources; University of Florida Sea Grant Program; Marine Areas Management Program (MARMAP); Southeast Area Marine Assessment Program (SEAMAP). Unpublished Dato.: Statistics on annual landings, stock assessments and other data are maintained by the natural resource management agencies for each state. Areas of Overlap: Fish; Hard Grounds; Artificial Reefs; Recreational Fisberies RECREATIONAL FISHERIES Fisbery Industries (12) Populations (13) Fishery Management (39) Miscellaneous (8) Charterboats and headboats, economic analyses, landings; sports fishing tournaments; marine bait industry; pier fishing industry Populations: fishery surveys of landings; dynamics; models Management plans and amendments; impact statements (regulatory) and assessments (environmental); laws and regulations; proceedings; use conflicts Maps and guides to fishing; flounder; sea trout This category contains references that pertain to the recreational, or sports, fisheries with emphasis upon economic, management and educational materials. Commercial fisheries and fish biology are considered in separate categories. Types of Citations: technical reports; education reports; data reports; journal articles; conference papers Sources of Studies: South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium; Georgia Department of Natural Resources; NMFS; South Atlantic Fishery Management Council; Atlantic States Marine Fisberies Commission; National Coalition for Marine Conservation; University of Florida Sea Grant Program; University of Georgia Marine Extension Service Areas of Overlap: Fisb; Commercial Finfish Fisheries; Hard Grounds; Artificial Reefs 31 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments GENERAL COASTAL MANAGEMENT Coastal Zone Management (17) Miscellaneous (16) Program plans; regulations; legislation; environmental impact statements; ocean and coastal law and policy; beach recreation Marine resource use and conflicts; marine economics; SEAMAP annual reports and master plans; Grays Reef National Marine Sanctuary management plans; Geographic Information System (GIS); Exclusive Economic Zone (BEZ) use; marine fishery reserves References in this category pertain to natural resource management policies and practices in coastal and offshore areas, Some estuarine and terrestrial data are included, however, due to the general scope of coastal zone management references. Types of Citations: management plans; environmental impact statements; technical reports; annual reports; conference papers; journal anicles Sources of Studies: NOAA Office of Coastal Zone Management; National Academy of Science; Savannah State College Marine Biology Program; University of Florida Sea Grant Program; Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission; Georgia Geologic Survey; South Carolina Sea Grant Program; Georgia Coastal Regional Development Commission; Florida Depanment of Environmental Regulation; South Carolina Coastal Council Areas of Overlap: Commercial Finfish Fishery; Recreational Fishery; Beaches; Hard Grounds; Pollution BEACHES Shoreline Changes (24) Inlets (21) Historical reviews; data records; transport of sediment; Hugoinduced; effects of sea level rise; surveys of statewide (GA, SC) and island-specific (Seabrook, Kiawah, Hilton Head, Tybee, etc.) shoreline changes Ebb-tidal deltas; sediment transport; shoreline changes; variability and cycles; molphology; processes; stabilization These references include data specific to the measurement and the monitoring of rates of change, to coastal engineering methods of beach erosion control, and to the processes of shoreline change. Types of Citations: technical reports; journal anicles; conference papers; PhD dissertation; M.S. theses; environmental impact statements; books (continued) 32 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected Dming the literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic (No. References) Erosion Control and Coastal Engineering (21) Content Historical reviews; feasibility studies; environmental impact studies; beach nourishment projects; management options; hurricane protection studies; Sites Nassau County and Duval County (FL); Glynn County, Wassaw Island, Tybee Island (GA); Hilton Head, Seabrook Island, Folly Island (SC) Comments (continued from previous page) Sources of Studies: University of South Carolina; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; University of Georgia; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; University of Florida; Duke University; consulting firms; Georgia State University; South Carolina Sea Grant Program; South Carolina Geological Society Areas of Overlap: Sediments and Sediment Transport; Bathymetry; Waves, Tides, and Currents PORTS AND NAVIGATION Kings Bay Reports (17) Monitoring studies of dredging; environmental impact statements; biological and physical effects of This category considers references to ports, navigation, and shipping activities in the study area. The major ports are Charleston, dredging Savannah, Brunswick, and Jacksonville; however, most references specific to these sites were not collected due to the location of the ports outside of the study area boundary. Most uncollected information about ports refers to the tonnage and economics of the shipping industries at the port site. The inshore references to navigation likewise were often inapplicable. n - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i Types of Citations: environmental impact Navigation (7) Channel dredging; project reports (Charleston Harbor, Wanda River, Folly River, Savannah River, Brunswick Harbor); Jacksonville port report; Coast Pilot - sea conditions, marine regulations for navigation and legislation on pollution statements; technical reports; conference papers Sources of Studies: U.S. Navy; National Ocean Service; Institute of Ecology of the University of Georgia; National Park Service Unpublished Data: Kings Bay Naval Base; Institute of Ecology of the University of Georgia; District offices of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Jacksonville, Savannah, Brunswick) Areas of Overlap: Sediment and Sediment Transport; Bathymetry; Beaches; General Coastal Management; Pollution 33 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During tbe Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic Content (No. References) Comments POLLUTION Atmospheric (4) Hydrocarbons (9) Bioaccumulation (13) Ocean Disposal of Dredged Material (12) Regional ozone and haze distributions; transport of pollutants by rainfall over northeast Florida; regulations Baseline data re: concentrations in shelf waters; transport in oil spills; effects on oil-sensitive marine wildlife; pelagic tar in offshore waters - transport, distribution, effects on environment Trace metal concentrations of cadmium, magnesium, selenium, organochlorides, brominated compounds; biological monitoring; in fish, invertebrates, birds Sediment - chemistry, mapping; disposal sites - surveys, designations; regulations; characterization of benthic macrofauna This topic includes the sources, transport, distributions, and concentrations of atmospheric and water-borne pollutants in the smdy area. Regulation and monitoring efforts associated with pollution control are also considered. Types of Citations: technical reports; journal articles; conference papers; books Sources of Studies: NOAA National Marine Pollution Program; U.S. Aimy Corps of Engineers; Environmental Protection Agency; South Carolina Wildlife and Marine R~sources Department; Savannah State College Marine Biology Program; Skidaway Institute of Oceanography; U.S. Geological Survey; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Sapelo Marine Institute of the University of Georgia; NMFS Areas of Overlap: Meteorology; Water Column; Sediments and Sediment Transport; Commercial Finfish Fishery; Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries; Birds; Whales; General Coastal Management Miscellaneous (5) MARPOL international regulations; federal research; pollution monitoring; marine debris along shoreline CULTURAL RESOURCES Archeological Surveys (10) Lease block site surveys; regional study for BLM (1981) re: cultural resources; Folly River - Stono Inlet area survey; National Wildlife Refuge resources in region Cultural resources in the study area are constituted by archeological artifacts and shipwrecks on the shelf. Historical publications on general maritime history were not collected. The few citations within this category reflect the scant attention given to these topics. (continued) 34 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) Primary Topic (No. References) Shipwrecks (2) Content Historical review of wrecks in waters offshore South Carolina and Georgia; hangs and obstructions to trawling offshore Georgia and South Carolina Comments (co111i.ruted from previous page) Types of Citations: technical reports; surveys; books Sources of Studies: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; BLM; University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program; consulting firms; National Park Service; Sea Research Society Unpublished Dato: Chatham Coumy, GA, Shipwrecks Survey in office of State Preservationist, Georgia Depanment of Natural Resources; database of information compiled by Judy Woods, Savannah District of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; National Ocean Service Automated Wreck and Obstruction Information System's database of wrecks and obstructions in coastal U.S.; reports of the South Carolina Institute of Archeology and Anthropology on specific offshore wrecks; and, LORAN records of shrimp and fish boats regarding uncharted snags and hangs. Areas of Overlap: Baseline Studies 35 Table 3. Extent of Data Collected During the Literature Search. (continued) 36 3.0 ANALYSIS OF THE EXTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION A literature review revealed the nature and scope of infonnation pertaining to the study area. A rigorous and structured analysis was then conducted to assess the current state of environmental research on the non-mineral resources on the Georgia Shelf. This assessment provides the basis for identifying data gaps and research priorities. In addition, defining the current knowledge and research allows for comparisons with similar historical evaluations. The data was collected and analyzed by using a three-step process: (1) organizing individual references into resource topic categories; (2) reviewing and analyzing the type, nature, and relevance of citations in each category and the extent and scope of work in each category; and (3) summarizing the analysis of environmental information. 3.1 Data Analysis Process 3.1.1 Guidelines A structural framework that organized the data according to the types of resources guided both the review and analysis process and the subsequent summary. The topic areas presented in Tables 1 and 3 are the non-mineral resources topics into which collected data were grouped for this analysis. Four major environment groups were used for identifying data gaps as described in Section 5.0. Many citations included a wide range of topics and research fields and could not be placed in a single category. Examples include citations for interdisciplinary studies combining facets of physical, geological, biological and chemical oceanography. Whereas these papers address several topics, they are enumerated in only one category - typically, in the primary area of focus. During the analysis of the extent of information, however, the evaluations of such papers are applied to all appropriate categories. Within the electronic database, these citations may be easily located using key words (Appendix A, Table A-3). 3.1.2 Analytical methods The references were assessed to determine the extent of available information in specific categories. For each category, the parameters evaluated for each reference included Major topics of study, 37 Fields of research involved in each study, Research methods (i.e., laboratory, field, modeling), Scope of the research, Geographical location(s) of research work, Type of publication (e.g., journal paper, technical report), and Relevance of the work to the study. The subjective nature of the analysis, however, could not be completely avoided or eliminated. To reduce bias, the work of each author was reviewed by the other authors. Discussions regarding points of contention also served to shape consensus on the extent of knowledge. 3.1.3 Structure of the discussion The following summaries of the extent of information are presented within the same framework in which the references were initially grouped for analysis (Table 1). Major interdisciplinary research efforts, baseline studies, and environmental inventories for the region are discussed in Section 3.2. An overview of the extent of information according to environment - physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic - is presented in Section 3.3. The extent of knowledge in each resource topic is discussed in Section 3.4. 3.2 Regional and Baseline Studies 3.2.1 Environmental studies program The U.S. Department of Interior's Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Environmental Studies Program in 1973 began to conduct studies to predict, assess, and manage impacts on the human, marine and coastal environments, and nearshore areas that may be affected by activities associated with oil and gas production (Wilson 1993). In May 1982, the newlycreated Minerals Management Service (MMS) assumed responsibility for the OCS program. Most of the regional, long-term, comprehensive, and topical studies that are pertinent to this report were conducted in either of two formats: baseline studies or environmental inventories. BLM defined baseline studies as "multidisciplinary field studies designed to produce a statistically valid benchmark against which the impacts of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) activities could be measured" (Wilson 1993). Conversely, it defined environmental inventories as "a compilation of existing information into an original concise 38 format, that contain an identification of data gaps in the published and unpublished literature, and make recommendations for studies designed to fill identified data gaps" (Wilson 1993). 3.2.2 Major baseline studies Table 4 lists, in chronological order, the title and objectives of the most pertinent baseline studies and environtnental inventories conducted in the study area. BLM and, later, MMS sponsored all but two of these studies. The two exceptions are (1) a study of the ecology of the South Carolina and Georgia coastal regions, which was sponsored by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (McKenzie and Barclay 1980), and (2) a multidisciplinary program concerning Southeast United States continental shelf, which was sponsored by the U.S. Department of E_nergy (DOE) (Menzel 1993). The latter program produced more than 220 journal articles and 100 technical and miscellaneous reports that were synthesized into a single, multi-author volume. This publication provides the most comprehensive and pertinent discussion of the physical, chemical, and biological processes and interactions in the South Atlantic Bight to date. The major experiments conducted during these DOE studies are listed in Table 5. Citations of all relevant journal publications and reports resulting from each of the above studies are included in the electronic database and are considered in the analysis in Section 3.4. Descriptions of the BLM/MMS studies are detailed by Fritz (1986), Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1990), and Wilson (1993). 3.2.3 Extent of the baseline studies The bulk of the references in the study database have a relatively narrow focus regarding study topic, scientific field, type of research, and geographical location. Conversely, most of the baseline studies, such as the South Atlantic OCS Benchmark Program of 1977 (Texas Instruments, Inc. 1979a,b), create broad-based descriptions of many resources in the study area. Some studies were literature surveys that characterized resources and research, as in A Summary and Analysis of Environmental Information on the Continental Shelf and Blake Plateau from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral (Center for Natural Areas 1979a,d). Other studies focused on a specific field of research for the entire region, as in the South Atlantic OCS Physical Oceanography Study (Science Applications, Inc. 1980a-c, 1981a-g, 1982a-d, 1983a-c, 1984a,b). Although some studies provide regional baseline data for many fields, others synthesize earlier research to develop their conclusions. These studies are considered in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.4. 39 Table 4. Baseline Studies and Envirorunental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight Study Area. Title and Products Objectives South Atlantic Benchmark Program, Fiscal Year 1977 Study (Texas Instruments, Inc. 1979a-e) Vol. I: Executive Summary Vol. 2: Technical Program and Management Vol. 3: Results of Studies of Georgia Bight of North Atlantic Ocean Vol. 4: An Atlas of Normal Histology and Histopathology of Benthic Invertebrates and Demersal fish Vol. 5: South Atlantic OCS Geological Studies Vol. 6: Appendices To determine concentration of high molecular weight hydrocarbons and selected trace metals in water, sediment, woplankton, and selected maeroepifauna; To evaluate natural variation in benthic and zooplankton communities; To enumerate heterotrophic microorganisms of surface film, near surface, and sediments and examine the relationship to hydrocarbon presence; and, To measure and describe water chemistry. South Atlantic Hard Bottom Study (Continental Shelf Associates Inc. 1979) Final Report ~ To determine whether geologic hazards survey records would be adequate for delineating hard-bottom areas in the Georgia Bight; To characterize substrates comprising hard bottom through petrographic analyses; and, To identify epibiota and demersal fishes associated with hard-bottom areas. Summary and Analysis of Physical and Meteorological Information on the Continental Shelf and Blake Plateau from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral (Environmental Research and Technology 1979) Vol. I : Executive Summary Vol. 2: Final Report To identify and assemble recent oceanographic and meteorologic data not available from the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) or National Climatic Center (NCC) for the South Atlantic (OCS) region; To organize the data on tapes in formats that are compatible with NODC/NCC and transmit them to NODC/NCC; To update a previously prepared National Science Foundation bibliography for the region; To use recent and previously catalogued data to display, describe, analyze, and interpret oceanographic and meteorological phenomena in the region; and, To make recommendations for future sampling and buoy sites and programs based on the preceding analyses and review of raw data and unworked samples. Table 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight. (co11ti1111ed) Tille and Ptoducts Objectives Summary and Analysis of Environmental Information on the Continental Shelf and Blake Plateau from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral (Center for Natural Areas 1979a-f) Vol. !, books 1 through 4: Summaries of data on environmental resources of region Vol. 2: Master Bibliography and Index Vol. 3: Appendices A, B, and C To update the environmental survey by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (1974) and provide analysis of all existing biological, chemical, and geological data; To identify and summarize biological, chemical, and environmental resources of region geological programs in the South Atlantic OCS region; To identify sources of raw data and unworked samples, and evaluate the role of this material in relation to the total existing data base; and To identify gaps in the biological, chemical, and geological database and evaluate the extent of gaps. South Atlantic OCS Geological Studies, Fiscal Year 1976 (Popenoe 1979b,c) ;t Executive Summary Report Geology Final Report To measure the rate, direction, and forcing mechanisms sediment mobility over the seabed, and monitor resultant changes in bottom morphology or texture; To determine concentration, distribution, and flux of suspended particulate matter in the water column; To determine the vertical distribution of trace metals in the near-surface sediment at selected locations; To evaluate potential geological hazards to oil and gas development due to surficial and intermediate depth structure and mass transport events; and, To identify and evaluate the distribution and significance of outcrop and reef structures. Note: The Final Report is also included in South Atlantic Benchmark Program Study as Volume 5. Table 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight, (continued) Title and Products Objectives Environmental Geologic Studies on the Southeastern At/a/Ilic Outer Cominental Shelf, 1977-1978 (Popenoe 198la,b) Summary Report Final Report i!3 To determine the sedimentation rates and processes on upper slope and inner Blake Plateau; To determine the distribution, areal extent, and vertical characteristics of geological features supportive of biological communities; To monitor transport of bottom sediment across the OCS, to evaluate its possible effect on pollutant transfer along the seabed and the potential of sediment as a pollutant sink, to determine implications of erosion/deposition on pipeline placement, and to aid in the interpretation of chemical, biological & physical data; To determine the concentration levels of chosen trace metals and silica in three chemically-defined fractions of suspended particulate matter (seston); To study the shelf edge and slope near areas of oil and gas interest, and northern portion of the Blake Plateau for evidence of slope instability and geologic hazards; To determine the depth and rate of sediment mixing caused by large storms and/or benthic organisms and to estimate rates of sediment accumulation where possible. Ecological Characterization of the Sea Island Coastal Region of South Carolina and Georgia (Mathews et al. 1980; McKenzie et al. 1980; Sandifer et al. 1980; Davis et al. 1980; McKenzie and Barclay 1980) Vol. 1: Physical Features Vol. 2: Biological Features Vol. 3: Socioeconomic Features Characterization Atlas Executive Summary To assemble, review and synthesize existing biological, physical and socioeconomic information and establish a sound information base for decisionmaking; To identify and describe various components (habitats, subsystems, conununities, key species) in the ecosystem; To describe major physical, biological, and socioeconomic components and interactions; To describe known and potential ecosystem responses to man-induced changes; and, To identify major information deficiencies for further study and decisionmaking needs. Table 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight. (co11ti11ued) Title and Products Objectives South Atlantic OCS Physical Oceanography Final Progress Report, Year I (Science Applications, Inc. 1980a-c) Vol. I: Executive Summary Vol. 2: Technical Report Vol. 3: Data Products Vol. 4: Books I and 2 (Appendices) To describe water circulation and mixing processes in Georgia Embayment OCS and upper slope region Note: A review of the existing literature pertaining to OCS physical oceanography is included in this report. South Atlantic OCS Physical Oceanography Final Progress Report, Year 2 (Science Applications, Inc. 1981a-c) Vol. I: Executive Summary Vol. 2: Technical Report Vol. 3: Data Products (Parts I and 2) To understand and document South Atlantic Bight OCS physical oceanography so the various processes can be parameterized and modeled. A Cultural Resource Survey of the Co11tine11tal Shefffrom Cape Hatteras to Key West (Science Applications, Inc. 1981d-g) Vol. I: Physical Environment w.i,. Vol. 2: Prehistoric Archaeology Vol. 3: Appendices Vol. 4: Conclusions and Recommendations To combine physical environmental and archaeological information to predict distribution, location and concentration of archaeological sites and shipwrecks; To use the above information in developing workable management schemes. South Atlantic OCS Living Marine Resources Study, Year I (Burrell et al. 1981; Van Dolah et al. 198la,b) Vol. I: Investigation of Live Bottom Habitats South of Cape Fear, NC Vol. 2: Investigation of Live Bottom Habitats North of Cape Fear, NC Vol. 3: Appendices To characterize invertebrate and fish communities associated with representative live-bottom habitats on the continental shelf offshore the southeastern U.S.; To characterize food habits of selected fish species of commercial or recreational importance; To conduct a limited assessment of bottom topography substrate type; and, To evaluate potential impacts of oil- and gas-related activities on live-bottom organisms. Table 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight. (co11ti11ued) Title and Products Objectives South Atlantic OCS Physical Oceanography Final Progress Report, Year 3 (Science Applications, Inc. 1982a-d) Vol. 1: Executive Summary To examine and document high and low frequency lateral oscillations of the Vol. 2: Technical Report Gulf Stream western and eastern boundaries; Vol. 3: Data Products (Part 1 of 2) To continue study of the characteristics and joint response of wind and water Vol. 4: Data Products (Part 2 of 2) level in the South Atlantic Bight; To collect detailed hydrographic measurements on the North Carolina shelf, with several transects extending well seaward of the shelf break; To measure subsurface currents; To determine hydrographic conditions on Blake Plateau; To predict shelf winds, as part of the study of shelf forcing mechanism; To develop physically-based mathematical descriptions of important regional circulation patterns; and, To provide resolution of the multivariable response of the South Atlantic Bight shelf to key forcing mechanisms. t: South Atlantic OCS Living Marine Resources Study, Year 2 (Van Dolah et al. 1982; Van Dolah and Kirby-Smith 1982; Van Dolah 1982) Vol. I: Investigation of Live-Bottom Habitat Off South Carolina and Georgia Vol. 2: Investigation of Live-Bottom Habitat Off North Carolina Vol. 3: Appendices To characterize invertebrate and fish communities associated with representative live-bottom habitats on the continental shelf offshore the southeastern U.S.; To characterize food habits of selected fish species of commercial or recreational importance; To conduct a limited assessment of bottom topography substrate type; and, To evaluate potential impacts of oil- and gas-related activities on live-bottom organisms. South Atlantic OCS Physical Oceanography Final Progress Report, Year 4 (Science Applications, Inc. 1983a-c) Vol. I: Executive Summary Vol. 2: Technical Report Vol. 3: Data Products To document and explain site-specific and regional circulation occurring over a range of temporal and spatial scales; and, To describe mechanisms producing these circulation patterns. Table 4. Baseline Studies and Environmental Inventories Conducted in the Georgia Bight. (co11ti11ued) Title and Products Objectives South Atlamic OCS Physical Oceanography Final Progress Report, Year 5 (Science Applications, Inc, 1984a,b) Vol. 1: Executive Summary Vol. 2: Technical Report To examine and understand the effects of tides, winds, water mass density and Gulf Stream on the South Atlantic Bight circulation patterns; and, To document and explain the spatial and temporal variability of hydrographic conditions such as temperature, salinity, density, dissolved oxygen, and selected nutrients. South Atlantic OCS Living Marine Resources Study, Phase 3 (Van Dolah 1984a-c) Executive Summary To determine short-term and long-term colonization patterns by invertebrates Vol. 1: Technical Report and fishes on artificial hard substrata; Vol. 2: Appendices To determine how changes in sediment depth over hard substratum influence the distribution and abundance of large sponges and corals; and, To describe the food habits of several fishes typically found in hard-bottom ~ areas of the South Atlantic Bight. Special Literal/Ire Analysis Study: Final Report 011 Benthic Communities in Certaill Slope Areas of the South Atlantic Bight (Knot and Wendt 1985) To provide an analysis of information on benthic invertebrate communities of the continental slope in the South Atlantic Bight in water depths ranging from 80-200 m off north Florida to 200-2000 m between Brunswick, GA and Cape Fear, NC. Ocea11 Processes: U.S. Southeast Continemal Shelf (Menzel 1993) To synthesize results of research conducted from 1977 to 1991, the purpose of which was to describe and to quantify processes controlling inputs, distribution, cycling and fate of materials produced in and entering the South .Atlantic Bight. Table 5. Experiments Conducted mthe South Atlantic Bight for DOE Studies [Adapted from Menzel (1993)). Title of Experiment Preliminary studies of intrusion processes on the Georgia Shelf Front FLUX I and II GABEX (Georgia Bight Experiment) I and GABEX II SPREX (Spring Removal Experiment) I and SPREX II BIOTRANS (Biological Transformations) PreFLEX and FLEX I (Fall Removal Experiments) Bottom Boundary Layer Experiment Winter 1990 Overview Dates Identification of physical processes that control interactions of waters of shelf with water offshore 4n7-4l79 Investigate exchanges of heat and salt across nearshore frontal zone during tidal cycles FLUX I, 11/79 FLUX II, 4/81 Investigate interactions of waters of shelf and Gulf Stream in seasons when well-mixed vertically (GABEX I) and when stratified (GABEX II) GABEX I, 2/80-6/80 GABEX II, 5/81-10/81 Determines effects of cross-shelf exchange on biological and chemical processes during springtime meteorological conditions SPREX I, 3/84-6/84 SPREX II, 2/85-6/85 Stndy on inner- and middle-shelf areas of biological transformations of materials and energy 8/85-1/88 Smdy processes of alongshore and cross-shelf exchange on chemical and biological processes and distribution of materials during autumn with prevailing winds from the north PreFLEX, 9/86-11/86 FLEX I, 8/87-11/87 Define vertical structure of horizontal currents in a nearshore front 9/89-10/89 Smdy effects on rate processes and material distribution offshore Charleston, SC in winter by cross-shelf exchange processes on outer shelf 12/89-3/90 46 3.2.4 Relevance of baseline studies to environmental assessment Baseline studies were de-emphasized following a recent National Research Council (NRC) (1992) review of the Environmental Studies Program. The NRC concluded that such studies "were not providing timely and appropriate information for leasing decisions." In addition, the scientific community advised MMS that "natural variability in the marine environment was too great to establish a statistically valid baseline within a reasonable length of time" (Wilson 1993). However, the baseline studies provide valuable information on the physical processes, systematics and ecology, and environmental conditions of the OCS that directly relate to impacts by all anthropogenic activities, including mining, commercial fishing, and point- and nonpoint-source pollution. In general, the regional studies provide a foundation for other research in the study area. The relative importance of such regional efforts, however, cannot supplant the contributions of the large number of other references within the database. 3.3 Extent of Enmomnental Information Resource categories are organized into four environmental groups -physical, chemical, biological, and socioeconomic. A brief summary of information available for each environmental group is presented below, and detailed summaries are presented in Section 3.4. The literature overview followed two approaches. The first approach considered the nwnber of citations for each resource group (Table 1); 29% of the citations described the physical and chemical environments, 40% the biological environment, and 31 % the socioeconomic environment. Many citations are for interdisciplinary studies and the percentages are not necessarily accurate. The second approach provided a more effective means to assess the extent of environmental information. In this case, each reference is reviewed and analyzed for content, scope, and significance. These analyses were combined and synthesized to qualitatively assess the extent of information for each of the four environments. These summaries are presented below. The scales at which such analyses are conducted determined the apparent extent of knowledge for each area. Although extensive information is available for a specific topic category, the need for additional information will always exist. In general, some physical and chemical processes and the biological systems of shelf environments appear to be widely studied in regard to character, structure, and function. However, additional investigations are needed to fill data gaps before the potential effects of marine mining can be evaluated and an acceptable site selected. 47 3.3.1 Physical environment The dynamic processes that affect the physical environment, from the seafloor through the water column to the sea surface, are subjects of considerable study through research sponsored by the BLM/MMS and by the DOE. In particular, general circulation patterns, Gulf Stream intrusions, upwelling, and outwelling are subjects of considerable study. The coupling of atmospheric activity and meteorological events with water-mass motions is one area of study that contributes to the understanding of forcing mechanisms, transport processes, and general circulation patterns. This research originates from concerns over the potential consequences of contamination by oil spills or radioactive contaminants. Geophysical surveys of the seafloor associated with offshore oil and gas exploration established a broad baseline on the stratigraphy, bathymetry, and seabed morphology of the shelf. The direct application of this research is often limited by temporal (seasonal) and/or spatial (site-specific) factors. The physical aspects of shelf environments needing further study include the Floridan aquifer, bottom currents and sediment transport, boundary layer dynamics, and detailed bathymetry and imagery. 3.3.2 Chemical environment Considerable information was found that describes the processes of transport, exchange, and flux of dissolved and particulate chemical constituents in the water column. The associated data establish broad baselines for determining the concentrations of various trace elements in shelf waters and seafloor sediments. The general nature of the chemical environments of the water column and of the seafloor sediment are better understood than fluxes at the air-sea boundary layer and at the sediment-water interface. 3 .3 .3 Biological environment Biotic components of shelf environments of particular interest to resource managers are described and understood better than other biological components. Sea turtles and marine mammals, such as the right whale, have received special attention due to their endangered-species status, but their offshore habits and movements are not well understood. The biology of several commercially important species of fish and shellfish is documented in detail. A broad baseline for hard-ground-habitat areas is established for the area; however, detailed assessments of live-bottom areas are needed. The contributions and functions of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and microbes are typically studied regarding shelf productivity 48 and trophic structures. Additional facets of biological systems needing investigation include the fluxes between biological components and chemical and physical components; and the structure and distribution of macroalgal, benthic, and seabird communities. 3.3.4 Socioeconomic environment References related to managing finfish, shellfish, and crustacean fisheries dominate the socioeconomic literature. With the exception of a substantial body of work on shoreline erosion and erosion-control projects, few references pertain to the socioeconomic facets of offshore and coastal environments in the study area. Florida and South Carolina, states that participate in the federal Coastal Zone Management (CZM) program, have produced a considerable body of literature pertaining to coastal zone management and offshore resources. Only a few of these types of publications for Georgia exist because Georgia has not yet joined the CZM program. In addition, Florida and South Carolina have produced more public education materials pertaining to coastal and offshore resources than has Georgia. References to regulations and legislation about ports, navigation, and pollution comprise most of the remainder of the work in this area. Archeological resources (primarily shipwrecks) may be numerous on the shelf, but existing literature is limited. 3.4 Analysis of Environmental Information by Resource Topic As noted earlier, material collected during the literature search was grouped into environments and resource topics based on the non-mineral resource discussed. Because many references were interdisciplinary studies, the evaluations in Section 3.4 may not represent the breadth or total number of references that describe each resource. To account for this overlap, related resources are cross-referenced at the end of each section. The following section discusses the extent of environmental information for non-mineral resources according to environmental groups and resource topic. Appendix C contains annotated citations (two citations per resource topic) that represent the types of references currently available. 3.4.1 Physical environment References describing the physical environment of the study area are organized according to three major topics: 49 Meteorology, which concerns atmospheric dynamics and events; Physical oceanography, which concerns the movements, dynamics, and characterization of shelf waters; and Geology, which concerns aspects of the seabed and sub-bottom environments. The complex nature of the offshore physical environment is reflected by the interdisciplinary nature of many references. 3.4.1.1 Meteorology The majority of the meteorology references concern hurricanes. Reports from the National Weather Service present the history of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic, including descriptions of individual storms and storm-track data (Neumann 1990; Neumann and Pryslak 1981). Cardone (1986) hindcasts the most intense tropical storms and hurricanes of the 20th century. Technical reports by the South Carolina Water Resources Commission and various journal articles document the storm surges, storm damage, and sea states caused hurricanes, such as Hugo in 1989 (Purvis 1985; Davis et al. 1991). Few references are available, however, for more typical atmospheric weather conditions and events, with the exception of one each regarding rainfall, mesoscale weather events, and the development of fog and stratus (Lyons and Calby 1986; Ricks 1981). Mullins (1978) presents the atmospheric transport over and geochemistry of trace metals in the Georgia Bight. Air-sea interactions in the form of wind stress and attnospheric forcing receive considerable study regarding seasonal variations in currents and circulation of water masses on the shelf (Blanton et al. 1989b; Blanton et al. 1985; Schwing et al. 1988). Weber and Blanton (1980) establish seasonal and monthly mean-wind fields for the South Atlantic Bight based on over 300,000 marine weather observations. Several of the references analyze and interpret data routinely collected at the Savannah Light Tower which is located 15 km off the Georgia coast (Blanton and Chandler 1978; Blanton et al. 1979; Schwing et al. 1985). These data, consisting of wind, barometric pressures, sea temperatures, and water movements, are combined with data from other sources and are used to predict the behavior of the coastal water masses and their effects on the physical and biological processes. The ELM-sponsored studies serve as a partial data baseline of data describing meteorological conditions in the South Atlantic Bight (Environmental Research and Technology, Inc. 1979a-c). Meteorological data are collected, compiled, and stored routinely by the National Oceanic and Attnospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Data Buoy Center (NDBC), the National Climatic Data Center, and National Hurricane Center. Weather and sea conditions in the study area are recorded at 50 three offshore weather buoys (Stations 41.003, 41.004 and 41.005) and at the Savannah Light Tower. Data from these buoys are compiled in a database and are reported most recently in Qimatic Summaries for NDBC Buoys and Stations: Update 1 (Gilhouson et al. 1990). Unpublished, often electronic, data on historical climate conditions and short-term weather events for the study area also are stored at these facilities. Because weather is a short-term phenomenon and climate connotes a much longer span of time, the degree to which both have been investigated in the South Atlantic Bight is only adequate at present. However, in the event of marine mining, more site-specific data will be needed. 3.4.1.2 Physical oceanography References describing physical oceanography are evaluated according to two topics: (1) water masses, and (2) waves, tides, and currents. The first category concerns Gulf Stream eddies and intrusions, riverine and estuarine discharges, and continental shelf circulation, and the second category concerns localized, typically nearshore, phenomena. Many of the physical oceanographic models discussed in Section 4.2 are applied to the physical processes and systems within this topic. The physical (and chemical) oceanography in the South Atlantic Bight has been studied extensively. The large interdisciplinary studies sponsored by the BLM (Table 4) and the DOE (Table 5) establish a baseline of information regarding the dynamics of the shelf environment, and the interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes on the shelf. Water Masses. Studies of water masses range in topic, from discharges of freshwater and estuarine plumes through the inner shelf, to the dynamics of a coastal frontal zone, to both localized and general circulation patterns over the entire shelf, including advection of waters onto the shelf from the continental slope during upwelling. The references evaluated in this section represent perhaps the best-integrated, most complete work for any of the shelf environments. Many references are progress reports on long-term studies sponsored by DOE, NOAA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and other Federal agencies, as well as cruise reports by various oceanographic institutions. Studies of the physical oceanography, and water mass dynamics in particular, of the South Atlantic Bight have been sponsored by the BLM and MMS (Table 4). These large-scale studies, combined with other site-specific studies, indicate that the physical aspects of the water column over the continental shelf are well-known. Even though the time-specific nature of the investigations must be considered, a significant portion of the data can be extrapolated and 51 applied to present and future endeavors. For instance, data from the Georgia Bight Experiment (GABEX), consisting of mooring cruises offshore Savannah and Cape Romain, are correlated with other hydrographic and interdisciplinary cruises (Lovingood et al. 1986; Pietrafesa 1980). Numerous studies address the processes and dynamics offshore Georgia that affect the transport and fate (and buoyancy) of low-salinity water discharged from rivers (Blanton 1980; Blanton and Atkinson 1983). These processes are investigated extensively as a result of the Spring Removal Experiment (SPREX) sponsored by the DOE in the mid-to-late 1980's (Chandler et al. 1987; Chandler and Atkinson 1988). Blanton and Chandler (1978) and Blanton et al. (1989a) investigate the coastal frontal zone that prevents the seaward transport of fresh water to midshelf areas. Environmental effects associated with the behavior of the western frontal edge of the Gulf Stream are discussed in many references (Oey et al. 1987; Singer et al. 1980). The irregularities ofbathymetric features are shown to affect the flow of boundary currents along the continental margin (Bane 1983; Brooks and Bane 1978). Gulf Stream- and wind-induced current variability on the continental shelf offshore Georgia and northeastern Florida is discussed by Lee and Atkinson (1982, 1983). The formation, dynamics, and effects of Gulf Stream intrusions on the shelf environment are also studied. Much of the research on the dynamics of water masses is applied to the development of numerical predictive circulation models for the South Atlantic Bight (Blumberg and Mellor 1983; Kantha et al. 1986). A detailed discussion of these models is presented in Section 4.1. DOE sponsored a comprehensive literature review of studies conducted from 1977 to 1991 of the ocean processes in the South Atlantic Bight (Menzel 1993). The document should be a guide for future research endeavors. A chronological list of the major DOE-sponsored experiments in the South Atlantic Bight during this period is in Table 5. Due to the wide range of topics included within this section, considerable overlap exists with other resource topics. Additional information may be found below and in the following sections of this report: Meteorology (Section 3.4.1.1), Water Column (Section 3.4.2.1), Upwelling (Section 3.4.3.5), Outwelling (3.4.3.6), and Physical Models (Section 4.1). Waves, Tules, and Currents. These water movements described in this section concern the effects of localized phenomena, typically coastal processes that affect sediment movement in nearshore areas. Applicable references include several studies of nearshore and deepwater waves. A few studies of only tides and tidal currents exist, but much tide data are found within more comprehensive cruise reports and large-scale studies. 52 Many studies of waves are technical reports by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Brooks and Corson 1984; Corson et al. 1981, 1982). A large number of the reports are hindcasts of wave information from along the Atlantic coast, including some that are specific to storm-generated wave heights (Corson and Tracy 1985). The monitoring of the direction, height, and period of nearshore waves is the subject of other such studies (Corson and McKinney 1991; Gorman 1991). A technique was developed for measuring ocean waves using synthetic aperture radar; the technique compares favorably with direct measurements to provide information about sea waves that is otherwise not available from other instruments (McLeish et al. 1980). The radar image can show refraction effects of the bottom on sea waves as they move into progressively shallower water. The tidal regime in the study area is characterized by diurnal tides with the greatest amplitudes on the East and Gulf coasts of the United States. The large tidal range and associated tidal currents affect transport processes and dynamics throughout the inner shelf and beyond. Pietrafesa et al. (1985) describe the tidal regime of the South Atlantic Bight. The barotropic flow of the tides across the shelf is modeled numerically regarding tidal effects upon shelf circulation (Battisti and Clarke 1982; Blanton 1981a, 1984; Wang et al. 1984). Blanton (1980) and Blanton and Atkinson (1978) describe the effects of tidal currents upon fresh-water transport offshore Georgia, and upon subsequent mixing processes. Several references discuss the role of tidal currents in sediment transport processes (Hubbard 1977). Estimates of tidal energies (i.e., times, ranges, and current velocities) and directions in inlets and nearshore areas from Jacksonville, Florida, to Charleston, South Carolina, are presented in tidal current tables, charts, and diagrams prepared by the National Ocean Service (1993). The Physical Oceanography Division of the National Ocean Service compiles and maintains a database of unpublished oceanographic data for use by researchers and managers in predicting tides and currents (National Ocean Service 1992). Other references that consider tidal cycles in offshore waters are discussed in other topics, such as Water Masses (earlier in this section), Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3), Beaches (Section 3.4.4.4), and Physical Models (Section 4.1). Data on nearshore and offshore and surface and bottom currents are collected typically during interdisciplinary studies. Many references describe nearshore currents that transport sediment in the littoral zone of tidal inlets and beaches. Schwing et al. (1983) report the nearshore circulation of coastal currents along the 10-m isobath offshore South Carolina. Current generation, velocity, direction, and bottom stress also have been reported. The surface current movements offshore the Atlantic coast of north Florida are described by the Florida Atlantic Coastal Transport Study (FACTS) (Maul and Bravo 1989). 53 References concerning offshore bottom currents may be found in Table 5 and also under several other topics, such as Water Masses (Section 3.4.1.2), and Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3). Nearshore transport processes that effect shoreline change and beach erosion are also addressed under Beaches (Section 3.4.4.4). Other current-related references are evaluated under discussions of Upwelling and Productivity (Section 3.4.3.5) and Outwelling (Section 3.4.3.6). 3.4.1.3 Geology References on the geologic nature of the study area are considered under five resource topics. These topics are (1) bathymetry and seabed morphology; (2) sediments and sediment transport; (3) aquifers; (4) environmental and geologic hazard studies; and (5) stratigraphic and shallow structural features on the continental shelf. Bothymetry and Seabed Morphology. The study area is characterized by a shallow, sloping continental shelf with the relatively featureless seafloor punctuated by scattered geologic features (e.g., rock outcrops, sand waves, buried channels) and localized topographical rises, or hard grounds. Surveys by the National Ocean Service have determined the bathymetry of the region primarily for navigation purposes. The primary references that describe bathymetry are nautical charts and bathymetric maps (National Ocean Service 1986; National Ocean Survey 1976). Geophysical surveys of the seafloor in lease block sites identify and describe geologic features such as sand waves, rock outcrops and hard grounds, areas of scour, and buried river and stream channels (General Oceanographies lnc. 1978; GettJeson et al. 1982). Most of these papers were produced for oil companies, whereas others are products of studies by the U.S. Geological Survey and the BLM. The distribution of hard grounds was studied and identified by several researchers who concluded that most of these features are localized to three roughly-defined, sub-parallel bands located approximately 50-55 km, 90-100 km, and 130-140 km from shore (Ross et al. 1987; Barans and Henry 1984). These hard grounds are important biotopes for nektonic and benthic fauna and are also referred to as live bottoms. Emery (1979) estimates the volume of seawater over the continental shelf through production of sets of hypsographic curves for the eastern U.S. coast. References pertaining to seabed morphology include studies of bottom topography and morphology of the seafloor in the Charleston Bump area, and local elevation changes off South Carolina (Popenoe and Pinet 1980). 54 Many references that include data on the morphology of seabeds are evaluated also under Geologic Hazards and Environmental Studies and Stratigraphy and Shallow Structures (both discussed later in Section 3.4.1.3), and Benthic Habitats (Section 3.4.3.12). Sediments and Sediment Transport. Information on sediments in the study area is extensive. The data include details on the texture, mineralogic composition, and trace metal content of the sediments, as well as details on sediment transport and distribution and the kinds and amounts of suspended sediments in the near-bottom waters. Additional references include those on the historical development of the sediment cover, sediment-fauna! relationships, and numerical sediment transport models. Generally, the sediments reflect subaerial weathering, and erosion (or non-deposition) over and near hard grounds and broken bottoms, admixed with the production of biogenic carbonates (Brown et al. 1980). In addition, other processes, such as bioturbation and water-mass movements, have some affect on the nature of the sediments (Knebel 1981). Several smdies use side-scan sonar to delineate details on the nature of the sedimentary cover (Popenoe 1980a, 1981b; Popenoe and Meyer 1983; Henry and Foley 1981). The sediments comprising the majority of the continental shelf surface between Charleston, South carolina, and Brunswick, Georgia, are sand-sized, interrupted in places by hard-bottom areas. East of Charleston, the sediments are coarser and the hard bottom areas are more extensive. The biological and physical processes mix the largely relict, non-carbonate sand with the much younger carbonate fraction. For the most part, this admixture of relict elastic and recent carbonate bioclastic debris represents the only sedimentary material on the continental shelf surface (Pilkey et al. 1979). Little or no elastic material is currently discharged into the sea by the river systems. There are, however, shallow water areas where the surficial sands have a higher carbonate content, such as the belt of carbonate-rich sand lying off the entrances to Altamaha and Doboy Sounds. These abnormalities are thought to mirror a high production of carbonate by organisms, as well as current and wave reworking of oyster shell deposits in the nearshore area (Frey and Pinet 1978). The nature of the fine fraction of the sediment cover is investigated by research of clay mineralogy of the nearshore-bottom muds and clay provenance (Pinet and Morgan 1979). References on sediment transport address three areas - tidal inlets, beaches, and offshore. Nummedal (1979) and Oertel (1979) discuss tidal inlet transport and dispersal of sediment from estuaries to the inner shelf. Sediment transport studies along ocean beaches, typically in association with beach erosion studies, are more frequent than other types of transport studies (Nummedal and Fisher 1979; Kana 1989; Stapor 1984; Stapor and May 1983). Details on sediment distribution and sediment transport 55 routes in the nearshore are determined by using certain heavy minerals, such as hornblende and epidote, as tracers (Schmitter 1986; Schmitter and Freeman-Lynde 1988). Studies of sediment transport processes offshore are reported by U.S. Geological Survey investigations in the South Atlantic Bight (Butman et al. 1980a,b). The dynamics of the sediment cover offshore are not understood as well as sediment dynamics along the beaches. Aquifers. The onshore hydrology of the Floridan Aquifer system has been studied and monitored over the last two decades. The bulk of work on groundwater resources and on aquifers of the mainland results from work by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Georgia Geologic Survey, and the South Carolina Water Resources Commission. The areas of investigation include physical characteristics, levels of groundwater use, potentiometric surfaces, predevelopment flow, and management of groundwater resources (Clarke et al. 1990; Krause and Randolph 1989; Randolph and Krause 1984). Few details are known concerning the offshore nature of the Floridan Aquifer, the aquiclude, or the saltwater-freshwater interface beneath the inner-continental-shelf waters off the South CarolinaGeorgia-Florida coasts. Extrapolation of work conducted on barrier islands may provide information. Some of the only field data for offshore aquifers in the study area are derived from well sites and from offshore stratigraphic sites (Manheim and Paull 1982; Paull and Dillon 1982). The origin of the freshwater under the U.S. Atlantic continental shelf and the presence of relict freshwater under the shelf are reported by some investigators (Kohout et al. 1978; Kohout 1982). Various aspects of the offshore aquifers are discussed. Limestone aquifers, including their stratigraphy and possibilities of offshore extensions, are discussed generally (Paull and Dillon 1979, 1982). Offshore the Georgia-Florida border, the position of the saltwater-freshwater interface is investigated as well as changes of salinity levels in groundwater from nearshore to offshore (Johnston 1980, 1983; Manheim and Paull 1981). Saline-water intrusion into the freshwater coastal aquifer is studied in South Carolina in the vicinity of Hilton Head and Port Royal Sound, in Georgia near Brunswick and Cumberland Island, and also in Florida near Fernandina Beach (Stone et al. 1986; Hughes et al. 1989; Herndon and CoferShabica 1991; Fairchild and Bentley 1977). Seawater encroachment of the aquifer resulting from dredging activities in the St. Mary's lnlet is one potential effect of offshore mining activities. Given the importance of the already overstressed aquifer to the viability of coastal communities and economies, the consequences of an aquiclude breach resulting from an offshore mining effort warrants further investigation. 56 Geologic HM.1Uds and Environmental Studies. During the 1970s and early 1980s, when interest in oiland-gas drilling on the southeastern Atlantic continental shelf was at its height, many environmental studies were conducted by government agencies and oil companies prior to lease sales in the area (Ball et al. 1979; Henry et al. 1981; Antoine and Cain 1979; Marlowe 1978; Popenoe 1979b, 1980a, 1981a). These geophysical investigations of seabed morphology, shallow geologic structures, and stratigraphy identify geologic structures such as hard grounds, live bottoms, sand waves, scour, and buried river channels. Similar site-specific environmental surveys are needed if, and when, mining activities are considered. Stratigraphy and Shallow Structures. References describing shallow structure and stratigraphy of the Georgia continental shelf comprise BLM baseline studies conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey, private firms, and academic institutions (Popenoe 1979c; Dillon 1983). The overall objective of the studies is to provide basic information relevant to offshore oil production impacts. The more recent papers, mostly associated with MMS or joint MMS and Georgia Task Force-sponsored studies, are concerned with assessing hard-mineral resources of the continental shelf and Blake Plateau (Kellam and Henry 1986; Henry and Idris 1992). Many references address Tertiary and Quaternary shallow seismic stratigraphy and associated geologic structures in the upper 200 m of sub-bottom deposits of the Georgia-South Carolina Shelf (Blackwelder et al. 1979; Pilkey et al. 1981; Popenoe and Meyer 1983). Several references describe basement structures, such as the Brunswick Magnetic Anomaly; such references, however, were not evaluated for this study due to the depth and pre-Tertiary age of the features. The studies that are considered important to this discussion include those on the Floridan Aquifer/aquiclude system and the phosphate-rich strata, which are of Tertiary age. 3.4.2 Chemical environment References concerning environmental chemistry and chemical oceanography are divided into two topics, water column chemistry and geochemistry of the sediments and seafloor. 3.4.2.1 Water column References dealing with water column chemistry describe the chemical and physical constituents and dynamics in the water column offshore. Research on the sources, concentrations, flux, transport, 57 and fate of materials are considered (Bothner 1979; Windom 1990). The subjects include dissolved and suspended organic and inorganic materials, such as trace metals, sediment, radioisotopes, and nutrients (Gardner and Stephens 1978; Moran et al. 1991a; Byrd 1988; Moore 1987; Hanson 1988). Some studies introduced tracers to study water movement, whereas others use natural tracers for the satne purpose (Willey and Atkinson 1982). Certain properties of the shelf waters are also studied and reported, including the use of alkalinity as an indicator of dynamic mixing processes, seston flux and transport, the cycling of specific elements in the water column to indicate the source of the water mass, the use of particulate aluminum flux across the shelf to predict transport processes, and the pooling of nitrogen-rich waters in nearshore waters off Georgia (Wong 1988; Doyle et al. 1981; Windom and Gross 1989; Haines 1979). DOE-funded experiments and regional studies sponsored by BLM/MMS gathered extensive data on the processes and constituents of the water column. Along with similar oceanographic cruises in the South Atlantic Bight, these investigations are responsible for much of the present understanding of water column dynamics in the study area. Data collected during experiments described in Table 5 and in the studies listed in Table 4 establish baselines of data that describe the hydrochemistry of offshore waters. References discussed under Water Masses (Section 3.4.1.2), Geochemistry (Section 3.4.2.2), and Physical Models (see Section 4.1) also include water-column-chemistry data. 3.4.2.2 Geochemistry of the sediments and sea floor Several references exist that describe the inorganic and organic chemical characteristics of the sediments and substrates of the nearshore and open shelf areas of the study area (e.g, Sayler et al. 1978). Distribution patterns and concentrations of various natural trace metals are the subjects of several investigations (Windom et al. 1989a,b; Herring 1989). Estuary-to-shelf exchange of material is discussed under Outwelling (Section 3.4.3.6). The discussion of Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3) and the Water Column (Section 3.4.2.1) evaluate some studies of geochemical aspects of suspended particulates. The U.S. Geological Survey studies in the South Atlantic Bight include research on aspects of geochemistry of bottom sediments and suspended particulates in the water column and dynamics at the sediment-water interface of the benthic boundary layer region (Bothner et al. 1980). The DOE-sponsored studies conducted between 1977 and 1991 (Menzel 1993) also discuss the geochemistry in the study area. 58 3.4.3 Biological environment Approximately 40% of the references applicable to this study describe the biological environment of the study area. Toe references focus on zoological aspects, and much of the research relates to the management various fisheries resources. Toe investigations establish baseline information, often through environmental assessments and surveys sponsored by BLM/MMS and the DOE. 3.4.3.1 Microbes Studies of trophic relationships and nutrient and energy pathways in salt marshes and estuaries reveal the important role of microbial activity in these systems (Pomeroy 1985). Subsequent investigations of the microbes of shelf waters and sediments indicate that microbial activity in these areas is significant in both scope and function (Fallon et al. 1983). Research was conducted by scientists from the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography (Savannah, Georgia), and from the University of Georgia Institute of Ecology (Athens, Georgia) and Marine Institute (Sapelo Island, Georgia). The metabolic activity of microbes, especially bacterioplankton, is studied regarding nutrient cycling, amino acid uptake and protein synthes_is, particulate aggregate formation, and biomass production (Hanson and Robertson 1988; Hanson et al. 1990; Hopkinson 1985; Biddanda 1985). Changes in productivity are also delineated with respect to intrusions of water masses and nutrients on the shelf by either river discharges on the inner shelf or upwelling on the outer shelf (Hanson and Wiebe 1977). Investigations of the trophic relationships in plankton food webs define the energy pathways and fluxes (Pomeroy et al. 1984). Such studies include the interactions between autotrophic phytoplankton and heterotrophic bacterioplankton and the consumption of bacteria by protozoa. Laboratory studies of the effects of suspended sediments on microbial activity and productivity were conducted by Wainright (1987). The distribution and abundance of amoebae, fungi, and pathogenic bacteria are addressed by various studies (e.g., Benner et al. 1986). 3.4.3.2 Macroalgae Macroalgae, or seaweeds, include a variety of macroscopic plants that inhabit offshore, nearshore, and estuarine habitats. Although some species float at the surface, most are attached to hard substrates. Sessile (attached) species are found on hard grounds, natural and artificial reefs, and structures such as docks, groins, and inlet jetties. 59 The body of literature describes few investigations of macroscopic marine algae in the coastal waters of South Carolina, Georgia, and northeastern Florida. Although some investigations occurred prior to 1977, macroalgal studies increased with the onset of leasing for oil and gas exploration and with the establishment of the Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary off the Georgia coast. Environmental assessments and baseline studies of the South Atlantic Bight (Table 4) describe the rnacroalgae in the study area (Sandifer et al. 1980). Recent research efforts expand upon the early investigations primarily through inventories of macroalgae populations and morphology. The population surveys, which comprise over half of the references, establish the distribution and abundance of macroalgal species. Some of these papers report upon the discovery of new record species and the identification of new species (Richardson 1985a, 1986). Other references inventory and describe the macroalgae of Gray's Reef and on jetties at the St. Mary's River entrance (Searles 1981; Richardson 1985c, 1991). The remainder of the references describe the morphological and floristic characteristics of various species (Richardson 1985b, 1987; Searles 1983, 1987). 3.4.3.3 Phytoplankton Phytoplankton (microscopic plants that float in and move with a water mass) research has been conducted over the continental shelf from the littoral zone to the shelf edge. The research encompasses diverse topics, such as limitations in phytoplankton accumulations in Georgia coastal waters resulting from fluctuations in nutrients, and the role played by Gulf Stream frontal eddies in causing phytoplankton patches on the outer shelf (Yoder et al. 1981). Seasonal and spatial distributions of blue-green algae are investigated in relation to the overall hydrography of the Southeast Atlantic Bight (Marshall 1981, 1982; Dunstan and Hosford 1977). Pomeroy et al. (1983) investigated the relationship of phytoplankton production to suspended sediment distribution offshore Georgia. Nutrient enrichment of coastal waters by dissolved organic and inorganic nitrogen is the subject of laboratory experiments. Studies along a cross-shelf transect offshore Savannah, Georgia, show that phytoplankton abundance varies little with respect to season, except for the effects of non-periodic upwelling events (Bishop et al. 1980). Remote sensing is employed to qualify phytoplankton distribution and variability using the Coastal Zone Color Scanner, with the resultant data indexed with data from current meters (McClain et al. 1990). The results of DOE-funded studies of phytoplankton (Table 5) are reported by Menzel (1993); these interdisciplinary studies investigate the complex coupling of processes and physical and biological systems. 60 3.4.3.4 Zooplankton As with phytoplankton studies, many studies of the zooplankton (microinvertebrates that move with the water mass) in the Georgia Bight and adjacent areas were funded by DOE. A series of progress reports originating from the study report on the processes controlling zooplankton abundance (Paffenh6fer 1985a, 1987, 1989). Associated references include investigations of zooplankton distribution and behavior in response to the abundance and availability of food, water displacement, and other physical factors (Paffenhofer 1985b; Paffenhofer et al. 1984; 1987). Metabolic activity, feeding behavior, feeding rates, and trophic relationships between omnivores, carnivores, and herbivores are also investigated (Paffenhofer 1988; Paffenhofer and Knowles 1978, 1980; Turner 1991). Related references are evaluated under Microbes (Section 3.4.3.1) and Upwelling and Productivity (Section 3.4.3.5). 3.4.3.5 Upwelling and productivity Upwelling is the upward movement of cold, nutrient-rich water masses on to and over the shelf from the deeps of the continental slope and ocean basin. Studies of the physical process of upwelling and the resultant effects on planktonic biomass and the regional food web are evaluated. Episodic physical events resulting in upwelling in the South Atlantic Bight are described by Atkinson et al. (1984). One study indicates that long-shore variations in bottom topography may influence upwelling on the northeastern Florida shelf (Smith 1983). The principal causes of biomass increases along the South Atlantic shelf edge are the Gulf Stream intrusions associated with upwelling events (Lee et al, 1991). Studies show that fish aggregations are associated with areas of upwelling (Atkinson and Targett 1983). Several references report on upwelling data from the large-scale DOE-funded studies such as the Fall Removal Experiment (FLEX) and Biological Transformations (BIOTRANS) (Chandler et al. 1988). The physical processes that affect nutrient upwelling are described also by some studies discussed under Water Masses (Section 3.4.1.2) and Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3),. Other topics that consider upwelling and productivity data are Water Column (Section 3.4.2.1), Geochemistry (Section 3.4.2.2), Phytoplankton (Section 3.4.3.3), and Zooplankton (Section 3.4.3.4), and Outwelling (Section 3.4.3.6). 61 3.4.3.6 Outwelling Outwelling is the movement of nutrients in water masses from the coastal areas outward over the shelf. The outwelled material is transported from estuaries and salt marshes to the waters of the inner shelf by river discharges and tidal action (Odum 1980; Kinsey 1981). Organic materials, such as detritus from salt marshes and freshwater wetlands, and inorganic materials in dissolved and particulate forms are exported to shelf waters in this manner (Hopkinson and Hoffman 1984). References pertain primarily to the transport and fate of the organic constituents, especially those associated with nutrient uptake and related productivity on the inner shelf. The role of detritus as a food source in the ecosystem is discussed by Moran et al. (1991a,b). The export of suspended organic detritus through coastal waters and its importance to species interactions and ecosystem energetics is described by Hopkinson (1992) and Alberts et al. (1990). Studies of the physical processes associated with outwelling are evaluated in other sections, including Physical Oceanography (Section 3.4. 1.2), and Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3). Other references are evaluated under Water Column (Section 3.4.2.1), Microbes (Section 3.4.3.1), and Upwelling and Productivity (Section 3.4.3.5). 3.4.3.7 Miscellaneous macroinvertebrates Zingmark (1978) inventories invertebrates and other organisms of the South Carolina coastal zone using an annotated checklist of the biota. Tripp and Turner (1983) investigate the occurrence of infections and pathologies of several dominant macroinvertebrates of the Georgia Bight, including rock shrimp and squid. The abundance and seasonal composition of decapods and copepods in coastal habitats are subjects of research (Williams 1984). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service presents species profiles of life histories, habitats, and life cycles (Larson et al. 1989; Muncy 1984). Nektonic invertebrates are free-swimming invertebrates that move between and independent of water masses; examples include shrimp and squid. Information on nektonic invertebrates pertinent to stock assessments, economic analyses, and management of the regional fisheries (primarily the shrimp industry) is presented in the discussion of Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.1). 62 3.4.3.8 Benthic invertebrates The benthic-invertebrate populations inhabit the soft-bottom areas (sand and mud) and the hardbottom areas (hard grounds, live-bottom areas, artificial reefs) of the Georgia shelf environment. The references that describe soft-bottom benthic assemblages are evaluated in this section, and the references that describe hard-bottom benthic assemblages are evaluated under Benthic Habitats (Section 3.4.3.12). Seasonal changes in benthic community structure on the inner shelf are investigated by Tenore (1985). Research is reported on the Effects of dredging and unconfined disposal of dredged material on macrobenthic communities, Distribution of benthic forarninifera, Growth history and ecology of the Atlantic surf clam (Jones et al. 1983), and Benthic community enrichment in the Georgia Bight through infusions of nutrients by Gulf- Stream upwelling and estuarine outwelling (Hanson et al. 1981; Tenore et al. 1978). Burrell et al. (1981) and Van Dolah et al. (1981a,b) discuss problems in assessing community health, as well as the lack of information about the relationships between benthic community structure and the effects by pollution. The development of communities of sessile fouling organisms on the shelf is investigated by the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department in an extensive survey of living resources offshore South Carolina (Van Dolah 1981a, 1982, 1984a). Knot and Wendt (1985) review the benthic community of slope areas in the South Atlantic Bight, including a portion of the study area between the 80-m to 200-m isobath off northeastern Florida. The Florida Department of Natural Resources is conducting a Southeast Area Marine Assessment Program (SEAMAP) project to characterize the benthic communities off northeast Florida (Donaldson et al. 1992). Other investigations of benthic invertebrates are considered under other resource topics. Infauna are considered under Sediment and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3). The taxonomy and distribution of benthic microfossils (relict forarninifera) are discussed under Stratigraphy and Shallow Structures (Section 3.4.1.3). 3.4.3.9 Fish Many references discuss fish of the South Atlantic Bight. The distribution and size data on individual species of fish, such as spanish mackerel, black sea bass, red drum, bluefish, vermillion snapper, kingfish, and porgy are presented in numerous references (Horvath et al. 1990; Waltz et al. 63 1979; Smith and Weoner 1985). Feeding behavior, age composition, sex ratios, growth rates, fecundity, spawning activity, migratory and local movements, habitats, and general fish biology are the primary topics of other collected literature (Laroche 1977; Collins and Stender 1989; DeVries et al. 1990). The types and numbers of these references are shown in Tables 3 and 6. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species-profile series summarizes commercially, recreationally, and ecologically important fishes of coastal waters. The profiles include data on life cycles, habitat, taxonomy, and ecological distribution (Mercer 1989). NOAA's National Marine and Fisheries Service (NMFS) also produces data synopses for various fish species. Like the former series, the latter synopses present the state of knowledge for each species based upon literature reviews. Many references are cruise reports that include data on fish of the South Atlantic Bight, particularly fish offshore South Carolina and Georgia. Data from a series of otter trawl investigations are reported for Marine Areas Management Program (MARMAP) cruises; MARMAP is a broadly-based, Federal-state effort coordinated by the Marine Resources Division of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department (Barans and Powles 1977; Weoner et al. 1980). Beatty and Weoner (1991) report the results of a series of cruises throughout the South Atlantic Bight during 1991 and 1992 for the SEAMAP. The South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department collected data on species of commercially-valuable fishes and decapod crustaceans (primarily shrimp), during the Shallow Water Trawl Survey. Aonual reports and several cruise reports from other SEAMAP investigations are available (Donaldson et al. 1992; Wenner et al. 1979). NMFS offices in Beaufort, North Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, and Panama City, Florida, also have produced several useful reports (Manooch et al. 1983; Naughton and Saloman 1984). Much of the research on fish in the South Atlantic Bight is important to fisheries managers and to the commercial and recreational fishing industries. Many references are primarily concerned with socioeconomic aspects of the commercial and recreational fishing industries (e.g., stock assessments) of fish populations; these references are discussed under Commercial Finfish Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.2) and Recreational Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.3). Fish inhabiting live-bottom areas are discussed under Benthic Habitats (Section 3.4.3.12). 3.4.3.10 Birds The birds of the Georgia Bight include resident and migratory species of coastal and marine areas. Coastal species, such as shorebirds, waterfowl, and wading birds, inhabit a variety of habitats - beaches, 64 Table 6. Numbers of Fish Biology and Management References. FISh Species Alewife American Shad Bass: Black Sea, Striped Belted Sandfish Billfish Blueback Herring Bluefish Croaket Dolphin Drum: Red, Star, Banded Eel: American Congrid Gag Grouper: Snowy, Warsaw, Yellowedge Lamprey Macketel: King, Spanish Menhaden Miscellaneous MARMAP: SEAMAP Populations Mullet: Striped, White Porgy: Knobbed, Whitebone Round Scad Scamp Larvae 2 1 1 3 1 I 3 6 1 1 Adults Morphol- Range ogy 1 4 3 4 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 4 1 3 I 1 1 I 3 5 4 6 3 2 1 3 2 1 11 15 9 1 II 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 Habitat 5 9 Profiles 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 6 1 1 4 1 65 Table 6. Numbers of Fish Biology and Management References. (continued) Fish Species Searobin Seatrout Shark Sheepshead Shortnose Sturgeon Silversides Snapper: Red, Vermillion Southern Kingfish Spadefish Speckled Hind Spot Summer Flounder Swordfish Tilefish: Blueline, Golden Tomtate Tuna Tunny Wahoo Western Damselfish White Grunt White Marlin TOTAL Larvae I 1 Adults 1 3 2 6 1 3 I Morphology Range 1 1 1 2 1 I 4 1 2 Habitat 1 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 22 82 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 I 1 18 84 17 Promes 3 2 4 2 3 3 I 1 46 66 nearshore waters, and marsh and estuarine areas. (References on wading birds inhabiting primarily estuarine habitats are not evaluated.) The marine (pelagic) birds are found offshore in the middle-shelf and, more commonly, the outer-shelf regions along the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Pelagic seabird densities in the South Atlantic Bight are the lowest of the U.S. Atlantic coast (Minerals Management Service 1992). Approximately 2 % of the references concern the birds of coastal and marine habitats of the study area. The references comprise literamre reviews and status reports, inventories, distributions of populations, habitat studies, investigations into the bioaccumulation of pollutants, and ecological studies of reproductive, feeding, and migratory behavior. Literamre reviews are included in some of the environmental assessments presented in Table 4 (Center for Natural Areas 1979b; Sandifer et al. 1980). A three-volume environmental assessment prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviews the status of seabirds of the southeastern U.S. Atlantic coast, and assesses the possible effects of proposed oil-and-gas exploration (Clapp et al. 1982a,b; 1983). This research notes that, although information on populations of breeding species is limited, less is known about pelagic species (Clapp et al. 1982a,b). The references in this category are evenly divided between studies of pelagic birds and studies of coastal species. Studies of coastal species focus on the effects of bioaccumulation of pollutants on nesting success and inventories of populations and nesting birds (Blus and Stafford 1980; Anderson et al. 1980; Portnoy et al. 1981). Some species studied in individual papers include the brown pelican, laughing gull, least tern, royal tern, sandwich tern, gull-billed tern, and black skimmers. The distribution and habitat of pelagic seabirds along the western boundary of the Gulf .Stream are reported by Haney and McGillivary (1985a). Other researchers investigate the relationship between the occurrence of seabirds and upwelling events, Gulf Stream frontal eddies, and patches of Sargassum (Haney 1985, 1986a,b). The ecology and abundance of pelagic species is also reported in Haney (1987). Information on phalaropes, shearwaters, and petrels is also available. 3.4.3.U Threatened and endangered species Several animals of the South Atlantic Bight are protected by both Federal and state legislation as either threatened or endangered species. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 provide the framework for identifying, preserving, and protecting these species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NMFS share in the administration and enforcement of each act. Whereas the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for the southern sea otter, sirenians, sea turtles 67 (while onshore), and terrestrial species, NMFS manages the cetaceans (whales), pinnipeds (except for walruses under the Marine Mammal Protection Act), and sea turtles (while in the ocean). The Endangered Species Act is designed to prevent actions by Federal agencies that may jeopardize or adversely affect the habitat of a protected species. The development of recovery plans for certain protected species is also required by the Endangered Species Act (Minerals Management Service 1992). Applicable state laws include Georgia's Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973 and South Carolina's Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1976 (Sandifer et al. 1980). Federal legislation includes "threatened species" and "endangered species designations for species with lowest population levels and greatest threat to their survival. A "rare species" designation provides for identifying and monitoring species that are not yet threatened or endangered (Minerals Management Service 1992). The State of Georgia uses a "rare species" designation to identify species, such as the least tern and Wilson's plover, that are of concern. Species protected by State law may not be on the Federal endangered species list, as in the case of the gull-billed tern in Georgia (Georgia Department of Natural Resources 1993). Table 7 presents the various protected resident or migratory species that frequent the study area. Sea Turtles. Much emphasis is placed on the protection of sea turtles. Sea turtles are among the most endangered animals in the world's oceans, due in large part to the impact of human activities. All five sea turtle species that occur in the Georgia Bight are protected by Federal and state laws. The endangered sea turtle species are the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi) turtles; Kemp's ridley is the most endangered sea turtle in the world. The threatened species are the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). The loggerhead turtle nests along the shores of barrier islands of the study area, and is the subject of more research than the other species. Several island-based turtle-tagging and -hatchery projects annually gather data on the nesting adults and the hatchlings. The references on loggerhead turtles focus on (1) populations, biology, and movement of adults; (2) activity related to nesting and hatchlings; and (3) levels and causes of mortality in adult sea turtles (Nelson 1988; Carr and Carr 1978; Stoneburner 1982; Richardson 1987; Teas 1993). The references also address the biology and life history of loggerheads, population surveys and status reports, nesting parameters, migrations and local movements, feeding behavior, growth rates, mortality levels, conservation efforts, and regulations (Frazer 1983; Hopkins-Murphy and Murphy 1983; Fleetwood 1993; Maley and Harris 1992; Richardson 1990; Thompson 1988). Some references report the development and testing of the turtle excluder device 68 Table 7. Protected Fauna of the Georgia Bight. [Adapted from Georgia Department of Natural Resources (DNR) (1993)]. Common and Scientific Names Fish Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) Reptiles Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempiz) Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretra caretra) Birds Least Tern (Stema an1illarum) Gull-billed Tern (Stema nilotica) Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) Wilson's Plover (Charadrius wilsonia) American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Southern Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Mammals Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Northern Right Whale (Euba/aena glacialis) West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus) Status Endangered Threatened Endangered Endangered Endangered Threatened Rare' Threatened' Threatened Rare' Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered 'These species have not received any Federal designation. The designations are by the State of Georgia. 69 (TED), which was developed to reduce the incidental catch, and subsequent death, of sea turtles in shrirnpers' nets (Klima et al. 1991). State natural resource management agencies in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida monitor the activities of the island-based sea turtle programs. State and Federal (i.e., NMFS) regulatory agencies compile and synthesize data on populations, nesting, and mortality from incidental catches, strandings, and entrainments. Much of the gray literature results from such conservation work, but the published references do not include most of the annual data reports from the island-based projects. Data from those programs are typically compiled and stored by offices of these agencies, and may be obtained directly from natural resource agencies and from individual projects. Unpublished data from some island-based projects may be found at the Institute of Ecology of the University of Georgia. The published literature contains very few references to other sea turtles that occur infrequently on the Georgia shelf. This research typically pertains to general population overviews (Knowlton and Weigle 1989; Pritchard 1989). The only overlap with similar topics occurs in a few references discussed under Commercial Shellfish and Crustacean Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.1) that evaluate the effects of TEDs on the net efficiency of shrimp catches. Whales and Other Marine Mammals. Whales that have been reported in waters of the South Atlantic Bight include four endangered species - the northern right (Eubalaena glacialis), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), sperm (Physeter catodon), and fin (Balaenopteraphysalus) whales (Minerals Management Service 1992). Of these species, the right and humpback whales occur most frequently in the Georgia Bight (Schmidly 1981). Another 21 species of nonendangered cetacean species are reported in the waters off Georgia and South Carolina, including several species of dolphin and larger whales. Other reported mammals include the West Indian (Florida) manatee and two pinniped species, harbor seals and sea lions (Neuhauser and Ruckdeschel 1978; Sandifer et al. 1980). Of the 45 references pertaining to marine mammals, all but 16 discuss the biology and ecology of the northern right whale. Fourteen citations refer to the Florida manatee. The following species are discussed in only one reference each - humpback whale, pilot whale, pygmy killer whale, and Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (National Marine Fisheries Service 1991; Irvine et al. 1979; Forrester et al. 1980; Wursig and Wursig 1979). Of the two recognized subspecies of the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), only one subspecies, Trichechus manatus latirostris, is found along the southeastern U.S. coast. Known as the Florida manatee, this mammal ranges as far north as North Carolina as water temperatures rise during summer months. The northern limit for year-round habitation by manatees is the north Florida-south 70 Georgia coastal area (Zoodsma 1991). Although manatees typically inhabit riverine and estuarine waters along the Georgia coast, some individuals may occur infrequently along beaches in the study area. References include reports of aerial surveys and inventories of populations, overviews and status reports on abundance of manatees, and investigations into manatee ecology (Valade 1980; Beeler and O'Shea 1981; Zoodsma 1991). Potential effects of dredging activity on manatees near Kings Bay, Georgia, are reported by Zoodsma et al. (1991). Right whales occur in all the world's oceans from temperate to subarctic waters. Like most other baleen whales, right whales spend the summer on high-latitude feeding grounds and migrate to warmer waters during the winter calving and mating periods (Winn et al. 1986). The northern right whale, Eubaelana glacialis, is the most endangered whale on the U.S. Atlantic continental shelf, with a population size estimated at 250 to 350 individuals (Minerals Management Service 1992). The extensive study of this cetacean is due in part because of the critical nature of its endangered status. Right whale research on the Georgia shelf intensified, in response to the identification of its primary calving grounds in waters offshore Georgia and north Florida (Kraus et al. 1986). This research on right whales includes aerial surveying and monitoring of movements and distribution; population status reports; species overviews; calving, feeding, and mortality studies; and taxonomy (Kraus et al. 1988; Kenney et al. 1986; Schaeff et al. 1991). In Endangered Right Whales ofthe Southwestern North Atlantic, Kraus et al. (1993) summarize sightings and survey data dating back to 1984 in this critically-important area off Georgia and north Florida. Other Species. Protected fish and bird species are also found in the study area. The endangered shortnose sturgeon, Adpenser brevirostrum, is an anadromous species that migrates from shelf waters into coastal rivers to breed. A few studies concern the biology and ecology of the short-nose sturgeon as well as the fishery status .and management (Smith 1985; Smith et al. 1984). Protected bird species that frequent the area include the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and piping plover (Sandifer et al. 1980; Minerals Management Service 1992). 3.4.3.12 Benthic habitats The definition and distribution of hard-ground and artificial-reef habitats in offshore environments are major areas of concern for this study. Hard grounds, known also as hard-bottom or live-bottom areas, are the primary habitat areas on the continental shelf in the study area. Although the sandy seabed of most of the shelf is also inhabited by a variety of benthic organisms, hard-ground regions provide 71 natural habitat for large communities of fish and invertebrates. According to VanDolah (1984a), hard grounds often "support dense assemblages of sponges, corals, and other invertebrates. As a result, these biological resource areas attract many important fishes such as black sea bass, porgies, snapper, and groupers." Both the ecological and economic value of the hard-bottom areas are limited by their distribution. Creation of similar habitats through the construction of artificial reefs is now an effective and popular method for increasing and concentrating populations of certain fish species. Hard Grounds. The interest in oil exploration on the outer continental shelf during the late 1970's and early 1980's produced many investigations of hard-ground regions in the South Atlantic Bight. Several pre-leasing environmental impact studies included surveys of the hard grounds/live-bottom areas, in part to protect the fishing interests in the region. The Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary, thought to represent a typical hard-bottom area within the South Atlantic Bight, was established offshore Sapelo Island, Georgia (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1980). Habitat studies in the South Atlantic Bight concentrate on various aspects of fish-seafloor-nutrient interrelationships, including bathymetry, community composition, population densities, bottom topography, fishing-gear methods, stock assessment, and management (Chester et al. 1984; Wenner 1983; Gettleson 1981). A regional database of the location and distribution of hard-bottom areas off South Carolina and Georgia is being established by compiling all existing data into a GIS-format for the South Atlantic Area Monitoring and Assessment Program (Idris and Henry 1994). Most references that describe hard grounds (Wenner et al. 1983; Sedberry and Van Dolah 1984; Parker 1990) also discuss Waves, Tides, and Currents (Section 3.4.1.2); Bathymetry and Seabed Morphology, and Stratigraphy (Section 3.4.1.3); Miscellaneous Macroinvertebrates (Section 3.4.3.7); and Fish (Section 3.4.3.9). A considerable amount of information regarding live-bottom areas throughout the region exists as unpublished data. The Reef Research Team, a volunteer group of SCUBA divers, has compiled a database from studies offshore northeast Florida (White, pers. comm. 1994). The Florida Department of Natural Resources, working with SEAMAP and universities, is collecting data and specimens from the benthic communities of northeastern Florida (Donaldson et al. 1992). Additional unpublished data exist about the hard-ground habitats offshore Georgia can be found at the Coastal Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (Ansley, pers. comm. 1993). Unpublished data and collections of marine organisms for Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary are located at the Natural History Museum (Athens, Georgia) and at the Marine Extension Service (Savannah, Georgia) of the University 72 of Georgia. In 1993, the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Division began a study of fish populations at Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary for NOAA; however, no reports are published to date (Bohne, pers. comm. 1994). Artificial Reefs. In the past two decades, artificial reefs have been placed at .numerous sites offshore Georgia, South Carolina, and northern Florida. Artificial reefs, constructed of materials such as concrete slabs and blocks, sunken barges, and scuttled Liberty ships, create effective fish spawning and nursery habitats (Loughry 1977). Artificial reefs provide economic benefits through the harvest of fish by recreational and commercial fishermen. The sport diving industry also benefits from the reefs. Coastal natural resource management agencies of the three states operate programs that coordinate the installation, use, and monitoring of artificial reefs. The Georgia program is designed primarily with recreational fishing in mind, and has resulted in the creation of a multitude of reef sites that mirror and supplement functions of natural reef habitats. Many references deal with management-related topics such as reef construction guidelines and materials, economic benefits of reefs, and use of reef sites (Sheehy 1982; Liao and Cupka 1979a; Myatt 1978; Bell et al. 1989). Several studies report on aspects of fish and invertebrates found on artificial reefs, including populations, food and feeding behavior, communities, and site colonization (Low and Waltz 1991; Wendt et al. 1989; Gilligan 1987). The construction and use of nearshore, shallow-water Fish Aggregation Devices is also discussed (Rountree 1990). Annual reports are produced by natural resource management agencies that operate artificial reef programs; however, few such reports are published. Some references are discussed also under Miscellaneous Macroinvertebrates (Section 3..4.3.7), Fish (Section 3.4.3.9), Commercial Finfish Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.2), Recreational Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.3), and Resource Management and Use (Section 3.4.4.4). 3.4.4 Socioeconomic environment The socioeconomic literature concerns aspects of enviromnental systems relating directly to the societies and economies in coastal plain regions adjacent to the study area. Most of the information pertains to commercial and recreational fisheries. Commercial fisheries references are placed into two categories - Shellfish and Crustacean (Section 3.4.4.1) and Finfish (Section 3.4.4.2). Sport fishing references, including the charterboat and headboat industries, are evaluated as recreational fisheries (Section 3.4.4.3). 73 Most of the remaining references address management and use of coastal and other marine resources. The references describing Resource Management and Use topics are divided into four subcategories as follows: General Coastal Management, Beaches, Ports and Navigation, and Pollution. The topic Cultural Resources (Section 3.4.4.5) addresses archeological and historical aspects of offshore areas. 3.4.4.1 Commercial shellfish and crustacean fisheries In the Georgia Bight, the dominant commercial fishery is the crustacean fishery, primarily comprising shrimp and crabs. Of less importance is the molluscan fishery, including clams, oysters, whelks, and calico scallops. Organisms that inhabit estuarine areas - hard clams, oysters, and blue crabs - were not included in the literature search and analyses. Less than 10% of the blue crab catch in Georgia occurs offshore, primarily as bycatch in nearshore beach areas by the shrimp and conch fisheries (Gore, pers. comm. 1993). The shrimp fishery offshore Georgia includes white, brown, and pink penaeid shrimp, as well as rock shrimp (Wenner and Stokes 1984). Most of the references in this category concern surveys, landings statistics, economic analyses, and management plans of the shrimp fishery (Music 1979; Marsh 1986). The effect of the turtle excluder devices (TEDs) upon shrimp catches is tested and reported by Christian and Harrington (1987). Similar devices are being tested in efforts to reduce the by-catch of fish by shrimp boats (Rulifson et al. 1992). Toe development and status of the whelk fishery is documented by Anderson and Eversole (1984). Other less common organisms of the shellfish fishery, such as octopus, squid, calico scallops, and blood arks are the subject of some investigations (Whitaker et al. 1991; Whitaker 1980). The Coastal Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources maintains a database of historical landings for all of these fisheries. The Marine Resources Division of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department and the Florida Department of Natural Resources also maintain databases of historical landings for crustacean and shellfish fisheries. 3.4.4.2 Commercial finfish fisheries Toe commercial finfish fishery has developed slowly on the Georgia Bight continental shelf, in part due to the predominance of the shrimping industry and to supply and demand economics. A motivation for developing new fisheries and techniques is to reduce economic impacts of seasonality on shrimpers (Christian and Harrington 1985). 74 Commercial black sea bass fishermen use fish traps and hydraulic and/or electric reels with baited hook and line (Low 1982). Except for shallow-water shark fishing, most longline fishing is restricted to deep waters beyond the continental shelf. Trawling with roller-rigs has also been employed, but is now prohibited on hard-bottom areas (Van Dolah et al. 1987). The literature in this category pertains to a few topic areas - population/stock assessments, cruise reports and landings data, regulations and management plans, and fishing methods and gear (Huntsman and Waters 1987; Ulrich et al. 1979). Most of the references consist of gray literature produced by state natural resource management agencies and by the NMFS. Fishery research by state natural resource agencies sponsored through MARMAP and SEAMAP occurs throughout the study area (Barans 1983; Wenner et al. 1980; Stephan 1991; Beatty and Wenner 1991). Management plans for fisheries are produced by the South Atlantic Fisheries Council and by Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. Remaining references describe a range of studies, such as unpublished cruise reports - 60 of which were recovered and abstracted from data sets at the University of Georgia Marine Extension Service Fisheries Research Station(Harding 1993; Rawson 1983). Table 6 Iists many references in this category. Related references are also evaluated under Fish (Section 3.4.3.9) and Recreational Fishing (Section 3.4.4.3). 3.4.4.3 Recreational fisheries Fishing is a popular form of recreation as indicated by the number of marine recreational anglers active in the waters offshore South Carolina, Georgia, and northeastern Florida. The number of saltwater sport fishing enthusiasts grew dramatically over the past two decades, reaching about 35 million nat_ionally (Schmied and Burgess 1987). In the southeastern United States, the recreational catch accounts for a third of the finfish that are caught for food. Furthermore, the economic return to the coastal communities from the sale of supplies, charter of boats, and direct and indirect revenues is substantial, and the economic importance of the saltwater recreational fisheries is significant in all three states in terms of income, employment, wages, and taxes generated (Clepper 1979; Taylor et al. 1982). As previously noted, artificial reefs are installed by the states of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida to serve as habitats for sportfish species. The references are characterized by gray literature produced by the natural resource agencies of adjacent states as well as by NMFS and associated Federal organizations. The major discussion topics are assessments and descriptions of fishing industries, surveys of landings, fishing guides, management plans, and regulations (Moore 1977; Pafford and Nicholson 1986; Stroud 1982; South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 1990a,b; 1992). References pertaining to the biology and ecology of species 75 important to recreational fisheries are discussed under Fish (Section 3.4.3.9). Some references that discuss commercially harvested species are evaluated under Commercial Finfish Fisheries (Section 3.4.4.2). 3.4.4.4 Resource management and use References pertaining to the management and use of other marine resources are evaluated in one of the following categories: General Coastal Management, Beaches, Ports and Navigation, and Pollution. The references included under General Coastal Management concern large-scale studies on a state-wide or regional level, such as regulations for coastal resource management. Literarure in the Beaches, Ports and Navigation, and Pollution categories is typically site-specific. Generally, most of the references concern activities that occur in nearshore areas, and estuarine and riverine regions. As such, the significance of many of the references to offshore environments is either limited or not well-defined. These references were not reviewed by this study. General Coastal Management. Each of the states adjacent to the study area have natural resource agencies responsible for management of the coastal and marine areas within their jurisdiction. Statemanaged offshore waters extend to 3 nautical miles (nmi) from the shore. Federal jurisdiction, which historically extended to 12 nmi, was recently extended to 200 nm with the creation of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 1983 (National Research Council 1992). State regulations, therefore, address management of inshore coastal resources more so than the management of offshore resources. Florida and South Carolina participate in the Federal Coastal Zone Management (CZM) program. Georgia is not yet a member, however, and is currently developing a draft CZM plan in an effort to join the Federal program. General Coastal Management pertains to natural resource management policies and practices in the nearshore zones of states adjacent to the landward boundary of the study area. References in this category include marine, estuarine, and terrestrial topics, and focus on coastal and ocean resource management plans, regulations, and legislation. References include details on the Florida coastal management program, information on the development of marine resources and the subsequent economic impact to the southeastern states, details on the South Carolina coastal program, and the identification of research needs in marine economics (Graber 1986; South Carolina Coastal Council 1979; Christie 1992). Cocker (1993) reports on the development of a geographical information system (GIS) to support data processing in management of Georgia's coastal and marine resources. 76 The gray literature includes references on managing protected marine areas, primarily Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary. Management plans, environmental assessments, and regi.l!ations are among the topics of these references (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1983). Many of the barrier islands and estuarine areas on the landward boundary of the study area are protected by private, state, and Federal management programs. Most references that discuss these islands are not evaluated by this analysis. The use and protection of coastal resources are the subjects of educational materials produced for the public. Most of these references are specific to activities outside the study boundaries, and, therefore, they are not considered here. A few references, however, pertain to public use and understanding of resources within the study area (Shelander 1977). The number of educational publications produced by Sea Grant programs and by natural resource agencies varies significantly among the three states. South Carolina and Florida programs have produced much more public outreach materials about coastal and marine resources than have Georgia programs. Beaches. References in this topic pertain to various aspects of beach and shoreline investigations on barrier islands on the western boundary of the study area. References describing tidal inlets and associated processes are also evaluated in this study. Although these references do not relate directly to the concerns of this study, beach-related literature is, at the very least, important to coastal managers. Specific references discuss beach erosion, erosion control efforts, shoreline management policies, sealevel changes, coastal engineering (beach nourishment and bank stabilization), water quality, shore-anddune protection policies, and use of dredged material for beach nourishment (Griffin and Henry 1984; Anders et al. 1990; Kana 1981; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981; Daniels 1992; Clayton et al. 1990). Related references are considered under Physical Oceanography (Section 3.4.1.2) and Geology (Section 3.4.1.3). Ports and Navigation. The major coastal ports of the study area are Charleston, South Carolina, Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, and Jacksonville, Florida. Navigation-channel dredging in rivers, harbors, and shallow, nearshore-shelf waters is necessary for passage of deep-draft ships into the ports. Due to the shallow slope of the inner shelf, dredged navigation channels, usually over 40 ft deep, may extend offshore for several miles. Many references describe major dredging activities at Brunswick and Savannah. Several United States Navy bases along the coast, such as bases at Charleston, Kings Bay (Georgia), and Mayport, Florida, also require deepening and maintenance dredging of navigation channels. The Kings Bay Trident Submarine Base, in particular, requires dredging activities at the 77 Georgia-Florida border. Studies of those activities are numerous and are usually funded through the U.S. Navy for implementation by the National Park Service and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The shipping traffic associated with ports and military facilities constitutes a major use of the coastal waters of the study area. Other references concern managing and maintaining port facilities, navigational access, regulations from local, state and Federal agencies, economic impact of locating military-port facilities in the coastal area (e.g., Kings Bay), waterways, navigable river systems, recreational aspects, shipping statistics, and economic aspects associated with port development and activity (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1985, 1986, 1990, 1991; Cofer-Shabica 1991). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers produces navigation and port-related publications as part of its responsibility to manage and maintain navigable waterways, primarily through dredging projects. The U.S. Coast Guard is responsible for enforcing most of the Federal and some of the international laws that apply to pollution from sea-going ships [e.g., International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships (MARPOL)] and other hazards to navigation in the region (U.S. Coast Guard 1985). Data on navigation incidents, such as sinkings and collisions, are also compiled and reported by the U.S. Coast Guard. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for managing and monitoring ocean dredged material disposal sites (ODMDS) in the study area (e.g., Noakes 1987, 199la,b; EPA 1983, 1986, 1988) Pollution. For this study, pollution is defined as the introduction of anthropogenic materials into the atmospheric and marine environments of the shelf through transport by air and/or water. Measuring and monitoring the processes affecting the transport and fate of pollutants is a major purpose of the DOEsponsored work in the South Atlantic Bight (Menzel 1993). The ELM-sponsored studies of the late 1970's typically address the potential threat of pollution during the exploration and recovery of oil-andgas resources. Additional research regarding pollutants in the study area is sponsored by the NMFS, the National Weather Service, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Coast Guard. Major discussion topics include the atmospheric transport of pollution, hydrocarbons in shelf waters, bioaccumulation in organisms on the shelf, ocean disposal of dredge spoil, monitoring, and regulation (Windom and Smith 1985; Tanaka et al. 1980; Lee 1979; Braddon and Sumpter 1981; Gillespie and Harding 1988; Vernberg et al. 1981). Major references address a range of pollution-related topics, such as General aquatic pollution problems on the southeastern U.S. coastline (Overstreet 1988), Behavior and fate of pollution (overstreet 1988), Occurrence and distribution of pelagic tar in shelf waters (Van Dolah et al. 1980), 78 Modeling of oil spill trajectories (Lanfear and Amstutz 1981), and Biological, chemical and biogeochemical monitoring of marine pollutants, including short and long-term ecological effects (Overstreet 1988; Turner 1992). Other references containing data on the composition, transport, and fate of pollutants on the Georgia Shelf are evaluated under Water Masses (Section 3.4.1.2), Sediments and Sediment Transport (Section 3.4.1.3), and Water Column (Section 3.4.2.1). 3.4.4.5 Cultural resources Cultural resources within the study area are defined, for this study, as archeological artifacts and historical items located on or within the continental shelf. The few references in this topic indicate the lack of attention paid to such resources in the Georgia Bight. Environmental impact statements and geophysical surveys associated with oil-and-gas development in the South Atlantic Bight provide sources of archeological data on the shelf (Antoine and Cain 1979; Hudson 1979). Science Applications, Inc. (1981d-g) reports the results of an extensive literature search and survey of cultural resources in the South Atlantic Bight. This BLM-funded study is the most recent regional effort to characterize the archaeological resources offshore in the study area. A similar study by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (1974) provides an earlier baseline of such information for this region. However, this study is not included in the database due to its pre-1977 date. Refer to Table 4 for information concerning the 1981 archeological survey. Between ca. 1520 and 1865, approximately 5,000 shipwrecks occurred along the Georgia and South Carolina coasts, including riverine and estuarine areas as well as offshore regions (Spence 1984). Arner (1992) describes a nineteenth-century vintage watercraft found lodged in the sands of Hunting Island beaches. A survey of hangs and obstructions along the southeastern U.S. coast provides recent data regarding possible wrecks (McGee and Tillet 1979). Much ofthe coastal archeological research from Georgia and South Carolina remains unpublished. Judy Woods, archeologist with the Savannah District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, maintains a database on underwater archeology, including a report of resources in the waters of Chatham County, Georgia (Woods, pers. comm. 1993). The South Carolina Institute of Archeology and Anthropology produced a few in-house reports regarding wrecks in offshore shelf waters (Arner, pers. comm. 1993). The Automated Wreck and Obstruction Information System, an electronic database of information on wrecks and obstructions in U.S. coastal waters, is maintained by the NOAA National Ocean Service for a variety of users such as fishermen, divers, and researchers. 79 Archeological research in this region does not focus on offshore areas. Riverine and estuarine shipwrecks receive more attention than marine wrecks because the inshore wrecks are more accessible and more exposed to potential vandalism, than are the offshore wrecks in deeper waters (Amer, pers. comm. 1993). Although archeology is one of the more obvious data gaps identified in the study, the legal need to conduct site-specific archeological surveys prior to commencing any OCS mining activity should address this subject on a case-by-case basis. 80 4.0 ANALYSIS OF MODELS Literature describing models of processes and systems of the Georgia shelf environments is analyzed in this section. Regional and site-specific models that have been proposed for the Georgia Shelf are highlighted. The applicability of the models is discussed with emphasis on strengths and weaknesses. Models are of particular interest because of their possible use in characterizing and predicting environmental effects of marine mining activities. References that describe, create, and/or apply models were located during the comprehensive literature search and also during searches designed specifically to locate models. The applicable references are cited in the study database. However, these references are not tallied or evaluated within the specific topic categories discussed in Section 3.0, and are not considered during the summaries of the extent of information. The following analyses of physical and biological models will aid in the evaluation and identification of data gaps in Section 5.0. 4.1 Guidelines and Methods The temporal, geographical, and content criteria of this study, as described in Section 1.0, were used to identify and recover the model references. Additional criteria were (1) the type of model, (2) the applications within the paper, and (3) the geographical areas of application. Any reference of consequence regarding the potential effects of marine mining operations is of particular interest. 4.2 Review of Physical Models Physical models reviewed during this study are summarized in Table 8. 4.2.1 Historical reviews of physical models Jaycor (1980) reviews the physical oceanographic models and sediment transport models pertaining to the South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. After having completed qualitative and quantitative reviews of more than 1200 models, Jaycor concludes that highly theoretical models on ocean circulation are of little use due to the complexity of the water movements in the shelf region. Jaycor also concludes that the database extant in 1980 is inadequate for defining boundary conditions or for driving 81 Table 8. Summary of Selected Physical Model Studies. Topic Rcfercnce(s) Types of Models Objectives Experiments Density Fronts Formation, Maintenance, Breakdown Oey (1986) Oey et al. ( 1987) Two-dimensional, crossshelf/depth, timedependent numerical model Simplified, semiempirical model derived from Oey (1986) To describe winter physical processes that aid formation and maintenance of density fronts by intrusions from Gulf Stream. To describe transient shelfbreak upwelling after southward wind event and to correlate wind forcing with the observations. Model run 30 days w/forcing by atmospheric conditions of cold air outbreaks and model results determined for shelf break and shelf fronts. Blanton et al. (1989) Two-dimensional, cross- To illustrate the effects of Predicts the start of ~ shelf/ depth, timedependent numerical local wind stress on frontal zones. mixing stratification, and offshore advection of low model salinity water. Circulation of Water Masses Blumberg et al. (1981) Blumberg and Mellor (1983) Kantha et al. (1986) General Circulation Model (three-dimensional time-dependent To characterize circulation in the South Atlantic Bight using numerical models and data and to assess the ability of the models to predict fates of oceanic pollutants. Used in the diagnostic and prognostic mode to depict flow of Gulf Stream and of currents on shelf using historical data from NOAA and Skidaway. Table 8. Summary of Selected Physical Model Studies (continued). Topic Reference(s) Types of Models Objectives Experiments Gulf Stream Boundary Conditions and Circulation Blumberg et al. (1981) Kantha et al. (1982) Kantha et al. (1986) Characteristic Tracing Model (CTM-81) To provide the ocean boundary conditions for the General Circulation Model by deducing transport and currents using wind stress fields. To determine total transport in the South Atlantic Bight by integration of geostrophic equation for total transport along contours of constant planetary potential vorticity. Used in the diagnostic mode in deducing the Gulf Stream and circulation for application in General Circulation Models. Used in the diagnostic mode in calculations of 4 boundary conditions, but wind stress and bottom friction are excluded. Is not accurate on shelf. Winter Circulation Wang et al. (1984) Single-layer (vertically To predict flow of tidal- M2 tide is simulated by 0w 0 (Tidal) integrated) two- driven currents in the South model. dimensional model Atlantic Bight in vertically (w/finite element homogeneous winter Simulation of tides for 23 method). conditions. March 1980 is compared with GABEX-1 data. Extends results of To test earlier findings on Schwiderski (1980), shelf transport. Battisti and Clarke (1982). Winter Circulation (Wind) Kourafalou et al. (1984) Single-Layer (vertically integrated) two dimensional model (w/finite element method) From Wang et al. (1984) To study wind-driven flow in the South Atlantic Bight during winter and predict patterns of flow. Examined the effect of wind, tides, along-shelf slope forcing by comparison of particle trajectories of each. Evaluate the vertically integrated momentum balances at midshelf. Table 8. Summary of Selected Physical Model Studies (col!linued). Topic Reference(s) Types of Models Objectives Experiments Summer Circulation Lee et al. (1982) Steady-state diagnostic vorticity balance model by Galt (1975) using the finite-element method To depict mean flow conditions of shelf occurring on time scales of two weeks or more. [Limited to predicting mean flows in mid-shelf region (20-40 m)] CTD and wind data collected July, 1977 were input to model. Computed the vertical velocity profiles and the volume transport for upper and lower layers. Summer Circulation Lorrenzzetti et al. (1988) Two-layer finite element To create/test numerical Impulsive wind stress re: (Upwelling) model derived from model to describe summer adjustment time of the Lorrenzzetti et al. (1987) Wang and Connor (1975) circulation in the South South Atlantic Bight and Atlantic Bight. flow. Lorrenzzetti et al. (1986) Extends results of Kourafalou et al. (1984), To predict the transport of Transient real wind event ~ Lorrenzzetti (I 986) Lee et al. (1982), Galt water borne materials. hindcasting re: sea level, (1975), Blumberg and water column layers, shelf Mellor (1983) To improve the currents. understanding of dynamics of region. Alongshore pressure gradient forcing of deep ocean on shelf currents. Table 8. Summary of Selected Physical Model Studies (continued). Topic Freshwater Transport to Shelf Reference(s) Zhang (I 985) Zhang et al. (1987) Types of Models Steady state, two-layer analytical model Objectives Experiments To describe steady flow in an estuary shelf-interaction region with two-layer density stratified flow including plume of freshwater from estuarine area. Three cases on which model was run were: flat bottom case, sloping bottom offshore (no ambient flow alongshore), for effects of alongshore ambient flow. Bush (1988) Three-source mixing model derived from Hayes (1979) To determine the sources/relative composition of the waters of the inner shelf re: freshwater from upland vs. ocean waters. Water samples analyzed for tritium and salinity levels that traced the levels of water from Ogeechee and Savannah Rivers and from the ocean. 00 V, Particulate Transport Windom and Gross Simple To determine the distribution Analytical use on data Over Shelf (1989) advection/diffusion model and cross-shelf flux of from SPREX. particulate aluminum. Sediment Transport in Inlets and Harbors Granat ( 1990) Granat and Brogdon (1991) McNally and Granat (1991) Numerical modeling system to predict average currents and long-term average maintenance dredging requirements for the King's Bay submarine channel. To identify the potential areas of sedimentation impact or change associated with Trident channel expansion. Numerical model predictions of long-term average patterns of cohesive and noncohesive sedimentation in Cumberland Sound for Trident and pre-Trident channels. Coastal Processes/Sediment Transport Nearshore Vemulakonda and Seheffner (1987) Vemulakonda et al. (1988) Coastal and Inlet Processes (CIP) Numerical Modeling System using the finite difference method To determine the effects of dredging the navigation channel of the St. Mary's River inlet upon tides, waves, wave-induced currents, and sediment transport. Four models are applied to a computational grid for a given set of conditions for tides, waves, wave~ induced currents, and transport of sediments. any of the models beyond a diagnostic state. Perhaps the most important conclusion reached by Jaycor is the need for final verification in all the models to support realism in the predictive mode. Similar conclusions are reached by the National Research Council (NRC) during 1990 in an assessment of the MMS Environmental Studies Program. The NRC recommended that the MMS continue investigations of the physical oceanographic processes which are poorly expressed by existing models and further states that reliance on those models be curtailed until models are tested and verified in the field (Wilson 1993). Partially in response to the Jaycor (1980) report, Dynalysis of Princeton was contracted by MMS to prepare an updated, oceanic circulation model covering the Atlantic coast and the Straits of Florida. This model was to be completed by the end of 1993 (Wilson 1993). A comprehensive review of the use of predictive models to forecast dynamic events and their effects with regard to marine mining activities is provided in a recent report (Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1993). This study concludes that the only adequate models concerned with the criticallyimportant aspects of suspended sediment plume dispersion and transport are those designed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. These models describe plumes generated during the dumping of dredged material and are generally analogous to those created during a mining operation. 4.2.2 Review of physical models A low degree of applicability exists between the models and any site-specific mining activities which might occur on the Georgia continental shelf. The reasons for the poor correlations are (1) either the models are too broad in scope in the case of the numerous shelf circulation models, or (2) if site specific, the location of the model is outside the study area as is the case in the majority of the sedimentrelated models. The literature search identified some references for models involving bottom sediments and mass transport. These references include a process-response model for shoreline evolution based on wave refraction dynamics combined with historical bathymetric records (Mccants 1980) and a numerical model of cohesive sediment transport (Scarlatos 1981). The latter model utilizes dispersion equations to predict the transport under simultaneous conditions of erosion and deposition. Most of the reviewed models are of a site-specific nature. For instance, Stapor and Murali (1978) report upon the modeling of sediment transport along barrier island shorelines in South Carolina. Granat (1990) reports on model predictions of sediment redistribution associated with navigation channel expansion in the development of Kings Bay Trident Submarine Base. The latter is a model that was 86 thought to be applicable in the advent of mining in the Georgia shelf, in which case sediments would be placed in suspension in the water column, dispersed with time and current strength and re-deposited over a wide area. Subsequent to the start of this study, however, this model proved to be inappropriate to this study due to verification difficulties. Most models involving bottom-sediment movement and mass transport depend upon quantifying field measurements such as the critical stress necessary to initiate sediment transport. Understanding sediment transport requires an understanding of fluid dynamics as well as an understanding of the sedimentary environment. In the case of the latter, variables that are considered include grain size, shape, and density; weight of grain in the fluid; settling velocity; particle roughness; bed roughness; etc. Fluid dynamics is also complicated because turbulent flow, as opposed to laminar flow, must be considered (most natural flows that transport sediments are turbulent). With respect to bottom-sediment transport studies, model development exceeds the state-of-the-art methods for gathering field data with which to drive the models. The greatest difficulty involves accurately measuring near-bottom effects of waves and currents, without which the knowledge of shear stresses at the boundary layer is incomplete. Prior to marine mining, data should be collected on the near-bottom currents in the proposed mining area. Energy fluxes controlling the suspension, entrainment, and transportation of sediments also must be described. 4.3 Review of Biological Models In general, all of the papers that were examined relative to biological modeling deal directly with some aspect of coastal-shelf ecology in the continental shelf area of the Southeastern United States, if not Georgia waters in particular. The inclusion or use of modeling varies tremendously among these papers. The modeling element of the studies differs in approach and purpose (i.e., the use and objective of modeling), form, theme, and complexity. The form, or mathematical style, ranges from being a simple empirical regression model to a complex set of coupled differential equations. The themes range from a focus on a selected biological population parameter virtually independent of the abiotic environment, to a focus on fine spatial-temporal scales of interactions between physical water motion and biology of the plankton community). Finally, the models differ in both conceptual and mathematical complexity, especially in the level of biological detail and in the interaction of biotic and abiotic variables. None of the reviewed papers strongly relate to the environmental impacts that may be caused directly by marine mining activities. Direct environmental impacts would include modification of the immediate and surrounding benthic environment, with transient and long-term redistribution of particulate 87 matter to both water column and bottom sediments. In general, the papers reviewed do not include any explicit interaction between sediment disturbance or modification of the water column particulate field and biological components or processes. Consequently, no models are available for use in assessing likely effects of a mining activity. 4.3.1 Parameters and topical areas considered in the analyses The reviewed studies thus involve biological/ecological modeling to differing degrees. Moreover, they do not each present a model per se. Rather, they either (1) present a mathematical model intended to predict some aspect of a population or facet of ecology; (2) use modeling as a tool to develop greater understanding of the ecosystem of concern; (3) provide an empirical database useful for developing empirical algorithms (models) on selected, significant ecological processes; or (4) review the basis for conceptual, theoretical, and mathematical descriptions of selected, significant ecological processes. The biological and ecological parameters that are predicted, used, examined, or discussed in the array of papers are numerous and varied. The different studies do not lend themselves to comparative evaluation or any usefulness rating exercise. Each study was examined on merit. A detailed review and critique of each study is not given here, but to aid discussion, the papers are loosely grouped according to four semi-arbitrary topic areas in Table 9. The four topic areas, not necessarily exclusive, are (1) population dynamics, (2) fishery yields, (3) shelf pelagic ecosystem dynamics, and (4) coastal and shelf ecosystem metabolism and material flows. The fourth topic includes modeling or other studies to examine and describe the role of certain biological species (or trophic groups) or biological processes. For each topic area and reference, Table 9 also provides an overview of the study's theme relative to modeling, the main biological components or parameters, and the environmental features, if any were explicitly included in the analyses or modeling. 4.3.2 Types and functions In spite of the lack of direct applicability, aspects of different model "types" are considered below to illustrate some salient features. The overview is intended to provide a sense of the modeling analyses that have been performed relative to biological aspects and ecological questions of previous interest and relevance to the study area. 88 Table 9. Summary of Selected Biological/Ecological Studies. Topic Reference(s) Theme or purpose relative to modeling Major biological components and/or parameters Major environmental aspects considered Population dynamics Richardson (1982); Crouse et al. (1987) Simulation of a population of sea turtles over time Loggerhead sea turtles nesting on Little Cumberland Island, GA; fecundity, clutch frequency, clutch size, emigration None Fishery yield Matheson and Huntsman (1984) Description of growth, mortality, and yield models for two fish species Speckled hind and snowy grouper off North and South Carolina None ~ Lam et al., 1989 Forecast of shrimp yields White shrimp landings in Temperature, salinity, by empirical model fit to South Carolina rainfall, river discharge data Shelf ecosystem pelagic dynamics lshizaka and Hofmann (I 988); Hofmann and Ambler (1988); Hofmann (1988) Simulation of the influence of Gulf Stream frontal eddy and bottom water intrusions on biology Phytoplankton and zooplankton, productivity, and trophic structure Water motion, temperature, light, nutrients, detritus Ishizaka (1990a-c); McClain et al. (1990) Simulation of chlorophyll distributions in the southeastern Continental Shelf waters Phytoplankton, zooplankton Water motion, temperature, light, nutrients, detritus Table 9, Swnmary of Selected Biological/Ecological Studies (co11ti11ued), Topic Reference(s) Theme or purpose relative to modeling Major biological components and/or parameters Major environmental aspects considered Ecosystem metabolism and roles of biology Pace et al. (1984) Simulation of shelf food web Phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, benthos, detritus; energy transfer between components Dissolved organic matter, detritus Newell and Christian (1981) Prediction of bacterial Bacteria growth rate from frequency of dividing cells Temperature, nutrients Hopkinson et al. (1989) Simulation of interactions Microbial heterotrophs, role Nutrients 8 between bacterial food of microbes in ecosystem source quality and bacterial metabolism production Ambler ( 1986) Model of food ingestion by Zooplankton (Paracala11us), None zoopiankton phytoplankton Hofmann et al. (1981) Model of zoopiankton fecal Zooplankton, transfer of None pellet production matter from photic zone Paffenhtifer (1988) Review of zooplankton Zooplankton None feeding behavior Hopkinson (1987) Benthic nutrient flux measurements Benthos, role of sediment nutrient recycling in ecosystem metabolism Temperature 4.3.2.1 Population dynamics studies Two papers deal with the population dynamics of threatened loggerhead sea turtles that nest in and around Little Cumberland Island, Georgia (Table 9). The two papers involve different formulations to simulate the population size over time. Both use data or assumptions on various population parameters such on fecundity, mortality, and remigration of adults to nesting areas. Crouse et al. (1987) offer the more sophisticated and biologically detailed model, based on a common theoretical population model approach, and they use sensitivity analyses of the model to suggest life stages and parameters that may be highly influential in determining population size. No explicit consideration was given to environmental factors and how they could affect survivorship, fecundity, etc. In principle, if the relationship between environmental factors and such parameters was understood, one might be able to develop a first-order estimate of the potential sensitivity of the population to environmental changes using a model of the type described by Crouse et al. (1987). This is not to say that either model has been validated as a predictive tool for the Little Cumberland Island population, but merely that the relative sensitivity to perturbations of different life stages and population parameters could be investigated. 4.3.2.2 Fishery yield studies Two papers examine aspects of a species' fishery yield. Matheson and Huntsman (1984) use data from landings to derive mortality rates, from which a standard yield-per-recruit model is used to estimate the potential yield of two fish species caught off the Carolina coast. Primarily, their emphasis is on whether the species was being overfished, i.e., fishing mortality was at a level high enough to reduce recruitment to a theoretical level that suggests a declining population will result from overfishing. There is no explicit consideration of environmental factors in this type of modeling. The basic modeling method used is common and rather generic for fisheries, but the Matheson and Huntsman (1984) model is strictly parameterized for the available time series of data on the two species. Lam et al. (1989) develop a stock-recruitment relationship for the white shrimp off an area of South Carolina. Their purpose is to develop harvest (yield) forecasts of the fall white shrimp harvest (the main fishing period) based on spring landings, modified by environmental conditions during the year. Inclusion of salinity (in August) in the model improves the empirical fit of model and data observations. This site- and data-specific type of model is used to provide a simple first-order predictor for future 91 years, but does not address cause-and-effect, nor is it necessarily valid if environmental conditions change from conditions applicable during the period of data observations. 4.3.2.3 Shelf ecosystem pelagic dynamics Seven papers explore a number of aspects of the physical-biological coupling on the outer southeastern U.S. continental shelf via modeling and data analysis of intensive studies conducted in the Georgia Bight (Table 9). The block of papers represents an extensive, detailed, and varied modeling effort, in general designed to enhance understanding of the relationship between plankton, physical processes, and nutrient fluxes on the continental shelf. The modeling exercises are varyingly used to (1) suggest and roughly quantify the environmental (physical and chemical) and biological influences shaping chlorophyll and phytoplankton distributions over time; (2) simulate how different types and frequencies of upwelling may regulate production and trophic structure of the plankton community, and (3) imply how the shelf ecosystem interacts (geochemically, in terms of nutrient and carbon flows) with inshore and offshore waters. The sophisticated modeling efforts - with their range of subtle differences in model structure, simulation detail, and intent - are too expansive to explore sufficiently under this task. At the risk of overgeneralization and surely without due justice to the effort, a few aspects of the papers are highlighted here. The series of papers by Ishizaka and Hofmann (1988), Hofmann and Ambler (1988), and Hofmann (1988) are directed toward producing a coupled physical-biological model to investigate the biological response to different upwelling regimes along the outer southeastern U.S. continental shelf that is affected by the Gulf Stream. A physical model of temperature and flow is based on observations from current meter data for the specified region for several months during 1980 and 1981. The intent of the model, which uses an optimal interpretation scheme to derive flow over the whole field from measurements at selected grid points, is to simulate the effect of ocean water circulation on particle movements and trajectories across the outer shelf. The physical model is coupled with a biological model. The biological model is a system of ten differential equations coupled as are the interactions between biological components (two phytoplankton size groups and several life stages of zooplankton) being simulated, where the components are connected by flows of nitrogen. This physical-biological model is essentially a state-of-the-art mass-balance model, where nitrogen flows between components as a function of a variety of processes (uptake, feeding, sinking, etc.), which themselves are influenced by the environmental conditions such as temperature, light, etc. The mathematical expressions of these interactions are similar to those now commonly used 92 in marine or aquatic simulation models for many areas. As such, the model offers a nice review of how biological interactions in pelagic ecosystems have recently been conceptualized and expressed as mathematical functions. As in all such modeling efforts, the generic formulations must have coefficients defined for the unique application, and many of these are simply specified from field or laboratory experiments. Values for other functions are determined by gauging the time-dependent behavior of the model simulation (under prescribed sets of applied coefficients) relative to observed responses to physical events in the field obtained in other studies. The results of the model allow some fascinating insight into how the frequency and duration of physical upwelling may regulate the patterns of development of plankton patchiness and differences in the plankton community structure. The coupled physical-biological model investigates spatial and temporal variability of lower trophic levels and the flows of nitrogen and carbon within the outer shelf pelagic ecosystem and between this ecosystem and adjacent offshore and inshore waters. As with the individual models, the simulation results are verified with field observations during the period being simulated. The authors note that the good agreement between model and data (and thus the degree of realism obtained) relates in part to the embedding of actual data (especially physical) in the model. A limitation of the model is its exclusion of the vertical dimension, in that it considers only a latitude-longitude plane at a certain water depth. Further work with this modeling approach is described in the second series of papers by lshizaka (1990a-c) and McClain et al. (1990). These papers investigate whether the simulation model can reproduce the detail of spatial-temporal variability in chlorophyll patterns that are detectable from highresolution, synoptic remote-sensing images of chlorophyll patterns. The model is calibrated to observations at a small number of sampling stations, and seeks to enrich these observations by filling space and time gaps between the observations to present a dynamic observation. The modeling and analytical efforts in this series of papers are lengthy and contain many subtle experiments. Two general conclusions may be made: (1) the gross features of the chlorophyll spatial-patterns can be simulated, and (2) both the space and time variability produced by the models are more similar to the observations if the observed data can be assimilated into the model itself, thereby updating results over time. The final paper (McClain et al. 1990) offers some sobering self-introspection regarding the biological models. A comparison of simulation model output with direct analyses of the remote-sensing variability suggests that the two approaches differ in their prediction of the relative (qualitative) significance of various physical and biological processes primarily shaping chlorophyll patterns. The difference is attributed to the propagation of errors in calculations that are introduced as a result of transient features and sharp gradients. In general, the model is Jess successful in depicting nature's finer details of pattern. Thus, not surprisingly, as the scale of the prediction relative to the scale of the 93 observation increases, the model's faithful capture of pattern variability would seem to increase. Accordingly, the small-scale, site-specific aspects of a highly physically-dynamic environment are most difficult to simulate with confidence. This problem is not peculiar to this model. For example, regional climate (a gross-scale attribute) is easier to predict than weather at a specific location. Moreover, in spite of longstanding efforts to predict weather, probably the best predictor of tomorrow is today's weather, an observation pointing out the basic uncertainty of fine-scale prediction that is inherent with any dynamic system. 4.3.2.4 Ecosystem metabolism and material flow Papers in this category concern metabolism, carbon, and nutrient cycling that generally focus on a particular biological component, such as microbes, zooplankton, or benthos. In general, these papers focus on specific biological processes, and many provide numerical formulations or tools to describe them (e.g., Newell and Christian 1981). Others use modeling as a pedagogical tool, for example, to demonstrate the importance of a microbial loop in pelagic ecosystem dynamics (Pace and Pomeroy 1984; Hopkinson et al.. 1989). In total, they offer some valuable insights into some of the critical processes and important aspects of the biological structure that have been identified for Georgia coastal ecosystems. A paper by Hopkinson (1987) provides measurements that could be used to develop mathematical formulations of benthic nutrient flux, but presents no modeling. With respect to microbial aspects, Newell and Christian (1981) developed a regression model relating several measurements that would in principle enable indirect estimation of bacterial growth rates. Pace and Pomeroy (1984) and Hopkinson et al. (1989) use simulation modeling to explain the possible significance of small heterotrophs in energy flow and material cycling. With respect to zooplankton, Hofmann et al. (1981) present an analytical model of the concentration and flux of fecal pellets produced by zooplankton communities on the southeastern shelf. Their conclusion is that fecal pellet production and settling constitute only a very small portion of primary production. The authors suggest that this lack of a significant organic matter linkage between the water column metabolism and the underlying benthos may explain the presence of an impoverished benthos for this region. This type of model, often termed a process model, is also used by Ambler (1986) to derive some explicit formulations related to woplankton ingestion. Ambler's model is used as a module within the pelagic ecosystem simulation modeling efforts described above. Paffenhoffer (1988) reviews woplankton feeding behavior and comments on the lack of plasticity allowed by models for the zooplankton feeding response to changing conditions. 94 In general, the process models, as well as the coupled differential equation simulation models, are indeed rigid. They are deterministic in the sense that the model produces the same result every time it is run with the same conditions. To an extent, inclusion of stochastic elements (assigning a probability of an event actually happening) may provide greater realism. There are few stochastic elements to the models reviewed here. 4.3.3 Strengths, weaknesses, and needs for models and modeling As suggested by the variety of reviewed studies, the use of biological modeling is varied and can serve different purposes, such as predicting, synthesizing, and integrating. Models may synthesize experimental results into a set of generalized descriptions formulated as mathematical expressions. Models also may integrate data or information from a complex set of interacting components in an effort to provide insight to the natural environment. The strength of the set of papers examined is that they provide a strong understanding of a number of the forces at play in Georgia shelf ecosystems, and thus help identify the critical features to be considered in any modeling effort that examines a specific area or a type of environmental change. Moreover, the different model styles illustrate the possible approaches and identify some of their limits to predict adequately. As indicated earlier, none of the papers provide an on-the-shelf modeling tool that might be directly applied to an environmental impact resulting from marine mining on the continental shelf. However, some of the generic methodology may be used, depending on the identified application. In this sense, one does not model biology in the abstract, but a question must be posed and an appropriate modeling approach developed. This is precisely the genesis of most of the models reviewed. Some background questions relative to any biological modeling study are: Does a model reasonably represent a facet of biological phenomenon? What are the appropriate scales (time, space, ecosystem) for its application? Is it uncoupled from the complexity of the real world? Are its results able to be extrapolated? Is it intended as a predictive or an explanatory tool? If intended as predictive, what are the bounds of its predictability? Levin (1988) discusses some of these elements and considers the prospects and challenges for biological modeling. For the specific case of the Georgia shelf and mining activities, the biological models reviewed do not address some of the main concerns that should be considered with respect to impacts. First, these 95 concerns would include perturbations of the benthic and demersal fish communities as a function of mining. None of the reviewed group of models focus upon these biological components alone, or include interactions with environmental influences. For benthic perturbations, the notions of projected scales of direct impact and the possibility for extended ecological effects must be considered in deciding on any modeling needs. Second, the list presented in Table 9 indicates that few models have explicitly focused on the interaction of particle fields and biology. The pelagic ecosystem simulations (e.g., Hofmann 1988) examined the influence of light on plankton, but a stronger and more wide-ranging consideration of the effects of changes in suspended matter concentration and flux must be included in any biological/ecological model relating to impacts by mining activities. 96 5.0 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA GAPS For the purpose of this study, a data gap is defined as a lack of knowledge within a specific area of research or current understanding of environmental resources and processes. This assessment includes data gaps in Geologic, biologic, physical, and chemical processes on the shelf and in the subsurface of the shelf; Distribution of known and potential non-mineral resources on the shelf; Habitat distribution relative to shelf topography and oceanography; Environmental data pertinent to marine mining impacts, methods and site selection processes; and Information relevant to socioeconomic concerns. 5.1 Procedures and Methods Section 2.4 described the scope and nature of references and provided the basis from which data gaps are identified and evaluated. The solicited responses of scientists and resource managers currently working on the Georgia shelf provided information useful for identifying specific data gaps. The Bureau of Land Management and Minerals Management Services baseline studies, environmental inventories and summaries cited in Table 4 and included in the study database were excellent frameworks against which to identify regional data gaps. The identification of a data gap for a certain topic is based, in part, on the number of available references for that topic. A large number of references in any category, however, does not preclude existence of data gaps, because many references (i.e., abstracts, annual reports) may not enhance the state of knowledge. The type and content of the individual references are also analyzed for their applicability to the study. Other important factors which are considered during the data gap analysis are the scope and significance of the research and the pertinence to the study objectives. 5.2 Data Gaps in Research for the Georgia Bight This study concerns only data published since 1977. The study authors' familiarity with the type and extent of research prior to 1977, however, provides a retrospective evaluation of the earlier research. The environmental inventory compiled by the Center for Natural Areas (1979), entitled A Summary and 97 Analysis of Environmental Information on the Continental She/,f and Blake Plateau from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral identifies 189 data gaps for the South Atlantic Bight, many of which have not been addressed. The data gaps significant to the assessment of non-mineral resources of the Georgia shelf are presented in Table 10. Each data gap implies a corresponding research need. Because much of the research is interdisciplinary in nature, individual data gaps may apply to more than one non-mineral resource in the study area. Those gaps specific to mining activities or impacts are discussed below. 5.3 Data Gaps Relating to Mining and to Site Selection The identification of data gaps helps in selecting and setting priorities for specific research efforts needed to address concerns pertinent to potential mining within the study area. Such research efforts may be initiated prior to mining (e.g., site-selection criteria) or may be accomplished contemporaneously with mining (e.g., monitoring activities). Another important function is to gather data relevant to selection of the most appropriate mining technology. Data gaps specifically related to potential site-specific mining impacts are listed in Table 11; they are based on an analysis of the literature and on comments solicited from researchers in the South Atlantic area. A major factor in identifying significant data gaps applicable to marine mining and site selection is that neither hard-mineral mining nor petroleum production have occurred in the Georgia Bight or the South Atlantic Bight. Therefore, in the study area, no prior experience exists on which to base data gaps and related research needs, except through analogy to other activities such as dredging and dredgedmaterial disposal. The report by Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) on the synthesis and analysis of existing information regarding environmental effects of marine mining provides some information applicable to the Georgia Bight. That study identifies five major data gaps: Water quality modeling of the generation and dispersion of particulate and dissolved materials into the water column, based on, or at least confirmed by, empirical data acquired from marine mining operations; Effects to coastlines by significant alterations of the adjacent seabed; Understanding of the characteristics, behavior, and recolonization responses of organisms in various mine sites under the stress of production operations; Effects on coastal biota of processing discharges from on-shore mines; and Understanding the realities of mining in perspective with other natural processes and man-induced activities. 98 Table 10. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (.I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] Phvsical Environment (I) Projections of potential effects of climatological change on the centers of high-pressure fields. (2) Effect of northeasters/extratropical cyclones on nearshore sediment dynamics, water column processes, and water masses. (3) Post-storm effects of hurricanes on physical, chemical, and biological processes across the shelf. (4) Regional response of water masses/currents to large-scale wind forcing. (5) Relationship between density-driven, wind-induced circulation in the inner-shelf frontal zone and the means by which circulation confines near-bottom particles and dissolved materials to the inner shelf. (6) Role of bottom currents on patterns, dynamics, and sediment-transport mechanisms across the shelf over broken bottoms and planar bottoms, and effects of sediment fluxes on benthic communities. (7) Inwelling/advection studies of shelf-to-estuarine transport of organics and sediments, and interaction of estuaries with continental shelf circulation. (8) Further quantification of levels, transport, and input of particulate and dissolved organic matter from rivers and estuaries to the shelf, including definition of sinks and sources of lignin with regard to shelf biological processes. (9) Fluxes in turbidity levels for periods of sediment suspension due to episodic events, such as storms, as compared to ambient conditions. (10) Hydrogeology, depth, and areal extent of the offshore Floridan Aquifer System. (11) Detailed imagery, bathymetry, and seabed characterization of the Georgia shelf. (12) Degree and frequency of Gulf Stream intrusions into the central portion of the South Atlantic Bight shoreward of the 20-m isobath. (13) Exchange rates and particle transformations through the life cycles of Gulf Stream intrusion events on the outer shelf. (14) Processes responsible for cross-shelf diffusion of freshwater in autumn. (15) The position, extent, and ages of relict shorelines of former sea-level stillstands since the late Pleistocene. (16) The role of oxic sand sediments in the biogeochemistry of the shelf system. (17) The fate of high, suspended-particle loads in inner-shelf waters, especially in regard to the alongshore and cross-shelf transport mechanisms. 99 Table 10. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,I') Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Chemical Environment (18) Transport and chemical exchange across the atmosphere/water/ sediment boundaries. (19) Biogeochemical cycling within and between the water column and the sediments. (20) Chemical exchange processes associated with resuspension of sediments during normal (ambient) and high energy (storm) conditions. (21) Levels, fluxes, and fates of point and nonpoint sources of organic and inorganic pollutants in coastal and shelf waters. (22) Atmospheric contribution of particulate matter (organic material and trace elements) to the Georgia Bight. (23) - Significant trace-metal concentrations in the biota, sediments, and water column. Biological Environment (24) Detailed investigations of shelf and shelf-edge live-bottom/hardground habitats. (25) Sediment-microbial interactions regarding productivity, metabolic activities, and substrate relationships. (26) Laboratory modeling studies regarding turbidity effects on selected indicator biota. (27) Population distribution and fluxes of microbes in water-column and benthic environments in response to physical and chemical factors, particularly after periods of disturbances. (28) Benthic biological productivity on the shelf relative to substrate characteristics. (29) Inwelling of larvae of commercial species from nearshore areas into estuaries, including abundances of larvae offshore versus abundances of adults in estuaries. (30) Relationships between primary production and higher pelagic trophic levels. (31) Effect of Gulf Stream intrusions and associated upwelling on primary and secondary productivity and offshelf transport. (32) Quantification and relative importance of benthic ("new") production. (33) Coupling mechanisms between the gystematics and ecology of benthic invertebrates on the shelf and their role in sediment water column exchanges and processes. (34) Regulation of population biology by meteorology and physical circulation. 100 Table 10. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,/) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Biological Environment /continued) (35) Relationships between tidal fronts and abundances of marine turtles. (36) Effect of tidal outwelling of organic carbon and fme particles to photosynthesis in the inner shelf. (37) Migration route(s) of right whales from the northwest Atlantic to the Georgia Bight. (38) Responses of right whales to noise from shipping traffic, mining operations, etc. (39) Studies of other marine mammals, especially bottle-nosed dolphins and pygmy sperm whales. (40) Movements, distribution, and abundance of juvenile and sub-adult sea turtles. (41) Status of species of concern, including endangered and threatened species, commercial/recreational species, species-in-decline, and indicator species. (42) Data management system (Geographic Information System/electronic clearinghouse) to integrate information from different disciplines. (43) Long-term, process-response studies of the ecology of hard-bottom communities in inner-, middle-, and outer-shelf areas (e.g., effects of sedimentation). (44) Ecology of macroalgal communities in inner-, middle-, and outer- shelf areas regarding rates of productivity, annual recruitment vs. year-round, multi-year populations. (45) Stock status of sharks, including coastal and large pelagic species. (46) Population size, distribution, and life history of whelks in nearshore habitats and for other sliellfish species that may be targeted for new fisheries. (47) Composition, distribution, transport, and fate of ichthyoplankton in shelf waters. (48) Life history aspects for important commercial and recreational fmfish species, and reef fish complexes, especially the snapper-grouper complex. (49) Movements, distribution, population fluxes (breeding/transient), and ecology of pelagic seabirds and coastal marine birds. (50) Identification of unique and/or critical habitats for rare and depleted finfish species, especially in regard to designation of marine reserves. (51) Harvest levels of offshore finfish species. 101 Table 10. Data Gaps Relative to Non-Mineral Resources of the Georgia Shelf. Items Checked (,I) Are Most Relevant to Marine Mining Activities. [After Center for Natural Areas, 1979] (continued) Socioeconomic Environment (52) Most probable locations for prebistoric habitation sites on the shelf and development of site-selection criteria. (53) Determination of maximum levels of exploitive activities, such as mining and fisheries, to be allowed in order to maintain sustainable development. (54) Socioeconomic responses to the decline of commercial and recreational fishing industries. (55) Social research on the offshore recreational and commercial fisheries industries. (56) Educational materials regarding offshore resources of the Georgia Bight to be used by the general public, planners, legislators, educators, etc. (57) Management mechanisms for addressing conflicts between mining and non-mineral resources. (58) Management structure for resolving resource-use conflicts between neighboring states. (59) Assessment and prediction of cumulative effects of numerous individual development actions (planning, resource management, and permitting). (60) Coastal ocean management policies and regulations for the State of Georgia. 102 Table 11. Data Gaps Relative to Potential Site-Specific Mining Impacts. (1) Detailed information concerning the depth, areal extent, and hydrogeology of the Floridan Aquifer System. (2) Distribution and abundance of live-bottom habitats. (3) Effects of habitat modification on benthic communities. (4) Recolonization of benthic areas after cessation of the mining operations. (5) Effect of turbidity plumes on benthic and water-column biota. (6) Effect of turbidity, acoustics, and pollution on marine mammals and reptiles. (7) Predictive models for marine systems to forecast ecological impacts of mining. (8) Effect of nearshore mining on beach erosion. (9) Methods and mechanisms for resolving conflicting uses of mineral and non-mineral resources (e.g., mining, commercial and recreational fisheries). 103 These gaps identified by Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) are based on a number of mining technologies and mineral species, most of which are not applicable to the mineral and non-mineral resources of the Georgia Bight. Based on current levels of knowledge, the hard minerals of potential economic value on the Georgia Shelf are phosphate (Manheim, 1992) and, to a lesser extent, sand and gravel. Although current market conditions are not favorable for mining these resources in the near future, the need for these commodities is likely to increase as land sources decrease, become environmentally restricted, or, in the case of phosphate, politically strategic. These observations differ from the 1988 Zellars-Williams Company report that indicates a possible market entry for the Georgia phosphate deposits by the year 2000. In addition, the report hypothetically predicts a potential heavymineral resource in the mid-shelf region, but recent industry exploration efforts do not confirm this (Henry and Idris, 1992). 5.3.1 Marine mining methods and impacts A summary of marine mining methods and their environmental effects on a worldwide basis is presented in Table 12. Of the three major mining techniques described, only two - excavating and fluidizing- are likely to be used in the Georgia Bight. Scenarios and descriptions of both methodologies are given in the 1988 Zellars-Williams Company report. The excavating technique uses a cutter-head suction dredge to create an open pit on the sea floor. This technique significantly disrupts the benthic communities in the mined area. Plumes of suspended sediment created by this technique may significantly impact water-column biota and down-current benthic communities. Overboard disposal of tailings as waste products generated during beneficiation of the ore may also create water-column and seabed impacts. This technique is commonly used in other parts of the world and the potential impacts are reasonably predictable. However, the use and impacts of this methodology on the Georgia shelf are unknown. The fluidizing, or bore-hole, mining technique has the greatest promise for minimizing environmental impacts because it causes relatively little bottom disruption and turbidity during a properly executed drilling operation. Drill holes are used to penetrate the seafloor and water is then pumped under pressure to fluidize the unconsolidated material into a slurry. This material is then transported to a surface container for beneficiation and ore recovery. The resultant waste material is pumped into the subseafloor cavity to prevent, or reduce, subsidence of the overburden. This process 104 Table 12. Summary of Operational Methods for Marine Mining and Their Enviromnental Effects [Adapted From Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) and Cruikshank et al. (1987)) MINING Scraping Dragline dredges' Large dredge buckets scrape the material from the deposit surface and feed the loosened material into barges. Barges transport the material to shore. Recover deep seabed phosphorite nodules and slabs; offshore mining; deep seabed sampling; construction. Fragmentation/collection; turbidity plume; resedimentation; suspended particulates; dissolved substances Trailing suction hopper Slurry of bottom water and sediment is Maintain harbor channels; Fragmentation/collection; turbidity plume; dredges' pumped through a pipe to the mining mine sand and gravel in resedimentation; suspended particulates; vessel/hopper. As sediment accumulates in water depths to 45 m dissolved substances the hopper, the excess water containing fine .... suspended material is decanted overboard. ~ Mines while in motion, creating numerous shallow trenches (1-m wide x 0.3-m deep) in the seabed. Continuous line bucket (CLB) dredge systemsb Consists of a series of dragline buckets operating in a continuous loop. May operate by one vessel or between two vessels. Proposed for mining shallow deposits in coastal areas or sheltered waters, and for cobalt crust mining. Fragmentation/collection; turbidity plume; resedimentation; suspended particulates; dissolved substances Excavating Clamshell buckets Buckets are mechanically actuated buckets that excavate material from the seabed. Best suited for excavating large-sized granular material where positioning accuracy and cleanup are not concerns. Used to mine sand and gravel (offshore Japan) and tin (Thailand), and to sample phosphorate (New Zealand). Excavation scarring; turbidity plume; resedimentation; suspended particulates; dissolved substances Table 12. Smumary of Operational Methods for Marine Mining and Their Environmental Effects [Adapted From Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) and Cruikshank et al. (1987)] (co11ti11ued) Bucket ladder dredges I Consists of a chain of digging buckets Used to mine gold, IExcavation scarring; suspended mounted over a supporting arm or ladder. platinum, and tin placers, particulates; dissolved substances Very efficient for excavating deposits and diamond deposits, and containing boulders, clay, tree stumps, to clear harbors. Used in weathered bedrock, etc. Water discharge water depths <20 m. limited to what is needed to concentrate the placers or deposits. Produces considerable Bucket wheel suction Iturbulence. Uses a small-diameter bucket wheel mounted Excavation scarring; turbidity plume; dredges on a suction ladder to excavate material, and resedimentation; suspended particulates; combines the best aspects of the bucket ladder dissolved substances and the suction dredge. The combination of simultaneous digging and suction at the seabed ~ II Stationary (anchored) provides the option to either treat the ore on the vessel or pipe it into shore, Anchored suction dredges leave deep pits in Used to mine sand and IExcavation scarring; turbidity plume; suction dredges the seabed. gravel in water depths up resedimentation; suspended particulates; to 200 m. Tested in Red dissolved substances Sea to mine metalliferous muds at a water depth of Cutterhead suction IA suction pipe mounted near or in the 2000m. Used to excavate Excavation scarring; turbidity plume; dredges cutterhead pumps the loosened slurry to the compacted, granular resedimentation; suspended particulates; dredge or through a pipeline to a shore-based materials in water depths dissolved substances. processing facility. The cutterhead assembly <30 m. Widely used in is swung back and forth in an arc; loosening a Thailand to mine cassiterite Significant water discharges containing small amount of material with each swing. (tin placers) fine particulate materials. More than Heavy minerals often separate from the 95 % of the material retrieved by this disintegrated material and remain on the method must be disposed. seabed. Table 12. Summary of Operational Methods for Marine Mining and Their Environmental Effects [Adapted From Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) and Cruikshank et al. (1987)] (co11ti11ued) Fluldlzlug (Bore-Hole, Solution, or 111 Sit11 Mining) Slurry .... Beneficiatlon 8 Unconsolidated or marginally consolidated mineral deposits are collected as a fluid slurry through drillholes or boreholes that penetrate the seabed. Accomplished by capturing dissolved or suspended deposits (e.g., seawater, hydrothermal-vent fluids, geothermal heat), or slurrying granular deposits. Extraction process used to beneficiate or upgrade an ore after the ore has been mined. Produces a concentrated-ore fraction and a tailings or waste fraction of excess rock or substrate. Mining of sub-seabed sand in shallow waters offshore Japan, and unconsolidated or marginally consolidated mineral deposits such as phosphate (offshore Florida and Georgia) and sulfur. Probably the most efficient method for mining phosphate deposits in the study area. Subsidence for closed circulation systems. Open circulation would produce plumes and result in resedimentation. With further research, may become the most environmentally-acceptable method for mining phosphates in the study area. Turbidity plume; resedimentation; suspended particulates; dissolved substances Platform Placer processing technology placed aboard floating platforms. Examples of technology include pretreatment, gravity concentration, magnetic separation, and electrostatic separation. Required when mining placers, pilot plants needed to test tens or hundreds of tons of samples. Extractive Metallurgy On the platform (speculative) At-sea processing incorporating self-contained energy systems and closed-circuit processes that will produce saleable products from all ore components and will produce little or no waste. Table 12. Swnmary of Operational Methods for Marine Mining and Their Environmental Effects [Adapted From Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (1993) and Cruikshank et al. (1987)] (co11ti11ued) TRANSPORTATION Bulk Ore Carriers Vessels used to transport materials such as metalliferous oxides, massive sulfides, or phosphorites. Ores may be transported either in (I) ore-carrier hulls that restrict the centerline cargo hold to a small part of the available hull space, or (2) standard bulk carriers where load-dense ores are carried in only a few cargo holds. Slurry Pipelines 0 00 Ores hydraulically raised in a slurry from the ocean floor to the lift ship and transferred to the transport ship. Waste water drained after loading to reduce transport weight and to stabilize the cargo. WASTE DISPOSAL Most waste materials from mining operations are in solid form and consist of natural materials from the ore body or from its development. Disposal of these materials may present some unique problems for marine mining operations. 'Conventional mining method In shallow water (existing technology). "Tested mining method in deep water (at a minimum, a prototype has been developed). eliminates or drastically reduces the suspended sediments in the water column associated with underwater excavation operations. This technique is still in an experimental stage, having been tested only on land, with relatively good results (Zellars-Williams, 1988). 5.3.2 Site-selection criteria and constraints Studies by Kellam and Henry (1988) and Henry and Idris (1992) concerning the most optimal sites for phosphate mining on the Georgia Shelf suggest that middle-Miocene phosphate deposits are accessible on a subbottom feature known as the Outer Shelf High, located 70-100 km offshore the Georgia coast (Figure 2). This feature extends landward to the Savannah- Georgia/Hilton Head-South Carolina coasts. The Zellars-Williams (1988) study recommends a mining site on this feature approximately 16 km east of Tybee Island near the Savannah Light Tower. Excavation mining is feasible at the Savannah Light Tower site because the water is relatively shallow and the overburden is thin. Opposite conditions occur at the outer shelf site, with the overburden being thick and water deep. The outer shelf region, therefore, would be the best-suited site for the borehole mining technique. Live-bottom areas have been mapped in both areas and are particularly abundant in the Outer Shelf High region. In the vicinity of the Savannah Light Tower, the Oligocene-age sediments that comprise the aquiclude and upper portion of the Floridan Aquifer System are at the shallowest depth (approximately 15m below the seabed) than anywhere else on the shelf (Figure 3). Furthermore, the top of the Eocene-age sediments that comprise the major portion of the Floridan Aquifer System is less than 40m below the seabed in this area. The subbottom depth of the Oligocene and Eocene strata increases southward and seaward. In addition to the obvious constraints imposed by the Floridan Aquifer System and the presence of live-bottom areas, Table 13 provides other considerations in selecting a marine mining site. Several of the items are adapted from the 1990 South Atlantic Marine Fisheries Commission policy statement concerning future Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas lease sales. 109 .,,...,,,..,,,./' ,,,/ ,,1',," / .,.,.-/ 31 .0 10 ~ lO" Figure 2. Structure-contour map of top of Middle-Miocene-age sediments. The Savannah Light Tower (SLT) is 16km east of Tybee Island, at a water depth of 15m. (From Henry and Idris, 1992). 110 ll" Darum :MSL C.l.5M eweULocalrons 0 10 IO~ lO" Figure 3. Structure-contour map or the top or Oligocene-age sediments. The Savannah Light Tower (SLT) is 16km east or Tybee Island, at a water depth or 15m. (From Henry and Idris, 1992). 111 Table 13. Considerations When Selecting a Mining Site. [Adapted From South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (1990)] (1) Identify potential impacts to the Floridian Aquifer System. (2) Prohibit mining on or closely adjacent to live-bottom habitat or other special biological resources. (3) Design facilities associated with mining exploration, development, and transportation to avoid impacts on coastal wetlands and sand-sharing systems. (4) Avoid migration routes of the northern right whale and other marine mammals. (5) Identify site-specific fishery resources, including both pelagic and benthic communities, that inhabit, spawn, or migrate through the potential site. (6) Identify on-site species described as endangered, threatened, or of special concern, i.e., shortnose sturgeon, striped bass, blueback herring, American shad, sea turtles, marine mammals, pelagic birds, and all species regulated under a Federal Fisheries Management Plan. (7) Determine impacts on fisheries resources of all pre-mining exploratory and developmental activities and actual mining operations prior to approval of mining permits. (8) Characterize the proposed site in terms of physical oceanographic and geological condition prior to approval of mining permits. (9) Study potential impacts by noise, turbidity, smothering, cavern collapse, fuel spills, and incidental impacts. 112 6.0 RESEARCH NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Research Needs Regarding Non-Mineral Resources The data gaps concerning non-mineral resources are considered to be. correlative to research needs. Each topic would provide information significantly increasing the basic knowledge of the Georgia shelf. Many of the proposed studies broadly involve several disciplines. Examples are the study of the biogeochemistry of sediment/water column interactions and the relationship among Gulf Stream intrusions, upwelling, and benthic/water column productivity. Other studies are quite specific. The studies are not prioritized or ranked according to urgency because the need for marine mining of phosphate and other minerals may be decades away. Meanwhile, many studies will have been accomplished or are in progress. Several studies or actions are identified as being relevant and timely whether or not mining ever occurs. 6.2 Research Needs Related to Marine Mining and Site Selection The research needs specifically related to mining and site selection are indicated as data gaps in Tables 11 and 13. The most significant research needs concern the (1) water column; (2) biota, including endangered species; (3) substrate, including sediments, habitat, and the Floridan aquifer; and (4) sitespecific needs to the mining operation, including site selection, impacts, constraints, and mitigation. The selection of site-specific research priorities and specific site-selection criteria is tentative, because of (1) the lack of prior mining experience on the Georgia shelf; (2) the yet-to-be proven feasibility of the slurry (bore-hole) mining method; and (3) uncertainties regarding the future phosphate and sand and gravel markets. Therefore, rather than provide a specific list of prioritized research dealing with pre-mining surveys, siting and monitoring criteria, and mitigation plans, the material in Tables 10, 11, and 13 is synthesized into ten research needs and/or actions that provide the most significant information concerning both non-mineral and mineral resources. 6.3 Recommendations for Research and Related Actions The format for each of the following project descriptions is based on the (1) topic(s) of research; (2) resources that will be affected by mining activities; (3) project objectives; (4) research methods; (5) 113 area on shelf; and (6) justification of the research. Data gaps from Table 10 that are addressed by the proposed project are also noted. 6.3.1 Hydrogeology of the Floridan Aquifer System under the Georgia Continental Shelf Resource Affected: The primary coastal groundwater source. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gap 10 (Table 10). Objectives: (1) Determine the depth, extent and hydrogeologic character of the aquifer and aquiclude; and (2) prevent/mitigate potential impacts of marine mining. Methods: Drilling of test wells and use of standard hydrologic techniques, including predictive modeling. Shelf Areas Covered: Selected inner and outer shelf areas, where mining is most likely to occur. The Floridan Aquifer System provides the major source of groundwater for both public and municipal water supplies. The aquifer is already stressed by overpumping and is experiencing salt water encroachment. It is critical, therefore, to protect the aquifer from increased salinity that could be caused by breaching of the overlying aquiclude due to mining activities. The offshore portion of the aquifer may provide an additional source of potable water, although little is known of its water quality or quantity. 6.3.2 The economic and environmental feasibility of bore-hole mining on the Georgia Shelf Resource Affected: Phosphates and biota. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 1-9 (Table 13). Objectives: To determine: (1) the feasibility of using the bore-hole technique to mine phosphate on the Georgia shelf; and (2) the potential impacts on biota from bore-hole mining. Methods: Site-selection procedures, bore-hole mining technology, and monitoring procedures. Shelf Areas Covered: Outer Shelf High area. 114 Bore-hole mining is the method of choice to mine phosphate on the outer shelf because of the water depth, overburden thickness and depth to the ore body. Preliminary tests of this technique onshore in Florida suggest that it is the least environmentally destructive of all the present mining techniques. Because the bore-hole method has never been used to mine phosphate offshore, it is necessary to test this technique under actual site conditions. It is assumed that testing will not occur until market conditions dictate. 6.3.3 Fluxes in ambient and episodic turbidity conditions and effects on benthic, planktonic, and nektonic organisms on the Georgia Shelf Resource Affected: Benthic, planktonic and nektonic organisms, water quality, excavation mining of phosphates. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 9, 20, 25, and 26 (Table 10). Objectives: (1) To collect turbidity data appropriate to developing a dispersion model; and (2) to examine the effects of mrbidity on benthic and water column biota through field and laboratory smdies. Methods: Field collection/observations and laboratory experiments. Shelf Areas Covered: Inner shelf. Both field and laboratory data are needed to develop a dispersion model and to provide the basis for comparison of namral turbidity levels to those created by excavation mining. This information also provides a better understanding of biogeochemical processes related to sediment/water column interactions. 6.3.4 Development of a predictive/dispersion model for the Georgia Inner Shelf Resource Affected: Phosphate; sand and gravel; sediment; water quality; aquifer; benthic, nektonic and planktonic organisms. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 9, 20, 25 and 26 (Table 10). Objectives: To predict and mitigate turbidity plume effects created by excavation mining. 115 Methods: The use of published and acquired field and laboratory data to develop and test a model. Shelf Areas Covered: Inner shelf. Turbidity plumes resulting from mining activities, particularly from excavating techniques, can create severe impacts to benthic and water column biota. A model is needed that accurately predicts turbidity duration and three-dimensional dispersion parameters of suspended sediment plumes. The data also are needed to aid in monitoring and mitigation planning. The model may be applicable to bore-hole mining. 6.3.5 Marine mammal studies Resource Affected: Marine mammals, both migratory and resident species, such as the northern right whale and the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 37 and 38 Table 10). Objectives: To better define the migratory patterns, population dynamics and behavior of marine mammals including response to noises from mining activities and shipping traffic. Methods: Ship/aerial observations; radio-tagging; sonobuoys and AXBTs. Shelf Areas Covered: Entire shelf. The information is needed to protect marine mammals from potential impacts caused by shipping and possible mining activities. The data will also aid in the creation of models to predict areas of greatest mammal density so that avoidance procedures can be developed. 6.3.6 Ecological and process-response studies of selected live bottoms and other critical habitats Resource Affected: Live bottom communities of benthic and nektonic organisms, including commercial and recreational fish. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 11, 24, 28, 46, 48, and 50 Table 10). 116 Objectives: To better understand the systematics, community structure and productivity of rock, sand and mud substrates, and their response to habitat disturbance. Methods: Field and laboratory studies. Shelf Areas Covered: Entire shelf region. Although recent characterization studies of live bottoms have been conducted, further study is needed regarding their systematics, ecology, resident, and transient nektonic community structure, sensitivity to ambient and episodic perturbations, and their role in supporting commercial and recreational fisheries. Much Jess is known about sand and mud habitats. The mud habitat supports the important nearshore shrimp fishery and the sand habitat may support emerging fisheries for whelk and bivalves. 6.3.7 Detailed bathymetry and imagery of the Georgia Shelf Resource Affected: Non-mineral and mineral resources including critical habitat, fisheries, and hazards to resource development. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 11 and 24 (Table 10). Objectives: To map (in detail) shelf and shelf-edge critical habitat, topographic features, and bathymetry relative to the wise use of coastal and marine resources. Methods: Seabeam technology, mid- and short-range sidescan sonar, CCTV, SCUBA, and other appropriate techniques. Shelf Areas Covered: Entire shelf region. The value of seafloor imagery to coastal and marine resource user groups is analogous to the value and application of air photos, topographic maps, and other imagery to (1) interpretation of land forms; (2) environmental conditions; (3) physical and biological processes; (4) business and commerce; and (5) agriculture and forestry. 117 6.3.8 Instrumentation of the Navy Towers (TACTS) to measure atmospheric and oceanographic parameters on the mid- and outer-shelf regions of Georgia Resource Affected: Physical, chemical, and biological systems and processes of the atmosphere, water column, boundary layers, and seabed. Data Gaps Addressed: All in Table 10 Objectives: To provide an integrated network of atmospheric and oceanographic data-gathering stations. Methods: To be determined by a consortium of research institutions, state and Federal agencies, and industry. Shelf Areas Covered: Middle and outer continental shelf. Instrumentation of the U.S. Navy's Tactical Aircrew Combat Training System (TACTS) towers would provide an unprecedented opportunity to obtain synoptic information on both large and small scale oceanographic processes. The relevancy to understanding, predicting, and monitoring meteorological, physical, chemical, and biological processes and events is significant. 6.3.9 Development of a comprehensive data management syst~ for the Georgia Shelf and coastal zone Resource Affected: Mineral and non-mineral resources. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 42 and 56 (Table 10). Objectives: To develop a comprehensive, interdisciplinary Geographic Information System (GIS) and an electronic clearing-house pertaining to the resources of the Georgia shelf. Methods: To be determined. Shelf Areas Covered: Entire shelf. Ideally, this ir,'.'ormation system would provide data for a variety of user groups and would include all appropriate mformation and data from Federal and state agencies, research institutions, industry, and other sources. 118 6.3.10 Development of a coastal and ocean management plan for Georgia Resource Affected: Coastal and shelf resources. Data Gaps Addressed: Data gaps 53, 57, 58, 59, and 60 (Table 10). Objectives: To develop policies and regulations for the wise use of coastal and shelf resources. Methods: Joint state/Federal program such as NOAA's Coastal Zone Management program. Shelf Areas Covered: Coastal zone and shelf. Among other attributes, a well-conceived plan will facilitate the wise and equitable use of coastal and marine resources by (1) detennining the maximum levels of exploitive activities to maintain sustainable development; (2) creating management mechanisms for resolving both intra- and interstate conflicts; and (3) developing action to link planning, resource management and pennitting. 119 120 7.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Over 1600 references are included in the project database. The majority of the material consists of gray literature from resource management agencies and research facilities. Approxunately one-quarter of the collected literature comprises journal articles. A substantial amount of unpublished data are included. Sixty data gaps, of which 20 relate directly to marine mining, are identified for the offshore resources. Ten studies are recommended to fill data gaps, allow assessment of potential impacts of marine mining, and aid in site selection. Recommended study topics are: Hydrogeology of the Floridan Aquifer System Feasibility of Bore-Hole Mining Effects of Turbidity on Benthic, Planktonic and Nektonic Organisms A Predictive Dispersion Model Marine Mammals Live Bottom and Other Critical Habitats Seafloor Bathymetry and Imagery Instrumentation of Navy Towers Comprehensive Data Management System Coastal and Ocean Management Plan Some of the above topics are necessarily broad in scope; however, with respect to the onset of marine mining activities, site-specific investigations will be necessary. Regional studies associated with oil and gas exploration provided baseline data for the physical and biological aspects of the Georgia Bight. Research by various institutions and agencies provides a relatively well-defined base of information for many of the resources, but several important systems and processes have received little attention. Numerous studies of physical and chemical processes comprise a baseline of data on water mass movements and on transport, exchanges, and transformations in the water column. A lack of collected material is evident, however, for the following topic categories: bathymetry and seabed morphology, aquifers, sediment and water column chemistry, macroalgae, benthic invertebrates, birds, marine mammals, coastal and marine management, and cultural resources. 121 Of the 60 data gaps identified from the database, one-third relate to the physical and chemical environments. In particular, data on processes at the sediment-water interface, the Floridan Aquifer System and seafloor morphology in regard to hard-bottom areas are limited. The 28 data gaps identified from the biological environment database relate to the benthos, especially to the distribution of resources and habitat areas. Although some resources, such as seabirds, have received little study, other, betterdocumented resources may be considered more important to address the potential impacts of marine mining to the resource. Gaps in the socioeconomic database relate to the management of coastal, marine, and cultural resources. In the case of the latter, archeology is perhaps the least-studied field for the entire project area. However, it should be emphasized that given the current regulations for any development on the continental shelf of this nation, site-specific investigations, including cultural resource surveys will have to be performed prior to any marine mining endeavor. 122 8.0 REFERENCES Alberts, J. J., J. R. Ertel, and L. Case. 1990. Characterization of Organic Matter in Rivers of the Southeastern United States. Internationale Vereinigung fuer Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie. Verhandlungen IVTLAP 24(1): 260-262. Amato, R. V. 1990. The Georgia-Federal nonenergy minerals task force. 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