GEORGIA Adopt-A-Stream Department of Natural Resources Environmental Protection Division Spring 2009 Biological & Chemical Stream Monitoring The publication of this document was supported by the Georgia Environmental Protection Division and was financed in part through a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the provisions of section 319(h) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended at a cost of $2.00 per manual. 5/1/09 Georgia Adopt-A-Stream 4220 International Parkway, Suite 101 Atlanta, Georgia 30354 (404) 675-6240 www.GeorgiaAdoptAStream.org Acknowledgements This manual draws on the experience of many wonderful citizen monitoring, stewardship and education programs. Georgia Adopt-A-Stream gratefully acknowledges the following organizations for their advice and use of their materials. Special Contributions: Environmental Protection Division, Adopt-A-Stream Advisory Board, Jones Ecological Research Center, Georgia Southwestern State University, Savannah State University, University of Georgia Marine Extension Service, Clayton County Water Authority Writers/Editors Georgia Adopt-A-Stream staff Advice and some of the material in this manual was taken from the following documents: Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual EPA 841-B-97-003 Hach Company LaMotte Company EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocols EPD Rapid Bioassessment Protocols Save Our Streams, Izaak Walton League of America 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ 3 Water Quality in Georgia Adopt-A-Stream ...................................................................... 5 Georgia Adopt-A-Stream Abstract................................................................................... 7 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 9 Quality Assurance Certification ..................................................................................... 10 Safety and Health Checklist.............................................................................11 Chapter 1. Biological Monitoring ................................................................................... 13 Why Monitor for Macroinvertebrates................................................................... 15 Determining Stream Type and Sampling Location ............................................. 16 Begin Sampling: Rocky Bottom Method ............................................................. 17 Begin Sampling: Muddy Bottom Method ............................................................ 18 Calculate Your Results ....................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2. Physical/Chemical Monitoring...................................................................... 21 Why are Physical/Chemical Tests Important? .................................................... 23 Temperature ....................................................................................................... 23 pH....................................................................................................................... 24 Dissolved Oxygen............................................................................................... 25 Conductivity ........................................................................................................ 26 Nutrients ............................................................................................................. 27 Nitrates ............................................................................................................... 27 Phosphorus ........................................................................................................ 28 Alkalinity ............................................................................................................. 28 Salinity................................................................................................................ 29 Settleable Solids ................................................................................................ 30 Secchi Disk........................................................................................................ .30 Chapter 3. Forms .......................................................................................................... 31 Physical/Chemical/Bacterial Data Form ............................................................. 32 UGA Adopt-A-Stream Lab Submission Form ..................................................... 33 Macroinvertebrate Count Form........................................................................... 34 Index A .......................................................................................................................... 35 Field Directions for Physical/Chemical Monitoring.............................................. 36 Biological Testing Equipment ............................................................................. 38 Physical/Chemical Testing Equipment ............................................................... 39 How To Make A Kick Seine Some...................................................................... 41 Background On Aquatic Insects ......................................................................... 42 Index B .......................................................................................................................... 45 Habitat Enhancement ......................................................................................... 46 Glossary of Stream Related Terms .................................................................... 51 Macroinvertebrate Field Guide for Georgia's Streams........................................ 57 3 Water Quality in Georgia The key issues and challenges to be addressed now and in the future years include (1) the control of toxic substances, (2) the reduction of nonpoint source pollution, (3) the need to increase public involvement in water quality improvement projects, and (4) a sustainable supply of potable water. The implementation of the River Basin Management Planning program in Georgia provides a framework for addressing each of the key issues. The reduction of toxic substances in rivers, lakes, sediment and fish tissue is extremely important in protecting both human health and aquatic life. The sources are widespread. The most effective method to reduce releases of toxic substances into rivers is pollution prevention, which consists primarily of eliminating or reducing the use of toxic materials or at least reducing the exposure of toxic materials to drinking water, wastewater and stormwater. It is very expensive and difficult to reduce low concentrations of toxic substances in wastewaters by treatment technologies. It is virtually impossible to treat large quantities of stormwater and reduce toxic substances. Therefore, toxic substances must be controlled at the source. The pollution impact on Georgia streams has radically shifted over the last two decades. Streams are no longer dominated by untreated or partially treated sewage discharges which resulted in little or no oxygen and little or no aquatic life. The sewage is now treated, oxygen levels have returned and fish have followed. However, another source of pollution is now affecting Georgia streams. That source is referred to as nonpoint and consists of mud, litter, bacteria, pesticides, fertilizers, metals, oils, suds and a variety of other pollutants being washed into rivers and lakes by stormwater. This form of pollution, although somewhat less dramatic than raw sewage, must be reduced and controlled to fully protect Georgia's streams. As with toxic substance control, nonstructural techniques such as pollution prevention and best management practices must be significantly expanded. These include both watershed protection through planning, zoning, buffer zones, and appropriate building densities as well as increased use of stormwater retention ponds, street cleaning and perhaps eventual limitations on pesticide and fertilizer usage. It is clear that local governments and industries, even with well-funded efforts, cannot fully address the challenges of toxic substances and nonpoint source pollution control. Citizens must individually and collectively be part of the solution to these challenges. The main focus is to achieve full public acceptance of the fact that some of everything put on the ground or street ends up in a stream. Individuals are littering, driving cars which drip oils and antifreeze, applying fertilizers and pesticides and participating in a variety of other activities contributing to toxic and nonpoint source pollution. If streams and lakes are to be pollutant free, then some of the everyday human practices must be modified. The Georgia 4 Environmental Protection Department will be emphasizing public involvement; not only in decision-making but also in direct programs of stream improvement. The first steps are education and Adopt-A-Stream programs. Georgia is one of the fastest growing states in the nation. The burgeoning population is making considerable demands on Georgia's ground and surface water resources. The problems and issues are further complicated by the fact that surface water resources are limited in South Georgia and groundwater resources are limited in North Georgia. In some locations, the freshwater resources are approaching their sustainable limits. Water management planning based on the Georgia 2004 Comprehensive State-wide Water Planning Act will provide an opportunity to explore opportunities to develop a plan that will provide for management of water resources in a sustainable manner to support the states economy, to protect public health and natural systems, and to enhance the quality of life for all citizens. * Taken From Water Quality In Georgia, 2002-2003, Chapter 1, Executive Summary Water Resources Atlas State Population State Surface Area Number of Major River Basins Number of Perennial River Miles Number of Intermittent River Miles Number of Ditches and Canals Total River Miles Number of Lakes Over 500 Acres Acres of Lakes Over 500 Acres Number of Lakes Under 500 Acres Acres of Lakes Under 500 Acres Total Number of Lakes & Reservoirs, Ponds Total Acreage of Lakes, Reservoirs, Ponds Square Miles of Estuaries Miles of Coastline Acres of Freshwater Wetlands Acres of Tidal Wetlands 9,072,576 58,910 square miles 14 44,056 miles 23,906 miles 603 miles 70,150 miles 48 265,365 acres 11,765 160,017 acres 11,813 425,382 acres 854 square miles 100 4,500,000 acres 384,000 acres 5 Georgia Adopt-A-Stream Georgia Adopt-A-Stream (AAS) is the statewide volunteer water quality monitoring program. AAS is housed in the NonPoint Source Program in the Watershed Protection Branch of the Georgia Environmental Protection Division and is funded by a Section 319(h) Grant. The goals of Georgia Adopt-A-Stream are to (1) increase public awareness of the State's nonpoint source pollution and water quality issues, (2) provide citizens with the tools and training to evaluate and protect their local waterways, (3) encourage partnerships between citizens and their local government, and (4) collect quality baseline water quality data. To accomplish these goals, Georgia Adopt-A-Stream encourages individuals and communities to monitor and/or improve sections of streams, wetlands, lakes or estuaries. Manuals, training, and technical support are provided through Georgia EPD and more than 50 established Community/Watershed Adopt-A-Stream organizers. Adopt-A-Stream Community/Watershed Programs organize monitoring groups in their watershed, county or city. These local programs are funded by counties, cities and nonprofit organizations and use the Georgia Adopt-A-Stream model, manuals and workshops to promote nonpoint source pollution education and data collection in their area. The State office works closely with these programs to ensure volunteers receive appropriate support and training. The Adopt-A-Stream program offers many levels of involvement. At the most basic level, a new group informs their local government about their activities and creates partnerships with local schools, businesses and government agencies. A watershed survey and 4 visual surveys are conducted within a year's time. Volunteers create a "Who To Call List" so if something unusual is sighted, the appropriate agencies can be notified. Getting To Know Your Watershed and Visual Stream Survey manuals provide guidance in these activities. If volunteers wish to learn more about their adopted body of water, they are encouraged to conduct biological or chemical monitoring. The Biological and Chemical Stream Monitoring manual guides volunteers through the monitoring process. Free workshops are provided at regular intervals around the State. These workshops are listed in our bimonthly newsletter and on our website. Volunteers can monitor their waterways without attending a workshop, but those who attend and pass a Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) test will then be considered quality data collectors under the Georgia Adopt-A-Stream Quality Assurance Project Plan. QA/QC data is recorded in the Adopt-A-Stream database. The title "Adopt-A-Stream" is a little misleading since the program also provides manuals and training for lake and wetland monitoring. The Wetland Monitoring manual and workshops highlight freshwater wetland values and functions, which guides volunteers through the monitoring of soils, vegetation and hydrology. A separate Coastal Wetland Monitoring manual created by UGA Marine Extension Service provides guidance for volunteers interested in monitoring coastal habitats and the biological and chemical parameters specific to marine conditions. The Adopt-A-Lake program is a collaborative 6 effort between Georgia Adopt-A-Stream and the Georgia Lake Society. The Georgia Lake Society provides training workshops and technical advice throughout the State. An AdoptA-Stream's Educator Guide is also offered. This guide helps teachers put Adopt-A-Stream activities into a lesson plan format. Georgia Adopt-A-Stream has partnered with government and non-government groups to provide access to technical information and assistance to citizens interested in protecting, preserving and restoring local waterways through the Life at The Waters Edge program. The goal is to increase awareness, knowledge, and implementation of a suite of sound stream and watershed stewardship practices available to the Georgia homeowner. As of January 31, 2008, Adopt-A-Stream has over 1,200 active volunteers monitoring nearly 200 sites. Our bi-monthly newsletter has over 4,700 subscribers. We invite you to join us to help protect Georgia's water resources. Resources Available from Georgia Adopt-A-Stream Website at www.GeorgiaAdoptAStream.org Getting To Know Your Watershed Manual Visual Stream Survey Manual Biological and Chemical Stream Monitoring Manual Adopt-A-Wetland Manual and workshop Coastal Georgia Adopt-A-Wetland Manual Adopt-A-Lake Manual Adopt-A-Stream Educator's Guide Rivers Alive Guide to Organizing and Conducting a Cleanup Georgia Adopt-A-Stream: It All Begins With You video Getting Started: Watershed Survey and Map Assessment workshops Biological Monitoring workshops Chemical Monitoring workshops Train The Trainer workshops You Are The Solution To Water Pollution Posters and Brochures QA/QC Database Newsletter Technical and logistical support for volunteers and communities Available in Spanish 7 Introduction BIOLOGICAL & CHEMICAL STREAM MONITORING Welcome to Georgia Adopt-A-Stream; Biological and Chemical Stream Monitoring. This manual is intended for Adopt-A-Stream monitoring groups who have already registered with the program and are eager to take their monitoring activities to the next level. This manual describes methods for evaluating the physical, chemical, and biological parameters of your adopted stream or river. Getting to Know Your Watershed focuses on map assessments and a watershed survey as evaluation tools. Visual Stream Monitoring introduces a diversity of low-cost, hands-on methods for analyzing the physical health of your adopted stream. Different levels of involvement offer different levels of activity. At the most basic level, volunteers register with Georgia Adopt-A-Stream, conduct a watershed assessment and perform visual surveys of their adopted stream. Optional participation includes biological and/or chemical monitoring, and/or a habitat enhancement project. Watershed Assessment Visual Monitoring Biological Monitoring Physical/Chemical Monitoring Habitat Enhancement Once a year 4 times a year (quarterly) 4 times a year (quarterly) 12 times a year (monthly) One time project Biological and chemical monitoring requires training. Training workshops are available through the Adopt-A-Stream State Office as well as through our more than 50 local AdoptA-Stream programs. Training includes an overview of the program, monitoring techniques and quality assurance tests. These activities help protect water quality and streams because: Regular monitoring provides specific information about the health of your local stream. Both long-term trends and immediate changes in water quality can be documented. Biological monitoring will detect changes in water quality and habitat and provides an indication of overall stream health. Chemical monitoring, however, provides specific information about water quality parameters that are important to aquatic life--such as dissolved oxygen and pH. 8 Habitat enhancement projects improve streambanks and/or the streambed. Habitat enhancement projects may stop a streambank from eroding, and therefore decrease the amount of sediment entering a stream or improve an in-stream habitat for fish to feed, hide and lay eggs. Quality Assurance Certification If volunteers wish to ensure that their data is of the highest quality, they can become quality assurance quality control (QA/QC) certified. Quality assurance certification is part of every chemical and biological training workshop. Data collected under a quality assurance plan is often used by various local and State agencies to assess water quality conditions. Water quality data collected on streams, rivers and lakes has many informational purposes. However, Georgia Adopt-A-Stream will only keep a permanent record of data collected by QA/QC volunteers. To become a QA/QC volunteer, the following conditions must be met. Biological Certification 1. Volunteers must demonstrate the ability to collect a macroinvertebrate sample to a certified Adopt-A-Stream trainer. 2. Volunteers must identify, with 90% accuracy, no less than 20 macroinvertebrates and correctly calculate the water quality index. 3. Volunteers must be QA/QC certified annually. 4. Volunteers must sample once every three months for one year and send their results to Georgia Adopt-A-Stream. Chemical Certification 1. Volunteers' methods and test kits must achieve results within 10% of those obtained by a certified Adopt-A-Stream trainer. 2. Volunteers must be QA/QC certified annually. 3. Volunteers must replace test kit reagents annually. 4. Volunteers must sample once a month for one year and send their results to Georgia Adopt-A-Stream. 9 Safety and Health Checklist Your safety and health are of number-one importance. There are several important things to remember when you are monitoring your adopted stream, river, lake or wetland. If you follow these "rules of monitoring" you will have a fun, enjoyable and accident-free experience. Before visiting your site: Develop a site emergency plan: (i.e. Site location, nearest medical center, nearest phone, medical conditions of team members, etc). Listen to weather reports. Stop monitoring if a storm occurs while you are monitoring. Rules to monitor by: If at any time you feel uncomfortable about the condition of the waterbody or your surroundings, stop monitoring and leave the site. Do not monitor if the waterbody is at flood stage, or even one day after a heavy rain. Fast moving water is very dangerous. Never wade in swift or high water. Never cross private property without the permission of the landowner. If you are sampling from a bridge, be wary of passing traffic. Never lean over bridge rails unless you are firmly anchored to the ground or the bridge with good hand/foot holds. If walking under a bridge, watch for objects knocked off the road from overhead. Look out for broken glass, poison ivy, and biting/stinging insects. Never drink the water and wash hands after monitoring. Do not monitor if the water body is posted as unsafe for body contact. If you observe any of the following at your sampling station STOP and call your Regional EPD Office. STOP! If you observe closed or leaking drums near or in the water. STOP! If you observe a large quantity of dead fish or other organisms. STOP! If you observe a pipe discharging some odd looking/smelling substance into the water. 10 Monitoring In Areas With High Fecal Coliform Levels: The following conditions warrant concern for high fecal levels; occurrence of heavy rain in the past 48 hours, muddy water, and presence of a large number of animals. If monitoring in these conditions please take the following precautions: If one has any open or incompletely healed wounds, they should avoid any contact with water Avoid swimming or other high contact activities for at least 24 hours after heavy rains, or if water is obviously muddy. Try to discourage digging in mud or shore sand. There are higher survival rates of bacteria and potentially other pathogens in sediment. Avoid swimming in areas where fecal droppings from wildlife are obvious, large numbers of wildlife are present (ducks, geese), or domestic or companion animals are observed in creek or on shore (cows, dogs, etc.) Anyone with an immunodeficient status (genetic, AIDs, or transplant recipients on immunosuppresant medication) should avoid any primary contact activities in waters that have any elevated levels of fecal bacteria, and probably wait several days following rain. Also, if one recently had a gastrointestinal illness, especially if a child, one should probably not engage in water activities for at least a week following recovery. Health Safety Contacts: Division of Public Health 404-657-2700 http://health.state.ga.us/contact.asp Center for Disease Control 1-800-232-4636 http://www.cdc.gov 11 1 Chapter BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Biological Monitoring Why Monitor for Macroinvertebrates Determining Stream Type and Sampling Location Begin Sampling For: Rocky Bottom Streams Begin Sampling For: Muddy Bottom Streams Calculate Your Results Biological monitoring involves identifying and counting macroinvertebrates. The purpose of biological monitoring is to quickly assess both water quality and habitat. The abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates found is an indication of overall stream quality. Macroinvertebrates include aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms, and mollusks that live in various stream habitats and derive their oxygen from water. They are used as indicators of stream quality. These insects and crustaceans are impacted by all the stresses that occur in a stream environment, both man-made and naturally occurring. Aquatic macroinvertebrates are good indicators of stream quality because: They are affected by the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the stream. They can't escape pollution and show effects of short- and long-term pollution events. They are relatively long lived the life cycles of some sensitive macroinvertebrates range from one to several years. They are an important part of the food web, representing a broad range of trophic levels. They are abundant in most streams. Some 1st and 2nd order streams may lack fish, but they generally have macroinvertebrates. They are a food source for many recreationally and commercially important fish. They are relatively easy to collect and identify with inexpensive materials. 12 Macroinvertebrates are present during all kinds of stream conditions from drought to floods. Macroinvertebrates are adaptable to extremes of water flow. Some may burrow when it is raining and flow increases. However, heavy rain in areas with a high percentage of impervious surface (most urban areas) can cause flash floods and carry macroinvertebrates downstream. Populations of macroinvertebrates may differ in North and South Georgia. For example, since the Adopt-A-Stream biological index is based on dissolved oxygen, the "sensitive" organisms that require a lot of oxygen, such as the stonefly, may not be found in warm, slow-moving streams in South Georgia. That does not mean that the stream has bad water quality or habitat, just that streams in North and South Georgia support different populations of macros. If you are monitoring in South or Coastal Georgia, it is important for you to conduct monitoring each season for several years. Doing this will help you recognize biological trends in your stream so that you can determine which changes are natural and which may be induced by human impact. Populations of macroinvertebrates may vary from headwater streams to the river mouth. For more information, please review "The River Continuum Concept," Chapter 1, Visual Stream Survey manual. Seasonal cycles can also affect the number and kinds of macroinvertebrates collected. Organisms such as immature stoneflies and mayflies will gain weight and size primarily during the fall and winter. During the spring and summer they may reach maturity and begin to metamorphose into their adult (non-aquatic) stage. Therefore, the presence of aquatic macroinvertebrates will tend to be more evident during winter and spring just before metamorphosis. After adults emerge, females lay eggs near or in the water. Soon after, the larvae and nymphs hatch and begin to grow, feeding on leaf litter, detritus and other organic matter that might be present. For more information on macroinvertebrates and their life cycles, please turn to "Some Background On Aquatic Insects" in Index A. If conditions are unsafe for any reason, including high water or slippery rocks, DO NOT SAMPLE. 13 Why Monitor for Macroinvertebrates The basic principle behind the study of macroinvertebrates is that some species are more sensitive to pollution than others. Therefore, if a stream site is inhabited by organisms that can tolerate pollution, and the pollution-sensitive organisms are missing, a pollution problem is likely. For example, stonefly nymphs, which are very sensitive to most pollutants, cannot survive if a stream's dissolved oxygen falls below a certain level. If a biosurvey shows that no stoneflies are present in a stream that used to support them, a hypothesis might be that dissolved oxygen has fallen to a point that keeps stoneflies from reproducing or has killed them outright. This brings up both the advantage and disadvantage of the biosurvey. The advantage of the biosurvey is it tells us very clearly when the stream ecosystem is impaired, or "sick," due to pollution or habitat loss. It is not difficult to realize that a stream full of many kinds of crawling and swimming "critters" is healthier than one without much life. Different macros occupy different ecological niches within the aquatic environment, so diversity of species generally means a healthy, balanced ecosystem. The disadvantage of the biosurvey, on the other hand, is it cannot definitively tell us why certain types of creatures are present or absent. In this case, the absence of stoneflies might indeed be due to low dissolved oxygen. But is the stream under-oxygenated because it flows too sluggishly, or because pollutants in the stream are damaging water quality by using up the oxygen? The absence of stoneflies might also be due to other pollutants discharged by factories or run off from farmland, water temperatures that are too high, habitat degradation such as excess sand or silt on the stream bottom has ruined stonefly sheltering areas, or other conditions. Thus a biosurvey should be accompanied by an assessment of habitat and water quality conditions in order to help explain biosurvey results. 14 Determining Stream Type and Sampling Location Find a sampling location in your stream. This location should be within your stream reach, which you should have determined during your visual survey. Sample the same stretch of stream each time, to ensure consistency. Sample every three months, approximately once each season (spring, summer, fall and winter). Macroinvertebrates can be found in many kinds of habitats--places like riffles (where shallow water flows quickly over rocks), packs of leaves, roots hanging into the water, old wood or logs, or the streambed. Based on the types of habitats that characterize your stream, determine if you have a muddy bottom or rocky bottom stream. Follow the directions that correspond with your stream type. Rocky bottom streams are generally found in North Georgia and the Piedmont Region. However, there are exceptions--some South Georgia streams possess rocky bottom characteristics. Rocky bottom streams are characterized by fastmoving water flowing over and between large rocks and boulders, interspersed with longer, smooth sections where the water forms pools. Muddy bottom streams include most South Georgia streams and many streams found in urban environments, which have been degraded by the introduction of sediment. In muddy bottom streams the pool/riffle system is replaced by slow moving water with little or no disturbances. The substrate is generally composed of fine silt, sand or coarse gravel. Equipment List: Kick seine or D-frame net Sorting pans or white plastic tub Tweezers, forceps or plastic spoons Pencils and clipboard Hand lens Biological Count Form Adopt-A-Stream Macroinvertebrate Field Guide for Georgia's Streams Rubber waders or old tennis shoes Rubber gloves Trash bag to pick-up litter First aid kit Optional: Preservation jars or baby food jars Rubbing alcohol, for preservation Bucket with screen bottom (for muddy bottom sampling) *Page 44 provides a list of places to purchase equipment *Page 47 provides information on making a kick seine net 15 Begin Sampling for: Rocky Bottom Streams In the "rocky bottom" method, you will sample two different habitats--riffles and leaf packs. The rocky bottom method requires a minimum of two volunteers; one to hold the kick seine and one to "work" the sample area. First, identify three different riffle areas. Collect macroinvertebrates in all three riffles with a kick seine, sampling a 2 x 2 foot area (the kick seines are usually 3 x 3 feet). Look for an area where the water is 3 to 12 inches deep. Place the kick seine downstream and firmly wedge the seine into the streambed, weighting the bottom edge with rocks. Gently rub any loose debris off rocks and sticks so that you catch everything in the seine. When you have "washed off" all the rocks in a 2 x 2 foot area, kick the streambed with your feet. Push rocks around; shuffle your feet so that you really kick up the streambed. Now gently lift the seine, being careful not to lose any of the macroinvertebrates you have caught. Take the seine to an area where you can look it over or wash the contents into a bucket. Now look for decayed (old, dead) packs of leaves next to rocks, logs or on the streambed. Leaf packs may be found throughout your designated stream reach, in the riffle or pool systems. Add 4 handfuls of decayed leaves to your sample. The total area of stream you will sample is 16 square feet. In summary, collect: 3 kick seine samples (4 square feet each) from the riffle area 4 handfuls (1 square foot each) of leaf packs Riffles Riffle areas constitute shallow areas of a stream or river with a fast-moving current bubbling over rocks. The water in riffle areas is highly oxygenated and provides excellent habitat, shelter, and food for a variety of macroinvertebrates. Leaf packs This includes decomposing vegetation (leaves and twigs) that is submerged in the water. Leaf packs serve as a food source for organisms and provide shelter from predators. Dragon Fly Adult 16 Begin Sampling for: Muddy Bottom Streams In this method you will sample three different habitats, using a D-frame (or dip) net. The habitats are vegetated margins, woody debris with organic matter, and sand/rock/gravel streambed (or substrate). Each scoop involves a quick forward motion of one foot, thus covering a sample area of one square foot. With this method you will sample the stream a total of 14 times or 14 square feet. To maintain consistency, collect the following numbers of scoops from each habitat each time you sample: 7 scoops from vegetated margins (1 square foot each) 4 scoops from woody debris with organic matter (1 square foot each) 3 scoops from sand/rock/gravel or coarsest area of the stream bed (1 square foot each) Each time you sample you should sweep the mesh bottom of the D-Frame net back and forth through the water (not allowing water to run over the top of the net) to rinse fine silt from the net. This will prevent a large amount of sediment and silt from collecting in the pan and clouding your sample. As you collect your scoops, place the contents of the net into a bucket. Separate the samples collected from the streambed and vegetated margin or woody debris samples. Keep water in the bucket to keep the organisms alive. Note descriptions below of each muddy bottom habitat and collection tips: Vegetated margins This habitat is the area along the bank and the edge of the waterbody consisting of overhanging bank vegetation, plants living along the shoreline, and submerged root mats. Vegetated margins may be home to a diverse assemblage of dragonflies, damselflies, and other organisms. Move the dip-net quickly in a bottom-to-surface motion (scooping towards the stream bank), jabbing at the bank to loosen organisms. Each scoop of the net should cover one foot of submerged (under water) area. Woody debris with organic matter Woody debris consists of dead or living trees, roots, limbs, sticks, leaf packs, cypress knees, and other submerged organic matter. It is a very important habitat in slow moving streams and rivers. The wood helps trap organic particles that serve as a food source for the organisms and provides shelter from predators such as fish. To collect woody debris, approach the area from downstream and hold the net under the section of wood you wish to sample, such as a submerged log. Rub the surface of the log for a total surface area of one square foot. It is also good to dislodge some of the bark as organisms may be hiding underneath. You can also collect sticks, leaf litter, and rub roots attached to submerged logs. Be sure to thoroughly examine any small sticks you collect before discarding them. There may be caddisflies, stoneflies, and midges attached to the bark. 17 Sand/rock/gravel streambed In slow moving streams, the substrate is generally composed of only sand or mud because the velocity of the water is not fast enough to transport large rocks. Sample the coarsest area of the streambed--gravel or sand may be all you can find. Sometimes, you may find a gravel bar located at a bend in the river. The streambed can be sampled by moving the net forward (upstream) with a jabbing motion to dislodge the first few inches of gravel, sand, or rocks. You may want to gently wash the gravel in your screen bottom bucket and then discard gravel in the water. If you have large rocks (greater than two inches in diameter) you should also kick the substrate upstream of the net to dislodge any burrowing organisms. Remember to disturb only one square foot of upstream sample area. Elutriation Some substrate samples are composed almost entirely of fine silt and mud. To separate aquatic organisms, place the sample in a bucket with water and stir. Pour off water into the D-frame net and repeat 3 times. Any macroinvertebrates present will separate from the collected mud and be caught in the net. Before dumping remaining substrate, inspect bucket for snails or mollusks. This process is called elutriation. 18 Calculating Your Results Place your macroinvertebrates in a white sorting pan or plastic tray. Separate creatures that look similar into groups. Use the Adopt-A-Stream's Macroinvertebrate Field Guide For Georgia's Streams (located at the end of the manual) to classify the types and numbers of each kind of insect. As you sort through your collection, remember each stream will have different types and numbers of macroinvertebrates. Calculate the score for your stream using the index on the Macroinvertebrate Count Form found in Chapter 3. Use the table below to interpret your results. If you find: You may have: Variety of macroinvertebrates, lots of each kind Healthy stream Little variety, with many of each kind Water enriched with organic matter A variety of macroinvertebrates, but a few of each Toxic pollution kind, or NO macroinvertebrates, but the stream appears clean Few macroinvertebrates and the streambed is covered with sediment Poor habitat from sedimentation 19 2 Chapter PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL MONITORING Physical/Chemical Monitoring Why Are Physical/Chemical Tests Important? Temperature pH Dissolved Oxygen Conductivity Nutrients Nitrates Phosphorus Alkalinity Salinity Settleable Solids Secchi Disk Physical/Chemical testing allows information to be gathered about specific water quality characteristics. A variety of water quality tests can be run on fresh water including temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, settleable solids, water clarity, phosphorus, nitrogen, chlorine, total dissolved solids, fecal coliform levels and many others. Adopt-A-Stream recommends that four core measurements be taken when doing physical/chemical testing temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and conductivity. Phosphorus, nitrogen, and alkalinity may be added to your list as interest and equipment allows. On coastal waters, we suggest testing salinity. If you choose to conduct chemical testing as an activity, plan on sampling regularly at least once a month at the same time and the same location. Regular monitoring helps ensure your information can be compared over time. Water quality and environmental conditions can change throughout the day, so monitoring at approximately the same time of day is important. Also, chemical testing during or immediately after a rain may produce very different results than during dry conditions. Therefore, it is very important to record weather conditions. If conditions are unsafe for any reason, including high water or slippery rocks, DO NOT SAMPLE. 20 Equipment List: Water testing kit with dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and conductivity (may also include phosphate, nitrate, and alkalinity) Chemical kit instructions Physical/Chemical Data Form Safety glasses Rubber gloves Chemical waste container (old milk jug) Bucket with rope (if sampling off a bridge or in deep water) Rubber waders or old tennis shoes Trash bag to pick-up litter First aid kit A list of places to purchase equipment is located on page 45. Detailed instructions for each chemical test are found in Appendix A on page 39; however, a few recommendations are listed below. 1. Measure air and water temperature in the shade. Avoid direct sunlight. 2. Rinse glass tubes or containers twice with stream water before running a test. 3. Collect water for tests approximately midstream, one foot below surface. If water is less than one foot deep, collect approximately one-third of the way below surface. Collect samples at stream base flow. 4. Read values on plastic titrators (small syringe with green plunger) on the liquid side of the disc around the plunger tip. If you are using a glass syringes, read values at the plungers tip. 5. Always run two (2) tests for each parameter. If the tests are not within 10% of each other, run another test to ensure accuracy. Safety Notes: Read all instructions before you begin and note all precautions. Keep all equipment and chemicals out of the reach of small children. In the event of an accident or suspected poisoning, immediately call the Poison Control Center (listed on the inside cover of most telephone books). Avoid contact between chemicals and skin, eyes, nose, or mouth. Wear safety goggles or glasses and rubber gloves when handling chemicals. After use, tightly close all chemical containers. Be careful not to switch caps. 21 Why Are Physical/Chemical Tests Important? This section describes some chemical and physical tests you can conduct and why they are important. Physical/Chemical testing should be conducted at least once a month because this type of testing measures the exact sample of water taken, which can vary weekly, daily or even hourly. A basic set of tests includes temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and conductivity. Test kits that measure these four parameters will cost approximately $190.00. Replacement chemicals are inexpensive and will be needed after one year. Advanced tests include total alkalinity, ortho-phosphate, conductivity, and nitrate. A test kit that includes both basic and advance tests costs approximately $300.00. Some groups may wish to work with a certified laboratory to sample for fecal coliform bacteria or chlorophyll A. Further information for evaluating your test results can be found in the Getting to Know Your Watershed manual under "Causes and Sources of Water Resource Degradation." Temperature Water temperature is one factor in determining which species may or may not be present in the system. Temperature affects feeding, reproduction, and the metabolism of aquatic animals. A week or two of high temperatures may make a stream unsuitable for sensitive aquatic organisms, even though temperatures are within tolerable levels throughout the rest of the year. Not only do different species have different requirements, optimum habitat temperatures may change for each stage of life. Fish larvae and eggs usually have narrower temperature requirements than adult fish. Measuring Temperature A thermometer protected by a plastic or metal case should be used to measure temperature in the field. Record air temperature by placing the dry thermometer in the shade until it stabilizes. Record the temperature of the air before measuring water temperature. To measure water temperature, submerge the thermometer in a sample of water large enough that it will not be affected by the temperature of the thermometer itself, or hold it directly in the stream. Significant Levels Temperature preferences among species vary widely, but all species can tolerate slow, seasonal changes better than rapid changes. Thermal stress and shock can occur when water temperatures change more than 1 to 2 degrees Celsius in 24 hours. 22 Many biological processes are affected by water temperature. Temperature differences between surface and bottom waters help produce the vertical water currents, which move nutrients and oxygen throughout the water column. What Measured Levels May Indicate Water temperature may be increased by discharges of water used for cooling purposes (by industrial or utility plants) or by runoff from heated surfaces such as roads, roofs and parking lots. Cold underground water sources, snow melt, and the shade provided by overhanging vegetation can lower water temperatures. pH The pH test is one of the most common analyses in water testing. An indication of the sample's acidity, pH is actually a measurement of the activity of hydrogen ions in the sample. pH measurements are on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7.0 considered neutral. Solutions with a pH below 7.0 are considered acids, and those above 7.0 considered bases. The pH scale is logarithmic, so every one-unit change in pH actually represents a ten-fold change in acidity. In other words, pH 6 is ten times more acidic than pH 7; pH 5 is one hundred times more acidic than pH 7. Significant Levels A range of pH 6.5 to pH 8.2 is optimal for most aquatic organisms. Rapidly growing algae or submerged aquatic vegetation remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the water during photosynthesis. This can result in a significant increase in pH levels, so the water becomes more basic. Low or high pH can affect egg hatching, kill sources of food for fish and insects, or make water uninhabitable for any aquatic life. In Georgia, Mountain and Piedmont streams will have pH ranges of 6.0 to 8.0. Coastal black water streams will naturally have more acidic conditions, with pH values of 3.5 to 8.5. In other regions of the State, pH readings outside of the acceptable levels may be the result of mine drainage, atmospheric deposition or industrial point discharges. pH values of some common substances: pH 0.5 2.0 5.9 7.0 8.0 11.2 12.9 battery acid lemon juice rainwater distilled water salt water ammonia bleach 23 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Like land organisms, aquatic animals need oxygen to live. Fish, invertebrates, plants, and aerobic bacteria all require oxygen for respiration. Sources of Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen dissolves readily into water from the atmosphere at the surface until the water is "saturated". Once dissolved in water, the oxygen diffuses very slowly, and distribution depends on the movement of aerated water by turbulence and currents caused by wind, water flow and thermal upwelling. Aquatic plants, algae and phytoplankton produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Dissolved Oxygen Capacity of Water The dissolved oxygen capacity of water is limited by the temperature and salinity of the water and by the atmospheric pressure, which corresponds with altitude. These factors determine the highest amount of oxygen that will dissolve in the water. Temperature Effect As water temperature changes, the highest potential dissolved oxygen level changes. Lower temperature = Higher potential dissolved oxygen level Higher temperature = Lower potential dissolved oxygen level At 0 degrees Celsius the saturation point for dissolved oxygen is 14.6 ppm At 32 degrees Celsius the saturation point for dissolved oxygen is 7.6 ppm The temperature effect is compounded by the fact that living organisms increase their activity in warm water, requiring more oxygen to support their metabolism. Critically low oxygen levels often occur during the warmer summer months when capacity decreases and oxygen demand increases, this is often caused by respiring algae or decaying organic material. Significant Levels The amount of oxygen required by an aquatic organism varies according to species and stage of life. DO levels below 3 ppm are stressful to most aquatic organisms. DO levels below 2 or 1 ppm will not support fish; levels of 5 to 6 ppm are usually required for growth and activity. Fish and invertebrates that can move will leave areas with low dissolved oxygen and move to higher level areas. What Measured Levels May Indicate A low dissolved oxygen level indicates a demand on the oxygen in the system. Pollutants, including inadequately treated sewage or decaying natural organic material, can cause such a demand. Organic materials accumulate in bottom sediments and support microorganisms (including bacteria), which consume oxygen as they break down the materials. Some wastes and pollutants produce direct 24 chemical demands on any oxygen in the water. In ponds or impoundments, dense populations of active fish can deplete dissolved oxygen levels. In areas of dense algae, DO levels may drop at night or during cloudy weather due to the net consumption of dissolved oxygen by aquatic plant respiration. High dissolved oxygen levels can be found where stream turbulence or choppy conditions increase natural aeration by increasing the water surface area and trapping air under cascading water. On sunny days, high dissolved oxygen levels occur in areas of dense algae or submerged aquatic vegetation due to photosynthesis. In these areas, the lowest DO levels occur just before sunrise each morning and highest levels just after noon. Conductivity Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 degrees Celsius (25 C). Conductivity is measured in microsiemens per centimeter (s/cm). Conductivity in natural systems is affected primarily by the geology of the area through which the water flows. Streams that run through areas with granite bedrock such as in North Georgia tend to have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. On the other hand, streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have higher conductivity because of the presence of materials that ionize when washed into the water. Significant Levels Distilled water has conductivity in the range of 0.5 to 3 s/cm. The conductivity of rivers in Georgia generally ranges from 0 to 1500 s/cm. Studies of inland fresh waters indicate that streams supporting mixed fisheries have a range between 50 and 500 s/cm. Some North Georgia streams may have natural background levels well below 50 s/cm. Conductivity outside this range could indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish or macroinvertebrates. Industrial waters can range as high as 10,000 s/cm. What Measured Levels May Indicate Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depending on their make-up. A failing sewage system would raise the conductivity because of the presence of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate; an oil spill would lower the conductivity. Documented changes in conductivity readings warrant further investigation. 25 Nutrients The addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients to a body of water may lead to increased plant growth, ultimately resulting in algae blooms. Over time, living and dead plant material builds up and, combined with sediments, fills in lakes and reservoirs. This is a naturally occurring process called eutrophication. However, when excess nutrients and sediment are added as a result of human activity, the speed of this natural process is increased significantly. Eutrophic a body of water with excess nutrients, sediment and organic matter, which often causes water quality problems. Plants, especially algae, are very efficient users of nitrogen and phosphorus. By the time an algae bloom is observed, the nutrients may no longer be measurable but may continue to impact the ecosystem. By sampling upstream from areas of algae blooms, the source of excess nutrients may be identified. Algae blooms will usually be found in lakes and reservoirs. If excessive algae are found in streams, the nutrient content is probably very high. The macroinvertebrate population will reflect a high input of nutrients, meaning you may find little variety of macroinvertebrates but many of one or two kinds. High flow rates in streams may prevent the establishment of floating aquatic plants and algae despite the presence of high levels of nutrients. As the summer progresses and flow rates drop, once rapidly flowing streams can become choked with algae. Wide, slow moving and tidal areas downstream may exhibit algae blooms weeks earlier. Sources of Nutrients Nitrogen and phosphorus enter water from human and animal waste, decomposing organic matter and fertilizer runoff. Phosphates are also found in some industrial effluents, detergent wastewater from homes, and natural deposits. Nitrates Nitrogen occurs in natural waters as ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), and organically bound nitrogen. Through a process called nitrification, bacteria convert ammonium to nitrites, which are quickly converted into nitrates. Ammonia test results are expressed as "ammonia as nitrogen". Nitrate test results are expressed as "nitrate nitrogen" (NO3-N), meaning "nitrogen that was in the form of nitrate." Some test kits and literature express levels only as nitrate (NO3). Both expressions refer to the same chemical and concentrations, but use different units of measure: Nitrate Nitrogen ppm x 4.4 = Nitrate ppm 26 Significant Levels Unpolluted waters generally have a nitrate-nitrogen level below 1 ppm. Nitratenitrogen levels above 10 ppm (44 ppm nitrate) are considered unsafe for drinking water. What Measured Levels May Indicate Levels of nitrate-nitrogen above 1 ppm may indicate a sewage overflow. High levels may also indicate the presence of fertilizers and animal waste. High levels of ammonia nitrogen generally indicate a more immediate source of pollutants. Phosphorus Phosphorus occurs in natural waters in the form of phosphates, orthophosphates, polyphosphates and organically bound phosphates. Simple phosphate test kits measure reactive phosphorus (primarily orthophosphate), which is the form of phosphate applied as fertilizer to agricultural and residential lands. Organically bound phosphates in water come from plant and animal matter and wastes. Organically bound phosphates and polyphosphates cannot be measured directly. They must first be broken down and then an orthophosphate test is performed to measure total phosphorus. Results are expressed as phosphate (PO4). Significant Levels Total phosphorus levels higher than 0.03 ppm contribute to increased plant growth (eutrophic conditions), which will lead to oxygen depletion. Total phosphorus levels above 0.1 ppm may stimulate plant growth sufficiently to surpass natural eutrophication rates. What Measured Levels May Indicate Levels in excess of 0.1 ppm indicate a potential human source such as industrial soaps, sewage, fertilizers, disturbance of soil, animal waste, or industrial effluent. Alkalinity Alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity. It is the sum of all the bases found in a sample, including carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide content. The alkalinity, and therefore buffering capacity, of natural waters will vary with local soils. Significant Levels The higher the alkalinity, the better the capacity to buffer the fluctuation of pH in water. To protect aquatic life it should be at least 20mg/L. What Measured Levels May Indicate Alkalinity levels should not fluctuate much unless a severe industrial problem has occurred upstream. 27 Salinity Salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater. More specifically, salinity is the number of grams of dissolved salts in a kilogram of seawater, thus the units of salinity are parts per thousand. The salinity of average ocean water is 35 ppt. Salinity is most commonly determined by using a salinity refractometer, a hand held device that measures the refraction or bending of light passing through a solution to determine the strength or concentration of that solution. Coastal Conditions Coastal and inshore waters such as estuaries, tidal rivers and marsh creeks generally have lower salinity values. These inshore areas also have highly variable salinity conditions. As the tide comes in or rises, seawater is pushed further inshore or inland, and the salinity at a particular location might increase within hours. Similarly, as the tide goes out, the seawater moves seaward and thus the salinity might decrease. Salinity is a very important feature and parameter of coastal aquatic habitats. Not only does salinity affect the biological community, but it also affects the density of the water itself. The resulting water density has an effect on, and may be the cause of water flow and transport (both speed and even direction). In fact, typical inshore water circulation includes less dense, less salty water moving downstream along the surface while denser, saltier water is actually moving inshore/upstream along the bottom. In coastal aquatic habitats, it is thus very important to know and record the salinity at any monitoring site. Salinity is one of the most basic chemical parameters for characterizing a coastal aquatic habitat. Estuary Monitoring Estuaries are partially enclosed bodies of water where seawater and freshwater (e.g. from a river) mix. With variations in river inflow (due to rainfall, melting, freshwater removal for industries, agriculture, etc.) and the constant tidal action moving seawater in and out, estuaries are water bodies of temporally and spatially variable salinity. Organisms that live in estuaries must be able to withstand variable salinity conditions. Adaptations include: escaping/moving to more favorable conditions, closing up until more favorable conditions return, burrowing/digging into the bottom, using internal water balance metabolic processes such as producing more or less urine, drinking more or less water, or spending more energy to conserve or get rid of excess water and salts. Georgia estuarine animals such as oysters, blue crabs, shrimp, and mullet are capable of surviving in and dealing with the variable salinity conditions of coastal rivers, sounds, and salt marshes. What Measures Measured Levels May Indicate If high salinity readings are found in upstream rivers and estuaries, which traditionally have lower salinity readings, freshwater flow may be reduced. This in turn will impact the coastal aquatic habitat. 28 Settleable Solids The settleable solids test is an easy, quantitative method to measure sediment and other particles found in surface water. An Imhoff cone (a plastic or glass 1 liter cone) is filled with one liter of sample water, stirred, and allowed to settle for 45 minutes. Solids will settle in the bottom of the cone and are then measured as a volume of the total, in millimeters per liter. This measurement is a reproducible analogue for turbidity. A measurement of settleable solids is not the same as a turbidity reading. Turbidity levels are measured by taking into account all particles suspended in the water column, including small, colloidal sized particles, like clay. A settleable solids test only measures those particles large enough to settle out within a given period of time. Excessive solids in water block sunlight and clog fish and macroinvertebrate gills. Sediment that settles on the streambed can smother habitat for fish and other aquatic life. Sediment can also carry harmful substances such as bacteria, metals, and excess nutrients. What Measured Levels May Indicate Land-disturbing activities contribute to elevated levels of settleable solids in Georgia's streams, rivers, lakes and wetlands. Possible sources include cropland, pasture, livestock operations, forestry activities, construction, roads, and mining operations. Sediment in streams functions much like sandpaper, scouring stream banks, leading to streambank failure, and ultimately causing further erosion. Secchi Disk The Secchi disk (pronounced sec'-key) is used to measure the clarity of the water. The disk is named after Pietro Angelo Secchi, a papal scientific adviser and head of the Roman Observatory in the 1860s. Secchi lowered a white plate on a rope into the Mediterranean to determine the depth at which he could no longer see it as a relative measure of water clarity. Modern Secchi disks are weighted metal disks. The face of the disc is divided into quarters and painted black and white for contrast. The disk is lowered into the water to the point at which the disk can no longer be seen this depth is then called the Secchi depth. Secchi depths can then be compared to track changes and compare differences in water clarity within and between bodies of water. 29 30 3 Chapter FORMS Physical/Chemical/Bacterial Data Form UGA Adopt-A-Stream Lab Submission Form Macroinvertebrate Count Form 31 GEORGIA ADOPT-A-STREAM Physical/Chemical/Bacterial Data Form Submit data at www.georgiaadoptastream.org Use this form and the Adopt-A-Stream methods to record important information about the health of your stream. By keeping accurate and consistent records of your physical/chemical tests, you can document current conditions and changes in water quality. AAS group name: Group ID number: AAS Site ID number: Certified QA/QC Investigators: Unregistered participants: Stream name: Date: Time: Site/location Description: County: Topo Map Quadrant: ------N/A-----Registered participants: Number of participants: Time Spent Monitoring (min): Photo Documentation? yes/no Rain in last 24 hours heavy rain steady rain Present conditions heavy rain steady rain intermittent rain intermittent rain none Overcast partly cloudy clear/sunny Amount of rain, if known? BASIC TESTS Test 1 Test 2 Air Temp Water Temp pH Dissolved Oxygen Conductivity OTHER TESTS inches in last hours/days Units 0C 0C ADVANCED TESTS Nitrate Nitrogen Ortho-phosphate Test 1 standard unit Salinity mg/L or ppm Chlorophyll A S/cm Fecal Coliform Escherichia coli Test 2 Method: Method: Units mg/L or ppm mg/L or ppm ppt mg/L or ppm cfu /100 mL cfu /100 mL SPECIAL LAB ANALYSIS: Name of lab performing tests: Run 3 tests for each site, plus run one blank (plate 0) 3M Petrifilm Plate method Blank 1 2 3 Escherichia coli Time in Start / Min Temperature Find AVG # of colonies (total # colonies / total # of plates) cfu /100 mL ( End Time / ) x 100 = End / Max Temperature Note: E. coli must be incubated for 24 hours +/- 1 hour at 35 degrees Celsius +/- 1 degree COMMENTS: 32 AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES LABORATORIES 2300-2400 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30602-9150 706-542-7690 The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension LAB# Received by: Date and Time: UGA ADOPT-A-STREAM LAB SUBMISSION FORM Samples accepted Monday Thursday You must call the lab to schedule advanced testing prior to shipping your sample AAS Group Name: ADVANCED LAB TEST PACKAGE $45 pH Total Alkalinity Specific Conductance (1 liter for all four parameters) Turbidity Nitrate-Nitrogen Ammonia-Nitrogen 125 ml w/ sulfuric acid for both Nitrate and Ammonia Total Reactive Phosphorus (125 ml glass bottle) Group ID Number: OTHER LAB TESTS Fecal Coliform $25 (contact UGA lab for 125 ml sterile bottle) Escherichia coli $25 (contact UGA lab for 125 ml sterile bottle) Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen $16 (250 ml) Total Phosphorus $20 (250 ml) (Or 500 ml for both) Total Suspended Solids $12 (1 liter or 500 ml for clean water) Chlorophyll A $50 or $40 if submitted as frozen filters (1 liter) Metal Scan Ca, Mg, Na, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, B, Mo, Al, Cd, Cr $12 (125 ml) AAS Site ID # pH Field Data (MUST be provided) Water Temp Date/Time Collected Collected By Test Requested (See above) Advanced Lab Other Lab Test Package Tests Relinquished by: Received by: Relinquished by: Received by: Date/Time: Date/Time: Date/Time: Date/Time: Send samples, forms, and payment to: Feed and Environmental Water Lab 2300 College Station Road Athens, GA 30602 - 9105 Note: Make check payable to the "Feed and Environmental Lab" 33 GEORGIA ADOPT-A-STREAM Macroinvertebrate Count Form Submit data at www.georgiaadoptastream.org AAS group name: Group ID number Site ID Number Investigators: Stream name AAS-G AAS-S Date: Time: Site/location Description: Rain in last 24 hours heavy rain steady rain intermittent rain none Amount of rain, if known? Time Spent Monitoring County: Topo Map Quadrant: Number of participants: __________ Picture/Photo Documentation? yes / no Present conditions heavy rain steady rain overcast partly cloudy Inches in last hours/days intermittent rain clear/sunny Use letter codes (A=1-9, B=10-99, C=100 or more) to record the numbers of organisms found in a total sample. Then add up the number of letters in each column and multiply by the indicated value. The following columns are divided based on the organism's sensitivity to pollution. (check all that apply) Method used: Habitat selected for sampling: Muddy Bottom Rocky Bottom riffle leaf pack/woody debris streambed with silty area (very fine particles) streambed with sand or small gravel vegetated bank other (specify) SENSITIVE stonefly nymphs mayfly nymphs water penny larvae riffle beetle adult aquatic snipe flies caddisflies gilled snails # of letters times 3 =__ SOMEWHAT-SENSITIVE common net spinning caddisflies dobsonfly/hellgrammite & fishfly dragonfly & damselfly nymphs crayfish crane flies aquatic sow bugs scud clams & mussels # of letters times 2 = __ TOLERANT midge fly larvae black fly larvae lunged snails aquatic worms leeches # of letters times 1 = __ Now add together the three index values = ______ total index value. The total index value will give you an indication of the water quality of your stream. Good water quality is indicated by a variety of different kinds of organisms, with no one kind making up the majority of the sample. Excellent (>22) WATER QUALITY RATING Good (17-22) Fair (11-16) Poor (<11) 34 A Appendix Field Directions for Chemical Monitoring Where To Order Equipment Biological Testing Equipment Physical/Chemical Testing Kits How To Make A Kick Seine Some Background On Aquatic Insects 35 Field Directions for Chemical Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen 1. Carefully collect the water sample into the glass water sampling bottle, avoiding trapping air bubbles or bubbling air into the sample (which may add dissolved oxygen). *ADD THE REAGENTS WHILE HOLDING THE DROPPER BOTTLES VERTICAL* 2. Add the next two reagents in quick succession. Add 8 drops of Manganous Sulfate Solution and 8 drops of Alkaline Potassium Iodide Azide to the sample. Cap the sample and invert several times. Wait until the precipitate settles below the neck of the bottle before proceeding. 3. Next, add 8 drops of Sulfuric Acid 1:1. Cap and gently shake until the precipitate dissolves. The solution is now "fixed" and may range in color from yellow to orange brown. *Fixed Solution - Contact between the water sample and the atmosphere will not affect the test result because the dissolved oxygen has been bound into solution and no more oxygen will dissolve into the sample and no dissolved oxygen can be lost from the sample. 4. Place 20 mL of the fixed sample into the glass titration vial. TITRATION STEPS * SWIRL AFTER EACH DROP IS ADDED * 5. Fill the titrator (small syringe) with Sodium Thiosulfate. Make sure no bubbles are in the titrator. Place the titrator into the hole in the cap of the glass titration vial, or, depending on which kit is used, hold the eyedropper above the fixed sample. 6. Slowly add Sodium Thiosulfate from the titrator into the sample. Continue one drop at a time until the solution turns a pale straw yellow color. *Hint-High light intensity degrades Sodium Thiosulfate - do not allow bottle to be exposed to the sun for long periods of time. 7. Remove the titrator cap and syringe CAREFULLY so as not to lose any of the Sodium Thiosulfate (you will continue titrating in step 9). 8. Add 8 drops of Starch Solution to the titration vial that is holding the sample. The sample will turn dark blue. 9. Continue titrating with Sodium Thiosulfate ONE DROP AT A TIME until the solution turns from blue to clear. 10. Read the amount of dissolved oxygen in your sample directly from the syringe (direct reading titrator). Tick marks measure 0.2 ppm. Use the tip of the syringe plunger for dissolved oxygen value. Temperature 1. Air temperature - place thermometer in shady area and record temperature after reading stabilizes. Record temperature in degrees Celsius. 2. Water temperature - take the temperature reading of the water in the shade. It is best to take the temperature reading directly in the stream, but if you cannot, place thermometer directly into a bucket of sample water (in the shade) and record temperature. Take reading after temperature has stabilized (about 2 minutes). Record temperature in degrees Celsius. pH 1. Fill small test tube to the 5 mL line of the glass tube. 2. Add 10 drops of the pH wide range indicator (holding indicator bottle vertical). Cap and gently invert the sample several times to ensure mixing. 3. Use the color comparator box to determine pH. 36 Conductivity Calibrating the instrument: To ensure accuracy, calibrate conductivity meter before each site visit. To calibrate: 1. Rinse electrode in deionized water, the rinse it in calibration standard, then dip it into a container of calibration standard. 2. Switch unit on. Wait several minutes for the display to stabilize. 3. If the conductivity probe is not reading to the know standard solution, open the battery compartment lid (end with the lanyard loop) and press INC or DEC key to adjust reading to match the calibration standard. 4. After 3 seconds without a key press, the display flashes 3 times, the shows `ENT'. The tester accepts calibration value; then returns to measurement mode. 5. Replace batter cap. Measuring Conductivity: 1. Remove electrode cap. Switch unit on (On/Off Key). 2. Dip electrode into waterbody. Make sure sensor is fully covered. 3. Wait for reading to stabilize (Automatic Temperature Compensation corrects for temperature changes. 4. Press Hold and record reading on data sheet. 5. Press On/Off Key to turn off tester. Replace electrode cap. Note: Tester automatically shuts off after 8.5 minutes of non-use. Secchi Disk The Secchi disk is a disk 20 centimeters in diameter with black and white quadrants (or solid white). 1. Attached to a calibrated line, lower disc into the water until it just disappears from sight. 2. Note the depth (distance from disk to the surface of the water). 3. Slowly raise the disc until it reappears. Note the depth again. 4. Take the average of the two readings. This is known as "Secchi Depth," and it is usually measured in meters. If the Secchi disk reaches the bottom before disappearing, the Secchi Depth is greater than the water depth and cannot be accurately measured. When this occurs, a notation must be added to the Secchi Depth reading in your data. Salinity 1. Fill the titration vial to the line with Demineralized water from the Demineralizer bottle. 2. Fill the pipette (range from 0 to 1.0) with sample water to the zero mark (volume = 1.0 mL). Wipe off any excess sample water from the pipette tip. Insert pipette into titration vial. 3. Add only 0.5mL of the sample water from the pipette (from the zero mark to the 0.5 mark). Remove pipette from vial and lay pipette aside. 4. Remove top from titration vial, and add 3 drops of the yellow-colored chromate indicator reagent; replace titration vial cap, and mix well. 5. Fill the other pipette (range from 0-20) with Silver Nitrate titration reagent. (NOTE: Silver nitrate is clear, but when it dries, it leaves a dark brown or black stain. You might notice such spots on your hands and fingers and possibly clothes if not wearing gloves). 6. Place pipette in top of titration vial. Add silver nitrate solution one drop at a time, with plenty of swirl mixing after each drop. The end-point will be when the yellow solution turns orange and stays orange. 7. When the end point is reached, read the pipette to determine the volume of silver nitrate added. NOTE that the pipette "numbers" are in twos, and thus each small hash-mark between numbers represent 0.4. The volume of silver nitrate added equals the numerical value of the salinity (in ppt). 37 Biological Testing Equipment - Prices as of 01/13/09 BioQuip Products 2321 Gladwick Street Rancho Dominquez, CA 90220 ph 310-667-8800 www.bioquip.com (on-line catalog included) Heavy Duty Aquatic Nets D-frame net (code # 7412D) $56.50 - 1 x 1 feet Screen Barrier Net kick seine net (code #7436) $49.20 - 3 x 3 feet Larval tray (code # 1426B) $10.00 for 1-11 trays $9.50 for 12 or more Forceps (code # 4734) $2.95 for 1-11 forceps $2.65 for 12 or more Glass Vials with plastic Screw caps (code 8802P) $4.75 for 1-11 2 grams $4.30 for 12 or more Remember-You Can Also Make Your Own Kick Seine! Ward's Natural Science 5100 W. Henrietta Road Rochester, New York 14692-9012 1-800-962-2660 * www.wardsci.com Thermometer (code15 V 1423) Forceps (code 14 V 0520) Glass Vials with Plastic Screw Caps 2 dram (code 17 V 0163) D-frame nets (code 10 V 0620) $9.75 each alcohol filled $4.25 each $ 6.00 each min order a dozen $53.50 Note: Sorting trays can usually be found at your local Kmart, Wal-Mart or Target for a much lower price. Plastic syringes with large (or cut) openings are great for sucking up larvae to transport to other trays. Plastic spoons are handy tools for moving bugs from one tray to another. Ice trays work great for sorting specimens. 38 Physical/Chemical Testing Equipment - Prices as of 01/13/09 LaMotte Company 802 Washington Avenue Chestertown, MD 21620 1-800-344-3100 www.lamotte.com Shallow Water Outfit (code 5854-01/CMS) Dissolved Oxygen (code 5860) -all liquid reagents pH (code 5858) Imhoff Cone w/ stand (1086) w/o stand (0512) Refractometer (code 5-0020) Secchi Disk (code 0171) (code 0171-cl) $210.00 measures temp., DO, pH and Turbidity* *AAS does not use the LaMotte turbidity test $47.50 measures 0-10ppm in .2ppm increments $35.00 $98.40 $38.20 $124.95 $25.00 $55.00 measures 3.0-10.5ppm in .5ppm increments no line with calibrated line (20 meters) Replacement Reagents: Shallow Water Outfit Replacement Reagents (code R-5854-01) -includes DO, pH and Turbidity* Dissolved Oxygen (code R-5860) pH (code 2218-G) Titrator -Syringe (code 0377) measures 0-10ppm Cole-Parmer Instrument Company 625 East Bunker Court Vernon Hills, IL 60061-1844 1-800-323-4340 Conductivity Meter Dual Range EC Tester w/ thermometer readings, Waterproof (code: EW-35662-30) Conductivity Standard Solution 100 s/cm (code: EW-00652-26) $47.40 $29.00 $ 5.70 $ 5.25 $79.00 $29.40 39 Forestry Supplier, Inc PO Box 8397 Jackson, MS 39284-8397 800-647-5368 http://www.forestry-suppliers.com Imhoff Cone and Stand (code: 76917) Replacement Imhoff Cone (code: 76918) Ward's Natural Science 5100 W. Henrietta Road Rochester, New York 14692-9012 1-800-962-2660 www.wardsci.com Secchi Disc (code: 21 V 0110) Refractometer (code: 25 V 4546) Imhoff Cone (no stand) (code: 18 V 1574) $88.95 $58.95 $39.95 $109.00 $31.50 General Lab and Field Supplies: Rubber boots - Georgia Rubber Company, Forestry Supply, Ben Meadows Company, Grainger Industrial Supply are some stores that carry boots and waders. 40 How To Make A Kick Seine For collecting macroinvertebrates (Courtesy of the Tennessee Valley Authority) Materials: 3 foot by 3 foot piece of nylon or metal window screening 4 strips of heavy canvas (6 inches by 36 inches) 2 broom handles or wooden dowels (5 or 6 feet long) finishing nails thread sewing machine hammer iron and ironing board Procedure: 1. Fold edges of canvas strips under, 1/2 inch, and press with iron. 2. Sew 2 strips at top and bottom and then use other 2 strips to make casings for broom handles or dowels on left and right sides. Sew bottom of casings shut. 3. Insert broom handles or dowels into casings and nail into place with finishing nails. Speed method: 1. Lay 3 foot by 3 foot piece of screening over broom handles. 2. Staple or nail screen to broom handles. 41 Some Background On Aquatic Insects To understand and identify aquatic insects, one must start with how all animals are classified. The most general category is first, with the species level being the most specific. Volunteers will learn to identify aquatic insects to the order level. A stonefly is classified as an example. Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Animal (all animals) Arthropoda (all animals with exoskeletons) Insecta (all insects) Plecoptera (all stoneflies) Perlidae (Perlid stoneflies) Acroneuria Acroneuria lycorias (Golden Stonefly) Life Stages of Insects Identifying insects is complicated because of the different stages they pass through during their development. The changes from the egg stage to the adult are often dramatic. The incredible change of a caterpillar into a butterfly is well known; most aquatic insects experience similar changes. The process of changing form during the life cycle is called metamorphosis, of which three types are possible: ametabolous, incomplete, and complete. Ametabolous Metamorphosis This type of metamorphosis means "without change" and refers to the lack of change between the immature and adult stages. It's found in only a few very primitive orders of insects that have no wings as adults. Some species are semiaquatic. Incomplete Metamorphosis Insects with incomplete metamorphosis pass through three distinct stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The time required to complete each stage varies widely, with the greatest amount of time usually spent in the nymphal stage. In most cases, the entire cycle requires one year to complete, although this also varies with different species. Nymphs often look similar to their adult stage. As nymphs mature, the adult wings begin developing in stiff pouch-like structures on the thorax called wing pads. This is an obvious and unique characteristic of insects with incomplete metamorphosis. The wing pads on fully mature nymphs will be quite dark, almost black, in color. The orders of aquatic insects with incomplete metamorphosis include: 42 Mayflies (Order Ephemeroptera) Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order Odonata) Stoneflies (Order Plecoptera) Water Bugs (Order Hemiptera) Complete Metamorphosis Insects with complete metamorphosis pass through four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The addition of the pupal stage separates insects with complete metamorphosis from those with incomplete metamorphosis. While the length of time needed to complete each stage again varies widely, the entire cycle usually takes one year. Most of the cycle is generally spent in the larval stage. Unlike nymphs, larvae bear little resemblance to the adults and show no development of wing pads. It is during the pupal stage that the wing pads and other adult features develop. The orders of aquatic insects include: Dobsonflies and Alderflies (Order Megaloptera) Caddisflies (Order Trichoptera) Aquatic Moths (Order Lepidoptera) Aquatic Flies (Order Diptera) Aquatic Beetles (Order Coleoptera) Growth And Development The growth of insects occurs in a series of stages called instars. The exoskeleton of insects must be periodically shed in order for growth to continue. The process of shedding the old exoskeleton is called molting. When the old exoskeleton is cast aside, a new, slightly larger one is present underneath. The old empty exoskeleton is often referred to as a shuck. Except for mayflies, molting stops once the insect reaches the winged adult stage. Most insects molt five or six times during their development. Mayflies, stoneflies, dragonflies, and damselflies, however, may molt 15-30 times before reaching their adult stage. Recognizing the insect's stage and degree of development can help anglers determine what insect to imitate. Mature nymphs and larvae often become more active in the water as they move to emergence or pupation sites. This increased activity makes them more available to fish and thus makes them more important to imitate. Looking for and imitating the most mature insects will normally produce the best fishing. 43 One of the most vulnerable periods in the insect's life cycle is during emergence from the immature to the adult stage. At the time of emergence, mature nymphs or pupae typically crawl out of the water or swim to the water's surface. Those that emerge in the surface film must break through the surface tension, which can take from several seconds to over a minute. Thus, during emergence the shelter of the lake or stream bottom no longer protects insects. Fish readily take advantage of the insects' vulnerability and often feed selectively on emerging nymphs or pupae. The angler who recognizes this activity will find fish fast by imitating the shape and action of the natural prey. Adult insects often rest on the water's surface after emerging from the nymphal or pupal shuck. Then, after mating, most aquatic insects return to the water to lay their eggs. Insects resting or laying eggs on the surface provide fish with many easy meals. Source: An Angler's Guide to Aquatic Insects and their Imitations, Hafele and Roederer, 1987. 44 B Appendix Habitat Enhancement Glossary Of Stream Related Terms Macroinvertebrate Field Guide for Georgia's Streams 45 Habitat Enhancement (from Protecting Community Streams: A Guidebook for Local Governments in Georgia, Atlanta Regional Commission, 1994) Stream habitat enhancement projects directly improve the health of streams by improving the adjacent (riparian) area, stream bank, or streambed habitat. All three of these areas function together to make up a stream ecosystem. Stream habitat enhancement projects can be complicated. Check with your local Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cooperative Extension Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, or a private consultant to be sure your efforts will yield the results you seek. Also, a Corps of Engineers permit may be needed before any material is placed in a stream or adjacent wetlands. Small projects are usually exempt. Call the Corps' office for more information on Georgia streams, 678-422-2721 (North Georgia) and 229-430-8566 (South Georgia). Stream habitat enhancement projects may occur on private property with permission of landowners or on public property in cooperation with the local or State agency responsible for property management. Habitat enhancement projects involve three major activities: o riparian reforestation o streambank stabilization o streambed restoration Riparian Reforestation The contribution of trees and woody understory vegetation to the maintenance of stream health cannot be overstated. Streamside forested areas not only provide habitat, shade, and forage for both aquatic and land-based species, but their ability to filter pollutants and rainfall provides a buffer a last line of defense from watershed runoff. Restoring streamside areas is one of the most cost-effective steps a community or Adopt-A-Stream program can take to protect stream health. The objective should be to replicate or mimic the natural ecosystem as much as possible; therefore, a mix of young and older native plant and tree species are preferred. Follow these steps to conduct a riparian reforestation project: 1. Evaluate current water quality conditions take "before" pictures and/or conduct physical/chemical, biological or visual assessments. 2. Choose a site(s) that needs additional vegetation to protect water quality from stormwater runoff. 3. Purchase a variety of plants that will tolerate wet conditions. 4. Plant trees, shrubs and grasses in the area immediately adjacent to your stream. Plant enough so that the vegetation will actually protect the stream filter pollutants from stormwater, stop sediment from entering water, etc. 5. Water after planting and as needed. 6. Check each week for four to six weeks to ensure that plants are healthy. 7. Once plants are well established, evaluate water quality improvement take "after" photograph and/or compare with initial water quality tests. 46 Streambank Stabilization If you have an eroding or collapsing streambank, you need to first determine the cause of the problem. Streambank erosion occurs for a number of reasons, including increased stream velocity, obstacles in the stream, floating debris, wave action, and direct rainfall. Streambank failure occurs when a large section of streambank collapses into the stream channel. Among the causes of streambank failure are downcutting of the streambed and undercutting of the bank, increased load on the top of the bank, and internal pressure from uneven water absorption. Selection of an appropriate bank stabilization method requires careful analysis of each site. No single method is appropriate in all situations. Technical advice will often be needed. Consult the Soil and Water Conservation Commission's "Guidelines for Streambank Restoration". One technique to stabilize streambanks is called "soil bioengineering", which involves using vegetation as the structural control to stabilize banks. Plantings of woody vegetation, such as willows (either as individual live cuttings or in bundles of cuttings), grow into a dense network of protective vegetation. See Figures 1 and 2. The vegetation's root structure provides resistance to the sliding and shear displacement forces involved in slope erosion. Figure 1 - Willow plantings Figure 2 In some cases, a solely vegetative approach may be all that is needed. In others, conditions such as excessive stream velocities or poor soil conditions may require a combination of vegetative and structural elements (such as stone walls or bulkheads). See figure 3 47 Figure 3 Streambed Restoration Prior to any streambed restoration, upstream conditions should be assessed. Without corrective measures or retrofitting upstream, stormwater flows could quickly destroy any streambed restoration work. If the stream is in equilibrium, or if appropriate corrective measures are in place, streambed restoration can recreate the habitat conditions needed to support aquatic life. Several goals may be accomplished when restoring a streambed, including: Replacement of pools and riffles (in north Georgia and Piedmont areas) Velocity control Restoration of the stream gradient and normal flow channel Removal of major stream obstructions Restoration of suitable channel patterns such as: Meandering repetitive bends Irregular more or less straight Braided stream separates and rejoins around islands Restoration of substrate (removal of sediment and replacement with gravel and cobbles, as appropriate) Some of these techniques permit the stream water flows to work to restore healthier streambed conditions; others require excavation and physical realignment of the stream channel. Three basic techniques include deflectors, in-stream boulders and drop structures. Deflectors can easily be constructed from common, local materials such as cobbles, boulders and logs and are adaptable to a variety of conditions and stream sizes. They are sited in the channel with the intent of deflecting the current into a narrower channel. 48 Deflectors can use the streamflow for a variety of purposes, including deepening channels, developing downstream pools, enhancing pool/riffle ratios and assisting in the restoration of meander patterns with channeled reaches. There are several deflector designs. Figure 4 (left) shows a simple double "wing deflector" that consists of rock structures on each bank deflecting the streamflow to a central channel. Single deflectors along one bank are also used as shown in Figure 4 (center). Deflectors can be offset on opposite banks of a stream to imitate meanders, as shown in Figure 4 (right). (Pennsylvania DER, 1986). A third type of deflector is the V-type, which is placed in the middle of the channel with the point of the "V" pointing upstream deflecting water towards both banks. This type of deflector helps re-establish riffles and pools downstream. An underpass deflector is a log placed across a small stream several inches off the bottom. Water is deflected under the log, which helps remove sediment deposits and restore pools. (Gore, Ed. 1985) (Kumble, 1990). Figure 4 wing deflector (left), single deflector (center) and double deflector (right) Drop structures include a number of variations such as weirs, check dams, sills and plunges. They can serve a variety of functions in streambed restoration depending upon their design, including: slowing stream flow; deepening existing pools; and creating new pools upstream and downstream. Structures with notches can be used to control heavy stormwater flows and can help re-establish deep pools immediately downstream. Drop structures can be made of concrete, logs or boulders. Log or boulder structures can be used to replicate small falls or rapids. Single log dams across a streambed are simple and effective in restoring plunge pools (figure 5). The K-dam is a variant of the single log dam, so named by adding downstream bracing. In some areas, especially headwater areas, reintroducing beavers has been effective in restoring the habitat. Their dams function as drop structures in headwaters and on small streams. Figure 5 49 Boulder placement is a third in-channel treatment that can assist streambed restoration. Boulders can be used to reduce velocity, restore pools and riffles, restore meanders, provide cover and protect eroded banks by deflecting flow. Boulders can be placed randomly or in a pattern. Placing them in a "V" pointed upstream produces eddies that replicate riffles as well as restores downstream pools (Figure 6). Combined with placement of cobbles and gravel, boulder placement can also help restore the stream substrate. Excavation and fill may also be necessary to restore the stream Figure 6 gradient, the normal flow channel and the stream channel pattern, including meanders and braids, where appropriate. Channel pattern restoration should be combined with streambank restoration and re-vegetation. Streams that have been severely degraded by large amounts of sediment or heavy stormwater flows may require greater restoration work. Sediment may have to be removed mechanically and replaced with gravel and cobbles to replicate the original streambed. Major debris accumulation that is obstructing flows may also need removal. Additional references: Guidelines for Streambank Restoration. Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Commission. 1994. A Georgia Guide to Controlling EROSION with Vegetation. Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Commission. 1994. Protecting Community Streams: A Guidebook for Local Governments in Georgia. Atlanta Regional Commission. 1994. Gore, James A., editor. The Restoration of Rivers and Streams. 1985. Barnett, John L. Stream Restoration Along the Greenways in Boulder, Colorado. 1991. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Environmental Resources. A Streambank Stabilization and Management Guide for Pennsylvania Landowners. 1986. 50 Glossary Of Stream Related Terms Accuracy a measure of how close repeated trials are to the desired target. Acid rain rain with a pH of less than 5.6; results from atmospheric moisture mixing with sulfur and nitrogen oxides emitted from burning fossil fuels; causes damage to buildings, car finishes, crops, forests, and aquatic life. Acidity a measure of the number of free hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that can chemically react with other substances. Algae simple plants which do not grow true roots, stems, or leaves and live mainly in water, providing a base for the food chain. Algal bloom a heavy growth of algae in and on a body of water as a result of high nitrate and phosphate concentrations from farm fertilizers and detergents. Alkalinity a measure of the negative ions available to react and neutralize free hydrogen ions. Some of most common of these include hydroxide (OH), sulfate (SO4), phosphate (PO4), bicarbonate (HCO3) and carbonate (CO3) Ambient pertaining to the current environmental condition. Assemblage the set of related organisms that represent a portion of a biological community (e.g., benthic macroinvertebrates). Benthic pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a water body. Best management practices - an engineered structure or management activity, or combination of these, that eliminates or reduces an adverse environmental effect of pollutants. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they decompose organic materials in water. Biological criteria numerical values or narrative descriptions that depict the biological integrity of aquatic communities in that state. May be listed in State water quality standards. Channel - the section of the stream that contains the main flow. Channelization - the straightening of a stream; this is often a result of human activity. Chemical constituents - chemical components that are part of a whole. Clear cutting felling and removing all trees in a forest area. 51 Cobble stone Stones 2-10 inches in diameter, among which aquatic insects are commonly found. Combined sewer overflow (CSO) - sewer systems in which sanitary waste and stormwater are combined in heavy rains; this is especially common in older cities. The discharge from CSOs is typically untreated. Community - the whole of the plant and animal population inhabiting a given area. Culvert a man-made closed passageway (such as a pipe) under roadways and embankments, which drains surface water and diverts the natural flow. Designated uses state-established desirable uses that waters should support, such as fishing, swimming, and aquatic life. Listed in State water quality standards. Dissolved oxygen (DO) oxygen dissolved in water and available for living organisms to use for respiration. Distilled water water that has had most of its impurities removed. Dredge to remove sediments from the stream bed to deepen or widen the channel. Effluent an out-flowing branch of a main stream or lake; waste material (i.e. liquid industrial refuse, sewage) discharged into the environment. Ecoregion geographic areas that are distinguished from others by ecological characteristics such as climate, soils, geology, and vegetation. Embeddedness the degree to which rocks in the streambed are surrounded by sediment. Emergent plants plants rooted underwater, but with their tops extending above the water. Erosion the wearing away of land by wind or water. Eutrophication the natural and artificial addition of nutrients to a waterbody, which may lead to depleted oxygen concentrations. Eutrophication is a natural process that is frequently accelerated and intensified by human activities. Floating plants plants that grow free-floating, rather than being attached to the stream bed. Flocculent (floc) a mass of particles that form into a clump as a result of a chemical reaction. Glide/run section of a stream with a relatively high velocity and with little or no turbulence on the surface of the water. 52 Fish kill the sudden death of fish due to the introduction of pollutants or the reduction of dissolved oxygen concentration in a water body. Floodplain a low area of land surrounding streams or rivers which holds the overflow of water during a flood. Flow the direction of movement of a stream or river. Groundwater a supply of fresh water under the earth's surface which forms a natural reservoir. Headwaters the origins of a stream. Hypoxia depletion of dissolved oxygen in an aquatic system. Impairment degradation. Impoundment a body of water contained by a barrier, such as a dam. Land uses activities that take place on the land, such as construction, farming, or tree clearing. Leaching the process in which material in the soil (such as nutrients, pesticides, chemicals) are washed into lower layers of soil or are dissolved and carried away by water. Macroinvertebrate organisms that lack a backbone and can be seen with the naked eye. Nonpoint source pollution pollution that cannot be traced to a specific point, but rather from many individual places (e.g., urban and agricultural runoff). NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, a national program in which pollution dischargers such as factories and sewage treatment plants are given permits to discharge. These permits contain limits on the pollutants they are allowed to discharge. Nutrient substance which is necessary for growth of all living things (i.e. phosphorous, nitrogen and carbon). Orthophosphate inorganic phosphorus dissolved in water. Outfall - the pipe through which industrial facilities and wastewater treatment plants discharge their effluent (wastewater) into a waterbody. Permeable porous; having openings through which liquid or gaseous substances can penetrate. 53 Pesticide a chemical that kills insects and rodents. Pesticides can poison aquatic life when they reach surface waters through runoff. pH a numerical measure of the hydrogen ion concentration used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity of a substance. Measured on a scale of 1.0 (acidic) to 14.0 (basic); 7.0 is neutral. Phosphorus a nutrient that is essential for plants and animals. Photosynthesis the chemical reaction in plants that utilizes light energy from the sun to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. This reaction is facilitated by chlorophyll. Point source pollution a type of pollution that can be tracked down to a specific source such as a factory discharge pipe. Pollutant something that makes land, water or air dirty and unhealthful. Pool deeper portion of a stream where water flows more slowly than in neighboring, shallower portions. Precision a measure of how close the results of repeated trials are to each other. Protocol defined procedure. Reagent a substance or chemical used to indicate the presence of a chemical or to induce a chemical reaction to determine the chemical characteristics of a solution. Riffle a shallow area of a stream or river with a fast-moving current bubbling over rocks. Riparian of or pertaining to the banks of a body of water. Riparian zone the vegetated area on each bank of a body of water. Riprap rocks used on an embankment to protect against bank erosion. Runoff water, including rain and snow, which is not absorbed into the ground but instead flows across the land and eventually runs into streams and rivers. Runoff can pick up pollutants from the air and land, carrying them into the stream. Saturated inundated; filled to the point of capacity or beyond. Sediment soil, sand, and materials washed from land into waterways. Other pollutants may attach to sediment and be carried into the stream. Sedimentation when soil particles (sediment) settle to the bottom of a waterway. 54 Septic tank a domestic wastewater treatment system into which wastes are piped directly from the home; bacteria decompose the organic waste, sludge settles to the bottom of the tank, and the treated effluent flows out into the ground through drainage pipes. Sheen the glimmering effect that oil has on water as light is reflected more sharply off the surface. Silviculture forestry and the commercial farming of trees. Slumping sections of soil on a streambank that have come loose and slipped into the stream. Stagnation when there is little water movement and pollutants are trapped in the same area for a long period of time. Submergent plants plants that live and grow fully submerged under the water. Substrate refers to a surface. This includes the material comprising the stream bed or the surfaces to which plants or animals may attach or upon which they live. Surface water precipitation which does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration and is stored in streams, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs. Taxon (plural taxa) a level of classification within a scientific system that categorizes living organisms based on their physical characteristics. Taxonomic key a quick reference guide used to identify organisms. They are available in varying degrees of complexity and detail. Tolerance the ability to withstand a particular condition, e.g., pollution-tolerant indicates the ability to live in polluted waters. Toxic substances poisonous matter (either chemical or natural) which causes sickness, disease and/or death to plants or animals. Tributaries a body of water that drains into another, typically larger, body of water. Turbidity murkiness or cloudiness of water, indicating the presence of some suspended sediments, dissolved solids, natural or man-made chemicals, algae, etc. Undercutting a type of erosion which occurs when fine soils are swept away by the action of the stream, especially around curves. The result is an unstable overhanging bank. Water cycle the cycle of the earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the earth and back which includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies and groundwater. 55 Water quality criteria maximum concentrations of pollutants that are acceptable, if those waters are to meet water quality standards. Listed in State water quality standards. Water quality standards written goals for State waters, established by each State and approved by EPA. Watershed land area from which water drains to a particular water body. Water table the upper level of groundwater. Waterway a natural or man-made route for water to run through (such as a river, stream, creek, or channel). Wetland an area of land that is regularly wet or flooded, such as a marsh or swamp. 56