, 
 
  / 
This book is the property of theCounty Board of Education of _. __ .. __ . __ ... __ .. __ County, and should be returned to the County School Commissioner. 
 
  MANUAL OF METHODS 
FOR 
Georgia Teachers. 
ATLANTA, GA. 
THE FRANKLIN-TuRNER COMPANY, 
Printers. Publishers. Binders. 1906. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
PELLI.TO -- ----- ------ _ ----- ------ ----PE MAS HIP 
 
1.7, 
 
READI.-O 
 
23 
 
E .. GUSH GRHUIAR _ 
 
__ _ 
 
46 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
81 
 
HISTORY 
 
 _- 
 
 
 
107 
 
ARITHMETIO 
 
. 
 
139 
 
ATURE STUDY 
 
179 
 
ScHOOL ~A -AOEMENT PHYSIOLOGY 
 
DRAWING 
 
- --- 
 
SYLI,ABUB 
 
227 247 
27] ..:_ 28] 
 
HOME READING________ 
 
__ _ 
 
283 
 
E AS 'HISTORY OF GEORGIA___ __ _ _ 
 
CIVJLGOVER ME-T 
 
--- - 
 
285 -- 289 
 
TEBRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 295 
 
THE RECITATIO~ _ _ _ 
 
_ 
 
-- 
 
- --- 303 
 
 SPELLING. 
By E. C. BRA~SON, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
( Copyrighted.) 
L PURPOSES. 
1. 'fa teach vocabulary of every-day English. 2. To teach the vocabulary of the common schooJ 
texts. Th e two purposes concern about 10,900 
words; about one-third th number in the average speller. 8. To teach the use of the dictionary in order to extend his Yocabulary, now and later. . To teach (1) the forms (spelling and pronunciation) at the words acquired, (2) their meanings and uses, and (3) their forms In writtlln English (capitals, hyphens, quotations, etc.) 6. To aim directly at reading tram the start. 6. To develop promptly a ready selt-determination ot words by pupils. 7. To lodge a. memory of word-forms in the tlnr;era. 8. To excite an interest in words: (1) deriva.tion, (I) composition, (3) history, (4) choice. S. To teach the important rules of 8pellin~. 10. To educa e the pupil. Teaching spelling and educating the pupil by means at spelling are different things. Appeals to arbitrary memory of word-forms alalle are not qu1ckenin~ but deadening to intell1gence. 
Do YETHODS. 
L Primary Grades. (Words from Readers mostly.) 
(1) Copying words in script from dan,. leuollL 
 
 8 
(Z) 81&,ht spelling; orelly from bb., chart, or open book. 
(3) Memory spelling, words in all lessons. (4) Word-building; using letter cards (both 
script and Roman text.) 
.~5) Phonic word-building. a. To teach to 
eye and ear the sign- and sound-llkenesses of words. b. In order to develop ready self-determination ot new words. (6) Picture spelling. a. Children write words tor things seen in pictures. b. Use of outline drawings. 
(7) Sentence building. a. Using word-cards, 
in script and Roman text. (8) Shol't sentences. a. Dietated by teacher. 
b. From given words. (9) Elliptical sentences. Copied and compl.. 
ted. (10) Picture stories. Short sentences suggei- 
ted by pictures. (11) Classifying words. a. AlphaJbeticaJly. 
b. According to No. letters. c. According to No. syllables. d. Capitals. e. Action words or name words, etc. 
J. Intermediate Grades. 
(1) Sentence making, tor doubtful or difficult words, in all lessons, (1) orally, (2) 10 writin~. 
(2) Dictation exercises. Paragraphs assigned for stUdy from any school book., the readers mostly. 
(3) Recollection lessons. (4) '" Observation spelling. (1) Indoor obser- 
vations. (2) Outdoor observations. Spelling to be centered largely around 
ature studies. 
 
 9 
 
(&) Reproduction stories. 
 
(6) Marking worda dlacrltloaIly-belnnlq 
 
with 3d Reader classes. 
 
,<~ 
 
(7) Making word lists for given eounds. 
 
(8) Grammatical spelling. (1) PluralS, (2) 
 
Possessives, (3) Past tense torms, (4) 
 
Contractions and abbrevlatloDfi. hy" 
 
phenated words, etc. 
 
(9) Memory verses and maxims. 
 
(10) Supplementary lists, made by the pupils 
 
(1) In school, (2) out of school. 1'hlngs 
 
seen on the way to school; common 
 
farm or garden products; household 
 
furniture; table' ware and foods; arti- 
 
cles made of clay, Iron, silver, etc.; 
 
garden and farm tools; Bible charac- 
 
ters; amusements and games; thin,;. 
 
found in a boy's pocket; animals that 
 
eat grass, flesh, that swim, wade, etc. 
 
(11) Common misspelled words. 
 
(12) Spelling matches. Suggestions: 
 
1. Preserve sides throughout the session 
 
if possible. 
 
2. Keep pupils In the ranks throughout 
 
the exercise. 
 
3. Each side notes the misspelled word. 
 
of the opposite side In all exercises; 
 
reports them to its captain, who 
 
lists them for the teachers to give 
 
out to the other side. 
 
. The teacher tallies the words missed 
 
by each side, and also records the 
 
victories by days. 
 
6. Matches once a fortnight. 
 
(13) Trapping in oral E<pelllng. 
 
(H) Listing, sounding and spelling words dlmcult of articulation; mists, IIsts,~orn 
 
fn~, ringing, etc. 
 
 10 
 
(15) Recreations. 1. Spelling rhyme.!!. Teacher givee out. word. pupil spells, gives out a rhyming word and spells. 2. Building words out of the letters of a given word; "legislature," for example. 3. Teacher gives out the name of a tool, say; pupil spella and calls the name of another tool for the next pupil to spell and so on down a lilt of tools. 4. Each pupil calls out and spells a word 'beginnlng with the last letter of the word previously spelled. 5. Pupils point out objects, parts or qualities of objects; class spells. 6. Pupils describe word!!, class spE'lls. "What gums envelopes?" Clasl spells, "mucilage," etc. 7. One pupil gives out a word, the next spells Its opposIte. "Straight," "crooked." 8. Spelling synonym.. 
 
I. Upper Grades. 
 
(1) Diotations. 
 
(2) Common misspelled words. 
 
(3) Teach the important rulee of spell1ng 
 
(1) by Induction, (2) by use, for IX- 
 
a.mple: 
 
. 
 
Rule for doubling the final consonant. 
 
Rule for dropping the final silent e. 
 
Rule for changing final 11 into l. (4) Spelling derivatives from primitives 
given. 
 
(5) De1Ining derivatives etymologically. 
 
(6) Forming words from common fQ~i'l 
 
roots; like urapheill, fa~t!, etc. 
 
 1l 
(7) Mal'ln~ word lists for ~ven 8umxel or roots; like Ull-, -iOll, -/cOIJ 
(8) Listing words according to originLatin, Greek, Arabic, Celtic, etc. 
(9) Word tudies, as they occur in course of upper class work. "Swinton's Rambles Among Words," a good cue to the teacher. 
(10) Listing and sounding words commonly mispronounced. 
ilL SUGGESTIONS. 
L Get spelling mostly from the readen the ftrst three years at least, and aim all spelling all the time at Inte111gent reading and correct written forms. 
2. Omit, therefore, Infrequent words-mere catcb words dimc 'It to spell. Stress the words the pupil needs constantly-the vocabulary of the various school books certainly. 
a. Do not have the pupil spelling words from the 
spelllng books, the meaning and uses of which neither he nor the teacher knows. (. Make aure of meanings and uses, along with forms of words everywhere. Breed in him the habit of using the Dictionary. 6. Remember that oral spelling teaches (1) the lIOund values of the letters, (2) syllabication, a.nd (3) pronunciations; and cannot therefore be dispensed with. You can easily have too much of it, and you can easily rob It of its chief value, by neglecting to have pupils for the first three yeara to pronounce syllablp.s 8JJ theY' ue apelled. 
In oro Ipellln~: 
(1) Give out the words once, dlstinct.17. (!) Permtt no guessin~. 
 
 12 
(3) Have pupil to pronounoe word before flpellJnr; it. (A lesson in articulation and pronunciation, this). 
(4) Have him pronounce each syllable as spelled. Also to call capital letters, hyphens, &c. When they occur. 
(5) Have sentences for doubtful words. (6) Do not begin always at the head of the 
class, nor with the first word in the lesson. (7) Vary the methods only when 11agglng interest requires it, but do not fall to do so then. (8) Preserve good lines and postures. 7. But remember that spelling is first an aid to the ready recognition ot words (reading) and next to the ready reproduction of words (writing); that we do not need spelling In oral speecb, but only In written speech; that we spell In Ute with our fingers; that writing words Is the best way to learn to write words; and that at hlJlt we must lodge In the fingers the memory of word forms. S. Written spelling. (1) Teaches the forms ot English, capitalization, punctuation, use of hyphen, apostrophe, capitals, quotation marks, paragraphings, etc. (2) Gives each pupil more words to spell In each lesson. (3) Keeps all the pupils engaged. (t) Gives a better chance to criticise and correct misspelled words. (5) But takes more time for the recitation. (6) Tempts pupils Into dishonesty. t. Ha.ve nu more written work than you have tima to correCt, be that much or little; much writ- 
j 
 
 13 
fnr; as certainly fixes bad habits as rood oneil; hence the .absolute need of inspection. Take only a pupil's best work. 10. Develop in pupils the power of self-criticism and correction. 
(1) Have pupils correct their own work with open books. 
(2) Or check up one another's work similarly. Each pupil corrects his own work. Correction Is the aim; not detection of errors by teacher, merely. 
(3) Examine the work yourseIr only after the corrections of the pupils. 
(4,) Have misspelled words re-wrltten a number of times by the pupil. 
11. Assign spelling lessons occasionally from the day's lesson in Arithmetic, or Geography, or any of the school books. 
IV. QUIZ REVIEWS. 
1. State ten purposes in teaching spelling. 2. How teach the use of the dictionary? 3. State the three elementlil of mastery of a vocabu- 
lanr. 4,. Which one fs usually neglected in teachinr spell- 
ing? 6. How aim sj?elling directly at reading? 6. How make spelling aid in the mastery of all the 
pupil's school books? 7. Sta.~ some ways of teaching spelling which are 
not educative. I. State and explain five methods of spelling adap- 
ted to Primary Grades. I. State the purposes of Phonic word-building. 10. Illl1lrtrate what is meant by Phonic word-bulldin&. 1L Btalte six varietie. of written 6pellin& lesaou (in 
11&7 &Tades). 
 
 14 
11 Sta.te what 1B taught In sentence spelling and dictation exercises. 
11. Outline two kinds of observation spelling lessons, (object. spe1l1ng). 
U. State the special educational values of observation spelling. 
16. State four uses of diacritic.. 16. Wben begin drills In dla.critlcs? 17. Mark the following wordll:-(To be selected by 
teaeher). 18. State the va.lue. of dictating memory TeMlel and 
ma.:xims. 
19. Sta.te tale way. of ma.klng spelling matches valuable. 
SO. Critlc~ a spelling match poorly conducted. 21. State five classea of worda u ually articulated 
careless17. 22. Pronounce the following words (words com- 
monly mispronounced, seleoted and given by the teacher). !S. State and explain live forms of written spell1ns for intermediate grades. 24. Stlate e.nd explain five forms of ora.!. spelling for intermediate grades. 26. State and explain five forms of spelling games. %6. State and Illustrate the three most important rulea of spelling. %7. AbbreTlate the following words: (to be selected and given by the teacher). 28. Write sentences for the following words: (to be selected and given by the teacher). St. GiTe words for the following umxes and define each: --er, -ist, -ness, -some, -ai, -IIioD., (or others as teacher chooses). 80. How teach pupils the use of he diction817f 31. State the uses of oral spelling. 32. State the uses of written spelling. 33. Wbat does each teach that the other doee not te8.chf 
 
 15 
!l4. S ate six ca IUons In giving ll.n oral spelling lesson 35. State six ways of correcting written spelllng 
lesson. 36. Slate two dangers In written spelling lessons. 37. How avoid each? 38. How decre e the opportunities for cheating in 
written spelling? 39. How use a spelIing book wisely'! {O. Gi,e opinion upon the following matters: 
(1) At what stage in a. pupil's course would you put 3. spelling bOOK into his hands? 
(2) Should a pupil know the meaning of every word he is called on to spell? 
(3) Should pupils in writing words In columns begin them all with capltal~? 
({) Shouid pupils be allowed to correct each other's work? 
(5) Should pupllll be given Incorrectly spelled words to be corrected? 
(6) Should we abollsh the spe11lng book T 
V. REVIEW TEXT-BOOKS IN THE COURSE. 
1. Penniman's Common Words DiIDcult to SpelL D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 
2. Penniman's Prose Dictation Exercises. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 
3. Abernathy's Academy Orthreplst. Maynard, MerrlIl & Co., New York. 
VI. REFERENCE BOOKS. 
S ett's Methods of Teaching, Chap. III., Part II. American Book Co., N. Y., $1.00. 
2. DeGraJ'r's School Room Guide, p. 60. Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y., $1.50. 
3. Moore's Sugge tiOllll for Seat Work. A. Flanagan, Chicago; III., 25 cents. 
4. Method.. In Reading and Spelling, by Bran80J1., D. C. Heath &: Co., BostoD.. 
 
 PENMANSHIP. 
By FRED J. ORR, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
ATHENS, GA. 
I. PURPOSE. 
The purpose of handwriting Is obvious, yet an un.due emphasis on the teaching of certain of Its features, to the neglect of others, frequently makes of it an end in itself, rather than a means to an end. It is therefore well to remember that its service is rendered, completely, when the writer has been enabled by its use to record hill thought quickly, and In Iluch manner that It may be easily read. The teacher, then, may devote himSelf principally to these tw:o desiderata: legibility and speed, or, as thought of in the class-room-form and movement. 
1. IN REGARD TO TEACHING FORM. 
The two classes of script letter forms taught generally are: "Vertical" and "Slant." Their relative mel"its may be adjudged by reference to the following considerations, viz.: that, In general, 8. system of penmanship should be so planned that Its forms will be easy to read, easy to write, and ea y to learn. This generalization Is meant to Include hygienic considerations and a rea onable amount of attention to beauty. It Is advisable to use that sy tern which most nearly conforms to these conditions. Whatever the style of writIng adopted, a series of "copies" or models In .ome form Is essential. 
 
 18 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Models may be provided In copy-books or supplied by the teacher. In the latter case, either by supplying each student at every writing period with an engraved or written sentence, or aeries ot letter torms, mounted on cardboard, or by models written distinctly and neatly on the blackboard. The first pial! Is preterable. 
2. Be sure that the pupil is making an ef'l'ort to reproduce the given models, and is not mechanically copying his own errors. 
8. Point out dif'l'erences between the written work and the models, and lead pupil to see the same. 
. Be specific In all criticisms ot faults. 
5. Commend progress,' but always in such a way as to encourage its continuance. 
6. Use the blackboard to Illustrate errors and methods ot correction; tormatlon ot difficult letlers; correct and incorrect proportions; points ot beauty, essential and non-essential, etc. 
7. Stress a proper spacing between letters, and between words. (Note the difl'erence). 
8. Emphasize unitormity In the size ot letters OD a page. 
9. Encourage indIviduality within bounds. That is, don't expect every child to write exactly alike, nor need it be expected that everyone will write ea:actlv like the models given. However, the models are Ideals and should be constantly the goal toward which the class aspires. 
10. Do not permit 8. student to write only a part ot a letter at 8. time, having to reter to the model betore finishing. See the whole-write it. Compare with model, then rewrite, correcting error. Apply ~18 to sentences and words as well &s  letters. 
 
 19 
11. It Is enneces ary to emphasize "jolninp;s" (or connecting lines lJct II .( n leltt:'ts), Ot III tad, any feature not ~s.cntw.1 to :;oou torm. PlaIn, well pruportionl::u lettet . are ti,e essentials to kno\\. 
12. Detect tile elewents tllat go to wake a well. fOrlnt:u letter: proportivn {beigllt to wiutb), curves, sU'aigbt lines, tew', anu loop'. 
13. l{equire and exempLf~- neatne 'S, on tIle black !Joard and on p:l1ler. 
14. Don't teacl.l writing at the writing period 01111/, Discountenance careless work in any written l'X ercise. 
15. Large forms are perhaps preferable for beginners (cIlildren). After the proportions are learned, tlle "size" of one's \\ riling is a wattu . of individuality. 
16. From the standpoint of care of the eye, anulndependent handling of tile pen, singie line pav l' would seem to be preferable to llliges \ 'ttb spaced interlinings, 
17. See that each member of the elass i' suppliu] with good writing materials. A long, mediumsoft pencil is preferable to a scrutcb~ Vl'n; allli a good pen is ratber to be bad tllan a lIaru stub pencil. Use judgment as to wben to begin the use of pen and Ink. 
18, It Is to be remembered al\\'a~-s, tilat ability to visualize the form of letters being studied, must precede free construction of the same with the pen or pencil. Hence, use methods that will serve to fix these forms in every student's mind. 
19. Blackboard work (see aboYe), 
Ill. MOVE:\IEl'T, OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED. 
1. Position, 
(1) Body-should be free from all strain (shoulders, eyes, fingers, etc). It does not seem wise to re- 
 
 20 
quire all pupils to sit in exactly the same way. In general, llo YC\'er, tlle writer 'hould it far enough fl'om the page upon which he writes, to Insure perfect freedom in the use of ann and haml. A line through the two eyes should be palallel to the line of writing. Tbis means tbat tlle Ilead is inclined neither to tbe rigIlt n6r left, and sIloulders same height. (2) Pen-sIlould rest Iigh tl:r on tIle side of the second finger at the root of tIle nail, and be Ilelu in position by thulll b and first finger, the latter being bent sliVhtly only, Finger tip' not less than one inch from tIle pen point. TIliru anu fourth fingers folded under tile palm. Stalf crossing knuckle of tlle .first finger and so turned tllat tlle nibs of pen point rest equall,Y un tIle paper. Ayoid: gripping of the pen; gra ping too near tlle point; a rigIlt angle in ilie middle joint of tIle first finger; ink stain on the fingers. 
(3) Paper-so placed tIlat lines on the page are pa1'3.))el to a line througll the two eyes, tIlercby insuring equal focal di tance. 
Note. Teach positions by eXllmple if class Is not too large. Otherwi e, by definite directions, 
2. Methods. 
(1) Kinds of movement-thl'ee: 
a. Whole arm, with shoulder as pi ,'at. 
b. Muscular, or forearlll, with the under muscle just below tIle elbow, stationary on the desk and acting a a cushion und pivot upon whieb the arm l' sts and lJloyes. 
c. Finger, in which tlle nUre control of the pen Is exerei cd by movement of tIle fingers. ( 
Note. A combination of these three Is perhap. the best form of mo,ement. 
 
 21 
(2) Movement exercises should be gIven In concrete form, I. e., lett rs, and their combinations in words and sentences. Begin with the easiest and advance to more difficult, e. g.; c, e, I, a, 0, u, v, w, n, m, etc., and combinations. 
IV. MISCELLA1'EOUS. 
1. The writing period. 
(1) Devote a pal't or each period to study and 
reproduction of con-ect letter forms, in which fOl-m is especially stressed; part to movement exercises, in which lIwl'cnumt is especially stressed. Neither form nor movement must be forgotten however, at any time. 2. Grade according to general conformity to corercises may be given with pen, pencil and crayon. (3) Writing period should not be more than twenty minutes In length, for primary pupils: about twenty to thirty minutes for advanced students. 2. Bl'3.de according to general conformity to correct letter forms, improvement and neatness. 
3. Blackboard Work. 
(1) Have your own writing on the board, on horizontal lines (not drawn), distinct always, and never careless. 
(2) Guard neatness scrupulously. Never erase with fingers. 
(3) This Is a good place to train In full, free, arm movement. 
4. A definite understanding of correct positions Is essential at the start. It may well precede &D1 thought of letter forms or of movement. 
! 
 
 READING. 
 
By LAWTO 
 
B. EVANS, UPT. OF SCHOOLS, 
AUGUSTA, GA. 
( Copyrightedi) 
 
MATERIAL FOR TBACHJI&'11 Va. 
' 
L Natural objeet:!-Iowera, illlleeta, cra.I1I., etc. 2. Phenomena-boilin~ ...ter, Cl'Owl~ pI_t, bum- 
in~ cocoon, etc. 
a. Familiar objecta_ ball, a ea.p, a top, a fU, .. 
knife, etc. .. Toy&-a. horae, a cow, a eat, a donkey, ete. 6. Picturea cut from IItory book., mapzinea, etc. 
Note.-Thil material 1a named ill the order of importance. 
By &11 means use tho natural object itself if it C&Il be (one. Children IOTe na.ture, and objecta of nature excite tlteir curiosity a.nd interest. Use >the every-day familiar objects, a.nd teach the things about them that a child ortiJlarily doea Rot see. Tl'lIln him to observe and count. .An ear of corn will ,;in a &Teat deal of .ork in lan&"Ua~I, rea.dlnK ud nature study. 
 
L ConTerll8.t1on exerciae. The 11nt thinK to be done is to show the child the re1&tioll between the lIPOken and written word. Show the object to the claaa, and induce the pupils to t&1k about it. Call their attention to the m&1n featurf'!l. Lead tllem to teJ.ll: by ask1JlC que8tio-. Aroun 
Uael.r nriomty, pln their atteatioa aM!'wue.. 6*' .ma.. 
 
 24 
Nof~.-Whll ~ pup1la come fonrard to recite l.t t~.m .tand around the teacher, or .it down, assuming whatever easy and natural position they prefer. The Ihings to be insisted on in the recitation are attention, animation, enthusiasm, freedom in .peech. It these are obtained, the pupils lore in order, do what they will. Do not repress any of the naturl.l I.ctlvity of the child. Merely require all movements to be natural, gracdul and spontaneous. Books are not needed for "vera.! weeJ[ . Use the blackboard, .laJtAe, writ1n&-paper, eto. 
2. The Word Symbol. AM.er tdle pupill han eU.cussed the object, and nl.mOO its puts, the teacher can write or pint the 'Word on the blackboard, making Ion in itnate connection between the object iaeH and the word ... iLl symbol. At the 11.I1lt I son only two or three 'Words should be taught. Pupil. should practice naming t(hese until they know them without tile aid of the object. For .eat work they should be required to copy the worda they hI.  learned. 
8. In the next exercl.. the pronoUll.l ml.Y be taqht objectively and .uch .Impl. verb forms u ....... 
. and "hav.:' Also "&," "an" and ..th.... Dl'pend upon the child'. memory to retain a.nd recall these word forms. With thi. preparation the teacher may proceed at OD.(l. to teacll the reading of simple sentencea. 
Note.-Thls method Is known ae the word method, and proceeds on the principle of first the idea, then the spoken word, then the written or printed word. The object il always used in the beginning, and each word is illustra.ted R.nd memorized. No account is taken of the letten .epa.ra.tely until some thirty or forty 'Words have been memorized. Do OOl teach tlle alphallflt. II lDUI .... UNIt titter II1DMk. Te400 flw tOOf'4. 
 
 25 
The following test fs severe, but lhTelOpin. ud helpful. Let the pupils be .hown some object, illY & hat, and let them name it and watch the teacher all she writes in her best style on the board the word hat. The puplls attentively regard it until they think they know it. Let them memorize the form as best they can. Then let each one, whenever he chooses, turn his back on the copy and write what he remembers of it on the board or on hill slate. The reproduction must be from memory &nd not from sight. This stimulate!! intense percepti01l and aids the power of recollection. Wonderful refluIts can be obtained by a patient trial ot this form of word-making from memoq. 
TEACHING THE SENTENCE. 
As soon as a few words and phra.se1l have been taught, the teacher should lead the pupils to read written or printed sentences. Get to the simple sentence as quickly as possible. These senten~ should be developed by conversation, and every word previously studied. The teacher should write or print them on the blackboard in the best myle. The use of colored crayons adds beauty lind Tariety to the exercises. Let the teacher regard the following rules: 
1. The pupll is to read Bi1entlfl all the way through the sentence, and be !lure that he knows every word betore he tries to read any part of it. He can then give his entire attention to the manner of expression, and knowing all the worM 'beforehand he can more easily read in a natural tone of voice. 
t. The pupll ie always to read naturally. He 
should never bf. altow~d to sgell his way 
 
 26 
tlhrou~h the eentence, 11.01' ~ 1Jl a alnponl, humdrum, monotonoua manner. Readin~ 1a thought getting and thought giving. The mere call1ng of wordll in a sentence is not always reading. 
a. In reading a sentence from the blackboard the 
pupil himself Is to use the pointer. The poInter is to move evenJy and rapidly a.iong tht board under the whole sentence at one impulse of the hand. It is not to tap the board under each word. The pupll reads the sentence after the pointer has designated it. 
,. The pupils must .e trained to lIee the sentence as a whole. They must understand it as containing a thought, and speak it aa a whole. 
Nate.-The teacher must begin with the first lIentence to teach naturalness and to avoid monotone. Have as much care for expression, for an easy flow of the voice, and for proper emphasis, as for correctness in pronouncing the words. In order to accomplish this the eye must be made to go ahead ot the voice. We can get this by silent reading ot the sentence and call1ng it out from memory. All the work developed on the blackboard may be left there for the pupils to copy on their slates. 
Exercise. 
Let the reacher draw a pretty colored pioture on the board of some flower or animal, by using colored crayon, or a blackboard stencil. Better still, use a butterfly, a beetIe, an autumn leaf, a bunch of flowers, or any other object of interest to children. Develop by conversation six or seven WOrds new to the class, and write these neatly about the plctnre or object. Then develop a few sentences and write these below in white crayon. Make the effect artlaUe and plea.ainc. Teach the words and 
 
 27  
aenl.encefi thoroughly, and then alloW tlle pupils to draw the object and the words and lentences on 61ates or paper. This kind ot exercise will take the place of charts, and has the advantage of va.riety and ada.ptatiOD. 
Home-maM O~ 
If you must have a reading chart, make one for yourelf. Get 24 heets- of stout unglazed manilla paper, about 24 by 3G inches in ~ize. Pa te in center of each of l \\'0 or three heet sOl11e bright colored picture of a familiar object-a dog, a cat, a hor e, etc. Print a few name above it and print one or two phra es underneath. Make each sheet progre sive, every few pages have one for review, have one with entence only, one with words only. U e ink and a rubber pen for printing. U e the spare page for penman hip, colored map ,etc. Bind together at the top between two lath, leaving six inches projecting. Hang up by nails in the wall. Thi cliart will cost you, for ihe paper, 25 cents, for ink and a rubber pen to do the printing, 15 cent for the pictur ,nothing, for the laths and nails, nothing. Total cost of a ten-dollar chart, 40 cents. 
PHO~IC SYNTHESIS. 
Exercise in phlmlc '1Int1lul.l, tllat I. puttln~ of BOunds together into words, should preceo.e phonic analySi6. Ask the pupils what words these sounds make, touching the object at fint yourself, and afterwards having them touch it, viz.: m-ou-th; ch-ee-k; f-a-ce; d-e-s-k; t-ee-tll; n-e-ck; b-oo-k; h-a-n-d. Tell the pupils to r-u-n; s-t-a-n-d; I\-i-t; j-u-m-p. Point to the 8-e-ll; c-l-o-ck; b-oa-r-d; 
 ch-al-k; etc., etc. Pron unce the sounds slowly and distinctly; prac.- 
tise beforehand so u to get it right. Revene the 
 
 2S 
prOcetl8 and have the pupil. &in t'he llOundl of the word that names some object held in their view, ete. 
PHONIC ANALYSIS. 
After the pupil has learned the words, has copied them on his slate and can tell one from another, he naturally obsel.'Ves that the words them::lelves are composed of several parts. Phonic synthesis has aided him in this. The teacher then it! ready to an.aIyze the words into their vocal elements. 
L Let the teacher choose any word that the child knows, as f'ut, and write it on the board and have the pupils pronQUDce it. 
2. The teacher will tlhen pronounce the word very slowly a.n.d separate it by his voice into the three sound elements, represented by the three letters. As he pronounces each part he touches it with the pointer. 
3. The children repeat atter him the llounds lUI nearly as they can. The teacher writes on the board the letter r, and gives the proper phonic value, the children repeat it after him. Tht>n he writes the letter a and gives it the proper sound, the children repeating it after him. He does the same "-"lI.Y with the letter t. 
" The word has been separated into its parts by long pronunciation. The first part, the second part and the third part have been shown and sounded. It only remains for the teacher to tell the class the names of the three letters. Let him be careful to draw a distinction between(a) The appearance of the letter. (b) The sound or phonic value of the letter. ,(0) The name of the letter. 
 
 29 
 
ri. At the nm. :.son the tea.eher takes the word 
 
man, and by treatin< it in the same way as 
 
the word rat Wa.ll treated, introduces two new 
 
elements m and fl. The pupils now have five 
 
 
 
lOunds, represented by the letters r, t, m, n, and a. These five letters should be wribten on 
 
the board in tne best style. The pupil should 
 
copy in order to get the appearance. The 
 
teacher should drill in the names a.nd In th~ 
 
phonic TalUee. 
 
6. From the known Phonic elements new worda caJi be discovered. From the above five elements the teacher can construct such new words as ran, mat, tan, a'llt, ram, by lead g the pupils to ~ve the BOunds of the letters as he points to them and by wrttlnc them down 118 given until & word t. made. 
 
7. In this W'ay the enUre alphabet 111 ~a.dua.lly acquired by the pupils, according to the use of the letters in the words. It may happen that a.n entire year may pass without the pupil learnin BOmB of the letters. 
 
Note.-It 111 generally agreed that time 1JI wasted by teaching the alphabet 11rst. The child cannot associate the names of the letters with the pronunciation of the words they spell. There 111 Indeed no connection. On the other hand there is a vital connection between the separate sound values and the united sound value. This phonic analysts should be continued untll the child acquires the power and the habit of constructing the sound of a. word for himself. Many words are not subject to the above analySis. These must be memorized b,. the pupill both In form and spellln&. 
 
Many teacherS complain that they themselves are Ignorant of the eiementarT &114 compoa1te lOunda of tb laa- 
 
 30 
j;!'Uage. In order to oyercome this difficulty the following directions are given by :\1r. E. P. 110 es of Raleigh, T. C.: 
" First, learn to speak ;rcurately the vowel eounds of our 
language. They are seventeen, and ara a. as in mate; e as in 
mete; I as in pine; 0 as in note; Ii as in pure; 1I. as in m:Jt; II as in met; I as in pin; is as in not; i1 as in bud; t. as in far; a,w as in law; G as in her; 6 as in move; ow as in cow; 
oy as in boy j 00 as in foot. ,I 
Second, learn the consonant BOunds, of which there are twenty-four, making with the seventeen Towels sounds, forty-{)ne elementary sounds In the language. 
The blpltlvlz BOunds are found by noting lJhe names ot these six letters and dropping the final 1\ sound heard in each. 
The f, 1, m, n, 8, x sounds are found by noting the names ot these six letters and dropping preceding ~ sound In each. 
The j and k sound are found by noting the names ot these two lebters and dropping the 1I.nlll a. sound In each. 
The r sound Is found by noting the name of the letler and dropping the preceding A sound. 
The c, g, h, qu, w, y sounds are found by uttering the initial sound heard in the spoken words cow, go, ho, qUit, we, yeo 
The ch, sh, th (1I.at), th (sharp) and wh 80unds are found by uttering the Initial sounds heard in the words chin, she, the, thin, whip. The ng sound is found by uttering the last sound of the spoken word ring. 
The zh sound is found In the word azure." 
PHONIC ANA.LOGIES. 
Atter the children have learned the phonic nlu8 of most of the letters, the teacher should arrange an exercise designed fOr the construction of words by adding a letter to a certain termination. This is the arranging of words a.ccordlng to their vocal auaIogies. Take tJIlch terminations' as: at, an, am, 
ai, ad, a, . . eg, ete., and pla.cln .eh at the head 
 
 31 
 
., 
 
of a column arrange all the monosyllabic wordll 
 
that have that particular termination. Many hun- 
 
dred words can be found and the drill In phonlclI 
 
III "made very definite and valuable. The following 
 
a' are given 9.8 examplee of t1hls class of work. Each 
on-e may be caJ.led a family: "Mrs. and her chB- 
 
dren," etc. 
 
.. 
 
I at 
 
ag 
 
bat bag 
 
cat fag 
 
fat hat 
 
~aagg 
 
mat jag 
 
nat lag 
 
pat mag 
 
rat 
 
nag 
 
sat 
 
rag 
 
tat 
 
!all: 
 
vat tag 
 
chat wag 
 
that etc. 
 
etc. 
 
I et 
bet get Jet net pet set wet yet etc. 
 
I . I I I en 
 
ill 
 
ad 
 
od 
 
den fen 
hen "men pen then when 
etc. 
 
bill fill 
~iiIlll 
mill 
pill rill 
sill tlll 
will chill quill 
etc. 
 
bad cad fad ~aadd lad mad pad 
sad shad etc. 
 
God bod nod 
pod rod 
Eod ehod etc. 
 
THE USE OF THE BOOK. 
L Teach the new words. Before the pupils are call1Ml to read, the teacher should find the new words in the lesson and place them un the blackboard. and have them thoroughly learned. These new words constitute the advance of the puplls in word knowledge. Use the 1llustrationa in the text to develop in:tere3t. 
I. All the pupils read each sentence. The teacher should handle a class so that all i:et the instruction given to each. Every pupB is required to read the sentence silently. Handll ow when each haa finished. One or more 
 
 32 
ea.n be called on to read a.loud. The teuher must have a care that every pupil In the class Is reading and 1a preIm-red to read aloud If called on.. 
3. The value of expression. Care must be taken to In.sure proper expression of the sentence. Let it be read over and over until the pupils can read as they would say it. Let them read It without looking at It. A good expression in reading Is of as much value as correct pronunciation of tht1 words. 
~ Word exercises. It Is of the utmost Importance tlhat the pupils know the words at irlght, otherwise they cannot read easily and fluently. Aa the words are learned the teacher should write or print them on the blackboard. Every day, use word calling, word finding, word matching. If the child be given a small object or drawinc and told to find the word which names it. it will add Interest to the exercise. 
i. Enunciation.. The pupils should be requlrl'd to pronounce every syllable and every letter that ought to be pronounced. Omitting final letters. slurrIng syllables. running words together are faults that should be corrected. To Induce correct reading, the pupils should not be allowed to read too rapidly. Time should be taken for enunciation. pronunciation. emphalis and expression.. Most pupils read too fast. 
.. Emphasis. Pupils can be taught emphasis by judicious questioning better than by Imitation.. The teacher may write a sentence on e 
,board such as, I hat'e a red top. The pupils are required to read the sentence so as to give answers to such qUe! ions: Who has a rt'd topT What 18 the color JIf your top? What 1.1 the 
 
 red thing you have? In the reading lesson require the sentences read with a variety ot emphama according to the questions to be anIIwered. 
7. Posture. Pupils should stand erect while reading, well in front of the recitation seat or out in the ailile. They should not lean on anything, nor stand up lazily or ungracefully. Let them aslume a military posture, standing erect on both feet, head up and shouldera back. The book should be held in the left hand unless the book is too heavy, in which case both hands may be used. The book Ihould be held down below the level of the face, fourteen inches from the eye, at right angles to the line of vision. 
8. Corrections. Allow no interruptions while the child is reading. Let him finish the sentence or his para.grs.ph. The child's attention should not be distracted by other pupils shaking their fingers or raising their hands. Any criticism that is to be made should be reaerved until the pupil has taken his seat. In all cases require the pupil to pronounce correctly the words he has previously missed. 
CauUon.-The teacher must not allow the puplle to come to her desk as individuals to have the lesson pointed ollt to them as they recite. Each pupil Should keep his own place. The puptls must read loud enough tor the class to hear, Without distracting those not in the clase. The teacher must not give too long 8. lesson. A pege or half page well learned is far better than a half dozen pages ir.diiIerently learned. Remember that in all teaching it Is not how much but how well that counts. Do not allow the bright pupils to &IlBWer all the qUell-tions. It Is the dull one. tMt - . l tbe teacher's hol. 
 
 34 
The bright ones can teach themselves. The teacher must have a. care that the backward puplls be given all the attention possible. 
Do not allow other pupils to Interrupt the teacher during a recitation; time is wasted and attention 111 distracted. Use a monitor in ungraded schools to answer questions. Use hand 8i~als tor permissiona. Provide seat work to keep pupila busy who are l10t 'bu.;r at the recitation. 
Exercise. 
"What I Bt:t:", "What I thin~."-Take 8. .Up ol wrltinl paper ot ordinary aize and paste .. pioture at tJI.e top ot it and have the pupils write a li1Jt ot the object.! in this picture, or sen.tellCe1l ot what they _ in the picture. A .tory can also be made ot what the picture suggests to the chUd. . TheM ma;r afterwarde be read in claaa. 
SlUT WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES. 
1. PupU. may print or write the lenon on 1I1atea or on paper, wpyi.nc trom the book 01' from the blackboard. 
J. Pupils may be provided with small cards on each ot which 11 a letter ot the alpha.bet. With these they can build up on their desks the lessons tor the day. Sentences on the board may be copied in the same way.. 
I. Small cards with worda written or printed on them can be distributed to the pupils, out ot which they are to build sentencea ot their OWI1 making. 
ITHE I COW I EATS I GREEN I GRASS.I 
 
 35 
.. Cards on which the teacher haa drawn one or two almple objects and written or prInted three or four short sentences c~ be dIstrIbuted to the pupils. These they may study at theIr seats, 
. copy on paper, and may also use In recItatIon. 
6. In the second and tblrd year pupils may be required to write a summary of the story of the le8lon tn ll.S mll:llY sentencea .. theT can remember. 
6. Pupils Bhould be allowed to dra.w Blmple objects. from drawing cards or from the blackboard, or better etm, from the objects themselves, color them with colored crayon and wrIte orIginal stories. In this way ahouId nature and science be brought Into the schools and related to the language and to the life of the children. 
READING IN ADVANCED GRADES. 
Selecting (J ttmt-book.-After the third reader In the oourse, the pupils are prepared to begin the study of literature proper. By thIs time they should know how to read, and their instruction should recard information and cultivation. The teacher ahould select a suitable text whic1l. will be 
1. Of recognized literary standing. J. Entertaining to the class. I. Full of informa;tion and cuItUTe for tne puplr. .. Ea.ey enough for them to underatand. 
Rea4ing for Information.-In order for the pupils to derive pleasure from the recitation it ta best for the teacher to keep the text-books and distribute 
them when the class is ready to recite. Let tu 
teacher and pupils study to~e<ther. The foIIo1F!q rules are to be observed: 
 
 36 
1. The pupils Il'te.nd as they ~tAI. 2. Each pupil reads until the teacher mope him. II. Corrections must be made by class at end of In- 
dividual recitations. 4. The meaning of new words must be explained. 6. Each paragf-aph must be read by several puplls 
until it Is read satisfactorily lUI to elocutionary effect. 6. All allusions of an hl9torlcal or geographical nature must be explained. 7. Make the lesson short, but let the study be intensive. 8. Question pupils as to the meaning of what they are reading. 9. Let the pupils summarize the Fi.ory In their own language. 10. Write the very hard words on the blackboard 0 be used for spelllng exercise and for definitions. 
],Tote.-one of the main duties of teachers In higher grades is to create and cultivate a love for good reading among their pupils. For this purpose every school should. have a I1brary, large or small, of books adapted for children, and the teacher should see that books are given the pupils to read. When the children are at leisure In school they may be allowed to quietly rea the book they have taken from the I1brary. They had better be reading than be idle or noisy. The teacher may require of them a written summary of the story, or a composition about some feature of it. Their reading can thus be of profit as well as entertainment. Some child's book or periodical containing stories, descriptions, etc., could be read In the school. The teacher could read It aloud or the pupHs could read aloud to one another. The story should be reproduced orally or in writing. Resort to every meana to make the pupils fond of reading good books. Show them whait &,ood books are. Place them in the hands of the pupu. and Me that they read them. After 
 
 bavlng taught the children to read, let WI lee that th~y read to some purpose. 
Reading for Exprcssion.-The pupils havIng studied a selection and mastered the story, understood the words and theIr meanIng and had all the allusions explained to them, are prepared to study the same selection from another standpoint. That Is the standpoint of elocution or expressIon. For this purpose they cannot know it too well, nor study It too closely. The best expressIon 11 possIble only when the words are in the memory. 
1. The pupIls stand with especial care to posture. 2. The rate of reading should be adapted to the 
pIece, never so slow as to be sluggish, nor so rapId as to be Indistinct. 3. Pupils should be taught the value of rhetorIcal pauses and how to determine their use. {. The quallty of the voIce Is decided by the sentiment of tbe piece to be read. Tones must be joyous, light, grand, solemn, reverent, fearful, according to the nature of the pIece. 6. Emphasis is the stress of voIce on one or more words, with reference to meaning, and must be taught from the beginnIng. 6. The force of the voice, whether loud or soft, and the pitch, whether high or low, are indIspensable parts of good reading. 
Note.-The teacher can give instruction to the pupil In the use of the voIce and In breathing exercises. Every day the pupils should take deep breathing movements. Show them how and when to fill the lungs wIth air in order to expel it with ease and force In reading. ApproprIate cestures are not to be discouraged. If pupils wish to pmphaslze theIr reading by physical movement. encourage them to do 80. 
 
 3 
'ReMl7lD for 01lltUNl.-After the child has learned to 
read fairly well, the time baa come for him to lay aside the nudy of the mere form, and begin to study the content of the text. The signfflcance of the words, rather than their shapes and ilOunds, should enge.ge his attention. He should learn how to read and to enjoy classical literature. The lessona should be short and intensive. Thirty lines of a great poem is enough for a day's lesson. Let the mea.mng of every word be undeI"lJtood; every metaphor an'd comparison be studied; every reference be explained; every choice expression be memorized. Let it be translated into hill thought and language as though it were .. Latin selection. The text is no longer to be read, but it is to be studied, and studied intensely, with reference to the beauties of the literature It contains. A whole year can be employed in the study of the three poem&-Evangeline, Enoch Arden, and the Deserted Village. They then become .. part of the child's life, his thoughts are elevated, his character ennobled, his love for high literature cultivated. He is shown how to study literature properly, and the key is given him wherewith he can unlock the storehouse of the world'. literary treasurea. 
"Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain, Where smlIing Spring its earliest visit paid, And parting Summer's lingering blooms delay'd; Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, Seats of my youth, when every sport could please;~ How often lha.ve I lolter'd o'er thy green, While humlble happiness endeared each scene! How often have I paused on every charm, The.sheltered oot, the cultivated farm, The never-falling brook, the busy mill, The decent church that topt the neighboring hlIl; The hawthOT'Il bush, with seats beneath the shade, For talking age and whisper1n& lover. made." 
 
 39 
When and wh&t wu Auburn? What wu Its real name? What made It sweet to the poet? What part of his lile WU lpent there? Was It a plain? What Is a l!wain? 
e, What Gould heaith and plenty do for ery one? Why 
Ia Spring called. smiling? What is meant by parting summer's? What are lingering blooDUl? What are b<Jwers? Why were they of innocence and ease? What does loitered mean? What does green mean? What is meant by humble happiness? What is the significance of paused on every charm? What is a decent church? Note the spelling topL Describe a ha.wthorn bush. Why talking age? Why whispering lovers? etc. 
 
SUMMARY OF FAULTS IN ADVANCED GRADES. 
 
'hac1w:r to Avoid: L Using too hard a text 
book. Pupils find no pleasure in severe readIng. Err on the aide ot limpllcity. 
2. Ull1ng an uninteresting text book. It il a great deal easier for pupils to learn when they enjoy learning. It Is the same way with crown people. 
I. Otving too long a lesIOn. It i. better to give short lessons and have them well prepared. Not how much but how well is the keynote lA education. 
 
Teacllu to Oorrect: 1. Inattention on the part 
of the pupils. This ia done by calling on them unexpectedly, by using an Interesting lesson, loy having them watch for errors. 2. Reading too fast and without expression. Pupils are In too great a hurry to finish, and read with no effort for etfect. Take time to pronounce and enuncLa.te every word. Do not aIur nor elide. 
3. Lazy and ungraceful posture. Require the pupils to rise promptly, to ~d up well, book In one hand, head up, .houlders back. Posture II essenti&l to 1004 effect. 
 
 40 
 
I. Giving too much assistance. Make the pupils rely on their labors, and find out things for themselves. Throw the burden of education on the chHd himself. 
i. Teaching by individuals. Every pupil should get all the teacher's InBtruct1ons. should read silently or aloud all the lesson, and be ready to answer all the questions. Class work is dlflerent from individual work. 
 
4c. Monotonous and unhttetreeting readln~. Thi. generally shows thE' pupil Is not interested in the lesson, or that it ~. too hard for him. 
6. Faults in articulation, enunciation. Lack of knowledge of word meanings, historical allusions, etc. 
 
6. Interruptions while pupil Is reading. Let the teacher, the clasS and the pupil be undisturbed durln~ the Individual recJtation. Corrections made Ilit close. 
 
6. Lack of elocutionary elIort. Pupils must feel they are read1n~ to somebody and for some purpose. Let them read from the platform If necessary. by competition one with another. 
 
Borne Help! in Teachinu Readinu: 
Cyr's Reading Slips. Ginn & Co. Atlanta. 
Pictures at Simple Objects. From any source. 
Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw. E. L. Kellogg &: Co., New York. 
Word Cards and Alphabet Cards. Milton Bradley Co., Atlanta. 
Som.e BooT.:s on Teaching Reading: 
Language and Reading-(Anna Badlam.} D. C. Heath & Co. Atlanta. 
Primary Reading-How to teach It. (Boston Method.) Educational Publishing Co. Boston. 
 
 11 
Methods of Teaching Reading. (Bra.naon.J D. C. Heath & Co.. Atlanta. 
How to Teach Reading. (LeRow.) Maynard. Merrill & Co., New York. 
Calkins' "How to Teach Phonics." E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 
How to Teach Reading. (Hal!.) D. C. Heath & Co. Atlanta. 
Preparing to Read. (Spear.) New Eng. Pu'b. Co., 3 Somerset St., BostoD. 
QUESTIONS o..~ METHOD OF TEACHING READINu. 
1. Name 'the maJterlal, in order ot value, tor the teachers' use in a primary reading class. 
2. What Is the first thing to be taught? 3. How should the word be Introduced? 4. What about the conduct ot the pupils in the recitation? 5. How Is the word taught? 6. What principle underlies the word method? 7. Describe the exercise ot word making from memory. 8. How many words should be memorized betore any ac- 
count is taken ot the letters? 9. When and how should sentence reading begin? 10. What ot reading silently before vocalization? 11. What ot naturalness in reading? 12. How should the pointer be used on the blackboard? 13. How can an exercise be made ot a drawin/!;, a few 
words and sentences? 14. Describe the making ot a home-made chart. 15. Describe an exercise in phonic synthesis. 16. How should phonic analysis be introduced? 
17. How many sounds in the word rat and man, and what other words can a child discover from those sounds? 
18. Name the 17 vowel sounds. 19. How can the consonant sounds be learned! 20. Kentton the consonant diphthong&. 
 
 42 
n. What exercises can be &rra.n&ed bl phonfe ana.logies! 
Construct one. 22. Draw a phonic diagram to illustrate Tuiety in the ex- 
ercises. 23. What should first be taught in the reading lesson! 24. How can everyone be made to read the entire lc:sson! 25. What of eXDresslon? 26. How should word exercises be conducted T 27. What about enunciation? 28. How should emphasis be taught! 29. What should be the proper polrture In a reading class! 30. When should corrections be made! 31. In conducting a recitation what cautlODJI should be 
observed? 32. What can you MY of seat work in reading and lan- 
guage? Word cards? Alphabet. cards? 33. IllustnLte the relating of science and language work. 34. What are the pointe of exeellence In text-book for 
advanced grades! 35. Mention some of the rules for good reading In advanced 
grades. 36. How can a IOTe of good reading be aroused In pupils? l7. What can you say of reading for expression? 38. Mention the six rules for expression. 39. What of breathing exercises? 40. What is meant by reading for culture? 41. How long should a culture lesson be? 42. What should be studied? 43. Mention three poems that could take a year to master. 44. What are some of the faults a teacher should avoid in 
advanced grade teaching? 45. 'What are some of the pupil's faults the teacher should 
correct? 46. Mention BOrne helps in teaching reading. 47. Mention some books on Teaching Reading. 
 
 43 
INS1ITUTE PROGRAM ON READING. 
FIRST DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Material for teacher's use. 2. Introductory conversation exercI.8eL 3. Teaching the word. 4. Teaching the sentence. 5. Home-made charta. 
SECOND DAY-45 Minutes. 
1. Exerclsea in phonic synthesis. 2. How to introduce phonic analysts. 3. Exercises on the vowel and consonant sounds. How 
to learn them and how to teach them. 
THIRD DAY-45 Minutes. 
1. Phonic analogies; construct one or more columns of words a.ocording to the analogy of termination. 
2. The use of the 'book. Teaching new words, enunciation, emphasis, posture, etc. 
3. certaln caUtiOIUI for the tea.ch~r to observe. 
FOURTH DAY-45 Minutes. 
1. Seat work for primary classes. 2. How to relate nature to reading werk. 3. Reading in advanced grades. Selecting & text-book. 4.. Reading for information. 
FIFTH DAY-45 Minute&. L Reading for expression, posture, rate of reading, rhet- 
orical pauses, quality, emphasis and force of the voice. Z. Reading for culture. Illustrated by some selections. 3. Summary of faulUl in advanced grade. What should the teacher avoid and what should the teacher correct. " Some helps In teacb1ng readin~ and lome books on teach1lIC rea.d1nC. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
Sy EULER B. Sl\UTH. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLI.IlB, 
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ATHENS, GA. (Copyrighted. ) 
PART I.-GENERAL Vmw OF GRAMM.A.B. 
INTRODUCTION.-lJanguage lessons should precede, but not supersede, the study of formal grammar. Language lessons atrord instruction in the at't of correct expression; grammar is a 8ci~1I~ as well as an art. In teaching language lessons, the Instruction Is inductive and synthetic; in teaching grammar, the process Is both deductive and inductive, analytic as well as synthetic. Language lessons, then, can no more supply the place of grammar than number lessons can atrord instruction in the science of arithmetic. "Practice precedes theory, the art comes before the science;" but, as Dr. DeGarmo says, "It is a poor art that does not lead towa.rd and culminate in corresponding I!cience." It would be unwise to discard grammar because it has been poorly taught. Would it be wise to banish b'om the schools all the common-school branches that have been unsuccessfully taught? Anarchy is a poor substitute for taulty g-overnment. 
Many hal'B argued that technical gra~ should not be taught in the public school., Bat It wUl be noticed thM every such person, though his educatiou may have beeu only such u the public school alford., is always ready to apply the principles of technical grammu in the criticism and correction of errors.-Rul1l. 
Grammar does not dictate language; it only records the usage of the best writers and speakers, and states the principles that underlie their use of language. A chHd uses language long befOTe he begins the study of grammar. If he has always "heard good English, read good Engllsh, and practiced good English," he does not need to 'l'tudy 
... By lechntclll grammu is meant that part of grammar which deaa Itrictly wUh the liC1ence it.seU, Includ1nll the technicalities and Idloml." 
 
 lli 
rra,mmar in order to epea.k and write correctly. While It 111 true that there are eminent writers and speakt::rs who have never studied graIlIlmar, still 1t must be remembered tthat they have devoted a large part of their lives to a careful study of sta.ndard English. Is 1t necessary to traverse the earth in order to learn the science of geography? A favored few have the advantage of association with those who use correct. language; the vast majority are not so fortunate. As a rule, pupils cannot acquire right habits of speech from their associates; and, unfortunately, not always from their teachers. Practice. of itself. does not make perfect. Principles should underlie practice. Therefore the &cten~ of grammar should be understood, and its principles should be applied 1n the study and use of language. This paper deals mainly with methods ot teaching advanced In'ammar. 
PURPOSE OF TEACHING GRAMMAR.-The two main objects in teaching grammar should be to aid the pupil (1) in understanding language used by others. (2) in expressIng his own thoughts correctly. The 1mmedlate aim should be to enable the pupil (1) to recognize the parts ot speech, (2) to analyze sentences as to structure and syntax, (3) to construct sentences properly. Besides its practical value &II an aid in correct interpretation and expression ot thought, grammar holds a moot important place as a disciplinary study. 
SCOPE OF GRAMMAR.-In order to teach any branch luccessfully, it Is of paramount Importance that the teacher should have a. clear conception of the nature and scope ot that branch. The teacher of grammar should constantly ask hlmsel! these quesbions: What is grammar? How are its parts correlated? What does each part contribute to the whole? Knowledge Is of little value unless things are known in their relations. On page 49 is presented a bird's-eye view of grammar. showing its divisions and th&~ of which each division treats. This outllne, while Intende4 e.pecially for teachel"8, w111 be helpful to adVWlced Pll1IU.. 
 
 L ORTHbEPY-Pronunciation 01 worda. 
n. ORTHOGlUPHY-Spelllng 01 'worda. 
ill. LEXlCOLOGY-Meaninr and derlvation of word.. 
 
. ~ v. ~'V_"V.' 
 
Noun. Verb. Pronoun. .. V__  AAddjveecrtbive Prepo>lllon. 
 
ConJuucllon. 
 
InterJecUOIIt 
 
IT. ETlllOLOGY ~ 
 
jNumberO 
 
Gcnder. 
 
.GLISH GBAMMAlt. 
 
Person. 
 
o. 2. MODIJ'IOJ,.TION 
 
WOBDI.. 
 
VCaosicee. . 
 
,to -I 
 
Mode. Tense. Comparlaon. 
 
" 1. UJ,.LYm-Sepnratfon oflenltna into elementl{wPhorrude. . Claua 
 
T. 811fTAX 
 
ClIL..illcatioa. 
 
2. PU8ING-AnalJllil of denunta sa to......_ ......_._.... {ModillCa.ttoDo 
 
1 ConBtrucUeDol 
 
a. 
 
SVNTIiEllI8 { 
 
l. 2. S. 
 
ComlnJe1(on.-Syntactlcal relatlon of elemena CoUocaUon-Arrangement of elementl. Puncluatwn-Pointing elemeut. and .euten~ 
 
n. PltOSODr-Vera1flcaUon of BentenceL 
 
 48 
 
a Qn.mma.r the llCience of correct l&n~a~. L&nUa&e 
 
111 8pOkm IJl well as written. Correct language demands, 
 
then, not only the right spelling of written words, but also 
 
the proper pronunciation of spoken words. To mispronounce a spoken word is as grave an error as to misspell 
 
a written word. Language, in order to be correct, also re- 
 
quires & knowledge of the meaning of words. Orthoepy, 
 
orthography, a.nd lexicology are studied incidentally in 
 
gra.mmar; because, long before formal grammar is begun, 
 
they have receiTed particular abtenJtion in spelling-books 
 
and readera. 
 
Ag>a:1n, language is expressed in verse as well IJl prose; 
 
hence prosody elaims a place IJl one of the divisions of 
 
grammar. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, partly to 
 
rhetorie.. The mere form of verse (verse-making) belongs 
 
to grammar; the diction of poetry belongs to rhetoric. 
 
Clearing this branch of its' externals, so to speak, we have 
 
left the two main divisions of grammar-etymology and 
 
 syntax. In fact, grammar deals almost exclusively with 
 
the etymology of words and the syntax of sentenNJ8. To 
 
make it plainer still, grammar treats of the classification 
 
and mod1flcastion of words, and the structure of sentences. 
 
Syntax treats of the structure of sentences. It includes 
 
analyais, parsing, and synthesis. Analysis shows the 
 
structure of the sentence by separating it into its elements. 
 
Parsing continues the analytic process: it is the analysis 
 
of the elements of sentences. Parsing deals with words, 
 
not 88 individual words, but as parts of Ilen'tences; ,. e., 
 
in their sentential relation. Synthesis combines elements to form sentences; it: views aentence-B'tructure from the 
 
con8truet1ve standpoint. 
 
Referring to the outline, it will be seen that etymology 
 
deals with the word as the unit; syntax, with the '8entence 
 
as the unit. Whether the sentence or the word should be tlie starting point, is & question still much discussed. We 
 
talk and write in sentences. Rules and principles are 
 
proved by reference to the sentence. Elements are pe.rsed 
 
according to their sentential use. In expressing thought, 
 
un" lford8 are but tractional; the sentence alone is integraL 
 
The ~ urommatkal 
 
fa the sentence. 
 
, The ItartlD~ point 01 the Instruction should be the simple sentence. Pr0cedure from the whoM to tt.I parts tat", precedence c1 tha~ from the partII .. ta. ..... IT ... 
 
 4V 
METHODS OF TEACffiNG GRAMMAR.-There are two general methods ot teaching grammar, which I shall call the Sentence Method and the Word Method. In the Sentence Method, the scntence Is regarded as the unit; and It I. separated into Its elements, which, In their last analysis, are worda. After a study ot analysis, the c1assifiratlon and modification and construction ot words are considered. The tendency of this method is to devote too much time to analysis and diagramming, In the Word Method, which is the one In general use, the Icard Is considered the 1mlt; and the sentence is studied synthetically through Its parta. In this method, parsing usually receives undue attention; anti analysis, it studied at all, is taken up as being last and least. 
Of the two methods, the Sentence Method Is much to be preferred, since It begins with the true grammatical unit -the sentence. In the Sentence Method, the procedure Is analytic and Inductive; principles and rules are learned through a. study of language; there is no foolish attempt to learn language through a study ot definitions. Laurie says, "Grammar has to be studied In and through sentence8, and to be extracted from sentences by the pupil it it Is to be real/v taught." 
In successful teaching, the above-mentioned methods should both be employed, thus tormlng what may be called the Combined Method. By this method, the sentence is first separated into its elements; or, In other words, speech is reduced to parts of speech. Then each part of speech is classified and defined as soon as its nature and use are clearly understood in the analysis ot the sentence. The classification of words should be taken up in connection with analysis, because some elements of the sentence are named from the parts ot speech. For instance, an adjectit'e clause Implles a knowledge of the adjective. On the other hand, analysis aids the pupil in better understanding the parts of speech; a canjunctire adverb is more clearly understood after analysis has shown Its use in connecting a dependent clause. In the Combined Method, as the pupil proceeds with the study ot analysis, he Is taught tbe first trtep In parsing; namely, to recognize the parla ot 
 
 50 
speech. After the different kinds of Ilentencell haTe been analyzed, the pupil takes up the modification and construction of the parts of speech; and he is then prepared to pane elements in full. 
PART n.-SENTENCES. 
It is not my purpose to give a detailed method of teaching the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be too lon~; but it is hoped that the general plan suggested and the few illustrations given, may be of service. As has been already ~u~ested, the proper method of teaching grammar is to begin with- 
L THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
Begin with short dlllClarative Ilentences. Using sentencell like DOGS BABK, for fJoJ[ample, teach pupils the two es ential elements of the senteuee-the subj~ct and the predicate. When subject and predicate are well understood, introduce the two principal parts of speech-the noun and the verb. Now, in the sentence Dogs bark, substitute they for dogs j and pupils get an idea of the third part of speech-the pronoun. Sentences like DEAD leavu fail QUIETLY, introduce modifiers of the subject and the predicate; and pupils begin to recognize the fourth and fifth classes of words-adjecUvu and adtoerbs. The lentence VERY LABOB trees grow VERY SLOWLY, introduces a new jorm of word elements-the complex form. A. complex word element consists of two or more worda joined together without the aid of a conjunction. In the last example given, pupils also see the remaining uses of the adverb; namely, to modify adjectives and adverbs. 
The book Ziti ON THE TABLE illustrates a new element, the phrase j and pupils are shown the use of the sixth part of speech-the prepositi<m. Before requiring a definition of a phrase, Ilee that phrases are clearly understood. A phrase* 
"The word phrue It often 11100 in a wider sense. Under phraae8, some rra-marlAns Include p&rtlelple pm--, Terb Jlhraae8, and Tmons oth~r erprel8lons. Tae WDLli uaed 1-. cramzur Ihollld 1te &8 oler.r and pae1le _ 
ME~ 
 
 51 
til an element oons1.8ting ot a preposition and It. object. :&: preposition can never be used alone as a word element: it 18 an inseparable part of a phrase. The sentence He livea IN A HOUSE NEAR THE CHURCH, contains a comple3: phrase. A complex phrase consIsts ot two or more phrases joined together without a conjunction. Boys and GIRLS .tudy AT HOME and AT SCHOOL illustrates comP/lUnd word and phrase elements and gives an idea ot the 8eventh class ot words-the conjunction. A compound element consists of. two or more elements connected by coordinate conjunctions. AH I I am 10 glad t contains an (ntcrjection--the eighth and last part ot spe6('h. The tollowing tl"entence contains all the parts ot speech: 
AM but flOU 8pook lightlll ot sacred thing8. 
The three kinds ot complements should 'be caretully discriminated. Teach pupils that a complement completes the predicate, not the verb. A 8ubjectiv~ complement relates to thll subject by denoting a class. or a qUality asserted ot it; as, Man is an an(lllal; God is good. Puplla trequently have trouble in d1.8tingulshlng object complements trom objective complements. The tormer 1.8 always a substantlvet; It denotes that which receives the act. The latter relates to the object complement; it may be a noun or an adjective. As a noun, thll objective complemeIllt denotes the class to which the object ot the act 1.8 made to belong; as an adjective, it denotes a resultant quality that the object is made to possess. The tollQw1ng seilitences illustrate the two lastnamed complements: They elected him PRESID~T; The snow made the ground WHITE. In parsing, the object complement is called the direct object; the oibjective compl&ment, the tactitive object. 
Other offices ot nouns, pronouns, and e.djectives should be taken uP. the teacher moving by sale gradations trom the simpler to the more difficult. Common nouns and proper nouns shQuld 'b1l discriminated. and the pupil taught to 
capitalize the latter in his written work. The subclasses 
-Subjective means relating to tile ."Qjtc1. This term ls more precise than attribute complement. The objective complement denotes an attribute of the object, just as the socalled attribute complement does of the subject; hence each of these complements has a rfgM to be called an attribute oom plement. 
t"-ltIbetalVlw fa. noun, a pronouu, or any elem_t ued u  no... 
 
 52 
_.of the ot!ler parts of speech should be lrtudied 18Iter. A!t~ 
the pupil ia familiar with declarative sentences, he should &n&l,ze interro&ative, imperative, and exclamatory senten- 
The pupil should be taught to classify and generalize incHT1duaJ ta.cts. Then, the process being reversed, he should be required to Ulustrate; that is, gi e examples (partlculara) of the generalizations he has made. Knowledge Ol ucl1 new principle and definition should be constantly applied in the construction of sentences. Synthesis should closely follow analysis: the pupil should learn to build u well 88 tear down. Too little attention is usually ltiven to ..ntenee-building. In conneCtion with each element, ita punctuation should be taught in order to aid the pupil in writing his ~erciseil correctly. 
In stUdying the simple sentence, the pupil has become famUlar with two kinds of elements; he has learned the three forms of each; and he has also obtained a knowledge of the eight parts of speech, classified according to their use in the sentence. He is now prepared to understand that a dmple sentence is on'6 that C?I1tainll only word and phrase elements; and he knows that these elements may be simple, complex. or compound in form. Beyond naming the parts of speech, no parsing should yet be attempted. 
n THE COMPLEX SENTENUE. 
If the Iltmple aentence is understood, the transition to the complex sentence is not difficult. The third and last element of sentences, the clause, must now be introduced. By examining the sentence Pnpils wno atudy will learn, the pupil can see that it has two parts, and that each part contains a subject and a. predicate. Develop the definition of a clause: A clause is a part of a sentence containing a eubjeet and a predicate. The clause (olto atlldll modifies pupila; therefore it has the use of an adjective. It is seen that a relative pronoun is one used to connect an adjective clause. When the underlying facts are understood, a definition becomes intelligible. Rules and principles are properly learned 'b1 derivin& them from the facts to which they refer. 
Now, Mleot .. & model & ..nteD.oe like thiI: We at&rte4 
 
 WHElf the IUn rIMe. Show that the clause when the mn f'OIt 
 
modifies Btarted, and therefore has the Wle of an adverb. Let 
 
the pupil see that wll1m modifies rose, and also connects an 
 
adverb clause. He is thus prepared to get an idea of the 
 
conjunctive adverb. A subordinate conjunction may also 
 
connect an ad verb clause j as You can learn IF yau study. 
 
- A noun clause is contained in the sentence Geography 
 
teachetl THAT the earth is raund. Call attention to the fact that & noun clause, strictly .peaking, has no connective. 
 
It is generally introduced by the subordinate conjunction 
 
tllat; but the conjunction is frequently omitted, and it need 
 
not be supplied in parsing. Require pupils to write exer- 
 
cises illustrating the punctuation of complex sentences, 
 
and see that they understand the dit.ference between re- 
 
.trict.1ve and unrestrictive clauses. 
 
Do not accept either of the following definitions: A de- 
 
pendent clause is one that does not malce sense when stand- 
 
Ing alone; A dependent clause is one that depends on some 
 
other clause for its m.e.anillg. The m~1} nhiection to these 
statements is, that they are not erue, ~ ..... w far as 
 
noun clauses are concerned. In the sentence Bacon Sa1/8, 
 
" KNOWLEDGE IS POWER," the dependent noun clause makes very good sense; moreover, it does not depend on any- 
 
thinlt else for its meaninlt. 
 
To determine whether a complex sentence Is declarative, 
 
In,terrogative, imperative, or exclamatory, always examine 
 
the independent clause. Although the independent clause 
 
of & complex sentence always decides the kind of sentence, 
 
a final noun clause generally dictates the terminal mark 
 
of' punctuatdon. A period is not placed at the end of enry 
 
declarative sentence. Examine these sentences: Tha 
 
teacher uked, "Who will go'" Shakespeare says, "What a 
 
piece of work is manl" Each of the sentences is declarative; 
 
the lI.rst ends with an interrogative cla'usej the second, with 
 
IJl exclamatory clause. 
 
Let us sum up the facts that have been learned in study- 
 
ing the complex sentence. A dependent clause is one that 
 
hu the _ of an adjectdTtl, an adverb, or a noun. An in- 
 
..,.... 
 
I.a ou, th:&t doea not perform the omc. of 
 
 a II1ngle part of speech. A complllal sentence Is one that eon talns one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Three parts of speech are used to connect dependent clauses; namely, relative pronoun'S, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. Each of these three connectives is always a part of the dependent clause In which it is used. The independent clause of a complex sentence is necessarily simple In form; a dependent clause may be simple, complex, or compound. A simple clause is a single clause; a complex clause consists of two or more clauses joined by subordinate connectives; a compound clause consists of two or more clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions. The following sentences will illustrate the forms of dependent clauses:- 
I believe he U h07U8t (simple noun clauee). This is the cat that caught the rat that ate the maU (complex adjective clause). The clock struck 'When we .tarted and when 'We retuT7Ua (compound adverb clause). 
III. THE- COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
The compound sentence contains no new elements: it presents new combinations of elements already studied. A. compound sentence is one composed of two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions. These independent clauses, in form, may be simple or complex or compound. The following sentences ill ustrate the several. forms: 
Both clamea simple-Man propost:s, but God disposes. Both claUU8 complex-He who receives a favor should never forget it, and he who does a favor shoull! never remember it. First clause eompound-Wrath is cruel, and anger is out rageous; but who is able to sttlIld before envy? The expres ions" compound-complex" sentence and" com plex-compound" sentence are misnomers. These terms are very confusing to pupils, and the use of them should be discouraged. A. complex sentence is always complex; a compound sentence is always compound; they need no other term to define them. A.s I have already stated, tbe clamea of these sentences may be complex or compound. To illustrate, th(l lecond sentence in the prect'ding paragraph is a compound 
 
 55 
 
e9tenee coulst.1na' of two complex independat elatlllH;' 
 
the third sentence contain. one compound independent 
 
clause and one simple independent elause. 
 
In classifying compound sentences sa to meaning. remem- 
 
ber tlhe.t independent clauses are of equal rank. and that 
 
each elause has its influence in determining the kind of 
 
sentence. The following sentences illustrate the princi- 
 
ple:- 
 
Impera"14eclarati~Trustmen. and they will be true 
 
to you. 
 
Declanltive-interrO/lati~Kn01fleige 1a power. and who 
 
will den,. it? 
 
It 18 seen that a compound sentence consists of two or 
 
more simple. complex, or compound independent clauses. 
 
The three kinds of trentencea ma,. be easily discriminated. 
 
11 a eentence contains oni,. worda and phrases, it is simple; 
 
i1 it contains only one independent claUlle, it is complex; 
 
i1 it contains two or more independent clauses, it is com- 
 
pound. A compound sentence mati con,tain a dependent 
 
clause; a complex sentence mtl~t contain at least one de- 
 
pendent clause. The essential parts of compound sentences 
 
are connected b,. coordina.te conjunctions; the essential 
 
parts of complex sentences are joined b,. robordlnate con- 
 
'lectlvea. 
 
After a study of simple, complex, 'lUld COIIIlpound senten- 
 
\ 
 
cell. the pupil should be well prepared to classUy sentences .. to ~orm and meaning: he should understand the three 
 
kinds of elements, words, phrases, and clauses;. and he should 
 
recognize readily the three forms of elements: simple, com 
 
plex. and compound. He should be able to construct the 
 
ditrerent kinds of sentences and punctuate them properly. 
 
Punctuation is a much-neglected part of synthesis, and in- 
 
telligent punctuation is largely dependent upon a knowl- 
 
edge of grammatical analysis. 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
Teachers should appreciate the importance of analysis. 
 
It this exerclse is profitable and necessary in teaching 
 
Mal" IlritlmleUe. it  still more helpful and esBential tn teaehinr 
 
~ na.. c:r1tical 
 
of Mllten.cea PTflII a knowl- 
 
 56 
 
e4p of eeatenoe-structure tha.t can neTer be obtained by  atudy of mere worda. The psychological value or gramm.t1eal analysis in training the VUPil's judgment, and deTeloping in him the habit of a.ecurate thought, cannot be oTeresttmated. 
Analysia should precede parsing. Analysis lIrst resolves the sentence into its elements, or parts of speech; then parsing, going into detail, describes each element as to its class1Jlca.t1on, modification, and construction. This is the natural order of procedure. Wickersham says: "The botanist analyzes a plant, and then names and describes Its several parts. Grammar can be studied successfully in no other way. Parsing without a. preceding analysi! can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." In connection with analysis, diarams should be used but not abused. Diagrams are as useful in analyzing aentences as geometrical figures are In demonstrating propositions. A strong argument in favor of diagrams is the f,act that they ahow, at the same time, both the analysis a.nJd the synthesis of the sentence. 
 
GITe me a man who C&D, with lull Intelllcence, t&ke to pIeces an EbgJlBh lenIence, briel and not too complicat.ed, even, and I wIll welcome him &8 better prepared lor further study In other languages than U he bad read both Calaar and Virgil, and conld P&l'IIe them In the routine style In whIch the, are often paraed.-WarrNJ:T. 
 
PARSING. Parsing fa tlle complement of analysis. Each hal!! Its use; teach both; do not make a hobby of either Grammar should not be studied tor the sole purpose either of learning to parse or of knowing how to analyze and diagram. Too much time is usually devoted to parsing. It is not always neceBS'Rry to requlre pupils to parse every word In 
a sentence. When they are familiar with a principle, 
leave that, and direct their attention to something not so well understood. Teachers should clearly understand the object of parsing. 
 
I'arPlng &fda pnplls In becomfng fAmllla.r with the deflnltloDll and roles 
 
of crammar, b, frequent repetition; and It teaches them to express their 
 
tnO"ledce iJl a systematic manner. It requires pupils to examine langnage 
 
and ueertain th.. nature and relatIon 01 wordlln sentences; and thia Dot 
 
~11iTea power fn the &I&1J&fa of I&neuace, but cuJtlntel the Uhh of 
 
uouM _Sract u...p.L-Baoou. 
It _ to me tbn 
 
M .. o'~OIl t. .. __ 
 
 5i 
 
eional exerCUle in II faIlle synta.x." If a pupil every day lees and hears errOMl oltt8ilt~ of &chool, is it unwise in school to correct errors and teach him to avoid them? Grammar proper is not intended for small children; 8. pupil old enough to study grammar is old enough to appreciate "what not to do," A grammatical "keep-off-the-grass" will not lead many astray. Signboards are useful as well as guideboards. Right is otten impressed by contrast with wrong. Should the Ten Commandments be taught to a. child? They are all negative except on'8. 
Below are given models for ora.l analysis and written parsing. One advantage of such models is, that they Iecure system and uniformity in the pupil's work. When the teacher has no plan, it otten happens that no two pupils of a class parse or analyze a sentence in the same manner. The model for written parsing, while intended for nouns, may be modified so as to serve for the other parts of sDeeCh. 
MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS. 1. Describe the sentence liiS to (1) form, (2) meaning. 2. If complex or compound, name the clauses and a.na.lyze 
each in order. 3. Give grammatical subject. . Name modifiers of subject and describe them &II to (1) 
form, (2) kind. 6. Give modified subject. 6. Give grammatical predicate. 7. If incomplete, give ita complement and na.me the com 
plete predicate. S. Name modifiers of predicate and deecribe them u to 
(1) form, (2) kind. 9. Give modified predicate. 
10. Name and describe connectives and independentelement.ll. 
MODEL FOR WRITTE~ PARSING. 
 
CLASSIFWATION. 
 
MODIFICATION. 
 
llYNTAX. 
 
- - - - - C1Jw. Subclass. Kind. Number. Gender. Penon. Cue. Conltructlon. Rule. 
 
- 
 
 L DEFINITION-A IMlntellce Ja the verbal* e%preu!oD of a thouCJn. 
 
I. Simple. 
 
1. 
 
Aa 
 
'l'O 
 
FORX..... 
 
. 
 
{ 
 
2. S. 
 
CompleL COmpound. 
 
n. CLASSES 
 
1. Declarative. 
 
\ 2. Aa To MIIANING {2s.' IInmtpererroagtiavtiev.e. 
4. Exclamatory. 
 
1. KIND: Word, phrase, clause. 
 
2. FORM: Simple, complex, compound. 
 
r 
THE SENTENCE m. "ELEMENTS) 
 
\1. H: Principal ..... ~~~JIg..tie. 
 
.:.n 
 
8nbjeCtive complement 
 
(,J.. 
 
S. RANK 
 
r1. Complementary {'OObbJjeeccttivceomcpolmempleenmt.ent. 
 
2. Modifying {tg~~~~l:i~ 
 
! 2. Subordinate 
 
NounaJ. 
 
COnjunction. 
 
S. 
 
COnnective.  _ . { 
 
Rehltlve pronoun. Conjunctlve adveB. 
 
4. Iudependent. 
 
to ANALYSIS: Oral, wrltten, diagrammed. 
 
- - - - - - IV. 
 
PROCESSES 
 
{ 
 
2. 
S. 
 
PARSING: Oral, 
SYNTHESIS. 
 
written. 
 
 Verbal means in wordI, spoken or written. 
 
 ;3D 
PART m.-WORDI!. 
I. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
In studying analysis, the pupil h3.9 learned that warda are classified according to their flU in sentences. The sa.lU~ word may be one part of speech in one sentence, another part of speech in another sentence. In the following llentences, the word well haa th9 use of five different parts of speech:- 
The wen is deep. (Noun.) 
Springs well from the earth. (Verb.) Is your father well' (Adjective.) She sings well. (Adverb.) Well, what 6hall we do? (Independenf adt'erb.) Welll I am surprised to hear it. (Interjection.) In addition to its general use, a part of speech has special syntactical uses called its constructions. For instance, a noun is always a name; but it may have various construe:t!lons; as, subject, dbject of verb, etc. 'Bplow are given the eight parts of speech, classified according to their sentential use. The terms used in conn>ecUon with these cllUlsea ot words are intended u concise descriptions rather thAn formal definltlons:NOUN-Name-woro. VERB-Assertine:-word. PRONOUN-Noun-substitute. ADJECTIVE-Noun- or pronoun-modifier. ADVERB-Verb- or adjective- or adverb-modU1er. PRlllPOSITION-Phrase-introducer. 
CO~JUNCTION-Elementconnector. 
INTERJECTION-Feeling-word. While the pupil is studying the analysts of sentences, he learns incidentally some of the subclasses of the parts of speech. Arter simple, complex, and compound sentences have been studied, the pupil should take up and study tn detail the subdivisions of the parts of speech. The pr&position and the interjection are the only clall'Sel of word. that are not subdivided. Below are given the lubclaaael, kbI.da, aud lublrln11a of the part of speech. 
 
 60 
TB:Bl NOUN. 
L OolOlOl'. 1. Concrete; ea. tree. 
Z. Abstract. 
II. Attributive; as, /1ootfnu,. fl. Verbal; as, runnin/1, to ,lup. 3. Collective; as. clau. 
II. PROPER. 1. Strictly proper; as, Atlanta, Rockll Mountafn~. 2. Used u common noun; as, & Daniel, & Oicero.- 
THE VERB. 
I. FoRK. 1. Regular; u  .calk. 3. Irregular; as, Bee. 3. Redundant; 1Ul, han/1.  Defective; u, bewan. 
II. U811. 
1. TransitIve; u, Farmer8 raise corn. Corn u rcd,ed. 
2. IntransItive. G. Complete; as, Dogs bark. t. Oopulativet; as, Snow i8 white. Marble feell cold. 
In. RANK:. 1. PrincIpal; as. He has returned. S. AuxiliaI'1; as, He haa returned. 
THE PRONOUN. 
I. PER80NAL PRONOUN. L SImple; as. M. Z. Compound; as. kimBelf. 
 A proper noun hu no meaning: It fa merely a dfltlngulshlngmal'k or ~nnd. A noun usually proper becomes a common nonn when, 1IlJItead of indicating a particular IndiTidnal, it denotell the elaaI to which lhat IndlYidual belonp. In thfaeIlJe, a 0Iur0 II an orotor, not a Roman by that ome. When proper nounl become common, the eaplW letter fa retained. 
fA copulaHre Terb fa one that has a BUbJectln complement. Transiti.... Yerblin the p....l.... Tole. are IOmetlm.. copulatln; ... He VOl electe4 1IUlaxu. 
 
 Gl 
n. RELATIn PltONOUlf. 
1. Simple; lUI. who. 2. Compound; as. whOtNer. 
a. The double relative. 
a. Simple. what. t. Compound; u;hatever, what8oeoer. 
III. lNTlI:RROGATIVlI: PltONOUlf; lLll, who T IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUN.* 
1. Demonstrative; as, ThaI Is mine. 2. Indefinite; as. Some are scholars. I. Distributive; as. He' gave each an apple. . Reciprooa.l; as, The ohildren love each otMir. 
THE ADJECTIVB. 
L DESCRIPTIVlI:. 
1. Common; as, ,wid. 2. Proper; as. CU1l471. 
3. Participial; as, charmin,. 
II. DEFINITIVlI:. 1. Articles. a. Definite. the. b. Indefinite, an (a). 2. Pronomlna1. a. Demonstraltive; as. That book 111 mIne. b. Indefinite; as. Some men are schola.rs. c. Distributive; as, He glLve each boyan apple. d. Reciprocal; as. Each child loves the otW. S. Numeral. a. Cardinal; as, three, ten. b. Ordinal; as, third, tellth. c. Multiplicative; as, triple. tenfold. 4. Relative; as, Which things contain an allegory. (Gal 
IV. 24.) 
5. Interrogative; as, Which book will you takel 
 AdJectiTo pronouns aometlmes la,. aside their a.batantln naturtll an" become modifiers. When used to modlf,. ItOUDII, ~ are callecl pro_om- 
Inal (. to, proneu) ~. . 
 
 Q2 
THE ADVERB, 
I. SrMPI&. 
1. Time; as, now. 
2. Place; as. here. 3. Manner; as, quietlll . Degree; as, 1Jer1l. 5. Cause; as, whll, therefore. II. :MODAL-; 88, You surely are mistaken. III. RESPONSIVE i as, Ko. (Always independent.) IV. ExPLETIVE; as, There is a God. Well, let us 11\0 home. 
(Always independent) V. NUMERAL; as, once. VI. INTERROGATIVE; as, When did you come 1 VII. CONJtTNCTIVE; as, I came when the bell rang. VIII. CORRELATIVE; a , James is a& old ~ John. 
THE CONJUNCTION. 
I. CoORDINATE. 1. Copulative; as, and. 2. Alternative; as. or. S. Adversative; as, but. . TIlative; as, therefore, conaequentlv. 5. Correlative; as, both     and. 
II. SUBORDINATE. 1. Real cause; as, becau.fe. 2. Reason; as, for. 3. Conditlon; as. if. . Purpose; as, that. 5. Concession; as, altTwugli. t. Correlative; as, though     lIet. 
II. MODIFICATION OF WORDS. English ls, comparatively speaking, a non-inflected language. In a highly inflected language like Latin, every word "has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it;" but English words are seldom labeled, and their classiflcation must be determined by their sentential use. The modifications (or so-called inflections) of English words are changes in meaning and use rather than changes 
 A modal adverb II one that denotell the manll6 In whIch the thonght II tep.rded by the Ipeaker,-whether a/llrmati"", ~!Jnlive, or doubtful: U, VcrilliI I&y unto yOll. Thon Ihalt not iill. PerM", he wul come. 
 
 in torm. In English, the construction of worda depend. 
more upon relation than upon 1n1lect1on. It Is a narrow Tiew ot any grammar, especially ot English grammar, to suppose that it should treat ot intfection alone. In studying English, the pupil has little to do with telltale torms; he has much to do with the use and relation and arrangement ot words. Pupils should study and master the few Inll.ected form'S that do exist. Following are the names of the dTe Inflected parts ot speech, with their modidcatioDJI:- 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNs.-Number, gender, person, case. VXRBB.-Voice, mode, tense, number, person. AD.JlI:CTIVll:S .AND AnvERBS.-Comparison. Number.-The rules for forming the plural of nouns should be well understood, and applied in practice. The plu- 
rals of words like the following are often improperly written: Illy, money. hero, tobacco, spoonful, court-martial, IOn-in-Iaw, palr, fish. The pupil should understand the number and ~ender of collective nouns in order thAt the verbs a.nd pronoun. may be used properly. 
Gender.-8ince the gender of nouns denot.es the 8ex of the object, the term "common gender" is a misnomer. A. oomman ,eID la UDlthlnkable and absurd. With equal propriety we could say that dur and the pronoun flOU are common number. In the sentence Mil pupiZ8 are b01/s and oirZ8, pup'Z8 
,ee 11 masculine ana feminine. In .the sentence He called 10 a 
fr~nd, the gender of frie1lCl Is unknown. 
Peraon.-It should be impressed on the minds of pupils that person in lP'ammar does not necessarily refer to human beings. In the sentence Fido, come here, Fido Is second person, although it 1& the name of a dog. Person (trom Latin persona, a mask) denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. The same noun, John, In different sentences, may personate these three different relations. Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes -of worda that have person-forms. 
Case.-Nouns have only two case-forms-one for the possessive, and one common to the nominative and objective. All far as form III concerned, errors In the use of nouns are limited to the possessive case; therefore the formation ot the pOSse&lliTe alneular and the possessive plural 
 
 64 
 
should be thoroughly understood. It ts Important tor pupils 
 
to know the nominative and objective constructions in order 
 
that they may use the proper case-form of pronouns. In the 
 
sentence I thought it was John, it is of little value, per se, to 
 
know the construction of John. But, when a. pronoun is 
 
substituted, it makes a difference whether one SIlYS 1 
 
hought it was HE, or says I thought it was HIM. 
 
There are only fLve words in the English lan~age that 
 
have three case-forms each: I, thou, he, she, and who. In the 
 
declensions of these five words w1ll be found the only norni- 
 
native and objective case-forms in our language. See that 
 
your pupils are thoroughly drilled in the rorms and con- 
 
structions or these tew words, which give English-speak- 
 
ing people so much trouble. Most of the rules or construc- 
 
tion apply practically to these fourteen words:- 
 
EIGHT NOMmATIVll: FORMs.-I, we, thou, ye, be, she, they, 
 
who. 
 
SIX OBJECTIVlI: FORMs.-Me, UIl, thee, him, them, whom. 
 
Before leaving this topic I must say, See that your pupils 
 
are thoroughly fam1l1ar with the tollowing prlnciples or 
 
crammatical construction:1. The subject of a flnitee verb is in the nominative case. 
 
2. Every verb consists of two parts-the flnite verb and 
 
the inflnite verb. 
 
3. The finite verb conststs or all the torms or & verb ex- 
 
and cept its participles and infinltives. (. The infinite verb consists or tJhe participles 
 
Infini- 
 
tivea ot a verb. 
 
6. A predicate noun 1!1 in the same ease as the word to 
 
W'h1ch it relates. 
 
6. A predicate noun Is always ei1Jher a subjective comple- 
 
ment or an objective complement. 
 
7. The subjective oomplemeDit ot & finite verb is In the 
 
nominative case. 
 
 AftniU nrb [Lat.j1nUua, Ilmlt.ed] derivell Ita name from the fact that It 
1II1imiWf. or rp.stricted to & subJect; that b, It cannot be used in a "eulence 
unl_ it hu .. subject expressed or Implied. A participle or an Inllnltiv& 
....w have .. lIO-oaI1ed subject, but ...& cannet Fay that It mil.!! bave one. 
!'he....... frequently used In & sentence to exprcas action or belnc In .. ~l1' 
wJ "&7, no Illbleo\ beinc e~pl'8lllled or Implied.. 
 
 65 
8. The object1ve complement fl alW&Y11 fn the obJect,,,, case, because it relates to the object complement (direa& object). 
9. The subject of an i11finitive Is In the objective cue. 10. The subjeotive complement of an infinitive. when th. Infinitive has a subject, is In the objective case. 11. Sometimes the 1nftnitive has no subject, but has a subjective comvlement. 12. The subjective complement of an Infinitive (or a participle) used wit1wut a subject, Is In the nominatillt: case, used abstractly; that Is, without any word to which It gram. matically relates. 
Voice.-Voice is that modification of a verb that tlDice. or tells something concerning its subject. The active voice shows that the subject denotes that which performs an act receit'ed bV an object. The passive voice shows that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receives an act. A transitive verb is not a verb that tnal/ have, but a verb that does have, an object.* This object in the active voice is the dlrect object of the verb; In the passive voice It is the passive subject. An intransitive verb Is one that does not have an object. A verb may be transitive In one sentence, and intransitive in another; hence a verb should be parsed according to its use in the particular sentence under consideration. An intransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind blows. It may be complemenWd; as, The wind blowa cold. Be careful to teach puplll that a verb may assert action, and yet not be used in tho actitlt: voice. In the sentence Horses run, the verb run aslerts action; but the verb is intransitive, and consequenUy has no voice. 
Mode and Tense.-English verbs have very few inflected for mi. A regular verb has only seven inflections, all told. The verb to be, the most irregular of all verbs, has only eleven Inflected forms--am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert. be, being, been. Most of the verb-modifications are formed by an external change; that is, by auxiliaries. A knowledge of the verb demands a careful study of auxiliary 
.-rhe objed denotel tha~ whloh receives the &C~ expreased b1 the verb. 
 
 G6 
verbs. Puplls should be drllled in the proper use at the past tense and past participle at irregular verbs. Errors like the following are heard too frequently: Who done that? The bubble bursted-. The man was hung. I have gottent my lesson. He lit~ the lamp. Is it possible that any teacher uses these expressions: "I seen him." "He taken the school"? 
As a rule, the imperative mode is used only In the second person. Teach pupils that the forms Let 1ne go, Let him 8t01l, are not imperatives at the first and the third person. In the expression Let 11Ie go, let is imperative mode, second person, agreeing with J/OU implied; me is indirect object ot let; the infinitive (to) go is direct object. It is tlie going that is permitted or allowed; 1M denotes the person to whom permission is granted. 
Instead ot the regular construction with let, an idiomatic imperative ot the (if'St or the third person is sometimes used, especially in poetry; as,- 
Now tr~ we a measure, said young Locbinvar.-SCott. FaU he that mu t beueath bls rival's arms.-Pope. 
In t'he example just given, tread is first person and agrees with we; faU 15 third person and agrees with he. 
The subjunctive mode expresses doubt or 8uPP08ition. This mode has tour tenses: the present and present perfect, denoting doubt; the past and past perfect, denoting lupposition. The present pertect is rarely used. The present tense expresses a doubt to be settled in future time; all, Il he 8tudll, he will learn. The present pertect expressel a doubt concerning past action or being,-a doubt sUll exIsting at the present; as, It he hate studied, he has learned. The past tense expresses a supposition contrary to tact at the present time; as, I wish I were at home. The past perfect expresses a. supposition contrary to tact in past time; 0, It he had knoum it, he would have gone. As tar al form is concerned, the subjunctive dil'rers from the indicative in having no infiection for the third person singular, and usually none tor the second peI"fIOI1 ~ar. 
- Bursud is not found In dictionaries. tWebster says gotten is obsole&ceut dAQhted 1.8 preferable to lit. 
 
 67 
In the 8u'bjunetln mode the f141M of the tenBe doee not Indicate the actual time. In meaning each tense ill anticipative: the present tense refers to future time j the present perfect and the past, to present time: and the past perfect to time simply past. 
The indicative mode, witb if, unleM, etc., ill also used to ex- 
preM a condition or doubt: but, in the indicative, the condition is assumed as a fact, not as a future contingency i as, If two lines are parallel, they will never intersect. When the indicative expresses doubt, the doubt is not in the fact iUelf, but in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. Examine the following sentences:- 
Subjunetlve-Il MIM Donmt _ . ~Te ber tbla book. 
.Indicative-Il she. u In the room. I bave not Been ber. 
In the first sentence, MiBB Durant's coming is doubtful: it is a future contingeney. In the second sentence, it is a fact flQW that the person referred to either i,or is not in the room i therefore it is not a future contingency, and the doubt exists only in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. 
In the potential mode the auxiliaries are always notional j in the other modes the auxiliaries, having lost their original meaning, are used as mere tense-signs. Compare these sentences: I have a book, I have lost my book. In the first example, hat'e means POIStM; therefore it is notional. In the second example, have does not denote possession: it is an auxiliary, a sign of the present perfect tense. Shall and wiU, as need in the indicative mode, are mere 8ignl of future time. When Ihall and will are notional, they are properly auxiliaries of the present potential. Examine the following sentences: - 
I toUl go (present determination). He would go (pa~t determination), He says you ,hall go (present obligation). He said you .hould go (p88t obligation). 
Since would and Ihould are auxiliaries of tbe P0.8t potential, it seems remarkable that grammarians have not considered will and shall as corresponding signs of the present potential. In the examples given above, does not ,hall go E'xprE'SS present obligation just as truly as lhould.go expresses palt obligation? Is not &hall go a preBent potentidt form, rather than a IO-called "future of determinatlon" T 
 
 68 ill CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 
 
THE NOUN. L NOllTNATIVE. 
L Subject of finite verb; MI. Birds s1n~. 
!. Predicate- of finite verb; as. Atlanta is a cU,. 
3. Abstract predicate of infinite verb. 
(l)With Infinitive; as. To be a penm{lft requires practice. 
(2) With participle; d. No one thought of bis .being a teacher. 
4. In apposition; as. Milton. the poet. WlIB blind. 6. Independent. 
(1) By address; as. Marv, lend me your book. (2) By pleonasm; as. William. he is my son. (3) By exclamation; as. Poor man! he is un- 
fortunate. 
(4) By Inscription; Ill!. Adam BeM (title of book). 
(5) By subscription; as. H. H. HUQhes (used as signature). 
(6) With participle; as. The It1ln rising. we started. 
(7) In apposition; as. Jabn. my b01/. come here. 
II. POSSESSIVE. 1. Modifier; as. The boy's bat was lost. 2. In apposition; as. MUtont. the poet's, lite was sad. 
m. OBJECTfVE. 
1. Direct object; as. Ring the bell. 2. IndirecU object. 
(1) With transitive verb; lIB, Lend me your knife. 
 
-By predicate Is meant. of COUI'l!e. a pmf.caU _II. In analy is, this ele- 
 
ment Is called a subjective romplement. 
 
 
 
t MilUm I. a possessive modifier of life. The nomlDl\ttve form is used by 
 
en:\lIa.ge for the poase<slve C'3e. Iu English, CMe Is determined by construc- 
 
tion rather than by form. In the expre.....nn t/lltl longue Of John'" we have 
 
the posseaqlve used 1);1' enallage for the obJective. John', Is objective rJlll6 
 
IlOvemed by of. EnaUage Is the llll6 of one part of speech or ODe modifica- 
 
mae tion for another. 
 
WitIg..,f.o..l.l'o-w'0ingolveer.rbJ'Cs Ya,re.uf,r3eeqIOude,nMtloyotu,sted<Z\, 
 
with an IeaocA, de. 
 
IBdIzect 
 
object: 
 
CIt, 
 
 (2) With intransitive verb; as, The nat laat~ me a year. 
. Factitive object; as, They made him pre8idenl. . Cognatet object; as, He lived a userul life. 6. Retained: object; as, He was offered a pllsition 
(without governing word). 6. Object or preposition; as, He goes to school. 7. Adverbial objective (without governing word). 
(1) Time; as, It rained last night. (2) Place; as, We returned home. 
(3) Direction; as, The ship sailed west. 
(4) Distance; as, We walked a mile. (5) Value; as, The book is worth a d{)llar. (6) Weight; as, I paid him ten cents a TJll1tnd. (7) Measure; as, This wine cost a dollar a 
'iuart. (8) Extent; as, be Is a great deal better than 
be was. (9) Manner; as, The word is pronoUllced both 
wallS. (10) Specification; as, They bound him hand 
and root. 8. In appositIon; as, I spoke" to MIss DavIs, the 
teacher. 
9. Subjeci of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a. law- 
Yer. 
10 Predicate of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a 
latln/OI" 
 
A f<u:titlt'e object !"Lat. facere, to make] is a I'EInltant obJert. the verb- 
 
being used canAAt!" ~y. 
 
to>qllllltmeau3l:illdm:l, of 81mliar nature. A cognate object hIlS a mean 
 
Ing lIke that of the verb whIch governs it. A verb is transitive when it 
 
hu a cognate object. 
 
tWhen a verb f8 changed from tbe active voice to the pll$81ve, the dIrect 
 
object becomes the subject. and the indirect object i8 retalnerl; 88, He of 
 
obfebtrdjee{ductcll1la8ocabajre'Prcl"et8rUlIswovnu.esrAetdo"I"tdh.iieloim"pan.t.lw.~llavlselloayfsfae8aretrhteeiMll8iEnn.rbdJ"eoocbmt j.eeactltnm. deSt.ihnehcnnewtaheveveedrr.ibrtehicnet 
 
tbe pa8>llve voloe haa no governing power, the retained object Ia without a 
 
governIng word. 
 
IThls ohjectlve is 'ometl..nes ul!8d with Mil.... ; ao, Hia return 1lI>me. My 
 
dream lastniqht. When thug n'erl, It lapropl'rl, clllled an arI1~clival object 
 
in. The indirect obj!'Ct, the retained object. and the adverbial objective 
 
....aorreImdpialIgerda.mmne.d 
 
u the b 1Ad1J'ect 
 
...oe of object 
 
I' phrlllle and th. 
 
without "tained 
 
a prepositIon expr8!'aed object alwaya modIfy a 
 
 70 
 
THE VERB. 
 
!'lie ftntte Terb always constitntel th predicate, or fonns a part of the pJed!cate. 
1. Used alone as the predicate; as, Horses ron. 
 
2. Used with other word or words. 
 
(1) With subjective complement; as, Roses are red. 
 
(2) With object complement j as, Boys play ball. 
 
(8) With objective complement; as, They chose him 
 
leader. 
 
. 
 
(4) With inseparable ad verb; as, They put out the fire. 
 
(5) With several words, the combination forming an 
 
inseparable romp/ex verb; as, 1 waa taken care of. 
 
THE PRONOUN. 
Generally speaking, the constructions of the pronoun are similar to those of the noun; there are, however, some special constructions that deserve attention. 
L Him destroyed, all else will follow. 2. ThaD wlwm Done sat hIgher. 
Him and whom are Miltonic solecismR.t In determining case, con3truction takes precedence ofjorm. Him [he] is nominative independent with destroyed. Whom [who] is Eubject of fat implied. The sentence in full is, Than who (sat high) none .at higher. When the comparative is expressed, the positive must be supplied in parsing. In ordel' to justify whom, some authors call than a preposition; but it is a conjunctive adverb denoting comparison, instead or a preposition showing rela- 
tion. s. Poor mel whatshallldof 
Me is objective by exclamation, a construction pecnliar to the pronoun. 
" This 18 a faTorlte book of mtne. 
.-rhe words of this group cannot be parsed separately: the complex Terb must be treated as U hyphenated; 88, ~taken-cart-oJ. This Is an Idlo matlc passive construction; The &entence He tool: care oj me, when changed to the f'egular passive, becomes, Care oj me wa.! taken by him. In the CdiomaU~ passive, whIch Is the form generally used, the object of the prep08lt1on 18 made the subject; and the passive verb, ~he retained object, and the preposition are thrown together to form a complez: verb. 
fA 1Olect. 18 a denatlon from establ18hed usage In the Itructure 01 
_tenoea. Dr. HIll 4eb. eoleclaml to ~ .. OOlllt.ruCtiODl not En&lllh" 
 
 II 
 
Mitu ia  personal pronoun, possessive case, modifying the 
 
boo'" partitive obj ctive 
 
implied. Mine is a euphonic form of 
 
my, just as the article a is a variant of an. The euphonic 
 
forms mine, our., thine, your., her8, and their" are used when 
 
the name of the thing possessed is not txpre83ed. 
 
6. This heart of mine will break. 
 
Mine ill objective case, object of the preposition oj. The 
 
possessive form is used by enallage for the objective. The 
 
po e sor is denoted by the possessive form, or by a phrase 
 
introduced by of; as, Solomon', temple, temple of Solo'mon. 
 
Sometime. the two constructions are combined: of and the 
 
possessive form are both used, and there is formed an idio- 
 
matic douole p083e88ive. This idiom is used to make the pos- 
 
sessor more emphatic and the expression more euphonious; 
 
hence, instead of the regular construction of HE, we have the 
 
iditnnalic form of MINE. Another reason for using the idiomatic 
 
form is, that it often prevents ambiguity. For instance, a 
 
picture of :.n.'E does not necessarily mean a picture of HE. The 
 
double possessive is used with nouns as well as pronouns; as, 
 
that tongue of John',. Some authors make a separate class of 
 
mine, thine, etc., calling them p088e88ive pronouns. Properly 
 
speaking, they are poSsessive form8 of personal pronouns. 
 
John's, in the expresQion given above, is the possessive form 
 
of a noun; we would hardly call" it a p088e,8ive (I) noun. 
 
6. Bring suoh /U you have. 
 
A, is a relative pronoun, direct object of have. .Alter 3UCh, 
 
lame, and many, a3 is used as a relative. 
 
7. There is no one but makes mistake. 
 
But is a negative relative, equivalent to that not. The sen- 
 
tence means There is no one that does n lt make mistakes. 
 
When but is used as a relative, some other negative word is 
 
always found in the sentence. s. It was from me t/tat he obtained the information. 
 
The foregoing sentence contains two English idioms: 1. The 
 
relative that is used after the indefinite it; 2. The relative that 
 
never immediately follows the preposition that governs it. 
 
The preposition is generally placed at the end of the sentence; 
 
as, This is the house that I referred to. That may come after 
 
the preposition provided one or more words intervene. 
 
The meaning of the sentence is this: It wu I (me) from 
 
 72 
"'lom (tha.t) he obto.1ned the Information. SInce mt fa apparently the object of from, the objective form is used Instead of the nominative. We have here an example of attraction lUI well as enallage. Me is nominative case, predIcate nominative after was. That Is objective case, object of from. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 
I. MODIFIEB. 1. Attributive; as, Red 8.pplee. 
2. Appositive; as, A man, old and iI/firm. 
n. PREDICATE .ADJECTIVE. 
1. Subjective complement; lUI, He Is like. hIs father. 2. Objective complement; as, The dinner made the 
boy Blck. 3. Used abstractly after in.fInite verb; lUI, To be per- 
tect <Is impossible. 
THE ADVERB. 
I. MODIFIJm. 1. ModifyIng verb; as, We walked slotel1/. 2. Modifying adjective; as, It is very cold. 
8. Modifying phrase; as, She studies 01111/ at home. II. INDEPENDENT; as, Well, what do you say? Ill. CONJU.'CTIVE. 
1. Connecting adverb clause; as, We came when the bell rang. 
2. Connecting adjective clause; as, I remember the house 1cllC.'T'e I was born. 
8. Correlative; as, John is as old CI8 I am. 
THE PREPOSITION. 
1. Showing relation; as, She goes tc schooL 2. Merely Introductory; lUI, Out of sight is out of mind. 
-To 11 implied n.fter lik~ used a.!I an adjectIve or an adverb. Good English condemns the use of liu as a nonJunctive adverb. b shonld be used lnatead. Bee that pupils avoId mch 10leo1lma u "ICUI told yon," "IUol Ibeaal4," 
 
 73 
 
'I'mD CONJ'UNCTION. 
I. Col'BDINA'l'E. 1. Connecting words; as, James and John study. 2. Connecting p1lrtlse8; as, She studies at !home an. at school. 3. Connecting clauses; as, Mary reads, and Blanche writes. 4. Merely introductory; as, And the Lord spake unto Moses. Ii. Correlative; as, Both Mary and Blanche have gone. 
II. SunORDINATE. 1. Connecting subordina~ cla1lge; U, You can learn 
it you try. 2. Introducing subordinate clause; as, That the earth 
18 round is a tact. 
 
THE INTERJECTION. Always independent. 
 
THE PARTICIPLllI. 
 
1. DEFINITION.-A participle is an assuming form of the verb, baving tbe use of an adjective or a noun. 
 
II. CLASSES. 
 
Common form j as, writing. 
 
1. Active Progressive form; 88, being 1Drit- 
 
f { L Present 
 
ing (rare). 
 
L2. Passive, as, being wriUen. 
 
2. pa"tt (active and passive); as, written. 
 
Common form; as, having written. 
 
S. Ptrfect 
 
1. 
 
Active { 
 
Progressive writing. 
 
form; 
 
as, 
 
haVing 
 
bun 
 
{ 
 
2. Passivej as, having been written. 
 
*The participles of intransitive nrbs are formed like the partlclplea of tr&nsltive verbs in the active voice. 
tThe put participle has the Same form In both Tolee.. ThIll participle II DeTer used aloDe in an a;:tiu sense; Its only nse In the act1Te Tol_ .. with auxlliarlee to fol'1ll eompoUDd te.... : .... 1I4w """_. W ,.... 
 
 ill. OoNIlTAUCTIOn. L .d.djecU".. 
(1) roomer' A8 { The man, ~, lltarted to lean. I The sun nnng, we started. 
(2) Predicate adjective. 
a. Subjective; as, We Iltood watching the clouda. ~. Objective; as, He had his watch fMnded. o. Used abstractly after infinite verb; all, 
To keep complaining La unwise. 2. Noun. 
(1) Nominative. 
a. Subject of finite verb; as, Picking cotton "hard work. 
b. Predicate of ll.njte verb; g, Stea.llD~ ill taking without permission. 
C. In apposition; lUI, Her task, l1CPing the floor, was unpleasant. 
d. Independent. 
(a) Simply independent; u, Oon'iderin, hisadvantages,he deserves much credit. 
(1)) With a I'articiple; as, Talkillg "aving been forbidden, the children rema.ined ilent. 
(0) By pleonasm; as, Raising cotton, 1rUl it vay? 
(d) By exclamation; as, Killing his broth- 
er! What a crime he has committed! (e) In apposition; as, Delightful task, 
teaching the young! 
It) Objective. 
Go Object of verb; as, She commenced writing a letter. 
fl. Object of preposition; u, We learn to do by 
dQing. . 
c. Subject of infinitive; as, I want your readil/g aloud to be continued. 
d. Predicate of infinitive; as, He thought dia.gramming sentences to be wlUlting HDlO. 
.. Factitive object; as, Some one baa caIW JdIent reading gemn, thoucht. 
 
 75 
,. In apposition; lit. [eoDllider thlll exercise, writing composition.., to be very profitable. 
g. Adverbial objective (without governing word); as, The field is not "'forth plowing. 
The participle, as its name indicates, always participata the nature of two parts of speech. While it retains all the governing power of a verb, it differs from the finite verb in lacking power to assert. In addition to its verb nature, the PARTICIPLE ALWAYS hall the use of an adjective or a noun. 
The dogs, barking loudly, kept me awake. He lupported hi! mother by Wting papers OD the Itreet. 
In the first sentence, barking shows its verb nature (1) by assuming action, (2) by taking the adverb moditler loudly. It shows its adjective use by modifying Mg.. In the second sentence, aelI.ing sholVs its verb nature, (1) by assuming action, (2) by taking the direct object papers, (3) in being modified by the adverb phrase on the street. It shows its noun ulle, (1) by naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition by. 
When a participle loses itFlllerb nature, it ceasu to be a participle, and becomes a participial noun or adjective or ad verb or preposition. In the sentence The water is boiling hot, boiling is a participial adverb. The sentence Regarding his conduct we have the same opinion, contains a participial preposition. As an aid in distin~uishing participles from words that are participial in form, the following suggestions are given:- 
A PARTICIPLE WITH THE USE 0., AN AD.rECTIVXL Assumes action or being of the word modified. 2. Is complemented in same manner as finite verb. I. May be modified by an wverb, adverb phrase, or a.dverb clause. .. Usually follows the word modified. Ii. Is set off by the comma. unless restrictive. 
A PARTICIPIAL ADJXCTIVEL Denotes a quality of the word modified. 2. Has 106t its verb mLture anQ cannot be complemented. 
a. Can be modified by an adverb only. 
. Unless used as predicate a.djectlve, always precede!! the word modified. 
I. II never let off by the ~ 
 
 i6 
 
~ PAllTICIPLJI WITll TRI: UBI: 01'.4 NOl1l(1. Not only names. but 88BI1me. act40n or be1nc. 2. Is complemented in the same manner u 1I.DJtt verb. 
8. May be modified by adjective. poesessive. adverb. adverb phrase, or adverb claUlle. 
(. Is not preceded by article or followed by preposition.. 
 
.A. PARTICIPIAL NoUN1. SImply names. w1.t!hout assum.1ng action or being. 2. Does not lIdmit a verb-oomplement of any ldnd. 3. Is modified only by adjective or adjective phrase. (. May be preceded by article and followed by prepo II1tion.. 
We, starting early, arrived In time (participle used 8.1 adjectIve), Running fllllt la tiresome (participle used 88 noun). Our cradle is the darling plaoe (partiolplal adjective). Life la the ",nning of the rAce (partiolplal noun). 
 
THE INFINITIVE PBRASllI. 
 
I. DXFINITloN.-An infinitive phrase is one that consist. of an infinitive preceded by the prepoo1.t1on to. 
 
II. CLA.88E11. 1. Pruent. 
 
(1) 
 
A t' { c Ive 
 
Common form; 88, (to) write. Progressive form; as, (to) be writing. 
 
(2) Passive; aa. (to) be written. 
 
J. Perted. 
 
(1) 
 
A ti {Common form; as, (to) have 1lIr'it16n. c va Progressive form; a8, (to) have bten 1lIriIing. 
 
(2) Passive; as. (to) 1lat been W1"UteJt. 
 
I. Noun. 
 
ilL 
 
USJ:8. { 
 
2. 3. 
 
Adjective. Adverb 
 
 An infinitive phrase is commonly oalled an InflnitIve._lo~of ~eo dache In which a part is used for the whole. The (njllliU". proper is an ulumlng verb-form, used aB a noun or au adJective. It is Uled tIl1>BtanUMI/ u the baae of an In1lnltIve phraH; It ia used a4jtd(va!l1/ u a modIfIer of Ita usumed lubject. 
In Anglo-Saxon. to W88 not used with any infinitive except an Infiected form expresaInepurpoae; and the preposItion, when thus used, always denoted relation. Now the preposition to, eveu when It does not show relation, ia planed before the InfIn1t1ve ... a mere indlcalor, sbowlne that the following word is an In1lnitlve. To la a efDn of the InfInltlve, not a part of It. Bowel'er, do not have pnplla &n&Iyse the Inll.nitlve phrue: Iet thea ... tU element u a whole. 
 
 IV. CONSTRUCTIONa. 1. Noull. 
(1) NomInative. 
a. Subject of finite verb; as, To neal fa wron. 
b. Predicate of finite verb; as, To hesitate a 
to fail. 
e. In apposItion; as, It is human to err. 
d. Independent. (a) Simply independent; as, To tell the truth, I waa mistaken. (b) With a participle; lIS, To 11M3 through 
the field being forbidden, we followed the road (e) By pleonasm; as, To hesitate, that would 
be to fall. (d) By exclamation; lUI, To drown! what an 
awful death! (e) In apposition; as, Delightful task, to 
teach the young! (2) Objeot.1ve. 
a. Object of verb; as, He l1ke1t to 3tudll. b. Object of preposition; as, They did nothing 
but (to) talk. c. Factitive object; as, I regard to hesitate lIS 
to fail. 
d. Retained object; as, He was allowed to oote. c. In apposition; as, The boy liked his task, to 
bring the mall. 
t. Objective subject of infinitive; as, To ana- 
ll/ze sentences he considers to be useless. g. Objective predicate. of infinitive; as He 
thinks to steal to be to take without perm is ion. 2. .A.dJectit:e. 
(1) Modifiert {ftb:rim~~s~\bi:%~a::io go. 
- - - -  This construction, lUI well as the preceding one, I. rarely mad. t Notlre ca.refully the use of the Infinitive Jlhrll8C8 III thE' e two sentences. To laugh (for laughing) Is an injlniLit't phrfl.e It Is n/lf'd as an a,ljeeli ..e, and mod Illes Ii"",. To !II a. prepo IUon, showing the relation between lifM and laugh. Laugh Is an injlnlllt~. It Is usetl a a nonn, oltJrct or to. 
In the second Fentenee, 10 is a mere preposltlonal.fun: It does not denote relation; In fact, It ia not a notional word. l'be lntlnltive go 11 used adjectivally to modUy Ita . .umed anbjec\ me. li. to flO fa equivalent to . . f9l"9 (lIIW ,0(719)' 
 
 
 7 
(2) Predicate adjecUTe. a. Subjective; as, Theile apples are to bf lOLL b. Objective; as, He made me (to) atay.o. Used abstractly after the infinite verb. (a) With participle; as, ilia seeming ~ be In. nocent "'lIB of no avail. (1)) With infinitive; as, To appear ~ blow iJ not sufficient. 
 .Advrr1>. (1) Modifying Terb; as, Strive to ezell. 
(2) Modifying adjective; as, Apples are ~od to eaC. (8) Modifying adverb, as, He is old enough to vote. 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
I. Grammar Ilhonld not be studicd until the minds of pnplll&remmcicntly D1&tnred. Beldam Ilhonld It be stndied by pnpi1.8 under thirteen yean of age. 
2. Do not &ttempt to teach I:r&mmar throuCh a study of dellnltiona; teach dellnltlons thronch a .tn<l.y of language. 
3. Do not &llow pupil. to memorize definitions and rules that they do not understand. NeYer state a principle until pupllB areprepa.red to com prehend Ita meaning... First the Idea, then the name, then thedefl nltlon." 
4. induction .honld precede deduction. A. study of Individual facts Ilhonld lead to deflnltloll8 and principles. .. The mind mnat ever rlae tram olear tndlvidu&l to dlstinct enera! notIona." 
5 Deduction Ilhould follow induction. A.fter principles &nd rnles ha.ve been le,uned inductively, reT81'l1e the process and require the pupil. to U1ustrate; that is, &,Ive examples (particulars) of the l:eneralli:atlona they hAn le3.rned. 
Gramma.r is comparallvely t1I'eless unless ita principles &re &pplled In con.Lructln~,crlllclsing, and correctln;: 8Cnl.cuccs. Arithmetic Is better understood than grammar, mainly becau e more practice fa reqUired in the former branch. ,. Few rule. and many e.xerciees." 
7. Make grammar pracllcal by havinA' pupils criticise their own language, &8 wlll.l u the language of others. "For J am nothing, if Dot critical." 
8. Practice what you teach. In the use of correct langual:e, the teacher 
Ihonld be a model can you couaclentiou.sly lI&y to your pupils, "FolloW me"r 
 ~ of the infinitive phrase is omAUy omitted (implied) after the follow- 
IJIc verbe: bid, diIre,fed, !lear, la, mal:t, __ ief. 8oDlet1Jll.u it 11 not u 
.~Id after /ldp, ,pleaIe, and a fe" other verN. 
 
 79 
ILEVIEW QUESTIONS' 
L 
1. What al"ll the maln objects In teachlng grammar' t. At what age sh<,u1d a pupU begin formal grBornlIlAr , I. What is meant by ldhnical grammar? 4. Name the two grammatical units. Which should be the atarllng polnt 
In teaching grammBor? Why' I. What are the main divisions of ~ar' Of whBot does each treat? 
n. 
e. Deline a phrase. QITe example of .. complex phrase. 
7. NBome. deftne, and illustrate the three complements. S. In parsing, what Is each complement called? 9. Define a clause; a dependent clBoUSe. 10. WhBot three pBorts at speeoh Bore used to connect dependent clauses , 11. How does &compound sentence dllfer tram &complex sentence' 12. How Is a complex sentence clr.saltle<l as to meaning' & compound sen 
tence' 13. Is a period placed at the end of every decl&ratiTe sentence' U. Which sbould precede, ..nalysis or pa.rsing ? Why? 15. Should pupils eTer be given exerelss In .. f&lse syntax .. , 
m. 
18. Name the liTe English warde that haTe three ease-forms each. 17. Since the noUD has but olle In1Ieeted form. why should the eonstructionh 
of nouns be taught? 18. WhBot Is meant by III&lant(tIe' }InIU verb' 19. Define and illustrate a transltiTe Terb; a eopulatiTlt Terb. 20. Why are personal pronouns 110 ca.lled ? 
n. Dlustrate in sentences the foJlowing eonatructiona: (l) indirect object, 
(2) retained object, (S) prltdicate nomlnatln used abstractly. (4) ad nrb used Indepeudently. 22. Deline a partlciple. Give an example of (1) .. participle used .. an s.dJeetive. (2) a participial adjeetlT80 23. GlTe exampllt at an IntlnitiTe phrale used (!) as .. noUD, (2) .. an ad. Terb. 
24. After whBot warde I. the alp ot the Inftnitln usually omitted , 15. What part at apoeeb 1a ne.,--r ued alone .. an element ot .. sentence 1 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
By E. C. BRANSON, SUTE Nom.u..L SCHOOL. 
( Copyrighted.) 
CHAPTER L 
A BmD'S-EYE VIEW OF GEOGRAPHY. 
t.-WHAT GEOGRAPHY IB. (1) It is a study of the earth's surface, as the home of man. 
The word geography means earth-writing. In geography we study God's handwriting upon tho 
earth. (2) Ii is, therefore, a study of the conditions that make th4-' 
earth's surface a home for man. 
2.-WHAT THE SUBJECT INCLUDES. 
(1) Geographical Forms (of land and water). G. As they are. b. Map-language for these. c. The reading of map-language. 
(2) The GeoKI'aphical Forcea. Q. Heat and cold. b. Light. c. Gravitation. d. The -rital forces of plant and animalllfe. 
(8) The Geographical Agents. a. Air. b. Water. c. Mineral matter. cI. Orpnlc ionu. 
 
 (.) Plant Life (SurIace Coverings). Ita relation to animal life specially. 
(5) Animal Life. Ita relation to man specially. 
(6) Man. ez. As he is conditioned by all thes.. 6. As he modifies all these. 
S.-NOTE. 
(1) That Geography study is Nature study-the great information study in elementary education. 
(2) That it is a composite o! aU the sciences j hence the difficulty of teaching it successfully. 
(3) That ~etting ready ttl teach the subject iR a lifetime work, and furnishes the common school teacher opportunity for the most liberal self-culture. 
(4) That a good geography text-book will have le880ns in sensible proportion, in all the six fundamental subjects named. 
(5) That a poor geography will neglect the 2d, ad, 4th and 5th subjects, and overstress map-studies and political geography. 
(6) That poor geography-teachinR emphasiz611 man's book about the earth and neglect. God's book about the earth-the great open book of Nature. 
(7) That good teachin~ in geography opens a pupil's eyes to the great world outside, and prepares h~ to understand the Geography book. 
(8) That the main question, all the time is, How did the Earth's surface come to be a home for man? .A.s, What did the earth-worm have to do with it? The frost? The rainfalls? The streams? 
(~) That a main purpose in this syllabus is to magnify and dignify a commonplace subject, and to stimulate the indifferent teacher to liberal self-culture in a great field of learning. 
(10) That the real teacher can be so Itimnlated, while the poor teacher cannot be. 
 
 83 
4.-WHY WE TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 
(1) To enrich the pupil's mind with real knowledge by eli rect observation of Nature-her forms, forc8ll. proce88es, and creatures. 
(2) To prepare him to interpret and appropriate the accumulation of race-wisdom about the earth. 
(3) To equip him with first hand experiences for entrance into the formal sciences later. 
(4) To wake up hi8 mind 80 that he may J:O on to educate himself in 8tudying the world he live8 in. Col. Jim Smith i8 a great farmer because he knows how to 8tudy corn and cattle, soil and men. Geography has a practical as well as a cultural value. 
(5) To free him from narrow, two-penny notions of man and his achievements, of policie8 and measures; to broaden his horizon, and to enable him to see a long way beyond his father's corn-crib. 
(6) To make him feel at home in the world he lives in; to enjoy it and subdue it for the highest uses, "for the glory of God and the relief of man's e8tate." 
(7) To make him feel at last that citizenship is partner8hip in every good undertaking and in all perfection. 
(8) To put him into proper relationship with Nature, Human Nature, and God. 
5.-INFO~ATIONA~ LIBRARY IN GEOGRAPHY. 
FOR TJ:ACHlI:RI5:- 
(1) Shaler's Geology. D. O. Heath &; 00., Boston. (2) Guyot's Earth and Man. Chas. Scribner's Bons, N. Y. (3) Marsh's Man and Nature. Chas. Scribner'8 SonB, N. Y. 
IJ) Heilprin's The Earth and Its Story. Leach, Shewell 
and Sanborn, N. Y: (5) Ballard's The World of Matter. D. C. Heath &; Co. (6) Huxley's Physiograpky. D. Appleton &; Co., N. Y. (7) Tyndall's Forms of Water. D. Appleton &; Co., N. Y. (8) Treat'. Home Studiea in Nature. Am. Book Com- 
pany. N. Y. 
 
 84 
 
(9) Geikie's Physical Geography. 'lhe Macmillan Co., N.Y. 
(10) Crosby's Common Minerals and Rocks. D. C. Heath & Co. 
(11) Hyatt's About Pebbles. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 (12) Newell's Botany. Books 1 and 2. Ginn Co. 
(13) Ml'8. Dana's How to Know the Wild Flowers. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N. Y. 
(14) Hyatt and Arm's Insecta. D. C. Heath & Co. (15) Longman's Geog. and New School Atlas. Longman, 
Green  Co., N. Y. 
(16) Grove's Geogrllphy. D. Appleton & Co. (17) Martineau's Earth, Air, and Water. George Rutledge 
& Bons, London. 
 
FOR CBILDRItN:- 
 
(1) Wright's Nature Readers. D. C. Heath &; Co. 
 
(2) Ginn's All the Year Around. Ginn & Co. 
 
'(3) Johonnot's Natural History Series. American Book 
 
Co. 
 
(.) Jane Andrew'. Books, Seven Little Sisters, and others 
Ginn &I Co. 
 
(5) Flagg's A Year with the Birds. Educational Pub- 
 
lishing Co., Boston. 
 
(6) Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. Educational Pub- 
 
lishing Co., Boston. 
 
(7) Montieth'. Popular Science Reader. American Book 
 
Co. 
 
(8) The Natural History of Selbourne. Ginn & Co. 
 
(9) Johonnot's Glimpses of the Animal World. American 
 
Book Co. 
 
' 
 
(10) Morley's Song of Life. A. C. McClurg'&I Co., Ch' go. 
 
(11) The Zig-Zag Journeys. The Lathrop Publishing Co., 
 
Boston. 
 
(12) The World by the Fireside. Thos. Ne1llon Sons, N. Y. 
 
(13) Rupert's Geographical Reader. Leach, Shewell & 
 
Sanborn, N. Y. 
 
(14) Johonnot'. Geographical Reader. American Book Co. 
 
(15) Ballou'. Journey Around the World. Ginn. Co. 
 
J 
 
 85 
Here fA  magnificent working library in Geography. I name them as the very choicest books in my own Geographical library. They can be had from any general book dealer in the larger cities. 
6.-QUIZ REVIEW. 
1. What 1.8 Geo~raphy? Meaning of the word T 
J.n Geography what ought we to be studying? 
2. What does the subject includeT How are surface forms to be first studied T What is a map? What is necessary to the reading of a map? What is meant by map-reading? What are the Geographical Forces T Name the Geographical Agent ? Difference between Forces and Agents? How 1.8 Plant Life regarded in Geography T Animal Life T What does Geography tell tl8 about Man ? 
8.. What kind of a study is Geography? What it! meant by an informational study? Why 1.8 Geography so valuable for the teachers? What 1.8 true of a good Geography text-book? Of a poor Geography T The chief fault of poor Geography teaching? What will good Geography-teaching accomplish? What it the main question in Geography? Illustrate. The main purpose of the syllabus? The mark of a poor teacher alwaysT 
" Why do we teach Geography T What is "real" knowledll:e' How obtained' Source of it? What does good Geography-teaching prepare the pupil to do? The relation of Geography to the formal scienC81 Iltudied later' What Ipeci&1 educatin nlue baa Georraphy' 
 
 86 
Wha* practical value? 
Page can. Geography a .. catholic study." Why? 
How is a pupil to be related to the world he lives in? What view of citizenship is herein presented? How does Geography help toward this? How is every man related? Illustrate. How does Geography help in this? 
 
CHAPTER II. 
HOME GEOGRAPHY. 
1.-WHAT IT MEANS. 
(1) It means. geographical study of the child's world of outdoor life. 
(2) It is a simple study (1) of the familiar surface forms of hie neighborhood, (2) the chan~es that these are undergoing, and (3) the relations of Geographical Forms and Agents to Plant and Animal Life. 
(s) It is teachin~, also, geographical language for the knowl edge gained. 
C') ThUll, it means, also, but mnch more than, mapping the 
schoolroom, the school grounds, and so on, and teaching map locations and directions. (6) It is Nature-study from a geographical standpoint-not  book-study at first. It is meant to be a preparation for the geography-book, and a constant accompanilIlent of book-study throughout the course. 
I.-THE METHODS, 
(1) A ten-minute qm each day upon an orderly set of 
topics j the purpose being (1) to have the children really to see the ~eographical facta in their own little 
world, and (2) te think lUld (3) Wi aoou wlW iller 
discover. 
 
 87 
(2) p~ would call these II wakiu/t-up" studies. The method best suited for the work is completely exhibited in his chapter upon II Waking Up lind" (Page'. Theory and Practice of Teaching). Study that chapter thoroughly. and then, in a similar way, give any of the following lessons. 
(8) ThE! teacher cannot do much deld-work in geography with the children. What he can teach them about ~eography in the schoolroom is of 8mall value compared with what he can stimulate them to discover for themselves outdoors. 
S.-HOME-STUDY LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY. 
[See Frye's Child and Nature, and Frye's Brooks and Brook Basins.] 
(1) ON GEOGRAPHICAL FORMS OJ' LAND AND WATBB. .(1) Slopu. (1) Develop idea of slope. (2) Then challenge the class to dnd Bome land that doe'! n'Ot slope. (3) Have children describe their slopes, getting 8uch terms, meantime, as Kentle, abrupt, Ion!, short, 8mooth, rougb, bare, rocky, grassy, woody, barren, fertile, bluff, precipice. (4) Thought question: What are the uses of slopes? (2) Hilla and Ridgea. (1) Develop the idea of a pair of slopes meet ing at the top. (2) Have these located outdoors. (8) Call for the term "hill." Give the idea and term" ridge." (4) Have Ilome ridges located and described. (5) Develop the idea of .. water-parting." (6) Have hills and ridges modeled in sand (outdoors in the IlChool yard at play time). Expand the ideas of hill and ridge into mountain and range. Show pictures abundantly here. In similar way, introduce the ideas of plateaUl, peaka, Tolcanoes, desert.l. ThougM queltioa : IWhat are the uses of hillI and ridll_ T 
 
 8 
(3) Valleys. (1) Develop the idea of slopes meeting at the bottom. (2) Get or give the term "water meeting" for the line of intersection. (4) Have such slopes located in the neighborhood, and (5) the water-meeting identified. (6) Trace the water-parting around the upper edge. (7) Model the brook basin in sand (outdoors preferably). Study marshes, meadows, swamps. Thought question: How are these formed 1 Study plains, prairies, llanos, pampas, gorges, canons, showing pictures abuudantly. and challenging free questions from the children. Use pictures freely. Thought question: What are the uses of valleys? 
(.) Shores (coaata, banka). Study the brook or branch in the brook basin. Bring out the idea of bank or shore, flood, plains, cape, promontory, bluff, peninsula, isthmus, island, and have these identified and named outdoors. Have these forme and terms firmly associated. The land modeling will help, but it ought always to folIowa study of the real forms, if possible. Treat the idea of seacoast, beach, coastal plains, marshes, &c., with abundant pictures and stories. The order always is observation followed by imagination and thinking. 
(FRYE'S BROOKS .urn BROOK BASINS.) 
~) Brook Luaom. Bring out the idea of banks, bed, channel, source. mouth, tributary, pool, pond, lake, waterfall, strait, bay. Have thele found in the neighboring stream, and described. Expand these ideas into river systems, seas, oceans, harbors, using pictures and stories abundantly. Thought questions: Where 
 
 89 
does the water in brooks and riven come from? What are the uses of brooks? Of lakes? Of waterfalls? Of harbors? Of seas and oceans!1 The teacher's own knowledge ought to be rich-richer by far than the children can give or get for many years yet. 
(2) ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL FORCES AND AGENTS. 
(1) Water. (Frye's Child and Nature, Chap. VI.) (1) How water gets into the air. (2) Forms of water in the air (fogs, clouds, invisible vapor). (8) How water gets out of the air. (Condensation lessons.) (4) Forms of water I!:etting out of the air (dew, frost, rain, snow lessons). Story of the water drop in the air. Thought questions: What are the uses of clouds? Of dew? Of frost? Of rain? What becomes of all tlie rain? Why does water run down bill? 
(2) &il Making. (Ga. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 11.) 
What soil is. Lesson on a piece of granite or gneiss. Story of the grain of sand. Story of the pebble. Earthworms, ants, and beetles as soil-makers. Frost as a soil maker. How soil is distributed. Story of the muddy streamlet. What are fertilizers. Thonght questions: How did the pebble get rounded? What ill the most fertile parta 
of slopes? Why are pond bottoms rich t 
LessODJ in Erosion, Transportation, DepOltitation. 
(8) Drainage. Overland drainage. Underground dninage. Springs and wells. Later, hot springe and geysera with pictures and descriptions. Thought questions: What kinds of slopes waah badly? Why? What help. UDder- 
 
 90 
ground drainage? Why do farme!1l terrace their farms? What good does water do underground? Story of the drop of water underground? (4) Heat and Light .Le8801l3. Why the blacksmith heats the tire before putting it on the wheel-frame? Why space is between the rails on the railroad? Effect of heat on water? Why the woodpile smokes some mprnings in winter? Where the water-dust in the air comes from? Have the pupils observe the water-pan on the stove and a saucer of water set out in the sun. Effect of heat on air? Have pupils observe the draft around a stove or fireplace. What is wind? What sets air in motion? Effect of heat on the baby seeds? When do seeds sprout'l Why? Story of the Baby Seeds' Royal Visitors (Light, Heat and Moisture). Have children observe seed germination. Uses of clothing, bark, hair, fur and feathers? How is the earth heated? The hottest season? The coldest? The hottest part of the day? The coolest? Have children observe the noonday shadow reRularly. Quiz upon it and mark it every fortnight on the floor with the date. Day and night-how caused? Uses of? Longest days? Shortest? The four seasonsthese to be studied sa they come on, and comparisons elicited. (Changes in plant and animal life, appearance and disappearance of the birds and insectl, fro~ and snakes, and so on.) 
8. DIRECTIONS AND MAps. Teach and drill upon the horizon directions (N., E., S., W., N. E., S. E., S. W., N. W.) Directious of the homes from the schoolhouse j of objects in the schoolhOUM from lome central o!>ject. Map the IChool- 
 
 91 
nouse. Teach and drill upon map directione. Map of the town or county. Drills upon map directione. Introduce the globe again. Teach he continents and oceans. "Stories of the Seven Little Sisters" and II Each and All." Characteristic animals of each continent 8l! follows: N. America, bison, wolf, bear; 8. America, monkey, boa-constrictor, ant-eater; Europe, wild boar, reindeer; Asia, tiger, camel, elephant;' Africa, lion, gorilla, ostrich; Australia, kangaroo, paradise birds; Sea life, the whale, the coral animal, the star-fish. (Sea Life in Stories Mother Nature Told.-Andrews.) Bring out the ideas of zones and locate on the ~lobe. Stories of Arctic and Tropical Lile. (Agoonack, the Esquimau Maiden, and Manenko, in .. Seven Little Sisters.") Why it is so cold around the Poles and so hot around the Equator. Fix the attention of the children upon the continents (on the globe) as these descriptions of animalB and stories of child life are progressing. 
 PLANT LIFE. 
(1) How plante grow. (2) What plante eat. (3) What plants are good for. (4) Lessons on food plante, medicinal plants, clothing plants, building and furniture woods. (5) Compare plante with our bodies-identifying their mouths, noses, feet, bodies, arms, fingers, skin, blood, &c. (6) Planting seasons. Harvest seasone. (7) The appearance of the plants during the different seasone. (8) How plants help underground drainage, and prevent washing. (9)' Children, study Nature'e Treasure boxes (seed pods), collecting and mounting these on boards. (10) How seeds are dlatributed. (11) Plant enemies. (12) What plante have to do with occupations. (13) Crops in the county; (14) in the State. Make a product map of the State. Wonderful plants: The Big Trees of California, the mosses of arctic North America j the India-rubber tree of South America; the vine 
 
 92 
yards of Europe; the date palm of Africa; the tea plants of .Asia; the peculiarities of tree life in Australia. 
Food lessons on mace, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, pepper, mustard, olives, currants, oranges, lemons, bananas, coffee, tea, sugar, butternuts (nigger toes), almonds, English walnuts, dates, figs. Where do they come from? Interesting things about them? The idea is to invest the continents and countries with interest to the children before they come to study the less enga~ng details and features of the countries of the earth. 
Gray's" How Plants Grow," and" Aunt Ma1" tha's Corner Cupboard" will aid the teachEt i1"eatly. 
6. ANnuL LIn. 
(1) Animals Wleful to men: Food animals, clothint, animals, draught animals, scavenger animals. Have these listed and talked aboutr--some one or two in each list studied in detail. Have the children contrast the cow and the horse; other animals also. Have the children to list the grasseaters, the grain-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the treelivers. the ground-livers. Study how each kind of animal is fitted for the life it leads. The birds: the scratchers, the perchers, the climbers, the swimmers. Compare the feet of these kinds of birds. Hibernation: What becomes of the frogs, the snakes, the spiders, the flies, the bears, the cray fish, the birds in winter? Useful animals in the different countries. Have pictures and stories for these. Have each located on the globe. 
6. HUlU.N LIn. 
Child Life in the dHl'erentzones and countries as already indicated. Frye's "Primary Geography," "Child Life in the Different Countries" (Kellogg and Co., N. Y.), and The World by the Fireside (Thos. Nelson Sons, N. Y.), will furniah materialaabundantly... Ten Littl. 
 
 93 
Boys," by Jane Andrewll ill indillpenllllble in giving. billtorical view at Geography for children. LocateI Locate II everything. 
Study, with abundant Pictures, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Sitka, New Mexico, Rio Janeiro, London, Berlin, Paris, COIl8tantinople, St. Petersburg, Cairo,Johannesbur~1Calcutta, Damascllll, Hong Kong, Peking, Tokio, :Melbournethese twenty-one cities especially; chief industnea, routes of trade, and why; religion, manners and customs. 
Excite the children to ask question about the picturell. Don't lecture-or no more than is absolutely necell8ary. By this time, say in the latter part of the Third Reader year, the children can take a good Primary Geography book. 
REVIEW QUIZ ON CHAPTER II. 
1. What ill meant by Home Geography? It ill a simple study of what three thingp? What ill meant by Geographical language T Why must this also be taught? What is Home Geography not? What relation has Home Geography to book Geography? 
2. How is work on Home Geography to be done? What three purposes are to be kept in mind T Describe Page's .. Waking up mind" method? Apply it to some Geographical topic. Why cannot the teacher do much field work with his class in Geography? What is more important? 
3. Write out the six headings for the main subjects in home study lessonll in Geography, and list the sub-topics. (1) What are the four things to be taught about slopes? What is the main question? Write out ten nses of the slope. (2) What is a hill or ridge? A water-parting T What are the six steps in teaching hills and ridges? The ideas of hill and ridge can be expanded into what? How? Write out ten uses of ridges and hills. (3) What iJI  Talley? A. water-meeting? Contrut ridp and Talle7. 
 
 94 
What is a brook-basin? How is it bounded? What are the seven steps in teaching valleys? What can be studied in the valleys about home ? Into what cau these ideas be expanded? How? State four good thought questions about valleys. (4) What Geographical ideas and terms can the child get in studying the shores or banks of watercourses? When should sand modeling occur? Into what can these ideas be expanded? How TIn" h it order does the mind work naturally in Geographical study? (5) What ideas of water forms .can be gotten by the child in studying a brook or branch' Into what can these ideas be expanded T State ter. good .. thought questions" about brooks. What should be true of the teacher's knowledge? (Tyndl'JI's "Forms of Water" will help the teacher her..) 2. Name the Geographical Forces. The Geographical Agents. (1) State four kinds of Geographical lessons about water. How appeal to the child's fancy? Why do so? State ten thought questions about the Geographical uses of water. (2) What is soil? What are the constituents of granite? Where did the Iland clay come from? The uses of sand? Clay? Tell the story of the pebble. How are earthworms, ants, and beetles soil-makers? How does rain make Boil? Frost? How is Boil distributed? Which is the richest part of aslope? Why? Why are swamps and pond-bottoms rich? (3) State two kinds of drainage. The uses of each? How are springs formed? (Show by a drawin~.) What kind of slopes wash badly? Why? What helps underground drainage? How appeal to the child's fancy? Why? Mention three kinds of work done by water as it fiows off over-ground? What ia meant by erosion? Transportation T Deposition in Geo~raphy? (4) What law of heat is to be brought out simply? Give five illustrations of it. State three' thought questions' about wind. State four heat lessons on seeds. How give obllervation heat lessons on plant life? How appeal to the child'. fancy 7 Why T Four 'thought questioIl8' on IlOurCei of the earth'. 
 
 95 
heat? What observation lessons may precede a study of the seasons? State four season lessons for children. 8. State two kinds of map directions to be taught in Geography. Bow? Bow introduce the idea of continents, oceans, and zones? Why so? 4. State some kinds of lessons on plants proper to Geography. Compare a plant with your own body. Mention five ways in which seeds are distributed. Mention ten plant enemiee. What are the chief crops of your county? Its chief occupations? Chief crops in the State? Its chief occupations? Make a product map of Georgia. Bow increase the child's interest in the countries of the globe? Mention some wonderful points of each continent. Mention some interesting leEsons on table foods. Tell where the following foods come from: Mace, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, butternuts, almonds, dates, figs? 5. Mention some lessons showing the uaefuless of annimal life to man. Bow give these lessons? How develop the child's faculty of comparison? Why? Bow teach the adaptation of animals to the life they lead? State some lessons in this subject. Siudy and draw the foot of a hen, a pigeon, a woodpecker, a duck. Bow is each foot adapted to the life of the bird? State some interesting facts about hibernation. Mention some animals specially serviceable to man in the different countries. 6. Why present to children child-life in the different zones and countries? Why locate everything in these elementary Geography lessons? Why teach a few great cities fully instead of thousands as we used to do? Bow teach these cities to children? What are some main questions to have in mind in teaching these cities? Why not lecture on these cities to children? What is better? When can children begin to study a Geographical book profitably? 
 
 96 
CHAPTER Ill. 
BOW TO TEACH THE GEOGRAPHY BOOL 
I-PREF TOBT. 
The chances are that you are going to have to use an old time, irrational Geography book for many years yet. The only thing to do is to do the best thing possible with it sa chance offers in the situation in which you find yourselL It will be neceBBary therefore :- 
1. To be a scholar in Geowaphy much beyond the book you teach. 
2. To know more about the daily lessons with your book shut than the cl88lJ does with its book shut. 
8. To omit the dead, meaninKless, and useless details of the book whenever necessary; and to do so wisely. 
4. To enlarge, independently, the meager chapters of the book,-lIi those on relief, geographical forces and agents, climate, plant life, commerce and trade routes, for instance. 
5. To have a familiar acquaintance with standard profe~sional texts in the subject. (See chapter I.) Chapter IlL, Part III. of Swett's" Method of Teaching" is especially suggestive to the Common School teacher. 
6. To know that a lesson may be interesting without befng educative; but that it cannot be educative without being interesting. 
II.-HINTS ABOUT METHODS. 
1. Book muat not be too hard. Be sure that the geography book is not too difficult for the claBB to read. The simplest good geography I know is about as difficult as the ordinary Fourth Reader. 
2. The language of the book must be mastered. The geography book is first of all a reading book to be read by the child intelligently. Therefore see to it that he learn8 (1) the fOTIDJI (.peUina and pronun 
 
 97 
clations), (2) the meanings and (3) the lJIMll of the vocabulary of the book,leason by leSl!onj also (.) he must be taught to look at a map and to form from it a good mental picture of the country it represents. The power to do this will develop slowly in the best pupil under the best teaching. 
S. Translate tM book by appeall to the familiar. 
In order to give reality and meaning to what the child Iltudies in the geography book, call up his outdoor experiences, for illustration and explanation. Relate what he already knows to what he reads about. Skill in doin~ this evidencell the true teacher. Read Page'. Theory and Practice, p. 296-8 (Phelps's Ed.). 
 Devdop Imagination. In order to cultivate the pupil's imagination, and make living knowledge out of dead information. (1) After finishing the study of a country or city have the pupil place himself, in fancy, in a particular place, and tell what he sees. Thus, after finishing Egypt, say. "You may stand on top of the pyramid of Gizeb, and tell me what you see." It is always an effective and interesting review. (2) Or have them write up imaginary journeys through a country that h~ been studied. 
5. School Cabintts. 
Have the children to fill a cabinet or museum with all sorts of geographical objects,-tre&l!ures from nature'l\ storehouse, leaves pressed, mounted and labeled, minerals and rocka, seed pods, grallses, bird nests, and so on endleBl!ly; articles from the different countries of the earth,-India-rubber and coffee from Brazil, quinine from Peru, firecrackers and tea from China, ivory from Africa, figs from Asia Minor, lemons from Sicily, and so on. Label each article, Ihowinr the country it is from. 
I. T"ach the Pictures in the Boo~ Pay special attention to the pictures in the geography book. Quis upon them lellOn by 1618On, till they 
 
 98 
have told their full story. Such quizzing pays. Ohil dren ullually look at these pictures without lIeeing all they have to tell. 
7. Picture Scrap-Boob. Engage the children in fllling a Geographical Picture scrap-book. A business man's Pocket Letter File will hold a bushel of scraps. Each pocket can be labeled and devoted to the pictures of some one or two countries. Afterwardll, the pictures can be winnowed, and the best selected and posted into a I!crap book. Advertising cards-especially the Arbuckle coffee cards-the monthly magazines, the railway toorists' books, book .catalogues, &e., furnish pictures abundantly. 
8. Crayon Relief Map Maps and illustrations in crayon relief are easily drawn after a little practice. Aug burg's" Easy Things to Draw in Geography" will help the teacher. The drawing of relief maps is much more important than that of outline maps. 
9. Outline Map Drawing. Outline map drawing ought to accompany Geographical work throughout. Ashmore's notions and iostructione about this are the very beet. See Georgia Outlines of Methods, 1896, pp. 67,72. Have the be t work displayed on the waIls. 
10. ProgreuitJe Quaine Map. Learn the use of progressive outline mapll. You can buy these, or make them yourself easily. Draw the country on stiff pasteboard, cut it out along the outline, and then the pupils use it for quickly drawing their own outlines on sheets of paper. The idea then is to put into the map the geographical features as the.e are studied day by day. Presern and display the best of these on the wallll. 
11. Sandrand-Mucilage Map The easie8t of all relief maps to make are the .and-andmucilage mapll. Draw the outline on a lac. bo&l'd 
 
 99 
(from the dry-goods IItores). Mucilage the lIurface inside the outline. Sprinkle fine sand on it, and leave it to dry. Shake off the loose sand, and put more mucilage .where the highlands are, and again pour on the sand. When it is dry, build up your plateaus. then your mountain ranges, then your peaks. :Meantime, with your finger, you easily correct any mistakes and shape up the formll before they are completely dried. It will take the best D1..ucilage. Buy your gum-arabic, and mix yourselL (I got this idea from Supt. Noble, Wilmington, N. 0.) 
12. Production Map. 
Taking the outline maps, made aa indicated, shade in the agricultural crops and mineral productions as these subjects are being located in c01ll'lle of the lessons. The production maps in Redway'. Elementary Geography are good. The children easily and quickly do this work. Preserve and display on the walls the best work 
1S. Disucted Map'- 
Dissected maplI are easily made-of the U. S., Dy. Trace upon good pasteboard the large U. S. map in the Geography. Then with a cobbler'. knife cut out all the States carefully. The Imaller children find good occupation in putting the pieces together to form the whole map. 
14. Production Map qf Georgi4. 
An intere.ting production map of Georgia is e8llily made upon a large sh.eet of draul!'htman's paper. Trace it from a medium size wall map. Mount it against a smooth surface. Put in the rivers, mountainll, railroads and citiell. Then, with mucilage, ltick on rice, com, lugar-cane seed, cotton, coal, marble, .!tc., where these productionl are found. 
In all of these formll of occupation the teacher will do as little as possible himeeU and arou.. and dinoct the children'. enerilee instead. 
 
 100 
i5 .An Outdoor-Reliej Map oj Georgia. In a protected place on the school grounds a large relief map of the State can be made by the children at their play times. The teacher outlines the State, directs in building up the slopes, highlands, ridges and mountains. Then he can safely leave the children to put in the rivers, railroads, cities and productions by themselves, the teacher merely overlookini and correcting errors. N. E. Ware'. children did this at Hawkinsville interestedly and profitably. 
16. Weather Ob8tT1latiom. These ought to be recorded on the. blackboard regularly twice a day at stated times. The idea is, mind you, to lead the children into noting coincidences and causes. At the start the thermometer, the direction of the wind and the aspects of the sky (clear, cloudy, foggy, rain, hail, snow) need to be recorded, along with dew or frost, or their absence, as noted earlier. These records can get to be more elaborate later. 
17. School Correlpondenca. The teacher can, by letter with 80me other teacher in the North, or West, or Southwest, start up class correspondences between their pupils upon the geographical surroundings of the two classes. This iI ~etting to be a common resort in this country. 
18. Locate trerything in the History LeaOM. This ought to be a standing requirement in history teaching, as well as in such readinlt lessons as require it. The habit of locating what iI read, whenever posl5ible, will teach )'our pupils more geography after awhile than you can possibly do now. 
19 Attend Ie Current Geographical NetD&. For instance, post on the bulletin-board of the school a newspaper map of the Klondike regions, with brief interesting information about the country; or of Cuba. 
20. Deal Sparingly VJith Statilt~ Areas, populations, heights, latitnde.l, longitudes, and 
Ule like. Accuatom puplll to tumiD. lIuch detail. 
 
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Into real knowledge by eompari!on. Thus it l.!I only. little problem in arithmetic to learn, for instance, that India ill about as large as the United States east of the Mississippi river, that France is about as large as South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; that all the people in Georgia would make a city onethird as large as London. It is only by comparison that any kind of information become. defiDite. 21. Compare J Compare JJ ..4.U the ti77U JJJ Every new llubject should be studied by itself and then In comparison with what ia already known. When the children come to Itudy South America, haTe them compare it with North America; the Nile with the Amazon; the Japanese Islandl with the British Islell; dry climate countriea with moillt climate countries i tropical life with arctic life, and llO on endlessly. If your pupill are not comparing, you are not teaching. 
Remember that. See the compariaonl in Chapter m .. 
Part m., of BwetL 
22. Map Quutiolll, 
Usually there are entirely too many map questions. In a geography book at my right hand there are nearly 6,000 of them; mOlt of them too, entirely destitute of significant or interesting information for the child. He does not remember all ese; he ought not to do it, if he could. The details in geography you have yourself forgotten ought to be a hint that the children will aleo forget them. Why waste time upon mattera that neither enrich nor discipline the mind profitably f All a rule, it i. best to have the map studiel directly in connection with the dt'8criptive matter, and following it all a special review. 
23. Topical StwJ.1I. As soon all possible. the cl&8ll .hould llettle down regularly into topical study and recitation upon geographical subjects; because (1) it throws their knowledge into orderly systematic form, (2) provokes independent investigation, (3) brings all the old geography books about the home into service and (4) develops in the child a Nnle of eompleteneu. 
 
 102 
h. 8upp~tary&ading Boob in Gwgraphy. Manage in some way to have just a few of tbeee on your desk for the free use of your pupils. Any of the bookll of Jane Andrews or J ohonnot (See Chapter I.) will enrich and arouse the minds of your class. 
Ill. Quia: Don't Lecture too Much. Remember that your clsss is much more interested in the knowledge they have gained than in the information you have to give them; more in their own recitation than in yours. Suppression on your part; expression on their part; or depression on everybodY'll 
pan. 
m.-DoNT's. 
1. Don't fot'j:(et that the geography book 18 usually beyond the maturity of the child. 
2. Don't make the lessons too long. Attraction ill better . than propulsion-leading tban driving. S. Don't fail to draw on the child's own experiences for illus- 
tration and explanation of the book lessons. 4. Don't overload the child's memory with useless details 
It doesn't matter much if he doesn'j; know where Archangel ill, or the Chuput river. ' 5. Don't forget to appeal to observation, imagination and thinking as well as to verbal memory in Iteography teaching. 6. Dou't fail to exhaust the information of your class before you begin to lecture. 7. Don't neglect local and current geography. 8. Don't expect the child to remember what you have forgotten in Geoltraphy. 9. Don't expect the child to know more about the subject with his book shut than you do with yours shut. 10. Don't forget that you are not teaching at all unless your pupils are forming the habit of comparison. 11. Don't neglect reviews. Young teachers usually fail jus~ here. 12. Don't fail to haTe plenty of map-drawing. 18. Don't forget that relief map-drawing ill more importan~ than outline map-drawini. 
 
 103 
14. Don't fail to have your clasB draw a map of the State onc. a year at least. 
15. Don't make a hobby of map-drawing, and waste time fool' ly. 
16. Don't fail to save all the Geography pictures that fall into your hands. 
17. Don't fail to learn how to teach Geography frOID pictures. 18. Don't hesitate to buy a good professional book on the sub- 
ject occasionally. 19. Don't forget that when you know too much about Geogra- 
phy for a small place, you'll know just about enough for a bigger place elsewhere. 20. Don't fail to visit the old book stores in the cities. I bought two good books for my Geography library in them the othljr day: Captain Cook's Voya~e, 5c, and Davie's Two Years before the ~Iast, JOe. 21. Don't put off private study in physical sciences as an aid to Geography teaching (and to enlarged scholarship as well). 22. Don't forget that when you have come to be a really competent teach er of Geography, that you have acquired a pretty liberal education. 23. Don't forget that Geography books and Geography teaching are undergoing the most radical changes. 24. Don't forget that you'll be stranded high and dry on this subject if you don't wake up. 21). Don't forget that there ie always room at the top in any department of teaching. 26. Don't fail to read the Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Geography-Teaching. Write the United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 
Two things in conclusion: 1. My aim has been to supplement and not to supplant Ashmore's notes on Geogyaphyteaching in the Georgia Teachers' Outlines for 1897. That is wholly admirable. I would DOt change a syllable of it. 2. My own notes have been made up under great hardships-for love, and not for pay, and I therefore crave, even if I do not delerve, the kindly criticism of my fellow-teacher 
 
 104 
 
IV.-QUIZ REVIEW. 
 
1. What are the faults of the old-time Geography-book? 
 
What i8 necessary in order to use a poor Geography- 
 
book wisely T Instsnce some of the usele88 details of a poor Geography-book. What is to be done with them? 
 
What are some of the subjects that are usually treated meagerly in ordinary Geography-books T What must 
 
the teacher be able to do T How is the teacher to Ket a familiar acquaintance with the best methods in Geography-teachingT Is an educative exercise necessarily intpresting T Why 80 T 
 
U. 1. Why must not the Geography-book be too difficult? Are they usually too difficult for Geography 
 
classesT Primary Geographies are about as diffi- 
 
cult as what No. of Reader? 2. What four things are nece88ary to understanding the 
language of the book T Which is most difficult? 
 
WhyT 
a. How is the pupil to get firm hold of the meaning of 
 
the book T State the illustration in Page. 
 
. State two ways of developing the imaKination in Geography-teaching. Why appeal to the imagina- 
 
tion T 6. How can school cabinets be filled 1 Suggeat proper 
objects for a Geographical cabinet. The uses of 
 
such a cabinet? 6. Why set the class to studying closely the pictures in 
 
the Geography-books? Select a picture and give 
 
an exercise upon it. 7. What are the uses of a scrap-book of Geography-pic- 
 
tures T How fill 8uch a scrap-book? Sources of 
 
pictureaT 8. Why are crayon relief maps more important than 
outline maps T Draw a relief map of Georgia. 
 
9. How can children come to understand what a map 
 
means? (p. 67, Syllabus '97.) The real object of 
 
map-drawing T The aim at first? State how a 
 
cl&88 is to be drilled in map-drawing. (p. 73,18yl- 
 
labulof '97.) 
 
. 
 
 .105 
10. State how. DDd-and-mucilage map It made' 8tate three advantages this form Qf relief map has. 
11. What is a progressive outline map' How U8ed' How made, easily and abundantly' 
12. What are production maps' How made' Why preserve and display the best maps of the clas8 , Their special value' 
18. How make a dissected map of the United States' Its uses' 
14. How make a production map of Georgia' Why resort to such a device' 
15. How make an outdoor relief map of Georgia' Reason for having the children mainly do the work' 
16. How record weather observations' Why' What records mi~ht be made? 
17. What is meant by school correspondences' How start them up ? 
18. How take note of current Geographical new8' Mention some important Geographical news recently. 
19. How teach statistics? Why? Size of India? France? How ascertained? 
20. How should any Bubject be 8tudied? Reason for each step? Illustrate. Contrast N. America with S. America. The Nile and the Amazon. The British and the Japan Isles. 
21. What is true of the map questions in moet Geography books' What hint does the teacher have? The best way of teaching map questions? 
22. When silould pupils begin to study topically? The uses of topical study? Make out a set of topics for Georgia. 
23. The special use of supplementary reading boob u. 
Geography teaching? How use them 1 24. State the reasons for teaching by question. instead 
lIZ. of by lectures? 
m. 1. Is it true that Geographical books uaually too dif- 
ficult for the child? 2. Reasons for short lesson8 T 8. Why mUllt explanatioDll be liven In tel'lDll of tae 
child'. own experiencea 1 
 
 106 
. What are the danger! of overtaxing the Terhal memory in Geowaphy ., 
6. Define Observation; Imagination; Thinking. How appeal to each in Geograpby teacbing? 
6. When may a teacher properly begin to lecture? Wby? 
7. Reasons for teaching local and current Geography? 8. Wbat may you reasonably expect the child to forget 
in Geography? What conclusion follows? 9. What reasonable demand may pupils make of the 
teacher of Geography? 10. Wben are you really teaching? When not., 11. Where do young teachers usually fail? State two 
qualities of a good review in Geography. 12. Why do teachers omit map-drawing? What do you 
consider proper moderation in map-drawing T 13. Justify, if it can be done, the superior value of relief 
map-drawing? 14. Why have a county and a State map drawn fre- 
quently? How frequently? 15. What indicates that a teacher 11 making a hobby of 
map-drawing? 16. The uses of Geographical pictures? How use them? 17. Select a Geographical picture and give an exercise. 18. Why buy a professional book on Geography teaching? 19. \,{hat advantage lies in being an expert teacher? 20. Why visit "Old Book Stores"? 21. How do the pbysicalsciencell help in modern Geog- 
raphy teaching? How can the teacher be schooled in these? Name the physical sciences. 22. What reward lies in being a competent teacher of Geography? Show that this is so? 23. What radical changes are Geol!raphical books undergoing? What neglected subjects are being treated more fully? 24. Penalty for neglecting a thorough preparation? 25. Who i~ gettinlt poor pay" Hi~h pay? 26. What Report is recommended? Where obtained? NOTB.-Pro[e88ional courses in common school methods (thia cour e amonK the othera) can be had at the State Normal School. 
 
 HISTORY. 
By J. HARRIS CHAPPELL, PRESIDENT GEORGIA 
NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE. 
PREFAOE. 
This article has been prepared by the writer at the request of Georgia's State School Commissioner, Hon. G. R. Glenn. Its object is to offer to the teachers of GeorlZia some suggestions in regard to teaching United States Ilistory. ~t will be confined strictly to nited Stn.t s Hi tory and will not embrace any part of American History outside of the United States. 
History is one of the most interesting of all studies. It is more interesting than geography; geography i a description of the stage on which tbe drama of buman life is enacted, but history is a description of the drama of human life itself. It is more interesting than mathematics; mathematics appeals to the intellect only, but bistory appeals to the whole !Dind of man. It is more interesting than psyehology; psychology anatomizes and an alyzes the human soul and points out its relation to environment, but history exhibits the human soul as a living creative power in the act of producing environment. It Is more interestlng than natural science; natural science deals with phy ical forces, but history deals with spiritual forces; how the young Napoleon led his army aero the Alps is more intere ting than bow ~Iaciers lide down the Alps~ bow the Puritans establisbed New England is more interesting than bow corals build islands in the sea; bow the Soutberners "wore tbemselves to a frazzle" figbting tor the Lost Cause is more Interestln~ tban bow rocks &re 
 
 108 
crumbled to dust by heat and cold, raIn and eno"W. Hi!; tory is more interesting than the so-called "naUII" studies"; the genesis of the AmerIcan Revolution is mo!', interesting than the germina.tion of a bean stalk; Georg. Washington and Robert E. Lee ale more interesting than bugs and buttertlies. "The proper study of mankind i man." 
A number of other studies pursued In our schools have a greater practical or strictly utilitarian ,alue than history has, and are more Important in the narrow sense, but none of them possess so high a culture value. History, properly presented and properly pursued, is perhaps the most liberalizing of all studies. 
To teach history as it should be taught requires on the part of the teacher a great deal of study, thought, and careful preparation. 
It Is with sincere modesty and without the least dogmatism or cock-sureness that the author offers to the teachers of Georgia the following suggestions: 
THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 
1. Master thorougWy the tert-book that your class uses. Know the book so well that you will not have to open It In the presence of the class. You require your pupils to recite the lesson with book closed; surely you should be able to hear the lesson with book closed. Know every lesson ill the book Incomparably better than the best pupil In the class knows it. 
2. In your own study use a number of text-books besides the one that your class uses. Compare tbeir presentation of each subject with 'its presentation by your class textbook. It Is Important that these parallel texts should be the best books obtainable, and some of them sbould be of higher grade than your class book. 
3. You bould know a great deal more about the subject than is contained in any te t-book. Text-books on history are necessarily bald and Inadequate; especially is thi 
 
 109 
the case with United States History, tor the extent, 1m portance and complexity of the subject make It Impossible for it to be presented adequately within tbe limits ot a school text-book. The very best text-book needs to be enlarged, enricbed and vitalized by tbe teacher trom hll tuller, better and more vivid knowledge ot tbe subject. Therefore, parallel with the study of text-books, read on eacb subject the best masterpieces that you can procure. Don't waste your time, dissipate your powers, and addle your brain by reading inferior books on United States History. On this subject, as on all others, the world In our day is flooded with inferior works. Beware of them. Concentrate your intellectual energies on a few of the very best obtainable books. Lists ot such books wlll be given turther on in this article. 
THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION. 
1. Require your pupils to study tboroughly the lesson In the text-book. You can scarcely be too exacting about this. A foolisb notion quite commonly prevails among would-be progressive teachers that pupils must not get the lessons iIlo. the book. This iuea has been propagated by certain brilliant pedagogical geniuses who preach the doctrine that the getting of an education sbould all be a delightful entertainment, a cbarming pastime, without labor, without pains, and without the faintest suggestion of dludgery. This is one of tbe fallacies of the so-called "new education." Believe not in it. "There iE no royal road to leaming" is a perennial truth. 
2. Tbe text-book Is the very backbone of the pupil's knowledge-the ridge connecting and holding firm all that comes to him from other sources. Tbe pupil should be reo required to master tbe body of facts that It contains so thoroughly that be can stand a rigid examination on them. He should not be encouraged or even permitted to commit to' memory, as a. rule, the exact language of tbe book, but should be able to give in Ws own language the subatance or essence ot ever,. p&ra&Ta.pb in the lesson . . 
 
 110 
1'1ltned. Of course. the paragraphs In the book ditl'er gr atly in import..'lnce-some may well be entirely omitted, some lightly passed ovel', while others must be very thoroughly studied, and a few perhaps committed to memory l'f'rbatim. These differences of emphasis should, as far as practicable, be indicated by the teacher in as igning the le~ on. '.rhe pupil sbould be instructed to examine bimself before coming to the recitation by asking himself the questions that in mo t text-books are put at the end ot' NICh lesson or at the bottom of the page. Tbis Is "oldt'asbioned," but it is nevertheless rigbt and good. Of course, tbe teacher must not use these questions in bis examination of the class, but must invent his own question; tbl he can readily and skillfully do if he has hlmseIt' thoroughly mastered the lesson. 
3. The writer well knows that in giving the above advice in regard to the pupil's use ot' the text-book he has gone directly counter to the doctrine ot' some so-called "improved metbods," but from very close and caret'ul personal observation and experience he is perfectly convinced tbat the so-called "improved method " in this, as in many other matters, are wholly wrong. If the text-booK Is to be studied at all, it should be thoroughly studied, and not In the loose, slIp-shod, scatter-brained way that some progre sive teachers advise. 
!lIE~IORIZI 'G. 
'0 "improved method of teaching" can au away Wlth 
the necessity of committing to memory certain hi. torical data, such as the names of tbe presidents in order of succession, witb datcs of their administration and tbe political party to wbicb eacb belonged; tbe principal wars of tbe 
nited States, with cau e of each concisely expre ed, and date; population of the United States at intervals of about twenty v/>ars, beginning with 1790; the dates of tbe most impo~nt events in eacb period, as the t'ounding ot' the principal onf'S of the thirteen colonies, etc., etc. Such data 
 
 111 
Is the multiplication table ot hi tory, so to speak, and, like that, should be at the tongue's end. Some foolish "progres ive" teachers oppo -e e,cn this limited memorizing work in histOI'y, just as they oppose committing the mul. tipllcation table or the ten commandments to memoryfor no other reason in the world except. that it is "oldtashioned." Pay no heed to the voice ot these foollsh "pro. gre si,e" teachers! 
It Is also an excellent practice to require pupils to commit to memory t:OTootim certain sallent po. sages trom state documents and from the utterances ot great statesmen and oratol's on vital issues, such as closing po. ages ot Patrick 
Henry's Immortal speech; peroration or 'Webster's great 
Union oration; opening paragraph ot the Declaration ot Independence; extracts trom the Constitution; the abom inable Fifteenth Amendment, etc., etc. 
THE RECITATION. 
1. The recitation Is the teacher's opportunity to enforce, explain, lllustrate and amplity the les on. This he cannot do effectively unless the pupil has first thoroughly studied the lesson. Theretore, catechise the class closely on the lesson in the book, and as this exercIse proceeds offer such explanations, illustrations, corrections and amplifications as In ~'our judgment may best serve to Illustrate the lesson, to gi\Te It interest and vivacity, and to Impress it upon the minds ot your pupils. Be careful, however, not to talk too much. As far as possible, lead your pupils to do the talking. By skillful questioning, bring out what they know and what they think on the subject, and then in the mo t graphic language that you can command give your corrective and llluminating utterances. 
2. The recitation affords a splendid opportunity tor the teacher to lead the pupils Into Impromptu, intormal discussIons In which they are enconraged to think tor them lelveil, draw their own concluillonil and expreilil theIr own 
,\ W 011 morM ~4 /l1~tQrt~M qllfllition-, For In ceo 
 
 112 
the close ot the French and IndJan war period, being IlJre that the class thoroughly knows the facts ot the conflictIng claims, ask some such question as thIs: "WhIch do 1/011 think had the best rIght to the dIsputed territory, France or England 1" A great many such questions mIght be suggested. Such dJscusslons, properly conducted, arouse the thinkIng powers and exercIse the reason and judgment of pupils beyond almost any other study pursued in school. 
In these exercises (whIch should always be sprung upon the class unexpectedly) the teacher shouid very carefully direct and guide the mental processes ot the pupils, but at the same time should avoid being dogmatic and dictatorIal 
REVIEWS. 
1. At the beginnIng ot each recItation a tew momentIJ should be devoted to a revIew ot the salient points in the prevIous lesson, especially when that lesson has any close connection with the lesson In hand. Sometimes this preliminary review should cover several previous lessons; this should be done, as tar as practicable, whenever a number of successl ve lessons are very vitally and Intimately connected. The revIew questions should touch only upon vital points. 
2. Impromptu topical renews should be given lUI occasion demands. For Instance: Before beginning the lesson on the "Missouri Compromise," review clearly and concisely all previous agitations and decisions of the slavery questJ.- n in the Constitutional Convention and in Congress. 1,lkewise whenever In any lesson an Important recurring subject Is treated, give a conclse~ clear-cut topical review ot that subject from Its origin up to the lesson In hand. Such vital Issues as the Tan!!, Slavery, States' Rights, etc., etc., should be thus repeatedly reviewed and re-revlewed. 
3. About once a tortnlght give oral reviews covering the cronnd rone over durlni the two weeks. Ask short. sharp 
 
 113 
question on the most important points and require prOillVt, urief answers. Vary the questions calling for short answers with questions that require the pupil to give the whole of a subject; for instance: "Give an account of the settlement of Virginia from 1007 to 1630." 
4. Give written reviews about once a month or less frequently. A good method Is this: After the class Is ass mbled assign to each pupil a separate subject to write upon" selected from the lessons gone over during the month; or if the class be too large for this plan, select ten or twelve subjects, assigning each of them to a number of pupils; make sure that pupils having the same subject do not sit within communicating distance of each other. Have the subjects and assignments either written on the blackboard or on a slip of paper placed on the pupil's desk before the class assembles. Always notify the class at least a day In advance of a formal review, whether oral or written. Always carefully inspect the written exercises and return the papers to 'pupils with mistake. marked and with other criticisms. 
SELECTION. 
United States History Is a vast subject, pervaded by complexities and abounding in Important events, interesting episodes, significant facts, dramatic Incidents and romantic stories. From this enormous mass of material, what to select and what to omit, and how much space to give to each part and subject, Is properly the function of the author of the text-book and not the function of the teacher. Most text-books are very faulty in this particular. In trying to tell too many things they haven't the space to tell the important things adequately, and they seem to have little regard for historical perspective and proportion. This fault in the text-book may be In large measure corrected by a thoughtful and skillful teacher. As to how this may be done, some 8u~gestlons will be of fered further on in this article. 
 
 114 
EMPHASIS. 
The subject-matter of history varies greatly In Impor tance. In teaching history, therefore, some things 
hould be strongly emphasized, some moderately emphasized, some slightly emphasized, and some not emphasized at all, What to emphasize, how to emphasize, what degree of emphasis to give, Is one of the most important considerations in the teacbing of history. and it is a matter in which the teacher must depend mainly upon his own judgment and skill. Tbe tert-books can give, or do give, but little help In this direction. The following suggestions are offered with tbp. hope that they may prove helpful: 
HISTORICAL EVENTS. 
FRUITFUL AND UNFRUITFUL. 
1. There are two principal classes of historical events, namely, the fruitful and the unfruitful. 
(1) Fntit(ul EveJlts are those which produce and reproduce other events, and which have a great subsequent influence on the history of the country. 
For Example: The introduction of negro slavery into the American Colonies. If that event had not occurred, the subsequent history of the United States would have been far other than it has been, and the social and industrial conditions of the Southern States would be very different from what we see them to-day. 
(2) U~lfruitfuZ E,;cnts are those which do n.ot produce other events and whose influence Is transient, havln a little or no effect on the subsequent history of the country. 
For Example: The Salem Witchcraft delusion. That event had no llUlting consequences on the history of the country or on the civilization of f'ew England. Tbings are n.ow just as they would have been If the event had never occurred. 
2. Distinguish carefully between fruitful events and un fruitful events, and In your teachIn. lay the rreatellt em 
 
 115 
phasls on the former e1M8. Traee their Influence througb subsequent history and lead your pupil" to do the same. 
3. Guard ag-alnst devotln~ too much time and giving too lUuch emphasis to magnificC'nt but fruitl 8S petformances. while passing by with little notice le8 showy but infinitely more important deeds. For it frequently happens that a Wholly unfruitful historical event, like DeSoto's expedition, Is full of splendor and Intense dramatic Interest, while an event of vast and far-reaching influence, like the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, makes its appearance as a modest and obscure deed. 
4. It does not !ollow. however, that all unfruitful events n.re to be lightly regarded. Many of them possess a rich historic value. Some of the most brilliant episodes in American history are e,ents which had no Important consequences, but which, nevertheless, are well worth teachIng for the heroism and thrilling human Interest they contain; for Instance, John Smith and Pocahontas, young Washington'lI journey through the wilderness, Walter Raleigh's Lo"t Colony, etc. Others which hao only a transIent or ephemeral effect, are invaluable as illustmtions of the spirit of the times In which they occurred; such as the 
alem Witchcraft heresy, the John Brown Raid, the Kll Kiux Klan In Reconstruction days, etc. 
Select the very best and most significant of such stories and, In their proper place and connection, relate them to your pupils with as much vivid power as you can command, but don't give them undue emphasis by reiterating them or by calling for them in reviews and examinations. 
5. To summarize the foregoing: In regard to every historical event that comes under your consideration ask yourself questions like these: To which class does this event belong, the fruitful or the unfruitful? Is It worth pre enting to my pupils? What is its particular educational value? How much emphasis should I place upon It? By what method can I teach it best? 
 
 116 
Always place special emphasis on those events that have a great subsequent in.fiuence on the Wstory of the country and the life of the people. Train your pupils to distlnguisll such events and to follow them closely in their development and influences. Iterate and reiterate such events, and let reviews, examinations and w1'itten exercises be made up mainly of them. 
HISTORIOAL F AOTS. 
ESSENTIAL AND INOIDENTAL. 
1. Elver;y historical event is composed of two sorts of facts, namely, Essential Facts and Incidental Facts. 
E88ential Facta are those that caWllOt he changed without radically changing the character of the event itself and its historical significance. 
11ICidenroJ FacU are those that may be changed without  in any wise changing the character of the event 01' its historical significance. 
For Example: In that noted event, the Founding of Plymouth, the essential facts are these: Plymouth was founded by the Pilgrims, a band of Puritans who fled from England on account of persecutions, and came to the wilds of America in order that they might establish here Institutions in which they and their brother Puritans and their posterity might enjoy religious and civil liberty. They landed, by mere accident, far to the north on a bleak and sterile part of the A.merican coast. They were a hardy, heroic, eamest and devout people, but narrowminded, bigotted and fanatical. 
Not one of these facts could be altered without changing radically the character of the event Itself and its subsequent Infiuence on the history of the country. 
The Incidental facts are these: There were 102 Pilgrims; they came over in a ship called the Mayflower; they landed at Plymouth on December 21st, 1620; the landing was made alongside a big IJ'IUIlte rock; the first person to spring from the sWp upon 
 
 111 
the reek WRII a young girl named Mary ChUton; before landing the Pilgrims drew up and signed, In the cabin ot the Mayflower, a constitution or agreement known lUI The Compact. 
Now, everyone of these facts might be changed without In the least degree aft'ecting the character ot the event or changing Its infiuence on subsequent history. It there had been 123 Pilgrims, it their ship had been named the But terfly. It they had landed on the 19th ot January, 1621, If the landing had been made on a sandy beach, If the drst person to spring ashore had been the redoubtable Miles Standish, and It The Compact had been signed on terra firma eleven days atter the landing, it would have made no dift'erence In the subsequent history ot New England or ot the United States. 
2. Distinguish caretully between the essential tac~ and the Incidental tacts ot every Important historical event tlJat comes under your consideration. and In your teaching put the emphasis on the essential facts. See that your pupils get them very clearly and accurately, and that they understand their significance. Iterate and reiterate them, and let reviews and examinations and written lessons be made up chiefly ot them. 
3. Incidental facts are, however, not to be sllgbted. They constitute the most attractive and Interesting part ot history. They make "the story" ot history. Without' them history would be a dry and juiceless study. They appeal to the imagination and enable the mind to visualize historic scenes and persons and to realize historic deeds. With very young pupils the lesson should be made up mainly ot. Incidental facts. and with all pupils there should be a rich abundance of them; but they should not be emphasized, they need no emphasis, they are apt to emphasize themselves rather too mUCh. They are the easiest of all facts to remember. The knowledge of many persons who consider themselves "well up" In history conalata almost entirely In Incidental facts. 
 
 118 
 
4. In your teaching use an abundance, but not a superabundance, of Incidental facts: elect them carefully, taking those that are graphic, picture Que and character istlc, rejecting those that are trivial and without slgnlfi cance. Don't emphasize or put too much stre s upon them. Don't U!le them in reviews and written examinations, except to a limited extent. 
 
HISTORICAL HEROES. 
 
PERFECT AND FAULTY. 
 
1. Every youth should be a hero-wor hipper, and most youths are prone to be. One of the mo t important uses ot the study ot history Is to give right direction to this generous tendency and to make it ot high educational 
 
value. No more powertul formative Influence can take 
 
hold ot the mind and heart ot youth than a splendid heroic 
 
cha.racter. 
 
 
 
There are two kinds of heroes, the ideal hero of fiction and the real hero ot history. For inspiring, and all educative purposes, the real hero of history is incomparably more effective than the ideal hero of fiction. Fortunately, 
 
American history furnishes some superb models of real heroes. 
2. The qualities that the generous soul of youth most admires in men are Ii commanding presence, physical conrage, great intellect, strong will, and moral grandeur. The man that possesses all of these in high degree, i your per- 
 
fect hero. Such was George Washington and such wa Robert E. Lee. EVel'y Southern boy and girl should be taught from earliest childhood to admire, love and revere these two peerless Southerners, par 11()bile fratrwn! By book lessons and oral les ons, by 'ong and story, pupils should be made familiar with their pure and lofty character and their Illusu'lous deed'!. In every school in our Southland Washington's birthday and Lee's birthday, 
 
Ibould be observed with suitable exercIses, and great ,.ella ,lIould b t&ke~ to make the e . occ 101)1 1  
 
 119 
pressive and edifying. The most powerful lesson that can possibly be given on pure and exalted patriotism and unselli h devotion to duty is the close study of tl.le life of George Wasl.llngton. The most splendid iIlustratlon of perfect and lofty manbood that can po slbly be presented to the mind of youth is fumished in the life ot Robert E. Lee. Deep. la ting, and of pl-icele s value will be the bepelit that ;rou will confer upon your pupils if you will make them well acquainted with tl.le character, private life and public deeds ot the e two great men. No other history lesson can be worth as much to them. 
3. There are perfect heroes and there are faulty heroes. Compare DeSoto and LaSalle, the two greatest American explorers-note the cruelty, avarice and selfish ambition of the former, and the kind-heartedness and disinterested motives of the latter. Compare hero Sherman, with h1s motto, "War Is hell," devastlng with lire and rapine the defenceless, land through which he marched, with hero Lee requiring his soldiers to respect with the' utmost strictness all private property in the enemy's country. Compare that great rich Admiral having his head turned with extravagant ovations and eagerly snatching at proftered house and lot, with that great poverty-stricken General shunning all publicity and, though tortunes were laid at his feet, refusing to accept one penny except what he earned by the sweat ot his own brow. Compare Benedict Arnold, brave, able, but In moral character utterly Infamous, selling his country for a mess ot pottage, with young Andre, giving his life without a murmur for the British cause. 
Lead your pupils to note tor themselves these lIkenessel and differences and these nice dlstlnctlon.s between heroes. Lead them to observe that perfect moral rectitude Is the quality of first consideration in the hero, and that no man Is truly great who lacks It. Lead them to observe that & certain maral gr/J,naPlJr hn been the crownlo&, &,1017 ot all 
the .arth's. erea.test beroes. 
 
 120 
4. Don't weaken the talth ot your pupils In human nature by emphasizing too much the selfishness and rascality ot men In high public positions. Don't let them get the Idea (which too commonly pre,ails) that all or nearlJ all public men are self-seeking demagogues, moved only by personal ambition, tor this is not true. Sbow them the American demagogue, and hesitate not to give them concrete illustrations, ot which you can fi!1d a great abundance; but put the greater emphasis on the American pat,j{)t, ot which there are many shining examples. Show your pupils that personal ambition and patriotism are not incompatible with each other, and that most men in public lIte are governed by this mixed motive, but that whenever the tormer prevails over the Ia.tter It Indicates a scoundrel. Show that a man may be ardently and unselfishly devoted to what he conceives to be a right cause and yet be a very bad man, like the diabolical fanatlc, Thad Stevens; and on the other hand show that a strenuous political partisan may be a true patriot and a generous-hearted, just-minded man, like Abraham Lincoln. 
Show that our people are constantly exacting a higher and higher standard ot morals In men in public office, and that the scoundrel, the drunkard and the libertine, however splendid his talents, stands little chance ot preter- 
ment by the votes or the American people. Show them 
that no President ot the United States has ever been In the slIghtest degree tainted with dishonor, either in his private or in his public lite. 
HISTORICAL PERIODS. 
LOGIOAL AND OHRONOLOGICAL. 
In the Ute ot every nation there is apt to be at all times lome one strong dominant feeling which causes the principal public acts ot the people and produces the principal historic events. 
For Instance: From 17~ to 1783 the dominant feeling III America Wall desire for Independence and civil liberty; 
 
 121 
from 1 54 to 1861 the dominant feeling was sectional animo. ity. 
Logically. an historical period includes all of the prIncipal eVE-nts produced by any given dominant feeling. Chronologically, an historical period includes the time during which any given dominant feeling holds sway or remains dominant. 
It is impossible to make the chronological period coIncide exactly with the logical period, because it is impo sIble to say preclsel;y when any popular feeling begins to dominate or when it ceases to dominate; bnt these dates may be approximated. 
PRINCIPAL PERIODS. 
In the hIstory of the United States there have been nine principal periods; that is to say there have been nine dominant popular feelings which in succe sion have held sway and caused the principal historic events. 
Below we give these nine periods and uuderneath each period the dominant feeling that belongs to it: 
1. Discovery and Exploration. (Love of Enterprise and Adventure.) 
2. Settlement and Colonization. (Desire for Freedom and Fair Opportunity.) 
3. The Revolution. (Desire for Independence and Civil Liberty.) 
4. Organization of the Union. (Instinct of Self-preservation.) 
5. Development of the Nation. (Lo'l'e of country, or patriotism.) 
6. Sectionalism and Secession. (Bittel' Disagreement Between North and South.) 
1. Civil War. (Hostility Between North and South.) 
8. Reconstruction. ( 'orthern Malice and Southern Indignation.) 
9. The Re-united Nation. (Desire for Wealth and Material Development; Com merciallsm.) 
 
 122 
WHAT TO EMPHASIZE. 
In the following pages we gh'e a brief yllabus of what we ('oDreiYe to be the most important e"ents in each hi torlcnl period. They do not include, of course, neul'ly all the things that should be learned. but only tho e thin~ that seem most vital and upon which therefore the teacher should put the strongest emphasis and the pupil the most careful study. Of these eminently important things tho e that are pre-eminently important arg ind:ieated bll italics. 
1. DISCOVERY A D EXPLORATION. 
1492-1G81. 
(LOVE 0'" ENTERPRISE AND ADVENTURE.) 
1. Columbus's first voyage and di coveries made. Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. DeSoto's expedition. 
2. The Caoot3's discoveries (lnd ea:pl.aratioml. 3. Cartier's e;z;pw1'Otioll8. Champlain's expeditions. La~ SalUi's e:rpl.amtion of the Mio8si.ssippi Riverr. Jo'reniJ]t Setl/ements and forio8. 4. Hudson's disco,ery and exploration of the Hudson river, 
SUMMARY. 
State accurately and trace carefully on map di co"eries and explorations made by Spanish, French, Engli hand Dutch in territory now occupied by United tate, 
giving dates. tare 1Chat territm'v each natiQlt claimed 011 
account of tlU1SC disooveries. 
DATES TO BE ME~IORIZED. 
Discovery of America by Columbus, October 12, 1492. The Cabot's expeditions, 1497-98. Ponce de Leon's discovery of Florida, 1513. 
 
 123 
Cartier's explorations, 1534-35. Champlain's expeditions and settlements, 100815. Hud on's exploration of the Hudson river, 1609. LaSalle's exploration of the Mississippi, 1681. 
II. SETTLEME T AND COLONIZATION. 
1607-1763. 
(DEsmE FOR lI'REEDOM AND lI'AIR OPPORTUNITY.) 
1. Sir Walter Raleigh's futile attempts. 2. Ylrginla-Settlement of Jamestown and account of the colony for first five years. Description of Indians, their chat'acter, appearance, mode of life. Climate and soil. Cultivation of tobacco. Coming of tM "cavaliers;" tlwi.r ChJJ.raeter; 
tMir d()minance~ 
Introduction of African slo1:trll. Political, educational, religious and commercial condition and institutions in 1754. Population. Manners and customs. 
3. Ma sachusetts.-Voyage of the Mayflower and settlement of Plymouth. Settlement of Salem and Boston. Character of the Puritans, their piety and heroism; their 
biggotrll. tyranny and fallatici$m (illustratell). 
4. Founding and settlement of Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine. 
5. Climate and soil of ew England. Occupations of the people. Puritan dominance, their intolerance and tyranny. Their part in the Af'rican slave trad.e. Their manners and customs. 
6. New York.-Hudson's discovery (1609). Settlements by the Dutch. lew Netherlands and lew Amsterdam under the Dutch. Conquest by English in 1664. Effect on growth and development of the colony. Settlement of New Jersey. 
7. Maryland.-Settlement by the Catholics under Lord Baltimore. Act of Toleration. Clayborne's Rebellion. Comini of Puritans, their ingratitude and bad faith. Com- 
 
 124 
 
ing of Huguenots. Establi I1ment of Protestant Episcopal 
 
ClllIrcl1. Condition of colony anti cl1aracter of people in 
 
1700, 
 
, Penqsylvania,-Scttlclllent by Pann nnd tbe Quakers, 
 
Their uealings witl1 tbe Indians. Rapid growth and great 
 
 
 
prosperity of the colony-reasons. Ingratitude of the colo- 
 
nists. Settlem nt of Delaware. 
 
9. 'l'he Carolinas.-Settlement by Virginia "Squatters" 
 
along 'orth Carolina coast. The Lord Proprietors. Claren- 
 
don and Albemarle colonies-eharacter of the emigrants. 
 
The "Grand Model" government. Settlement of Charles- 
 
ton. Coming of. the Huguenots; their character and in- 
 
fluence. Immigration of Virginians. Separation into 
 
Nortl1 and Soutl1 Carolina. Climate and soil. Cultivation 
 
of rice and Indigo. Pine lumber and turpentine. Pros- 
 
perity. Character, manner, and customs of the people. 
 
10. Geol'gia.-Settl llleut by Oglethorpe. low growth of 
 
colony-reason. Introduction of slavery and rum; pros- 
 
pcrity. 111llni(Jl'ation of Virgilnans. Population and general 
 
condition of colony in 1760. 
 
11. Colonial Government.-The thl'ee types at the close 
 
of the Revolutionary period; (a) Royal Province. (b) Pro- 
 
plietary. (c) Charter. Define e.ach of these and name the 
 
colQ1lic8 lilJing under each at the close of tIte Colonia! Period.. 
 
l:l. French and Indian War.-Confllcting claims of French 
 
and English,-the territory in dispute, on what each nation 
 
ua ed its claim, circumstance that brought about the 
 
first collision. Washington's mission. 'Vashin,gton's de- 
 
fent at Gl'eat :'Ieadows. Braddock's defeat. Siege and capture of Quebec by the Engllsh. End of the war. Treaty 
 
of Peace and re8'ult of t1Ie war. 
 
SUMMARY. 
 
'ame the 13 original colonies and state When, where and by whom each was founded. What class or classe.; of people became dominallt alld (Jare tOile to thl civilization of til Ne/a Ellgland colonies, (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont and New Hampshire.) What clas, 
 
 125 
fill" C!aSU8 of Pl!Ople became dominant and vave tone to the civilizatL<m of tlte Southel'l~ oolonies f lVirginia, the Carolinas, Maryland and Georgia). \Vhat class or classes of people became dominant and gave tone to the civilization ot the Middle colonies? ( Tew York, 'cw Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Contrast the climate and soil of New England with that of the Southern colonies. Compare the character, culture, the dominant ideas, the occupation 
and the modes of life of the people ot these two sections. Define the three types of colonial government and name the colonies living under each at the close of the period. State the cause of the French and Indian war and the reBult ot the war. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Founding ot Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Carolina and Georgia, Introdnction of African slavery, 1<'irst immigration of Royalists into Virginia and of the Huguenots into South Calolina. It'ounding of Harvard College' and of William and Mary College. Establishment of the first printing press. The be::iIling and the end of the French and Indian war. 
III. THE REVOLUTION. (1765-1783). 
(DESIRE FOR INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL LIBERTY.) 
1st. Prellmlnary.-Political relation ot the colonies to England. Loyalty ot the colonies to England. England's inconsiderate and oppressive treatment ot the colonies as Illustrated by the revoking of charters, appointment of tyrannical governors, the Navigation Act, Writ ot A.ssistance, R striction on Manufacturers. Population and resources ot colonies in 1765. 
2d. Causes ot the Revolution.-The Stamp Act. How received by the colonists. Protests of Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry. Repeal ot the Act. Tax on tea. "BostM Tea ParlJ/." Boston Port Bill. First Continental Conil'ea8tv" lIOOOUiftl1 of (.U <leU. 
 
 126 
3d. Campal~ns and Battles ot the Revolutlon.-Battles ot Lexington and Bunker Hill. General account ot Washington's Campaigns from Battle ot Long Island, August 22, 1776, to Valley Forge, winter (December, 1777). General account of Burgoyne's Campaign. Desperate condition ot American cause (1777). Wa.~hingwn's influence. The French Alliance. War in the South. General account ot conquest ot Georgia and Carolina. Guerilla Wartare in the South. un'ender ot Cornwallis at Yorktown and end ot the War. Sketch ot some of the greatest heroes ot the Revolution. 
4th. Politics ot the Revolution:1. The Constitutional Congresses-theW power, and CQ1I,stitutioJlal positiolls. 2. Growth ot the desire for separation from England. 3. Declaration ot Independenc~fulLaccount of. 4c. Weakness and Unwisdom ot the war-time CODl:TeSselil. 5. Finances ot the Revolutionary war. 6. Tories. 7. Full account of the French Alliance. 8. The Treaty of Peace. 
SUMMARY. 
State clearly and concisely: The political, or govl1rn mental relations between American colonies and England. Feeling of colonies towards the "Mother Country" at close ot French and Indian war (love and loyalty). England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment ot the colonies prior to the Stamp Act. History ot the Stamp Act and subse quent tax measures. England's defense ot right to tax: Colonies' protest against. Colonies open revolt In "Boston Tea Party," etc. England's punishment ot the offenders. Rapid growth ot insurrectionary spirit among the colonIsts-how Inspired, propagated, and spread. Outbreak ot the war. Genesi, ana de/;e!opntlmt of the Declaration of I'Ilr ~penden~. Lengtll and result ot the war. Other things 
belldes American valor that contrlbute4 to tu@ lleteJ!.t ot 
m ~. British WIU it1pt~ '{frat wr. 
 
 127 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party, First Continental Congress. Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hlll, Declaration of Independence, Burgoyne's Surrender, Washington at Valley Forge, Capture of Savannah by British, Battle of Guilford Court-house, Surrender of Corwallis, Treaty of Peace. 
IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNION. 
(msTIr\CT OF SELF-PRESERVATION.) 
1. Political relation of the colonies to each other prior to the Revolution. Political relations during and Immediately after the Revolution. TM article8 of Oonfewation--f'Ull account of. 
2. Deplorable condition of the country at the close of the war-debts and poverty; discontent and insurrectionary spirit of the army; discord among the States; weakness of the government under Articles of Confederation. 
3. The Annapolis Convention. 4. The Philadelphia, or Oon.'JtitutionaZ OOn'OOntiollr--Qrigm of; per.sonne1- Debates on: (a) The control ana regulatiQn of oolnm.eroe. (b) The slave trade. (c) Manner in wMch 6lC11. State shQula be represented in Oongress. (d) The ratio of representatives in slave populatiOn,'J-MW each of tM86 quest'ions wa.'J settlea. 5. Submission of the Constitution to the people; popular discussion of; differences of opinion; State Soooreigntll id~a; "The Federalist." Ratification. 6. The CQn.'Jtitution a. con~pact betloeen sovereign Statu. 7. Explanation of form of government under the Constitution. 8. Election of George Washington as first president of the United States. 
SUMMARY. 
GITe a clear, concise statement of: Condition of countr)' at close of Revolution; Ina.dequacy of Articles of Confed- 
 
 128 
el'atlon; Annapolis Convention; Constitutional COD\'entionits work. Principal proYi ions of Constitution. Ratification of by the States. Different interpretations of. State Soyereignty idea. Plan of govel'nment under the Constitution. First presidental election. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Annapolis Con\"ention, Constitutional Convention, First presidential election. 
V. DEVELOPMEI'T OJ!" THE NATION, 1789,1853. 
(Lova OF COUN'rRY, OR PATRIOTISM.) 1. Organization of the government under the constitution. Extent, population, wealth, natural resources of the United States at this time. Principal cities. Distribution of population. State of education and religion. 2. \Yushington's Administration.-Hamilton's financial plan; the first taritl' and revenue tax; trouble with France (Genet); anti-slavery petition-how dealt with b1/ Congress; invention of cotton gin and its far-reaching effects; surrender of Land Claims by Virginia and othes States-the Northwest Territory. Hamilton and Jefferson; their differill" views. J!"irst political parties-Federalists and AntiFederalists. John Adams elected president. 3. Adams's Administratlon.-Alien and Sedition lawspassed and repealed. Unpopularity of administration. Capital removed to Washington. Death of George \Va hington-skctch of his character. Presidential electioni triumph of Anti-Federalists-political meaning. 4. Jefferson's Administration.-'l'he Loui iana Purchas~ full account of. The Embargo Act; New England's Nullification; New Englwna's threatened secession. Threatened war with Englano. Madison elected president-political meaning. Sketch of Thomas Jefferson-his character, deeds, and political doctrines. Madison's Admlnlstration.-War of 1812-brief account of New En.gl(llll.d.'$ refusal to furnish troops, etc.. UOM4 
 
 1~9 
Nullification. New England Hartford Conventlon-daim" rioht of sccession and threatens secession. Unanimous election of Monroe for president. 
5. 1\1onroe's Administration.-"Era of good feeling." Dis appearance of the Federalist party. Expansion of the Union-number of States, total population, wealth and resource, industrial development, educational conditions. growth of patriotism. The Monroe doctrine. Preservation of balance between slave and free States. The Missowi Oompromi8/}-full aeroU1Lt Of. Election of John Quincy Adams-political meaning. 
6. John QUincy Adams's Administration.-Hig7~ Protective Taritf-4iverse inlen;st and L'ieWS of North and South,. Acquisition of terrItory by treaty with Creek Indians. ConstructIon of first raIlway lines. Election of Andrew Jackson-political meanIng. 
7. Jackson's Administration.-Establishment of the "Spoils System" in the distribution of offices. Higher Protective Taritr. South OaroU,w's Nullif/,catiollr-full acoount. Clay'S Tarifl: CompromIse. Abolit-iQllist agilatWnsGarrIson and PhillIps. Great materIal growth and prosperity: Rise of the Whig party-Its doctrine. Sketch of character of Andrew Jackson. Election of Van Buren. 
o 8. Van Buren's Administralon.-Great financial panic. Establishment of the Sub-Treasury System-full explanation of. Presidential election-political meaning of. 
9. Tyler's Administratlon.-Death of President Harrison. Tyler's split with the Whigs. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. ExpulsIon of the Mormons. Invention of tbe electric telegrapb. Polk elected presIdent. 
10. Polk's Adminlstratlon.-Growing suspicion and bad feeling between slav!! and free State; strugglAJ to preserve ba"lanc~ of pOloer bet/oeen the two (pltrelv political, "wt 1/Wral.) Admission of Texas to tbe Union-political meaning of. (Short account of previous history of Texas.) Brief accounty of Mexican war. l'he pr'sidential election. The Free Soli Party. 
 
 130 
11. Administration of Taylor (and FlIlmore).-Rapld settlement of California by gold seekers. Admission of California-bitter sectwllal controver81l o~'er. Clay's "Omnlbus Bill." Rapid Increase of sectional antagonism. Election of Franklin Pierce as president. 
SUMMARY. 
Name the presidents In order wlth.politlcal party to whlch each belonged and length of administration of each, and mention most Important events of each administration. 
tate political doctrines of Federalists and Anti-Federalists; Democrats and Whigs; Free Soldlers. Give a sum mary of most Important TarlfI' Leglslatlon-{}lverse views of North and South in regard to. Concise account of the slavery (purely political) controversies; Missouri Compromise, Wilmot Proviso, Admission of Texas, Admission of California, Omnibus Bill. Sketch expansion of the Union, rapid growth In material pro perity. Universal patriotism or love of the Union. Growth of sectional antagonlsm. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Period of each president's adminlstrRtlon. Invention of the cotton gin. Louisiana Purchase. Embargo Act. Battle of New Orleans. Mi sour! Compromise. New England's Nullification and secession threat. First Protective TarlfI'. Soutb Carolina Numficatlon. Establishment of Sub-Treas' ory. Mexican War. Wilmot's Proviso. "Omnibus Bill." 
VI. SECTIONALISM AND SECESSION, 1853-1861. 
(BITTER DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN NORTIJ AND SOUTII.) 
1. Pierce's Admin! tratlon-The Kansas- ebraska Bill and truggle-full account of. Nulliticatwn of Fugitive Slave Law by NorUwrn Sfxl.tes. Increased bitterness between Nortb and South. 
2. Bucbanan's Admlnlstratlon.-Dred Scott decision. John Brown Raid-Its glorification by Northern prcss, pulpit. and platform. Formation of Republican party-elements 
 
 131 
of which It was composed. Split in Democratic party. Election of Lincoln and overwbelming triumph of Republic- 
anS-40Mt it meant for the South. 
3. Secesslon.-"State Sovereignty" doctri~refullv e:r. 'Plain. Secession of Soutbern States-reasons for. Secession oot uncQll8titutiol1al; the right repeatedlll' claimed by Northern 
State./!. Tlw Con./!titution altoays strictly obscn'ed by the Soulh, frequently violated by ortbern States, and openly defied by RepUblican leaders. Secession opposed by strong minority in the South, but whollV an. the Oro1.loIld. of its in~i MC1/. 
SUMMARY. 
A concise history of negro slavery in AmerIca:-lts adoption by all of tbe colonies: first prote t against came from the Soutb. New England its most ardent advocate and 
defender; Northern SfJatps cling to it a.s lono 'U/ it vavs them; dies a natural deatb in tbe Nortb; obtains a permanent lodgment in the Routb and becomes a vital and inextricable 
part of its civilization; etbnological place of the negro: Soutbern slavery cit'ilized and Christi.a.nized hin~, in(imtelv ame/.ioroted hi8 condition in every tcav, and made him do tht: onlV good work toot his race ha.s CL'Cr done in the world. Kindly relations between master and slave. Torthern anolition fanatics assail the institution of slavery with great bitterness and inju tice, nullify act of Congress, defy the Constitution. and stir up discord between Nortb and South. Statement of the several ag-itations of the slavery question in Congre s. howing- that tbese controversies were only political struggles to pre erve balance of power between slave and free States, and did not concern tbe moral aspects of lavery. Northern politicians combine with Nortbern abolitionists to form the Republican party, which gains complete control of tbe country. Soutbern States being at tbe mercy of tbis anti-. outhern party exercise tOMt the1/ belwoo to be tllC'iJr "lJO'OO1"Cion right" and secede from the Union. 
 
 182 
DATES TO BE ME:l10RIZED. 
Passage ot Kansas-Nebraskan Bill; Buchanan's election; Dred Scott decision; John Brown Raid; Lincoln's election; Secession ot first four Southern States. 
VII. CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. 
(HOSTILITY B&TWEEN NORTH AND OUTH.) 
1. Much opposition in the North to coercion ot the Beceded States. Lincoln's war proclamation. The Fort Sumter affair. A careful comparison of the population, wealth, resources, strength, and military advantages ot the North and the South at the beginning of the war. OpenIng scenes of the war. 
2. Campaigns of the War.-A clear, general account of the great Eastern Campaigns from battle of Bull Run to Appomattox surrender, inchiding description of battles of Bull Run, Seven days around Richmond, Second Manassas, Sharpsburg, Fredericksburg, Chancetlorsville, Gettysburg, Appomattox. General account of the great Western cam paigns from Fort Donelson to Johnston's surrender, in cluding description of battles of Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Atlanta, Sherman's mal'&h through Georgia and Carolina. 
3. Naval Warfare.-The blockade-Its effects on the South. Overwhelming superiority of the Northern Navy. Confederate privateer, "The Alabama." 
4. War Heroes.-Sketch ot Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson and of the Confederate women's devotion and heroism. 
5. Result ot the War.-Deteat ot the South-eauses. A careful comparison of the size and material equipment of the Northern and tbe Southern armies dUl'ing tile war; and of the comparative sufferings of the people, North and South. Deplorable condition of the South at the close ot the war. 
 
 133 
SUMMARY. 
The following Is a concise statement of the whole matter of the Civil War: 
From perfectly natural causes there grew up In the Union, side hy side, two distinct and irreconcilable civilization, namely: 
The cold climate, manufacturing, Puritan dominated, free labor, purely wllite civilization of the Torth, and tile warm climate, agricultural, Cavalier dominated, slave labor, negro permeated civilization of the Sonth. In some important respects the interests of these two civilizations were an,tagonlstic, and for this reason each civilization became su picious of the other, and there arose between them a strenuous political struggle to preserve the balance of power. The Torthern civilization grew to be physically much the stronger of tlJe two, and became very aggressive In its attacks upon a certain peculiar and vital institution of the Southern civilization. Aggravated by North~fn fanatics and Soutllern extremists, the difference between the two civilizations grew more and more irreconcilable, and bitter feeling arose between North and South. 
The Southern State, with an earnest desire to settle the trouble, asserted the right of State Sovereignty, and with drew from the Union; in taking this step they may have actell rashly and unwisely, but they broke no law, they violated no faith, they committed no crime, they did no moral wrong. The I\orthern States, denying the right of 
tate Sovereignty, and sincerely belie\-ing it to be their dnt;}' to preserve the Union at any cost, determined to force tbe SouUlern States back into the Union; for this purpose tlley got up vast hostile armies, and with fire and sword inY/rded tile outiliand. Tile Southern people simply arose in tile mnjrsty of tueir manllood to repel tuis invasion. A dreadful war en ued, during which the armies of bot-h sec tionlt. fought with great valor and from pure patrIotism. The odds against the South were overwhelmIng, but for fonr years she maintained the unequal contest with a sublime herl08m, and then went down in utter defeat. 
 
 II 
'. 
 
134 
 
VIII. RECD STRUCTlON, 1865-1870. 
(NORTHERN MALICE AND SOUTHERN INDIGNATION.) 
1. Lincolu's generous Ideas of reconstruction. Lincoln's 
assassination-sketch or his cnaracter. President John- 
son's plan of reconstruction; his proclamation; action of the Southern State8. Congress rejects Johnson's plan; passes Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which Southern States refuse to accept. Southern State put under military despotism. Rule of the "Carpet-baggers." "Black and tan" conventions. "Freedman's Bureau." Insults and outra~es heaped upon the South. Southern Indignation. Ku Klux Klan-Its good work and Its iniquIties. The Fifteenth Amendment-:how finally forced upon the Southern people; the abominable iniquitll of the mea"ure. 
 
SUMMARY. 
 
The Northerners had, from a high sense of duty, fought 
 
heroically for the preservation of the Union, which they 
 
earnestly beli-evrd to be a righteous cause. The Southerners 
 
had, from the fundamental In tincts of manhood, fought 
 
heroically to drive from their country and their homes an 
 
army of hostile Invaders, which unquestinably WM a right- 
 
eous cause. The Southerners overwhelmed by vastly supe- 
 
r10r numbers, were utterly defeated, and at the mercy of 
 
their conquerors. The noble-hearted President, Lincoln, 
 
who undoubtedly would have dealt generously with them, 
 
was dead. The fair-minded President, John on, offered 
 
them terms that were somewhat harsh but not unjust, a'nd 
 
which were readily accepted by the Southern States; but the 
 
United States Congre s repudiated these terms and insI ted 
 
npon othel' that were outrageous and tLebMing. In spite 
 
of the efforts and appeals of-PresIdent Johnson an~ many 
 
other magnanImous ortherners, both in and out of Con- 
 
gress,' the UnIted States Government, after keeping the Southern States for five years under- the Infamous mllltary 
 
I 
 
,. 
 
 135 
despotism and "carpet-bag" government, forced upon them the Fifteenth Amendment, which action has rightly been cnlled tll-e 1ror.~t crime ever attempted against civilization In the history of the world. 
DATES TO BE :MEMORIZED. 
Johnson's Proclamation, Meeting of Congress; Passing of Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, Readmission of Seceded States In Order. 
IX. THE REU ITED NATIO . 187()'1900.) 
(DESIRE FOR WEALTH AND MATERIAL DEVELOPJlII:NT, COMMERCIALISM.) 
1. Grant's Admini tratlon.-Contlnuance of Carpet-bag government in Southern States. Geor~la under carpet-bagger Bulloch's admlnistration-resubject to Military Rule1 Involved In debt by Bulloch's shameful extravagance; the fraudulent bonds. The Washington Treaty. War with the Modoc Indians. Presidential campaign of 1876; the disputed election. The "8 to 7" Electoral Commission-its decision. 
2. Hay's Adminlstration.-The President's "Peace Policy." 
Disappearance ot "Carpet-baggers" trom the South. Civil 
emce Reform. 3. Garfield (and Arthur's) Administration.-Assassination of Garfield-great industrial prosperity. Rapid regeneration of the South. Decrease of sectional animosity. Prohibition of Chinese immigration. Presidential electlonIts political signficance. 4. Cleveland's Adminlstration.-The Tarilr question-tull account of. 5. Harrison's Administratlon.-The McKinley Tarilr law, fully explained. 6. Cleveland's (second) Adminlstration.-The People's (or Third) Party-its doctrines. "Hard times,"-alleged 
causes. The Tarllr again-Wilson law. "Free coinage ot 
silver 16 to 1 doctrlne,"-earefully expla.lned. Presidential election. 
 
 136 
1. McKinley's Admlnlstration.-The Spanish-American war-full and careful account of. The Philippine warconcise and careful account of. Great material prosperity. The "Boxer War" In China-United States relation to. "Trusts,"-eareful explanation of. "Imperianism" (socalled)-explalned. Census of 1900-prlnclpal statistics of. Presidential election. Th.e stil unbroken. "SoU4 Sout1"rOO8Qn oor1/ careful/v e:tpained. How the Southern people have In a measure circumvented the infamous Fifteell(,b Amendment. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Terms of Grant, Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland, Harrison and McKinley. Blowing up of "The Main." United States Declaration of War. Battles of Manilla Harbor, San Juan, Destruction of Cervera's fleet. Signing of Treaty of Peace at Paris. Beginning of Filipino War (February 5, 1899). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
The following books are especially recommended to IItudents and teachers of United States History: 
TEXT-BOOKS. 
Jones's "History of the United States"; Eggleston's "History of the United States;" Chambers's "Higher History of the United States;" Cooper's "Our Country;" Mary Sheldon Barnes's "Studies in American History;" Montgomery's "Leading Facts of American History;" Lee's HI&tory of United States. 
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR T~ACHERS. 
Washington Irving's "Columbus;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France;" Bryant's Popular History:" Henry Cabot Lodge's "Short History of the English Colonies in America;" Henry Cabot Lodge's "Story of the Revolution;" Marshal's "Lite of Washine-ton;" Spark's "Lite of 
 
 137 
Washington;" Woodrow Wilson's "Life or Washington;" Goldwin Smith's "Outline of United State Political History;" Greeley's "American Conflict;" Davis's "Rise and Fall or the Confederate Government;" Stephens's "Const/< tutional View of War Between the States;" J. LI M. Curry's "The South;" Pollard's "Lost Cause;" S. S. Cox's '''rhree Decades of Federal Legislation;" Long's "Memoirs 
or Robt. E. Lee;" "Fitz Hugh Lee's "Life of R. E. Lee;" 
Page's "Red Rock;" Dabney's "Life of Stonewall Jackson." 
LOOKS ON METHODS. 
"Guide to the Study or American History," by Channing and Hart; G. S. Hall's "Methods of Teaching History.'" 
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR PUPILS. 
Pratt's "American History Stories;" Pratt's "Columbus;" Coffin's "Old Times in the Colonies;" "Washington and his Country" (Ginn. & Co.); Scudder's "George Warolngton;" Abbott's "Paul Jones;" John Esten Cook's "Hilt to Hilt;" 
"Wearing of the Gray," "Life or Stonewall Jackson;" Fltz 
Hugh Lee's "Life of R. E. Lee;" Thomas Nelson Page's "Among the Camps;" "Red Rock;" W. A. Caruthers Cavaliers of Virginia." Knights of the Golden Horse Shoe;" Mrs. L. M. Child's "Boston Before the Revolution;" Rich ard Carvel." 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
ByG. G. BOND,A~8,G~ 
(CopyrighUd. ) 
It Is not the design of this paper to be a general treatlst on the subject of Arithmetic. Ita purpose Is, (1) to point out the ground w'hidb. every teacl1er In the common sohO'Ols of the State Is expected to cover. and (2) to Indicate some good form for the figure process of each kind of operation. Of 0011rge It lis expoored. In f1V'f!1fY case, <tlmJt 1lhe teacher will 
develop the form Induotlvely, 8Upplying 81m needed stimulus 
Sn the shape of question and explanation. There are no certaln InfalUble forms, not even the ones herein lllustrated. In fact they are submitted more In the hope that they will suggest other better oneil than that they will serve as models. But tbis one point is strenuously urged; when once a rational form has been adopted. see to It that the  I'lIItfoctnatibn of every pUlJil cl'Othe itself In tibis garb until It becomes so easy fitting that It can be donned and doffed at will. When this hu been done. let the teacher drill his class in any short-cut process he can lay his hands on. The crazy-quilt blackboard work to be seen almost any day in many of the schools of Georgia stands as a perpetual reminder to the IntelUgent observer that Hea,ven's first law Is a dead letter in that school. In fact In some schools every pupil seems to be a law unto himself in so far as the form of his arithmetic work Is concerned The form work lis simply rtlhe 'IIlaIbhematlcal sign language ot tbe problem, the expression of tbe mathl'matical tbonght and the only way to judge the quaUty of the thought is by I1B expression. If the expression Is detecbive the inference III th.ait the tlrought must be d6tective also, and the only 'W8JY to secure 'PI'OOiS'El logfcal thou:ghlt 18 Clo insist on good exprees1~ No attempt haa been made to originate new th04.. Suee_Uon. have beeR received from both book. 
 
 140 
ud teachers. Credit Is due Mr. E. C. Branson for the general scheme of Primary Number work, and espec\ally for the use of the story, and seat work devices, though the details are original. 
As to the ground to be covered, It Is plain that the beginner must be taught how to perform all the operations with the ten digits beginning as low as necessary, with 4 and sometimes with even 3 and 2. He must be taught how to make figures, the use of the signs, formal Addition, Including the table, Subtraction, Multiplication, Including of course the table, and Division. He must be taught_the four fundamental rules In each of the following subjects: Fractions, Decimals, and Compound Quantities. He must be taught the d1n.erent cases in Percentage, Interest and Proportion. Some of these subject are so simple that they will receive very little attention In this paper, while those that usually give the teacher the greatest trouble will receive the fullest treatment. The teacher who can teach all the above mentioned subjects In such a manner as to stand the test of enlightened criticism may justly claim to be a good teacher of arithmetic. . 
It has been the aim, In presenting each new operation, to Illustrate a teaching unit under that head. The teacher who knows how to teach one addition fact ought to be able to teach a thousand. There has ever been present a conscious purpose to show the teachers of the State. if possible, how to cause another to know something he did not know before without telling him, In other words to discover facts and ideas. The mechanical side of thla teachin~ Ia expressed In the four following propositions: 
1. Present an illustration. 2. Elicit the facts wanted by means of questioIlL 3. Arrange the facts in the desired form. 4. Give the term. Tlrl. Is by OOUlU8T ca.lll. mduct1n teecl11iDC. 
 
 141 
 
PART L 
 
When the six-year-old child timiflly present., himself before the teacher, a candidate for initiation into the mysteries of Number, the first question that confronts the teacher is, How to begin? He must treat the beginner as he would any other pupil applying for admission; he must examine him to ascertain what he already knows. Instruction must begin at this point. Beginners usually know 2, but it will be necessary to test 3. Two or three suggestions are o:l!ered: 
1. Ask the pupil to count 3. 2. Ask 'him to clap his lhands 3 tim~ 3. Show him 3 lines on the board. Erase and ask him to make the same nut:'fer. . Require him to name 3 animals. 'If he passes satisflactorily on 1lb.ese tests, 'tihe teacher may be satisfied that he knOWB 3 as a 1OlIole. He is then ready to begin a study of the contents or 3, w.h.idh a.re represented as fullows: 
 
The contents of 3:- 
 
(1) 
1 + 1 + 1 = 3. 
2+1=3. 
+ 1 2 = 3. 
 
(2) 3-3 = O. 3-2 = 1. 3-1 = 2. 
 
(3) 
3 X 1 = 3. 
1X2+1=3. 
1 X 3 = 3. 
 
(4) 3-+-3=1 3 -+- 2 = 1(1) 3-+-1=3 
 
or course these abstract expressions must be presented in the concrete, must come in the shape of a problem, and be vitalized by the questions of the teacher. The manner In which this Is to be done will be hereinafter snown in a somewhat extended treatment of the number 8. 
FiIlUrfJ8.-As a !brm of seat work it will be well just at this point to teach pupils how to make the figures. This can be done by simply writing the figures on the board with white crayon, and allowing the children to take some kind of colored crayon and "paint" tlhem. Their first attempt will be crude enough, but it wlll not require much time for them to learn to make the figurea. 
 
 142 
 
The Number a. 
 
Facta in the number 8. 
 
1. Additive:- 
 
1. 7+1=8 
+ 2. 6 2 = 8 + 3. 5 3 = 8 
4. 4+4= 
+ 5. 3 5 = 8 + 6. 2 6 = 8 + 7. \ 7 = 8 
n. Subtractive:- 
 
1. 8-8=0 
 
2.8-7=1 
 
3. 8 - 6 = 2 
 
4. 8-5 = 3 
 
5. 8-4=4 
 
6r.. 
 
8- 3 = 5 8-2=6 
 
8. 8-1 = 7 
 
III. Multiplicative:- 
 
1. 8Xl=8 2.7Xl+1=8 
+ 3 . 6 X l + 2 = 8 
4. 5 X 1 3 = 8 
5. 4 X 2 = 8 
6. 2 X 4 = 8 
 
IV. Divisional:- 
 
1. 8+8-1 2. 8 + 7 -1(1) 
3. 8 + 6 -1(2) 4. 8 + 5 -1(3) "t>. 8 -+- 4 - 2 6. 8 -+- 3 - 2(2) 7. 8-+-2-4 8.8-+-1-8 
 
V. Partitive:- 
 
1. t of 8-1 
 
2. ~ of 8 - 1(1) 
 
3. i of 8 - 1(2) 
 
4. i of 8 - 1(3) 
 
5. t of 8 - 2 
 
6. 7. 
 
it 
 
of of 
 
8 - 2(2) 8-4 
 
Facts to be taught L Additive:- 
1. 7+1-8 
+ 2. 6+ 2-8 
3. 5 3 - S 4. 4+4-8 
II. Subtractive:1. 8-8-1 2. 8 - 6 - 2 3. 8-5-3 4. 8-4-4 5. 8-3-5 6. 8-2-6 7. 8-1-7 
III. Multiplicative:1. 8 X 1- 8 2. 4X 2-8 3.2X4-8 
IV. Divisional:1. 8+8_1 2. 8 -+- 4 - 2 3. 8+2- 4 4.8-+-1-8 
V. Partitive:- 
1. t of 8--1 
2. t of 8 - 2 
3. iof 8-4 
 
Every fact in the column headed .. Facts to be taught It 
 
 143 
 
must be taught, and the pupil must be thoroughly 
 
drilled on it hefore he can be said to know the No. 
 
8. In the same way all the other small numbers, probably 
 
as far as 20. should be resolved into their contents and 
 
taught. A good practice for the teacher will be to take the 
 
o. 12 and outline it as shown above. The question now 
 
Is, How to teach these facts' And by teach Is meant that 
 
the pupil must be led to discover every fact for himself 
 
under the intelligent and sympathetic guidance of the 
 
teacher. The signs should be taught the same as an 
 
operation; but as it would make this paper too long to 
 
teach all of them, It will be taken for granted that they 
 
I have already been taught. 
The Teaching Unit The pupils are to be supplied with 
 
in 
 
splints, toothpicks, straws, or sticks, 
 
Addition. 
 
or with any kind of object whatsoever. 
 
Splints will be used in these exer- 
 
cises. Every pupil is supplied with a 
 
handful. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Tea.cher.-HO'W many splin.ts In 1Il(Y. right 'hand? (Holding up 5 splints.) 
Pupll.-There are 5. Teacher.-How many in my left hand? (Holding up 3.) Pupll.-There are 3. Teacher.-What did I do with them? (Putting them together.) PupiL-You put them together. Teacher.-How many are there in all? PupiL-There are 8. Teacher.-Now tell me the whole story. Pupll.-You had 5 splints In your right hand, and 3 In your left. You put them together and then you had 8. Teacher.-Why? 
+ Pupil.-Because 5 3 - 8. 
This i. the unit of work in addition. By simply repeat- 
 
 1-14 
 
Inr- thta unit often enough eTeT",1 addition fact can be taught. A little time every day should be devoted to teachIng the tots how to count, so that when they go into formal addition they should be able to count 100 with ease. 
Story Work.-Immedlately alter teaching the above fact. It would be well to have a story drlll on It. Have anywhere from 10 to 20 stories, everyone clinching, In the 
+ pupil's mind, the fact that 5 3 - 8. Let the pupils im- 
agine the splints to be birds. marbles, tops, appleA , pen- nies, dolls, etc. This Is all class-work, and should be done 
within e. ten or fifteen minutes' recitation. The stOry may Ill' used tn four ways, all so simple that tlhey need on1y be suggested to tlhe intelligent tea.cher. 
1. The teacher performll the operation with objects and 
requires the pupil to tell the story. 
 
What the teacher dou. Holds up 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, Holds up all 8 in one hand, Ask-s why. 
 
What the pupil8ay. I saw 5 birdl on a limb, And 3 more flew to them, 
+ Then tltere were 8, 
Because 5 3 = 8. 
 
Z. The teacher tells the story, and the pupil performs the 
 
operation with objects. 
.ay.. What the teacher I have 5 marhlell, John gave me 3 more, Then I have (pausing). 
 
What the pupil dou. Holds up 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, Pupil sees the 8. 
 
3. The teacher performll the operation with figures and 
 
requirell the pupil to tell or write the story. 
 
What the teacher writes. 
+ I) S - ? 
 
What the pupil says or writes. I had 5 apples, and my brother gave me 3 more. 
+ Then I had 8, 
Because 5 3 = 8. 
 
. The teacher tells the story and the pupil performs the 
 
operation with figures. 
 
What the teacher llaVs. I had I) dolls, and mother pve me 3 more, Then I had how many' 
 
What the pupil writes. 
+ IS 3 == 8 
 
~ ton work II bued 011  Idea that we must 10 
 
 145 
 
from the sImple to the complex. The first and leeond kinds are intended for cla.ss-dl"ilL The third and ~ are for seat work. 
 
Beat Drills;- 
1. With Object8.-For a few months with beginners good results can be had from a liberal use of objects in seat drills. Objects should not ordinarily be continued beyond the No.5 or 6. Any kind of "rain or seed will do. 'fhe teacher makes dots on Pupil with seed on his .desk. 
the board. 
 
+ 
 
+ "- - 
 
or .. + .. =1 
 
-+--=- 
 
Many teachers get Tery lat1sfactory results from peg 
 
boards. They consist of poplar boards, one-half inch 
 
thick a.nd 6 inohes square. Holes large enougfh tor Shoe 
 
pegs are on one side, one-haJf inch apart. Pupils llIre sup- 
 
plied with peglS which <t1hey stick 10 the holes instead of 
 
placing the Beed as Shawn a,bove. Probal>ly tlhe greatest 
 
gain from objective seat-work is that it affords profit- 
 
able am.d contented employment to little fellows who other- 
 
wise WQud Dbt be alMe flo move a ~ without <the constant 
 
presence at <tlhe teacher. 
 
2. With Drawing8.-These are to be used in somewhat 
 
the same manner as the objectll, only greater skill ill 
 
needed on the part of both teacher and pupil. The draw- 
 
ings at first must be very easy.  
 
The teacher draws on the board: The pupi! draws on his slate: 
 
000 
+ 00 
 
+0 0 0 00 
 
or 
 
o 0 000 
 
000+00=1 
 
000+00=00000 
 
The number of drawings to be used Is limited only by the 
 
energy a.nd ingenuity of the teadher. Twelve kinda are 
 
IUigested: Triangle, Ilquare, leaf, fan, cat, pite fork, bucJet, 
 
Illr, h to d ,outllne of f , d boo . 
 
 146 
 
3. With FillureJl.- 
The teacher writes on the boaru: 5+3=1 5+1=8 1+3=8 1+1=8 
 
The pu pi! writes on his slate: 5+3=8 5+3=8 5+3=8 
The teacher can require as manv answers to this 88 
he chooses. 
 
4. With Stories.- 
The teacher writes on the board: Write a story for 6+3=1 
 
The pupil writes on his slate: I had 5 dollars, and 1\Iary gave me 3 more. Then I 
+ had 8, Because 5 3 = 8 
 
The tea~hing UDitl The same material can be used 88 in 
 
10 
 
addition. 
 
Subtraction. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-How many splints have 11 (Holding up 8.) Pupll.-You have 8. Teacher.---<wbJat a.m I d'<>ing? (Taking out 60me of 
them.) Pupll.-You are taking out some of them. Teacl1er.--1Haw many did I rta.lre 8IW'a.y? Pupil.-You took away 3. Teaich-er.-How many have I lett? PupiL-You lhave 5 left. Teadher.-Tell me the whole story. Pupil.-You had 8 splints, you took away 8, and you have 
5 left. Teacher.-WhY? Pupil.-Because 8-3 equal 5. This is the unit of work In subtractl1on. Just repeat thlls 
unit lIS many times as there are facts to be taught. Story WOlk.-Immediately after teachin~ the above 
f.act., It 'WQuld be well to !have a.bout 20 stories told illustrating th.aJt fact. Th1a IS enlOug'h for one lesson. Use 'the 
roUT forms or story drill 8It pleaswe. 
 
 147 
 
&at Work:- 
 
1. With Objects.-The same material as in addition 
 
or course the use or objects must be disoonllinued just 8l!I 
 
soon as possible. 
 
The teacher wljtes on the board: The pupil on his desk, putting 
 
down 8 seed and remov- 
 
ing 3: 
 
OOOOO~~~=? 
 
= OOOOO~~~ 0oo 
 
%. With D,a1DingB.-It 1s trot 8Jt all proba.ble that it will be 
 
necessary to oont'inue rtJh.e illustrative number work up to 
 
this point. It is shawn here simp~ because this is the 
 
proper place in this echeme to Show it. Like objects, draw- 
 
ings must be discarded just as soon as the pupil compr&- 
 
hends the number without them. 
 
The teacher draws on the board: 'fhe pupil draws on his slate: 
 
OOOOOpp~= ? 
 
OOOOOpp~ = 0oo 
 
3. With Figura.- 
 
The teacher wri tes on the board: The pupilwrites on his slate: 
 
8-3=? 
 
8-3=5 
 
8-?~5 
 
8-3-5 
 
?-3=5 
 
8-3-5 
 
?-?~5 
 
ReqUJiTe'1lhis last form to be answered severall ways. Give 
 
drills on 'the differerut kinds ot story work as illustrlllted in 
 
addilliO'll. 
 
The teaching unitl" Let the pupils gather around tlhe 
 
in 
 
teacher's table jlUJt as close as they 
 
Multiplication. can. If there should happen to be no 
 
dock or table in tlhe house, then a slate OIl" the fioor can be 
 
used just as well. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teaclrer.-How IIl8J1Y I1ngB dfd I make? (Drawing 4 
circles.) Pupil.-You made 4 rings. TeIlICher.-U I put BOme corn in every ring. h'O'W zna.ny 
pnes wfll there beT 
 
 148 
 
PupU.-'l11en wtll be 4 ptlea. Tea.cher.-HlJW many grains in every pile? Pupil.-There are 2. 'I'eacher.-How many twos or piles are there? Pupfi.-There are 4. Teaclher.-How many grai.na in a.ll! Pupil.-There are 8. Teacher.-Then tour twos llIre how many! Pupil.-Four twos are 8. 
In Borne places poplar boards about four by eight inchell, with holes in them one-eighth of an inch deep are used. They axe caJlled hole boards. Each child puts the seed into 
tlhese holes, instead of using a cirale as described albove. CUU8 Drill.-Iit. win be wen to present this Bame idea in 
IIev6ra!l dtlferent <forms. For instance: Take 4 benches or chairs and put 2 pupils 'On each, and have class see that 
4 X 2 - 8. Or dra w 4 nests on the board and put 2 eggs in 
each. Ask pupils how many ears on 4 boys; how many hands on 4 girls; how many feet on 4 ('hickens, how many eyes 4 dogs have; how many horns on 4 cows, etc. But in every 
case, have the pupil see and say that it is so because 4 X 2 - 
8. In the same way all the oth~ multiplication operations in 8 can be taught. Drill on the first and second kind of BOOry work as illustrated in addition. 
 
Beat Work.- 
 
1. With Objectl. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil uses objects. 
 
00 00 00 00 - 1 
 
00 00 00 00 - 00ooooo 
 
or course oIbjectlTe n'Ull1'ber work is Il'Olt COll.tlllued up to 
 
1lhi8 poin.t. With the smaller numlbera. ~owever. it fa lID 
 
in"V'alUlaJble aid. 
 
1._ 
 
2. With Drawing,. 
 
The teacher drawe on the board: The pupil drawl on hie slate : 
 
<:) <:) <:) (:)-1 
 
(:) (:) (:) (:)- 
 
. 
 
Th:la i1l .. TerT eJI.teir'ta.1Irng &1ld profilaMe kind of EIe8l 
 
'W'OrL It can be T&rded by c1ra~ &p'ples, c~ CII' 
 
....,.. aa .t:.... ex' ~ pUlttlnc tIM .me 1a lnJ.cbta. 
 
 149 
 
3. With Figure. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil write! on his slate: 
 
4X2-? 4X?=8 
?X2~8 
 
4X2=8 4X2-8 4X2-8 
 
?X?=8 
 
A very nJee varlaltlon of tbls work is to begin simple 
 
wurk in Compound Quantities at this juncture, bath by 
 
teacll!ing and in 1lhe seat work. Teachers could arra.nge 
 
drills by bavlng pupils Wl'ite answers to such questions as 
 
the following: 4 gills = ? pints; 8 gills - ? pints; 2 feet =? 
 
in.; 2 yards -? feet, and so on. .. With 8UJrie8.-Use the last two forms of the story 
 
work lllustrated in addition. The first and second forms 
 
are 'Of COUl'Se intended for cllass drill only. 
 
TEAOHING'I1HE MULTIPLIOATION TABLE. 
!After the pupil 'has been in school two or three months It will be well to begin formal study of tlh.e multiplication table. Tea.dhers are adV'ised to have pupils study the tables by writing them out. Have pupils make 2 dots, and just 
to the right have them write 1 X 2 = 2. Then let them 
make two groups of dots, two each, and write 2 X 2 = 4. As 8<JlOn as a table is learned, 1lave pupils write it by d~V'is:lon. 'I1hey can learn the tJables both by multiplication and dlvlslon just about as easily as one way alone.. It is unnecessary Ito say tihJaIt thJis wtUl pave the Wlay to short divlslon. 
 
Teachi.ng unitl In 
Division. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacl1er.-Wl1aJt :have I in my hand? Iplints.) 
Pupil.-You iha.ve some spllIllls. Teacher.-How many? PupD.-8. 
 
(Holding up some 
 
 150 
 
Teacher.~Wh8Jt am I doing wit1h them? (GlV'lng 2 ap!eoe 
to eome bovs.) PupiL-You are glV'lng them to the boys. Teacher.--H'ow many to each boy? Pupil.-2. Teacher.-BoY'S wi1Jh the splints, please stand. Teacher.-U I divide 8 splints among some boY'S, g'lvilq: 
2 splints to eaCh boy, how many boys will there be? PupiL-There will be 4 boys. Teacher.-Why? 
Pupil.-Because 8 + 2 = 4. (The pupil will have to be helped along by means of questionR.) 
Glass D,ill.-Put 8 grains of corn into I1iles, 8 eglgs into nests, 8 boys on benches, etc. and in every case after the operation require tlle pupll to say "Because 8 divided into t'WOB are 4." 'l1hat is, of course, the first form of stlory work Ulustrated in Addition. F'or the second form, tell the story and require the pupil to perform the operation on 1h1s desk or slate with objects. 
Seat work with drarwings and abjecl.s is not neocessaT7 When the pupil has advanced this far. 
 
Seat Work with lI'igures.- 
 
'The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate: 
 
8+4-1 8+1-2 1+4-2 1+1-2 
 
8+4-2 8+4=2 8+4=2 
 
There are several answers to the last problem. 
 
The pal'bl.lJIve problem is O'IIlitted on purpose. There Is 
 
a. logioaI difference between partitioning and division, but 
 
without a. long explanalJion, the average teacher is apt to 
 
con<found tfhe two. 
 
A Fifteen Minute Seat Work Exercise.- 
 
In all the seat work shown thus far the teacher hu 
 
dOUibUeSl noticed th8It tlhe ll.IlBwera a.A alwaya the same, 
 
and h probably 
 
cUapoaod to ar1t1c the 'frCOl'lt on 
 
foll0 11 01'4 
 
 151 
 
the different kfn<ds at IIeIIJt work that can be used with each opem.tlon. It !is now 'in order to give a s~estive seat 'WW"k exercise suitable for pupils who bia.ve just completed a lJtudy of tlhe No.8. 
Every exercise should involve a review of as many of the facts previously taught as possible. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate: 
 
6+2-1 7-4-1 8+4-1 1X3-6 1+3-5 6+3-1 1-6-3 4+1-6 1X4-8 2 qts. - ? pta. 1 qt. - ? ga. 
2 yds. - ? It. 
+ Write story for 4 3- ? 
 
5+2-7 7-4-3 8+4-2 2X3-6 2+3-5 6+3-2 8-5-3 4+2-6 2X4-8 2 qt . - 4 pts. 1 qt. - 8 ~. 2 yds. - .6 It. I had 4 sticks of can 
dy, aud John gave 
+ me 3 more. I then 
had 7. Because 4 3 - 7 
 
The foregoing lis 'W1h'alt Is ord.i.narlly k'n'Own as Grube 
 
Numbers, because a young German teacher by that name first used dt. lA. moment's reflection wlll show the teacher just what ground is Ito be covered in the Primary Number work, then tlhe best plan 'is for him to arrange the details 
ot his 'Own trealtmenlt. No CWo systems of Primary Number 
Work aTe exadlly alike, am.d yet all are essentially tlhe sa.me. 
P,..~noi.1Jle&.-l. Since tlhe chlld's mind takes the concrete 11rs't, and goes trom that to the abstract, 60 the concrete at arithmetic must be presented first. 
2. The work must be systemat!l.c. 
 
3. Every fact, alter being taught, must be reviewed until thorouglb:ly known. 
4. In plallllJng the work, g'O from the simple to the C<Implex. 
 
 P:nlT II. 
NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 
This 1s a subject almost entirely neglected in 'books proposing to gt!ve methods In arithmetic, and consequelltly overlooked by many teachers. :nt is Impossible to say just 00 whiat enent a pupil's work In arithmetic may be retarded by a. neglect 01 this subject, but it does seem fundamental thBJt every pupil should be a.ble to readily and accurately ree.<! and write figures. Many ohildren llever learn that tlhere are units, tens, hundreds 01 units, UIlIl.'ts, tens, hundred'S 01 thousands, etc., untll they are grown. 
Methods.-Take Olle box 01 rtloothPicks or one bundle of splints and five cents' worth 01 rubber bands; make bundles 0110. Then flake rome of the 10 bundles and make tW'O or three 100 bundles. Thd.s oa.n be done Iby simply fastening ten of the 10 bundles together. 'Ilhe toothpicks axe now distri~uted 1nrto three kinds of bUlldles, ones, tan.s, hundTeds. The teIacller can use 'three cllgar 'bIoxes tacked together as Mr. Brallson Ulu9traJted last year, or he can mark oft three squares on the illab1e or ftoor or on tlhe ground. Put 5 toothpiclul !in the first box to the right, two 10 bundles in the next box, IlI.D.d Olle 100 bundle lin. the nut. Question as follows: 
Teacher.---1How m1lJIlY hundreds bave 'We? Pupil.~We bave one hundred. Teacher.-Make the figure one just aJbove the 100 boL Teacher.~H1ow many tens hiave we? Pupil.-We have two tens. Teacher.-Make the figure 2 just albove the 10 bOL Teacher.-How many single 'toothpicks are there? Pupil.-'rhere are 5. Teacher.-Make the figure 5 just above this box. Teacher.-Now look at the bundles and tell me how m&lly toothpicks tlhere are in all. Pupil.-There are one hundred, two tens, ILIld five. Teacher.-'How many axe two teua? Pupil-Two tena azoe VtrClt7. 
 
 153 
 
Teacber.--1J"hen tell me bow many there are altoget'her 
using ttcent1l instead ot two tens. 
Pupil.-There are one hundred and twenty-five. Teacher.-Tbat is just what the figures 125 say. Drills.-Ask the pupils to write 124 on their slates. Those who succeed In doing this have tollowed the teacher. Such as have nm followed may be made to see the point by rapeaJting the operation. Wrlite 123 on the board and ask pupils to read it. Ask them whait the 3 represents, tlhe 2, the 1. Write 225 and ask them 1lo read. Ask them to write 226. With very stupid pupils, the teacher mJight take ten 100 bUIUdles to make one tIhousand, 1Jb.ou~ as a rule, it 
wm not be necessary. 
ADDITION. 
It all the operations 'With the small numbers have been well taught, there will be only one difficulty in teaching fuTmal addition, and thaJt is "ca:rry'ing." Teachers are llidvised to continue drills on the addi1fion table by using some such aid as Branson's addition ca.rds, or dirill cards. Let it be requlred to add 65 and 28. 
The U><ol'.bar writes on the Iboard: 65 
+28 
 
The pupils are supplied with toothpicks or bundles 01 straws. 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.~lass read the figures. 
 
Teacher-Is the 5 in the units or the tens box? Pupil.-It is in tile units box. 
 
Teacher.-Where are the 6 and 21 
 
Pupil.-They are in the tens box. 
 
Teacher.-Whast is the sum ot 8 and 61 
 
Pupil.-It is 13. 
T 90 .-How many t VU II. Tl1 
 
m d haw ~an7 m 
a 
 
 Tea.cher.-ean you put the 1 'ten under the units column! 
 
!Pupil.-You cannot. 
 
Teacher.-Where must it goT 
 
PupiL-It must go under the tens column. 
 
Teacher.-Then .vhalt do we put under the units column? 
 
PupiL-We put the 3 units. 
 
~ 
 
Tea.cher.-What do we do with the 1 tenT 
 
Pupil.-We add it it'o the tens column.. 
 
Teacher.-Wllat is the sum? 
 
I 
 
PupiL-It is 9. 
 
Teacher.-It is 9 w!hat? 
 
Pupl1.-It is 9 tens. 
 
Tea.cher.-'Where does lit go? 
 
Pupi1.-It goes' under ltIhe tens CiOlumn.. 
 
Tea.c'her.-Whait is the t<1tal sum? 
 
Pupil.-It is 93. 
 
Sometimes bright pupils will understand this Wl.thout 
 
the objec!ls. In t1hat case they are superfluous. Throw 
 
away abjoots j'USt as soon as you can. The next operation 
 
6hoUild involve hundreds. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: 
 
248 
 
+379 
 
The only difference between thlls problem and the first 
one is 1iha't it bas three figures, and Ithe sum of the tens 
column exceeds 10. Let the pupils make the ten <tens into 
e. hundred just as they IlUIAle the units 1nlt'o e. ten in the 
first prolblem. 
SUBTRACTION. 
The terms m subtractllon can 'be taught just as any other 
definition. It necessary, let the pupils be supplied with toothpicks just 'lI.S in addition, though it wHl be better, of course, it they calIl follow the teacher Without them. Let it be required to find the difference between 80 and -l6. 
The teacher writes 'OD. the boa:rd: 
710 
~O 
46 
 
 1.55 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-Wbat do 'We find in the MinuendT 
 
Pupil.-We find 8 tens and no units. 
 
Teacher.-W1lart do we find in the Subtrahend? 
 
Pupil.-We find 4 tens and 6 units. 
 
Teacher.-can we take 6 units from no units? 
 
PupiL-You cannot. Teacher.-Take 1 ten trom 8 tens and hCl'W many are left? 
 
Pupil.-Seven tens are left. (The teacher marks out the 8 
 
and WI11tes 7 just above e.nd 'Writes 10 just Blbove the 
 
naught.) 
 
Teacher.-H'ow many units have we now In the Minuend? 
 
Pupil.-We have 10. 
 
Teacller.-Take e units from 10 u.n!ts and how many are 
 
lett? 
 
Pupil.-F'our are left. 
 
Tea.cher.-Four tens trom seven tens are hCl'W many tens? 
 
Pupil.-Three lens. 
 
It will be seen that it is psychologicany and mathema.ti- 
 
cally incorrect to say "one to carry to 4 makes 6, and 6 
 
!rom 8 leaves 3." The llIbove example really gives the unit 
 
of work lin subtmctl'on. There are, however, <two other 
 
kinds of problems: the proMem tha.t goes into hundreds 
 
and tJhousands, and the problem that has naughts in the 
 
minuend. They are illustrated as follO'W'lJ: 
 
(1) 
4 5 13 
~~3 -2 7 4 
 
(2) 9 
7 J~ 10 
~OO 
-456 
 
It is not necessary to say anyrthIng a.bout the 1lrBt. iIn the second, develop by mea.n.s ot questions the following ~ints: You cannot take 6 !rom 0, and since you have no tens to change 1nto units, you must take 100 from the hundredJJ column: That will leave 7 hundred, and you have 10 tens for the tens column. Take one of the 10 tens and put lit ov~ the units column. The questron now 18 to take UI 
trom seven hundred an4 ninet:T teD. 
 
 156 
 
MULTIPLICATION. 
Teach terms the same as any other defln1t1on. It Is assumed that when the pupil reaches this polDIt he knows the multiplication table, though as a. matter ot fact it will he round necessary to continue reviewing it tor some time yel No attention is given here to problems where the product is always less than 10. 
Let it be required to multiply 35 by 3. The teacher writes on the board: 
35 
X3 
 
105 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-tve units taken 3 times are how many und'ta? 
 
Pupll.-Five units taken 3 times are 15 units.. 
 
Teacher.-How many ten.I and how many units in 15 
 
units? 
 
Pupil.~e ten and 5 u:n1bl1. 
 
Teacller.-Under wihiCh oolumn must 'We put t'he 5 units? 
 
Pupl!L-Under the units oolumn. 
 
Teacher.-Three tens taken 3 1limes are how many tens? 
 
Pupil.-Three tens taken 3 times are 'tens. 
 
Teacher.-How m.a.n:y tens did we bave wlhen we multi- 
 
plied the 5 units? 
 
!Pupil.-We had 1 tAm.. 
 
Tea.cher.-Nine tena and 1 ten are how many tens? 
 
PupiL-Nine tens and 1 ten are ten tell'S. 
 
There are twe other kinds of example, but 88 the modw operandi is the same 88 in the above example, they will not be deve10ped tuny. Let it 'be required to multiply: 
 
(D 
 
(~ 
 
86 
 
368 
 
X49 
 
X206 
 
In the 1lnJt examPle, the pupil Will bave no trouble in 
multiplying by 9. When he begins to multiply by 4, have him understand that 6 UIllita tak:eu.  tens timeI are U teDa. 
 
 ftere are 110 units. Can tens gu under unftB! No. Where must they go? Under tens. Of cour::;e telliS times tens will glive hundredS, and if there are more than 10 hundreds, they become thousands. In the second example, the only point liable tIo cause trouble is the presence of a. naught in the muJltiplier. Develop the idea that when Y'OU pass over the naught you are multiplyl.ng by hundreds, and must tlheretore put the result down beginning with the hundred oolumm.. The addng is 8llways just the same as in addition. The teacher will have no trouble in shoWing pupila how to multiply by a mUltiPlier ending in naught. 
 
DIVISION. 
 
This is one ot ithe most di:llicult su1bjoots in arithmetic, and yet, sbrange 00 say, in all tilie Ibooks on methods, and in all the articles in sChool journals, it is hardly ever given anythllng like a full treatment. A fine article on the subject of IJong Division by Superintendent Otis AShmore, of Sava:nna.h, Ga, can be found in tlle Mayor June number of The Sowthern illducational Journal, AtJlanta, Ga. It the 8(lvice given on a previous page, that the division table be taught with the multiplication table, be followed, short division ought not to give tb" teacber any trouble. There is no roY'aIl road to long dlvisiO'Il. The two will be treatted oogelJher. Teach terms as any other definition. L it be required to diV'ide 1452 by 12. 
The teacher writes on the board: 
 
F'1.1"11 ProcuB.- 
121 12J 1452 
 
or 
 
121 
 
12) 1452 i2 
 
Z5 
24 
Y 
 
it 
 
 15 
COLLOQUY. 
Teadher.-How many twelves in 14P Pupil.-There is 1 twelve in 14. Teacher.-H(jw many are lert over? Pupil.-There aTe 2 lett over. Teacher.-How many twelves in 25? Pupil.-There are 2 twelves in 25. Teacher.-HOiW many are left over? Pupil.--There is 1 left over. Teacher.-How many twelves in 12? Pupil.-There is 1 tJwelve In 12. This is not a scientHlc pro<:ess, but if it can help in the maltter of teaching as difficult a subject as long division, use it. 
Second Proce88.- 
121 12) 1452 
12 25 24 
12 
12 
COLLOQUY. 
Teadher.-How IDa.I13' hundred twelves in 14 hundred? Pupil.-One. (The teacher writes] over ilie 4.) Teacher.--one hundred times 12 are how many? Pupil.-Twelve hundred. (The teacher writes 1200 in its proper place.) Teacher.-How many are left? Pupll.-TwQ hundred and fifty-two. (The teacher writes 252.) Tea.cher.-How many 10 twelves in 250? Pupil.-There are two. (The teacher writes 2 over the 5.) Teacher.-'1'wenty twelves are how JmlJlY? 
Puptl.-Twenty tw~lve8 lU' tw9 )lun!lre4 U9 fortT (The b.l' rite .) 
 
 Teaidb.er.-How many aa-e I~U Pupil.-There a.re weave left. Tea.cher.--JHow many !twelves in 121 Pupil.-There is one twelve in 12. (The teacher writes 1.) Tea.Clher.~How many are left? PupiL-None. 
 
Anather way to teach long dlv'ision is 00 take a serles of 
examples each just 8. litJtle more difficult than 'the pre- 
~eding. 
 
1. 3) 960 Teach by sbort division. 
 
2. 3) 960 Teach by long division. 
 
3. 80) 960 .. . . . . " 
 
4. 81) 960 
 
.. 
 
II II 
 
.. 
 
Teachers sometimes get good results by having the di- 
 
vlS'I'<m table of the ddvioo!' up to the nines written on tlhe 
 
board. 
 
PART m. 
IFRACTIONS. 
The de1ln.iUon of Fractions and all the terms must be taught inductively. They cannot be taught here tor lack of space. The m'O'5lt dlifficult term ill Fractions. Denominatlor. witll 'be taugbJt. 
OOLLOQUY. 
Denominator.- 
Tealdher.-WhaJt have I in my hand? Pupll.-,A piece of crayon. Teacher.-What am I dO!lng Wlith dt? (Breaking it into 3 pieces.) !Pupil.-You are breaking U into pieces. Teadher.-InttQ h'Ow many pieces? Pupll.-lDJt:o 3 pieces. Tea.cher.-As nearly 85 you oa.n judee, how do they CQII100 pare in Size? 
Pupil.-The:- 8r& eq\U!ll tn size. 
 
 160 
 
Teacher.-What part is this? (Holding up 1 piece.) Pupll.-It is one-thllrd. 
Too.cher.-I W1il1 write that on the boord. (WritJing one- 
third.) Teacher.-What part have I now. (Holding up 2 pieces.) Pupil.-You have two-thirds. Teacher.-I will write that en itlhe board. (Writing two- 
thirds.) Teacher.-Ineo how many pieces did we break the crayon? PupiU.-Into 3. Too.cher.-Wlll.ich of these figures shows that, the one 
lLbove or the one below the line? PuPIL-The one below the line. Teacher.-Tell me then what the number below the Mne 
shows. PupiL-It Shows into how many parts the object has been 
diV'ided. Teacher.-That number we call the den'OIIlln:ator of a 
fraction. NQrw tem me wha.t the denQmlnaltior Is. Pupi1.-The denominator of a. fraction is the number be- 
low the lIDe, and, it shO'WS into how many equal parts tJhe whole tlhing has been divided. 
 
1. To reduce fractionsl Require pupils to look at the diato its lowest terms. ~ram and solve sUl'h problems as' 
 
I 
 
WHOLE. 
 
f 
 
- 
 
? 
16 
 
i 
 
i? 
If,- 
 
,J. -S? t+Tlllltll t 
 
I Inlll I ~-2? 
 
1 
 
f -.-:3?- Etc. 
 
i 
 
1I i 
 
These lItUe exa.mJI)les ue to two. solved by Insoecti'on. It 
 
 lIlL 
 
will n'OlW be in order to determine a rule for chang'\ng the form of a traction when it is too large to be solved by i11- 
B}>eCtlon. 
The pupil has seen that! - f. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.~HO'Wcan you change 4 into twos? Pupll.-By dividing by 2. Teacher.-How can you Change 6 into threes? Pupil.-By dividing by 2. Tea.cher.~But how dOleS tour-slxths compare in .-alue 
with tJw'o-thlrds? !Pupll.-It 18 equal to it. Teacher.--.How does it al'l'eclt the value of a fraction to 
dlV'ide both numerator and de'Ilomi!Jator by the same number? 
Pupll.-It does not change its valli... 
Teacher.-How could you change 1 into i thus without 
using the diagram? Pupil.-By ctlvidlng 'both numeraJtor and denominator 
by 2. 
Teacher.-ean you change i into a fraction having smaller 
terms? PupiL-You ca.nn'Ot. 
Teacher.-Then ! is said to be reduced to its lowest terms. 
Teacher.-When is a. fraction reduced to its lowest terms? Pupll.-When it cannot be changed to any smaller terms. Teacher.-HO'W do you reduce It traction to its lowest terms? Pupll.-By dividing both numerator and de'IlQIlllnator by a.ny number that will divide them evenly. 
 
To reduce fractions to a\ 
 
Let it be required to solve the 
 
common denominator. followin2: 
 
? 
i - 16 
 
~-1" 
 
io t- t-H 
 
f- 
 
? 16 
 
t-h 
 
The pupil writes answers by inspection. 
 
 162 
COLLOQUY. 
TtlaIdh'er.-4 ""h~le thing equals how many flrteenths1 PupJI.-8trteen sixteenths. Teacller.-Qne-fourt!h equals how many sl.xteellltlhB'! 
n. Pupil.-Qne-fourth equals 
Teacher.-Three-fourths equal how many? 
Pupll.-Three-fourths equal H. Teacher.-To get the H what was the first thing you did? 
PU1>ll-JI'he 1lrst thing was t.o divide 16 by .. Tea.cher.-Whart fa the 16? Pupl1.-The denoml\nat+!'on of the required fraotion. 
Teaoher.-Holf did you get the }~? 
Pupll.-By multiplying h by 3. Teacher.-What is the 8? (Pointing t<, the fraction t.) 
Pupll.-Ilt 1l!I the numerator 'Of the given fraction. Teacher.-How then do Y'OU change one fracl1'On another w1thoUlt altering tits V'alue? Pupil.-Dlv'!de 1lhe denomlni8.tor of ithe required fra.olJlon 
bT the denom1nastar of the given fraotion and mu.1Jtlply 
tOle QUotient by tlhe numetlator. Place the result OTer the required den~1D.Jl1tor. 
Teacher.-In lIhe exam<pIe elva above. wha.t do 1'O'Il notice ..'bout the den'ominaItol' '! 
Pupll.-They are all the ...me. Tea.cher.-W'hen fract!lon. are c~ so thaJt they aid bave the lIIIIlle denomilUlltor, tlhey _ u.id to be reduced to a common denominator. The pra.otl1ce of USIng fractll:ons 'With enOrmOlWl denomina.ton Is to be severely condemned. If, however, the teacher 11rould b. fo~ Ito h'B.IIdle large tra.ctiOI1ll, the best plan 111 to fl.nd the 1.. C. !M. 
iA!DDlTION. 
....The 11m step t. to reduce Ithe fra.etlOIl!!l 'to a common de- 
-amtna.tor. .Aa this haa llJree.dy been shown, It 'Will be 
1Ilkft far .-ted here, &llI4 t:M iUoadb1!!lC will 'bePn at thiI 
 
 163 
 
Let it be ~lred to l1nd the sum of two-th1nls, three- 
fourtlhs and one-halt. The pupil reduces these tract.loIlB 
to a common denominator and gets it ill this s'ha.pe: eigh.t- 
twelfths plus Dine twelfths plus six tJwelrths equals T 
Let it be required to find the sum of i. t and ~. 
The pupil reduces these fractions to a common denominator 
+ + and gets it in this shape: 1l!; 1\ 1G.. ~ P 
 
COLLOQUY. 
+ Teacher.-Holf many twelfths are T\ + 1JT fi 7 
Pupil-f~. 
Te&Cher.-How did you get rt.h1s result'! 
PupiL-By addlng the numerators and placing the 8UID 
over the 12. 
 
Teacher.-n are how many whole ones? 
I Pupil.-H - IIi- 
Forme for the figure process. 
 
(2) 
i+t+,=? 
i= '.'S 
l=~~ 
rt-1H 
One 1'onn Is as good as &n'Otlher. Mllxed numlbers ClaD. 'be 
reduced to 1mproper fractions and added by one of lIIh.e 
above forms, or they can be added as follow! : 
141 lot -? 
1 4 i - l. . . . 
lot -10-1. 
 
.ee 24"it 
When once a ~rm has been adopted, 
 
to U thai 1M 
 
WIOTl: uniformly follow, it. 
 
SUBTRACTION. 
 
This subject is BO easy t!ha.t noth!inr; need 'be done further 
 
than to sU!bmit two forIns. Let it be required to subitnlct 
 
t from i. 
 
(1) 
H-i"r-h-h 
 
(2) 
t-t-? 
ft--Qi: 
 
 16.1, 
 
. MULTIPLICATION. 
 
To multiply a frae-I tion by a fraction. 
 
i Xt- T 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-How many are 1 X t 1 
 
Pupil.-f. 
Teacber.-How many are t Xi? 
 
P u p i l . . .\-. 
 
 
 
Teacher.-How many are 1 X i 1 
 
Pupil.-1.62.  Teadher.-Haw can Y'01l take 2 and 3 an'<l mak1!l 61 
 
Pupll.-By multiplying them together. 
 
Teacher.-H'ow can you take 4 and 3 and make 121 
 
pupn.-By mu~tlP'lying them together. Tea.cher.-Tell me then a quick way 'tX> multiply 6. trac- 
 
tion by a traction. 
 
Pupll.-Multlply the numemtors together and put their 
 
product over the product or the denomlIUl.'Vors. 
 
Mixed numbers can be reduced to improper frectiOIl'S, and 
 
multiplied by the rule just given. 
 
Cancellation, 'W'hich Is just a short process ot simplifying 
 
tra.ctlons. should be expla'.lned and used whenever possible. 
 
To divide a traction\ by a fraction. 
 
DIVISION. 
1+-1-1 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-How many times is t contined in I? 
Pupil.-4 times. 
Teacher.-How many times are 1 contained in 11 
Pupil.-i of 4 or t times. Teacher.-How many times are t contained in iT 
Pupil.-i of t times, J. Teacher.-What did you do with the t y 
Pupil.-Made it t. 
 
 165 
Teacber.-That 18, you inverted tt., and lIIrter t.bJs mYel' sion wh8lt was done? 
Pupil.-The fracbions were multipliled. Teacher.-How then can you. divide one fraction by anotlher? Pupil.-Inve:rt the diV'isOir e.nd proceed as in multiplicatllon. 
DECIMALS. 
Draw a square on the iboard. Divide eaob side into 10 equal parts and connect. This willl give 1 large square divided into 100 small ones. 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-!How many squares in the large one? PUpil.-100. Teacher.--Dnoe square is what part of the wlrdie figure? PupiL-rh. (The teacher writes IJ1f on the board.) Teacher.-W1la.t part. are 4 little squares? 
m Pupil.-rl1f' (The teacher writes on the board.) 
Teacher.-(Pdinting to 1 row of the small squares): How many squares in 1Ihis row? 
Pupll.-10. Teacher.--Dne is w'hat part? 
nr Pupil.-n. (The teacher writes on the board.) 
Tea.cher.-Five are what part? 
Pupil.---fu-. (The teacher writes 1\ on the board.) 
Teacher.-I'll show you another way to write three frac- 
tions. (The teacher writes H=l, ro-.oI, fo=.5, 130-.04.) 
Teacher.-What do you notice about these denominators~ Pupil.-They are all either 10 or 100. Te&ea8'",-{)uch fractions are called deciIrullls. Teachbl".-Now tell me what is a dedimal fraction? 
PU[lil.-A decimal fraction i one who e denominator i" always 10, 100, etc. Addition and ubtraction of decil;tal 
Te 0 imple they are omitted on purpose. 
 
 106 
IMULTIPLICATION. 
The only di1llculty In multiplication of declmalls is "paintIng off." Let the t~her once bring the pupil to understand this point, then it becomes a II1a'tJter ot mere multipHcatio;n. 
The teacher writes on tlhe board: .5 5 
2.5 
COLiLOQUY. 
Tea.cher.-Five times 5 tenths are how many tenths? Pupil.-25 tenths. Teacher.-25 t.enIt1ll5 are how many Wholes? Pupil.-2 whOles and 5 tenths. The teacher writes on the board: 
2.53 
X5 
12.65 Tea.ocher.-5 times 3 hundredths are how many hundredths? Pupil.-15 hundredths. Tea.dher.-How many tenths and how many hundredths'!' Pupil.-1 ten1lh and 5 hundredths. Teacher.-5 times 5 tenths are how many tenths? Pupil.-25 tenths. Teacher.-Anld 1 tenth makes h:ow many? Pupll.-26 tenths. Teadher.-How many wholes and how many ten1!hs? Pupil.-2 wholes and 6 tenths. Tea.cher.-5 times 2 wholes are how many wholes? 'Pupil.-5 'tJimes 2 wholes are 10 wholes. Teacher.-And 2 more are? Pupil.-12. Atter solving two CYr three more slWh examples, 8ISk the 
pnpil to notice the first example. How many rlecimals in the multiplicand? In the mult'iplier? How many in the 
product? How does the number of ded.ma.Ia in the product 
 
 167 
 
compare with the llumber I'll the multiplicand and mull!lplier? Have him di.scovar thaJt it is the same. Have him 81tate the rule. 
DIVISION. 
 
The figure work Is exactly the same as In long division. 80 no attention wilI be paid to that part ot the work. 
 
1. When the number of decimals in the dividend 
equals the number in the divisor. 
 
5.76 -+- .24 = ? --, 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teao'her.-~ow many times are 6 hundredths con,!JlIJnoo 
 
'n 12 hundredtlhs? 
 
PupiL-Twice. 
 
Tea.cher.-Is that a decimal or a whole number? 
 
Pupil.-A Whole numLer. 
 
Teacher.-When you divide hundredths by hundredths 
 
w'haJt does it give you? 
 
Pupil.-W'hole numbers. 
 
Teacher.-When yOu divide 76 hundredths by 24 hun- 
 
dredtbs what kind ot an answer will you get.? 
 
Pupil.-Wholes. 
 
Teacher.-How many decimals in the dividendf 
 
Pupil.-2. 
 
Teacher.-How mamy in 1lhe divisor? 
 
Pupil.-2. 
 
Teadher.-What kind ot a number did you get, a whole 
 
number or a decimal? 
 
Pupil.-A whole number. 
 
Teacher.-What kind ot an answer dlO yoo get when the 
 
number ot declimals In the dividend equals the number in 
 
the divisor! 
 
Pupil.-A wIh'Ole number. 
 
Require the pupil to make a 9ba.tement. 
 
2. When the nuwoer of decimals in the dividend ex- 
 
5.76 -+ 2.4 n? 
 
ceed thOle in the diviaor. 
 
 168 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-'What Is lIJhe whole number In the d1vlsol'? 
 
Pupil.-2. Teacher.-In the dividend? Pupil.-b. Teacher.-If you divide 5 by 2 what d:o you get! 
Pupil.-2~. 
Teacller.----ean it be as much as 3! Pupi1.-It cannot. Teacher.-T'hen where must we 'Put the decimal point In tIlle quotient? Pupil.-Between the 2 and 4. Teacher.-How many decimals In Ithe div!tlend! Pupil.-2. Teacher.-In the divisor? Pupil.-I. Teacher.-By h'O'W much does the number In the dividend exceed 1ili.e number in the diviso'r? Pupil.-By 1. Teaober.-And how many decimals did we point o? Pupil.-1. Teacher.-Then give me a ruie 1'01' pointing off when the number of decimals in the diV'idend exceeds the number in the d~\"isor. Pupil.-Paint off as many decimals in the quotient as the num'ber of decimaJ1s In the dividend exceeds tlhe number In the divisor. 
 
When the number of dp.cimals in the dividend is smaller than the number in the divisor. 
 
57.6 -+- .24 = ~ 
 
'Iihe only thing necessary is to annex naughts fu the decimals in the dividend until there are as many there as in t.'e divisor. The answer then IS in Whole numbers. 
 
 169 
 
COMPOUND QUANTITIES. 
 
This IJlibject is comparatively easy. The tables wbflch were studied 'in Primary Numbers are rrow formally reviewed. The omy tlhing necessary is to give a &:,ood t'orm 
'or each ot the tour fundamental operationa. 
 
tADDITION. 
 
1. Addition. 
 
8 40 5t 3 12 mL fur. rd. yd. It. in. 6430728 3 9 15 8 1 9 
 
12in. = 1ft. 
17in. = lit. + 5in. 
+ 3ft. = lyd. 
4ft. = lyd. lIt., etc. 
 
10 6 
 
761 6 
 
in writing down the problem, care should be taken to 
 
write the cd1umns far enough apart to keep the pupils trom 
 
thlinking they represent units, tens, etc. Write an abbre- 
 
vie.tlion 'Of the name over each columIL Write or omit the 
 
table a.t will. It the pupil writes the table a.t recitation, 
 
of course have him do so from memory. It 1's better to 
 
make tlhe dhange or reductions in the pupil's mind. It he 
 
cannot do this, have tlhem written down systematicllilly. 
 
2. Subtraction. 
 
20 4 25 
 
T. cwt. qr. lb. 
 
125 6 
 
2 12 
 
80 15 
 
1 18 
 
84 10 
 
0 19 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Te&cller.--{Jan yQu take 18 lb6. from 12 Iba. T Pupl1.-You can-not. Teacher.-What did -you do in subtraction when :ron rould not take the unit figure in the subtrahend from the !mit figure in ilie minuend? Pupil.-You changed a. 10 into units. Tea.cher.-l qr. trow 2 qrs. leaves how man7T Puptl.-l qr. Tea.cher.-l qr. 1JI htolr lIlla.D7 Ibl. T Pupil-iii libe. 
 
 170 
 
Teaeher.-HO'W' many Tha. have TOU I.l:r-.~,.T PUI>il.-12. Teacher.-12 Ibs. and,25 Iba. are how many 1'bs. T PUI>Il.-37 Iba. 
Teacher.-18 100. trom 37 Ibs. leave how many? Pupil.-19. 
Just repeat tllls unit witlh the other columns. 
 
MULTIPLICATION. 
 
lHow much corn in 8 boxes, ea.dh box containln&' 6 bu I pk. 5 qUa. 1 pt.? 
 
The teacher writes on the board: 
 
482 
 
bu. pk. qt. pt. 
 
5. 
 
351 
 
X8 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-If each 'box hold!! the amount named, h.ow many times thiat amount willl 8 boxes hold? _ Pupil.-8 times. 
Teacher.-Then 'how many p'in'b!l in 8 boxes? PupiL-8 pInts. 
Teacher.-8 pinlls are thow many qU2l.IU? Pupil.-{. Teacher.-<Any Pints lent? PupiL-No. 
Teacher.-5 qts. 'In 1 box, how many in 8 boxes? PupIL-40. 
Teacher.-How many qts. have we already? l'upn.-4. Teachel'.-How many in all? Pupi1.-{4.  
And 8'0 on. It the teacher wIBb, l1e can put down all ot 
tfuese operaUOllIJ, !but 1t 18 beat Ito do it a.lways in 80m. P&rt4C11lil' 1r&7. 
 
 171 
 
DIVISION. 
 
It 1 doz. sIlver spoons weigh lIb. 9 oz. 17 dwt. 12 ~. 
 
wbat is the weight of each one? 
 
The teacher writes on. the board: 
 
12 20 
 
24 
 
lb. oz. dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr. 
 
12\1 9 17 12 1 16 11 21 197 132 12 12 12 
 
9 77 
 
12 
 
72 
 
11 
 
5 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacber.-ean you divide 1 lb. by 121 PupiL-No. Teacher.-How many oz. In one lb.? PupiL-12. Teacber.-How many oz. already? PupiL-9. Teacber.-<How many tIl all? 'PupiL-21. Teacher.-How many twelves in 21? Pupil.-l. Teacher.-l what, Since we are dividing oz.? PupiL-l oz. 'feacher.-How many oz. lett? PupiL-9. 
Teacher.-Can you divide 9 by 12 and get a wbole nuro'Der t 
PupiL-No. Tea.cher.-Wh'at can. we reduce the 9 oz. to? PupiL-To vennyweights. Teacber.~How many dJwtt. in 9 oz.? Pupil-ISO. Teac'her.-And 17 more are how many? Pupil-l97. Teacher.----How many twelvs can we ~ in 1971 And so on. 
 
 PERCENTAGE. 
 
The idea or percentage is to be taught In exactly the 
 
same way as decimals. The terms are to be taught just as any other definition, that is, by an application ot the tour steps !in inductive teaching. 
 
1. To find a certain perl cent. of a number. 
 
Find 5 % of 360. 
 
100 per cent. = 360 
1 " ., = rio of 360 = 3.6 
5 " .. = 5 X 3.6 = 18 :. 5 " " of 360 = 18 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Tea.dher.-What per cent. ;is 360 of itself? Pu-Pll.-100. 
Tea.cher.-Then 1 per cent. will be what part or 360? 
Pupil.-rh of it. Teacher.-How much is that? pupil.-a.6. Teac:!her.-5 per cent. 'Will be how many times 1 per cent.? PUpil.-5 times a.6, 'WIhich will be 18. 
2. To find what per cent.! one number is of an 18 is what per cent. of 360 ? otber. 
m 360 co 100 per cent. 
1 c= of 100 per ent. = lOr per cent. 
18 18 X fr per cent. = 5 per cent. 
18 0'0 ... 5 per cent. of 360. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacll;l.-360 IS wh~t per ce~t. of Itse'lf? 
Pupl.1.-100 per cent. 
Tea.cher.-What per oeIlJt.. w11l 1 be? 
Pupil.-rtJ of 100 per cent., or fa per cent. 
Teacher.-And 18 wtil be how many times as many? 
Pupitl.---<It w1l1 be 18 tlimes u many, or 5 per cent. 
 
 173 
 
8. Given a certain perl cent. of a number to 18 is 5 per cent. of what number? find the number. 
 
100 per cent. = the required number. 
 
5 1 
 
per cent. = per cent. = 
 
t18o.f 18 = 
 
3.6. 
 
100 per cent. = 100 X 3.6 = 360 
 
. 5 per cent. of 360 "'" 18. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
TeJac'her.-W'hat per cent. equals the number? Pupil.-100 per cent. Teacher.-5 per cent. are hO'W many? Pupil.-5 per cent. are 18. Teadher.-Then 1 per cent. axe h'Ow many? Pupil.-1 per cent. are 3.6. Teacher.-100 per cent. will be how many? Pupll.-lOO per cent. will be 360. 
 
4. To find a certain num., ber when another, a What number increased bv 5 certain per cent. great-I per cent. of itself becomes 378? er or )~. is given. 
 
+ 100 per cent. = the number. 
100 per cent. 5 per cent. = !Of). 
 
105 per cent. 
 
= 3i8. 
 
1 per cent. = 100 per cent. = 
 
TtHh 
 
X 
X 
 
378 = 100 
 
Ht. 
= 360. 
 
 3i8 is 5 per cent. greater than 360. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-'What ~ cent. is the number of itselfT 
!PupiL-lOO per cent. Teadher.-What part of the number 1a 378? Pupil.-The w'Ole num'ber and 5 per cent. more. 
T.eacher.-Then whalt per ce::lt. of the number is 378! Pupil.-l05 per cent. 
Teacher.-W'hat wnI be 1 per cent. of it? 
PupiJ.-rh of 3i8. Teacher.-What will 'be 100 per cent. ot itT 
Pupil.-lOO X ill, which will be 300. 
 
 174 
 
INTEREST. Teach terms as needed. Let it be reqtI!red to find the in terest on $120 for 1 yr. 7 mo. and 15 cia. at 8 per cent. 
 
120 .08 
 
6 mo. l 1 II i 
15 da. ~ 
 
9.60 into for 1 yr. 4.80 " II 6 mo. 
.80 II "1 " 
.40 " " 15 da. 
 
15.60 whole interest. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Tea.cber.-How d'O you findt!he interest for 1 year? Pupil.-By multiplying the principal by the rate. 'l'eaclIer.-How mucb is that? Pupll.-9.60. Teacher.-6 months are wbat part of a year? 
 
Pupi.l.-one-bail. Toocber.-Tb-en We interest for 6 months will be what i)art ot tbe 'inlterest tor 1 year? Pupil.-one-halt. Teadh~r.-How much is tbaIt? Pupil.-$4.80. Teacher.-Tbe interest for 1 month is wbat part of tbe Intel'eSt tor 6 months? Pupil.-It is one-sirth of $4.80. or 80c. Tea.cher.-15 days are what part of a month? Pupil.-one-balt. Teacher.-Tben the Interest for 15 days will be what part 
 
of 8Oc.? 
 
Pupfl.-one-balf, or 4Oc. 
 
Teac:her.-How can Y'OU c-et tJhe interest for the entl1re 
 
lIIme! 
 
Pupll.-By adding these amounts together. 
 
or) 
 
Teacher.-lf you b'Orrow $120 from a party, h'OW much 
 
w111 Y'OU owe Mm 8It tJhe end of 1 TI'., 7 mo. and Iii daTa! 
PupiL-$120 and $15.60 lnterest. 
Teacher.-ThiIt 18 called the amoU1lL 
 
 175 
 
IRJATIO AND PROPORTION. 
 
Th~ :raItlb ot two num!bers 12 1lhe indioaJted quotilen.t of 
one diViided by Ithe other. 
-, ~ are ratios. These are also written, 12:3 : 4:1. They 
are read, 12 divided by 3; 4 divided by 1. Compare the ratio 
of 12 to 3 and 4 to 1. What do you observe? The comparison might be expressed as follows: 12: 3 - 4: 1. This is a proportion, or equality of ratios. There are two kinds of prob- 
lems under proportion: L PrdJ>IlemlB In rwlhiOh there are only 4 quantities (Simple). 
2. Problems in which there are more than 4 quantities 
(OampiOund). 
 
There is one general law about a proportion. The product of the end terms (extremes) is always equal to the product lOt the inside terms (means). That being true, any 3 ot the 4 terms being gli-ren, th~ tourth can eaiti.'ly be 
found. Im. all probllems or this scmt, something alwaY'S 
causes or produces something elISe. Booause of this faICt, arfthmetlc'ians aTe getnera.l1y agTeed 1lhJalt it is a gIOIOId plan to state a universal proportion in the following manner: 
First cause: Sedoald cause eqlmlls First effect: Second effect. When the teacher meets a prdblem in praportion, aJll he has <to do Ja to ascertJa.1.n w1raIt its tlI.e first cause, etc., unrtil he finds 3 terms, putting the blank where it 'Properly belonp, and then make 1lhe product of the extremes equal to the prodiuct Of the mean&. 
 
ILLUSTRIATIONS. 
 
Blmpk Proportkm.- 
 
It 12 cloeJm can be made tram 54 Yf8.Tds of broadcloth, :how many yards would it require far 32 cloaks? 
 
1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 
 
yd. 
 
yd. 
 
cloak. 
 
54 
 
x 
 
12 
 
:Product of extremes = product of means. 
 
12 x=54X32 
 
9 16 
 
MX~~ 
 
$----144 
 
2d Effect. cloak. 32 
 
Jj 
 
 176 
 
Compound Proportion.- 
I! 7 horses eat 21 bushels ot oatts In H days, how many bushels 'Would be required to serve 35 horses 28 days? 
1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 2d Effect. 
 
h7 
 
3h5} 
 
201 
 
0 
a; 
 
14 
 
28 
 
Product of extreme = product of means. 
 
7 X 14 X x = 35 X 28 X 21. 
By calculation: 
 
52 
~fi X ~~ X 21 -----210. 
1Xi~Xz The Ilame byana1ys!s: 
 
7 horses in 14 days eat 21 bushels l"uuu"g" 
h 1 " II 1 " II ., 
 
3X35 
 
35" ...... " 
 
II 
 
14 3X35X28 35 II II 28 " - - - - " =210. 
14 
 
!'hese two examples are taken !:rom BantOO'd'a HIg1her 
 
Arithmetic. 
 
 177 
METHODS OF LEARNING PRIMARY NUMBERS. 
1. The old Wav. The pupil, after having attended school a while, learn. to make fi.;ures, and then commits to memory the dill'erenl tables, having recitations at irregular intervals. This wOl'k is oftcn put into the hands of older pupils. 2. Grube Numbers. 
Part 1. of this Manual Is one presentation of Grube 'urn bel'. Usually every system of schools has its own way or hauuling this subject. For instance: In teaching the num bel' , one system will teach all of the multiplicath-e facts, then all of the divisional facts, or all of the additive facts first. and then !!O on to the number 9. Another sys tern will teach an addiU ..e fact, then a subtractive fact, then a multiplicative tact, and so on. One plan is ju t as good as' another, provided the teacher follow. sy tern atically whatever plan is adopted. Here is the psychololdcal basis of the work: Number is presented to the child through sen~. The perceptive faculties being most acute at this stage, the subject is presented in the concrete rather than the abstract. The pupils see and handle the objects. and thus get a conception of number that could never be gotten by committing tables to memory. Some variation of this plan is now used almost exclusively in the besl schools of the country. This ca~tlon should always b6 borne in mind: Do not use the objects any longer than is absolutely nece~sary. A pupil's development may be hind~red rather thai! accelerated by overlooking this caution. 
3. The Speer Svstem. 
This Is a treatment of number from the standpoint of relation of magnitude. One thing is so JIlany times larger, or longer, or heavier than another. This system uses objects the same as Grube numbers. but the objects are not 
 
 178 
so much to be counted as to be compared. The usunl outfit consists of a table covered with blocks of different lengths and sizes. This work can be extended by u ing lines on the board also. For a full treatment of this subject, write Ginn and Company for Speel"s Arithmetic, Teachers' Edition. In this book wlll be found illu b'atione showing the number and size of blocks to be used, together with suggestions, model lessons and so on, much .more In detail than could be expected In a short notice like this, 
 
 NATURE STUDY. 
By T. J. WOOFTER, PH.D., G RGIA NORMAL 
AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE. 
I. WHA.T IS IT? WH~ HA.VE IT? 
"The study of nature is the tudy of things about us which we can perceive with om' senses."-Packard. 
"Nature study is seeing what is before us and construing correctly what we see." It is the study of God's world about us, placed here for our development. 
Nature is the outer world of educative materials about us. It is continually and from all directions pressing in on the child, calling forth his activities. The child in turn really hungers and thirsts for contacts with the outer world about him. He asks questions; he has a burning desire to know; he is every ready and anxious to come in contact with things. Nature and human nature are thus in thorough concord. They mutually interact. In other words, the child is prompted to know and to grow, both by nature about and by human nature within. 
"Teaching Is aiding the mind to perform itl;l func" tions of knowing and growing." Natural education will aid the development of the chlld in accordance with nature. What are the lessons nature gives the child? H w has he been knowing aud growing before he entered school? On what bas he spent his activities? On bookll~ Far from it. 
 
 180 
How bas nature ec1ucated the race from primitive man (1o"'n to the present? 
1. Prilliitiye man bad to learn eal'ly the use of certain piants for food and shelter. 
2. He learned to outwit, conquer, domesticate powerful and useful animals. 
3. He had to find out how to make of wood. bone, stone, metal, rude weapons, and to u~e these. 
4. He gained knowledge of the elements, of sun. moon and stars as clocks. 
Such is the character of the education first given the race by nature. IIas this education heen effe<:t ive? To doubt this is to douht the wisdom of God's plans. 
There is somewhat of a parallel between the development of the child and of the race. From these lessons nature has given the race we can get the cue as to what lessons we should fir. t give the child. 
1. Let u note that In early education tnere were no books. Man learned from outside nature. 0111' etlucation has become too bookish, therefore too unnatural. 
2. Man bas divine instruction to "Subdue the earth and have dominion over e,ery living thing." There are two steps in this: (1) Domestication of animals; (2) cultivation of soil. 
There could be no effectual cultivation of the soil wltbout the ox and the horse. It is interesting to note that the dog was the first animal domesticated, probably because of his companionship. 
The beginning of soil culture was decisive for stable Institutions. Man ceasec1 to be a wanderer as he found tbe value of certain fertile spots and took posses ion of these, 
 
 181 
 
Bence the following are uggested as the flrst school 
 
step' in  'atme tudy. 
 
1. ympa tiletic intere t in animal life, especially ani- 
 
mals as related to iluman interest. . 
 
2. Tile soil, its cultivation, plants, etc. Tilis step 
 
centers in and around tile garden. Competiti\'e 
 
growing of plants and flowers is good to bring 
 
children to observe natural laws, the weatiler, 
 
sunshine, rain, heat, cold, etc. 
 
3. Observation of tile sun, moon, and stars. 
 
Silaler say that city people to-day are losing certain 
 
stable foundations of charactel' gotten tilrougil 
 
contact with domestic animals. And it is true 
 
that anarchists do not come from tile country. 
 
Prof. llodge of Clark niversity has been inviting 
 
passing tramps to work in ilis garden tilat he 
 
migilt have the opportunity to ask tilem tilis 
 
question: "Have you evel' planted or cultivated 
 
anytiling'!" Only one out of forty had ever 
 
planted a se d or cared for a plant, 
 
Are we educating a race of anal'cilists and tramp ? 
 
Is Nature Study tilen worth while? lIas it any 
 
practical good in it? 
 
 
 
Again we may rote that keen perceptive faculties are 
 
needed: 
 
1. For material succe s, the good ob erver ilas the 
 
advantage in cotton buying, mercilandising, 
 
farming, blacksmithing, in all pm'suits of life. 
 
2. For enjoyment, whether in travel, literature, art; 
 
or every-day affairs., 
 
Who gets most enjoyment out of the e? Nature Study 
 
has a practical value not surpassed by even 
 
arithmetic. 
 
Still again, all first hand knowledge must come 
 
through the en e. Without the senses we 
 
could never know. Sense knowledge is founda- 
 
tion knowledge. It is the concrete material that 
 
we use inductively. We need it to interpret 
 
 182 
future knowledge, to apperceIve. Youth Is the time to supply this sense knowledge. The activity of the senses in youth, the plasticity of the growing brain, the interests of childhood 1;8. those of later life, all emphasize youth as the time for storing the mind with material from the outer world as foundation material for future development as well a.s the best material for present development. And lastly, let me urge that Nature Study will react not only on the life of the individual child, but al 0 on the life of the school and of the whole community. It will furnish recreation and variety in school work, relieve the monotony ot book work and dull routine, will intensIfy interest along all school lines. It will have a tendency to check the movement from countu to city, will increase capacity to enjoy country surroundings, and thus will materially benefit the whole State. Will you have It? Without your decIsIon to have It, fellow teachers, all talk about methods will be in vain. You cannot afford to be without It. Do not be a book murderer ot natural development, s. slave to past ideals. On the other hand, aim to dcvelo-p the active POtOeTS of the child ana to give him an abid~llg interest in the works of God. Through NaturE> tudy, lay a rational foundation tor the religious belief. Necessity for a creator may be clearly shnwn. There Is evidence of immeasurable power, transcendent wisdom, supreme goodness everywhere manifest. Mighty forces come from' the sun. But who endowed the sun? Food, air, sunshine, water, are here In proportion to our need.... Who ordained It so?  Behold the adaptability ot structure I~ plant and animal. Who arranged It? "The heavens declare the &,Iory of God Ilnd the firmament showeth hla 
 
 183 
 
handiwork." "Ilow manifold are thy works. In wisdom thou ha t made them all; tile earth is full of thy riches." 
 
rf. ~IETHODS. 
 
This topic, Miss Arnold, In Waymarks for Teachers, 
 
aptly divides Into three, "g t." "see," and "say." 
 
I"irst step. The getting bas to do with tb~ selection 
 
of the specimens au,l thcir sequence in a course 
 
of study. In selecting specimens for class study. 
 
some tl'ungs should guide. 
 
1. The specimens should belong to the Immediate 
 
surroundings of the child. The best observation 
 
work cannot be In th~ schoolroom. The Indoor 
 
lessons should arouse Interest and stimulate out- 
 
side observation. The pupils should apply the 
 
schoolroom lessons. They are to be led to see 
 
and to interpret the out-of-doors, to ap 
 
preciate the beauties of their environment. The 
 
toad Is a better topic than the starfish. 
 
2. The specimens should be types of Importar:t 
 
groups. Of about 300,000 species of animals and 
 
200,000 of plants only a few can be studied. It 
 
the few are types, a fairly good Idea of all may 
 
I 
 
be obtained. I 
S. The pecimens should, as far as pos ible, lead to 
 
valuable observation and application. The corn- 
 
field-pea takes nitrogen out of the air and puts it 
 
Into the soil. The farmer pays high prices for 
 
nitrogen In fertilizers. Certain common Insects 
 
are destructive. These should be recognized In 
 
any stage of development. The value of birds, 
 
toads, etc., stamps these as useful topics. 
 
Second step. This Is the seeing. First find out wha1: 
 
pupils have already seen, then guide them to 
 
see more. Sklllful questioning will do this. The 
 
observations should be orderly. There wUl at 
 
Irst be the tendency to see thinr' haphasard, 
 
 184 
 
wIthout any logical connections. To overcome 
 
thIs the teacher's questions should be planned 
 
In order. ITave a definite plan of ptocedure. 
 
Arrange your questions. 
 
. 
 
Again the observations hould be thoughtful. The 
 
pupil should interpret properly what he sees. 
 
The question should be thought-provoking; the 
 
felly should always be in evidence. 
 
The observations should be complete. They should 
 
not stop until they have seen all they ought 
 
to see. A definite plan will be needed for this, 
 
one which indicates a beginning- and an end. 
 
Such plans well followed will Induce logical 
 
habits of thought. 
 
- 
 
Third step. Observation should lead to expression. 
 
All the various forms of expression should be 
 
cultivated, but especially oral and written lan- 
 
guage and drawing. Have oral descriptions al- 
 
ways and frequent written descriptions and life 
 
stories. Encourage drawings of leaves, flower, 
 
animal, trees, anything studied. Have these 
 
ju t a a matter of course, not as a regular 
 
drawing lesson. Leaf, flower, and animal forms 
 
may be cut in paper or pricked and embroidered. 
 
This is good mdustrial busy work in connection 
 
with Tature Study. Outlines for embroidering 
 
may be had from any kindergarten supply 
 
house, such as ::Hilton Bradley Co., Atlanta. 
 
Pictvres and literary gems should be brought in, the 
 
poet and the artist thus helping the child to ap- 
 
preciate the beautiful. Free use of memory gems 
 
from literature at appropriate times Is valuable. 
 
The reading of inspiring books is to be recom- 
 
mended. These books should not be mere com- 
 
pilations of..fact, but should be genuine good lit- 
 
erature. Such are the works of Burronghs, 
 
Thoreau, Seton-Thompson, Long, and others. 
 
By way of general suggestion let me add. Do not at 
 
any time let the lessons dwindle Into mere 
 
 185 
knowledge-getting lessons, or Into a mere count Ing and naming of parts. Let the life story stand out. 'What can the plant or animal do, then how is it fitted to do so. About the latter part of ~'ovember celebrate Arbor Day. Have a program, im'ite patrons, and plant trees. About April first have a Bird Day. Have as much as possible of the nature work center in the garden. Make suggestions, dish'ibute seeds, do aU you can to interest them in planting and tending. If at all practicable, have a competitive exhibit of puplls' productions, flowers, plants, vegetables, chool work. All of this will help to make the school the community center. 
III. SUGGESTIVE MATERIAL. 
Since this is a new field, it seems best to give here ~ more specific outline showing what material may be used. Nature Study is not fully organized as yet. Courses of study will be found to agree generally In such subjects as arithmetic and geography, but there is no such agreement in 
Nature Study courses. The following outline course of study is a step toward the organization of this material for Georgia. It is therefore suggestive in its aims. It will be too extensive for some, too limited for others. Topics may be taken, others left accerding to individual tastes. Some may be abbreviated or added to, brought in earlier or postponed. 
Tho;~ who feel timid about entering this vast field are advised to make a beginning anywhere. Select a few topics of Interest to you, begin with these, and you'll soon radiate In all directions. 
Those who seem Inclined to be critical: please bear In mind that much has been necessarlly sacrificed to brevity. 
 
 186 
'1'0 correln te with the general course ot study, the fullowing cOUl"e is arranged in five groups agreeing witlI the fil'e reader grades of the graded eour e of study for the common school of Georooia, published by Commi sloneI' Glenn. It i planned foi the rural and village school . and if put into effect will tend to dignify and elel'ate country life. 
. Suggestion baye been adapted ft'om many sources, but it is hoped that there will be found some pedagogical merit distinctly its own in the course. 
SUGGESTIVE OUTLI E COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
1i'.!LL. 
 
FIRST GROUP. 
 
Life bistories of dog, cow, cat, chicken, duck. Instl, 
 
tnte comparisons. tress use to man and carl' 
 
of domestic animals. Bring out habits, adapt:!, 
 
tions, bodily covering. Properties of bail', fur, 
 
etc. 
 
nickory and pine trees; form, parts, arrangements 
 
of buds, fruit. Compari ons. Falling of leave.'. 
 
Covering of buds witb little overcoats. 
 
Mig'ration of birds. Collect cocoon . 
 
From this study of the preparations of plant and ani, 
 
mal for winter, pass to our protection against the 
 
cold of winter. 
 
WI'TER. 
 
Skin, bail', nails; their uses and care. Cleanliness. 
 
Clothing nnd related indnstries. Houses. Primitive 
 
houses nnd dress; the Indians. E quimau life. 
 
Teacher get information from Schwatka's Chil, 
 
dren ot the Cold. Also bring in the Hiawatba 
 
Primer (Houghton, Mitr. Co.), tor Indian stories. 
 
 187 
legends, etc. "'hat were Hiawatha's Brothers? Hiawatha's ClJickcn ? Also study parts of human body, bones and muscles. Fish, oyster, a veliebrate and an in,"ertebrate. SPRI 'G. Nature's preparation for return of wal'm weather. Familiar seeds and their germination. Opening of leaf and flower buds. Which open first in the elm?'Why? in the dogwood? Note others. What are some of the first si"ns of Spring? Study butterflies and moths. Have indi,"idual collections of If'aves arranged according to shape and veining. Study the horse; simple structure, habits, food, use, care. Compare with cow. For wild animals, study the squirrel and the rabbit. Contrast habits. Begin un interest In birds. IIave some general weather obser,"ations. For some sample lessons worked out in full on the dog, cow, horse, chicken, rabbit, etc., get ~Ic Murray's Method in Elementary Science. Thie Is a good book on Nature Study for the fir t three grades; price 50 cents, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. Read them Thompson's "Raggy 1Alg'~ from "Some Wild Animals I Have Known," in connection with the rabbit Also UncIe Remus's tales of "Brer Rabbit." Give them many Interesting sto;:ies of domestic animals. Encourage them to tell about the doings of animals. 
SECOND GROUe. 
FALL. Teach names of months and seasons. Forms of water; vapor, rain, hail, snow, ice. Simple ex: periments to show effect or heat on I?atter: (1) on air, (2) on water, (3) on Iron, (4) on mercury. The thermometer as a mellJl'lre of heat Dally 
 
 188 
record of thenDometer. Weather record kept this year. Sum these records weekly. then monthly. Which the hottest day? Which the coldest? What the average temperature? WIJicIJ days were about average? On which days did It rain? How much? What the direction of wind these days? The prevailing weather? Prevailing winds, etc.? Flowers. Work of parts of flowers. Falling of flowers. Whi h parts fall? Which remain? Use of the flowers to the plant. Study of any fall flower like Goldenrod, Chrysanthemum. Study or oak and walnut trees. Recognition by bark, leaf and wood. Properties of their wood. Nut trees in general and nuts. Collection of autumn leaves. Ha,e some drawn in outline and colors. Collection of seeds; morning glory, acorn, pecan, beans, peas, cockle-burs, let tuce, radish,' mustard, corn, wheat. Every child should have a seed box. Some of their own collection should be planted next spring. How nature sows her seeds. 
The storing of food by animals; by plants In seeds and in roots as In beets, tumips, parsnips, etc. Storing of starch as food. Identification ot starch (iodine test). Is It soluble? Try cold water and hot. Tecesslty for grindinO' and cooking, for conversion of starch into sugar. 
Sugar-cane, sorghum, sugar maple. From thIs study of the needs and preparation of ani- 
mals and plants from the standpoint of food, pa s to a like study of man. 
WI TTER. 
Primitive and modern methods of making fire, cooking, grinding. 
The teeth, construction, use, care. Proper way to eat. Foods. Digestive system. Circui'\tory system. Story 
 
 189 
ot a ~foutbrul of Bread in "The House r Live 
In.'' The sun, our great giver of heat and light. 
:;pnr TG. (Garden suggestions.) 
Germination of seed.. Parts of a plant as developed from eeds. i\lorning glory, bean, squa h, and corn, are good plants to prout and study. 
Sheep, pigeon. Further study of butterflies. The ant by way of contrast. The life history of the toad. 
~ FIesh eaters. 1. Cat (tiger, panther, lion). 2. Dl'g (wolf, fox). Grass eaters. Horse, cow, sheep (reindeer, goat, 
camel, bu1Ialo, elephant, deer). Study the apple-tree, its peculiarities, flower, fruit, 
etc. Begin with flowers from the early crabapple. Have these observed, drawn, colbred. "Black Beauty" and "Beautiful Joe," may be read to them this year to continue to develop kindnes8 to animals. Beecher's "The Anxious' Leaf," Larcom's "-ri'hen the Leaves Turn Brown," and other suitable gems should be used in proper connection. Tyndall's "Forms of Water" and Needham's "Out-Door Studies" will suggest to the teacher. 'he latter book has excellent treatment of goldenrod and its inhabitants. Get 
Hodge's "Outline on the Toad." Read Jane An,drews' "Seven Little Sisters" to them this year. 
THIRD GROUP. FALL. 
Lea"es studied more systematically. Organs of leaf. fain purpose of leaf. Uses of leaf to plant and to man. Falling of leaves, how, why? Determine how much is one leaf in clover; in chinaberry; in walnut; in hickory, thistle, etc. Adaptatlo.ns. Summary of kinds of leaves. Ferns and lichens as types of flowerless plana. 
 
 190 
Coal, petroleum, carbon, properties in (uels and Illuminants. 
WINTER. 
Carbon in foods. Lungs, respIration, bodily heat. Hygiene of breathing. Ventilation, heating. The voice and its organs. Review circulation and digestion. 
The camel and elephant may be studied as beasts of burden in other lands. 
SPRIXG. (Garden suggestions to be carried out at home.) 
Mica, quartz, glass, feldspar, marble, granite. Earthworm, bugs and beetles, snail and oyster. 
Mosquito, dragon fiy, and pond life in general. The following topics may be divided between Fall 
and Spring, according to circumstances: 1. Ideas of north, south, east and west. Obscn'e dil'ection and length of shadow from same 
point, forenoon, noon, afternoon. Changes why? Shortest when? Slmpe of sun's path daily? Shadow mid-day points north. Sun-So Right-E. Left-W. Observe sun's path faU, winter, spring. Compare. Sun's rising where? Setting? Drill in doors and out. Observe at home. In how many ways we find the north and south -line? Find north star, big dipper, a;d observe motion of stars. Make a weather vane and 8 sun dial. 
II. PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
1. Land, a solid. Walk on what to school? House rests on what? 
Compare with water, with all'. It Is a solid. Give Ideas of limitations In all directions. 2. Water, a liquid. Do what with water you cannot do with land? (Pour, 
swim in, drink, etc.). Moves freely; flow. dOWD hlll; collects In low place&. 
 
 191 
 
 
 
3. All', n gas. 
 
"'here Is air"! Cnn yon feel it? See It"! How hl~h? 
 
Tree tops, birds, clouds. Does air keep still 
 
ever? What do we call air in motion. Differ- 
 
ence between gale and breeze? 
 
Color of distant objects, hilIs, sky. Wby blue? 
 
fs it wnrmer at noon or In morning? Day or night? 
 
On which side of bouse is it coolest, and wby? Why cooler at nights? What heats the air? 
 
Why cooler on top of mountain than at foot? San heats the air how? IIow does air protect us from cold? IIow many uses of air can you name? Tell all we have found out about air. 
 
lIT. WATER IN THE AIR. 
 
Boll water and condense. Place a pan of water where It will evaporat~. Ask what has become of it. Teach vapor, steam, ciouds. Is all the moisture 
 
In the air in clouds? (Ice pitcher experiments.) How does the all' get Its moisture? On wbat 
 
kind of nights does dew collect? "Where come 
 
from? Does It "fall"? Why collect on plants 
 
and flowers? What becomes of the dew-drop? What Is its "sWnlng pathway?" What bas been 
 
called "cloud dust?" What doe!:> the air do .with Its moisture? Uses of water In air? lJ:.each rain, 
 
mist, fog, hail, snow, frost. 
 
rv. WEATHER. 
Weather observations and records continued. Get directions for voluntary observers from U. S. Weather Bureau, also their pictures of various clouds. Note the amount of rainfall and the prevalllng directions of winds before auf! after rains and during dry seasons. 
EJontlnue observations on the sun and moon. Explain , phases of moon. Our relations to the BUn. 
Chuce In length of dayll. 
 
 192 
V. WATER ON THE LAND. 
Slopes, universality of; kinds, gradual, abrupt, long, short, rough, grassy, etc. Water-meeting waterparting, divides, creek-bed", riIls, branche, creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, banks, basIns, creek systems, river systems. 
Uses of Slopes. Suppose no slopes. Suppose all abrupt. 
~1) Sources of soli. (2) Distributes soil. (3) Variety of plants. (4) Of animals. (5) Of climate. Produce springs, streams, oceans, etc. 
VI. WATER IN THE EARTH. 
What becomes of the water that falls as rain? What of that which soaks In the !!,l'ound? Through what kind of soil wiII It sink deepest? What will stop its course? Chan~e its course? Does any of it ever come out again. All of it? 
Springs, wells, caverns, streams, mineral springs, etc. Uses of underground water. 
VII. LAND FORMS. 
These have already been taught in substance In connection with slopes. Sum up or teach bills, mountains, plateaus, valleys, deserts, swamps. 
VIII. ANIMALS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES. 
Where find muskrats, frogs, turtles. crawfish, tadpoles, snakes, dragon tIles, cranes, snipes, wild ducks. etc? 
Where wolves, foxes, chlpmnnks, squirrels, bellI'S, robins, jaybirds, eagles? How are these adapted to their homes? Long-Ie'"'ged, we!). footed, sharp bill, etc. 
Animal life in various rel:iollll ()f the world. 
 
 193 
IX. PLANTS OF VALLEYS A... D SLOPES. 
Wliere do ~'ou go for liuckleberries? For water lilies? "\Yliat trees grow in tlie ,alleys? 00 slopes'! Wliere is ,egetation the rankest? Why so in valle~'s ? 
Vegetation in various regions. 
X. SOIL MARl G. 
1. Kinds ot soil and rock. Examine some sand to find out wliat it is made out of. Examine clay in 8 similar way. In Georgia tile mica tn clay will help to tile conclusion tilat it too i made out of rock particles. Bring in some black soil from tile wood-yard or elsewliere. Find all you can in it. It has what, not found in sand? What becomes of all the animals t~at die? Of the plants? Tlius teach loam a anotlier kind of soil. Wliich do you tilink is made out of tlie liarder rocks. sand or clay? Wliy do you tilink so? Sand out of quartz. clay out of feldspar. Loam out ot what? 
2. Weathering. Work ~f frost, ice, wind. 3. Work of streams. Wash, transport, deposit. Signs 
of these? 4. Wqrk of plants and animals. 
Xl. OUR EEDS. 1. Food. Make a catalogue of vegetables raised within radius of one mile. Do the same for fruits; also grains. What the chief product of home county. Do you eat many tillngs not raised In the county? 'arne some. Source. 2. Clothing. Its materials, sources, related trades. Show by an examination that nearly all cloth is put together in the same way. Then If po sible get a small toy loom and show how it Is woven. . Shelter. Its materials and related trades. Idea) homel. 
 
 194 
XII. OCCUPATION. (1) It'arming. (2) Stock-raising, etc. (3) Lumbering. (4) Mining. (5) Fishing. (6) Manufacturingfiour, cloth, Iron, steel, wood, etc. (7) Trade commerce. 
XIII. PEOPLE. 
Let pupils read "Seven Little Sisters.~' 
XIV. GOVERNME T. 
This should first be an objective, sense study, to open the eyes and the understanding of the child to his surroundings. 
Do you know anyone who holds office? What does he do? Who made him an officer? Who pays him? Did you ever. pay taxes? (How about postage stamps?) Tame things that have to be done for the good of the whole community. Roads, schools, etc. Care of pUblic property. 
XV. WORLD AS A WHOLE. 
This topic is brought in as a proper conclusion to the series above, and not because It is in itself a Nature Study topic. 
Payne's Geographical Tature Studies, Tarr and McMurry's Home Geography, Frye's Child and Nature, Stories of Industry, are some valuable aids to teachers. 
FOURTH GROUP. 
PALL. oil. A more complete study than In the preceding group. (See following outline.) Birds. A fall study to be continued in the spring. The English sparrow is a handy type. Bees, a colony of animals. The grasshopper by wa1 Qt compaxiAon. Emphasize thritt. 
 
 195 
The cotton plant. Instin -ts of animals, intelligence of mllny. How we 'WOlD and foel. 
\\'I:-ITER. 
The nervous system. Its control over other organ~. the heart. lungs, stomach, muscles, etc, Nervous matter in general, the white and the gray. Thl' brain, spinal cord, ganglia, ner,es, and the special sen. e organs. Adaptations of these organs. What we know through each, Hygiene of the nel'VOUS system in general. Care of the special senses. 
sPRl:-lG. 
Bird study continued, Cra~fish. The corn plant. More critical study of trce. llJndoO'cns. exog ns. Life In the woods. Orchard life. (Sce Comstock's "Insect Life," chapter on Orchard Life.\ Fruit trees. 
Metals: Iron, tin, lead, copper, zinc, gold, silver, alloys. 
At any time ot year observe moon, its phases, motion among stars, time from moon to moon. Also notice behavior of ail visible planets during year, especially motion among stars. 
"Birds and Bee ," "Sharp Eyes," "Fur-Bearing Animals." all by John Burr0!1g'hs. "Ways of Woodfolk." Long. "Some Wild Animals I have Known," Thompson. "Bird World," Stickney. These are all interesting and inspiring books for both teachers and pupils. 
"Our Native Birds," Lang, and U. S. Government Farmer's Bulletins on Birds and Their Relation to A.grlc~ture, are good for informa.tlon for teacherll. 
 
 196 
SOIL. (A. fuller outline.) 
Man's prosperity, wealth, and life depend upon the earth, atmosphere, and sunlight. O,er which of these does man have little control? Which can he treat to advantage? (The soil) 
1. What is soil? (That part of crust of E. In which plants grow.) How deep Is It? Distinction between land and soil? 
Land, areas. Soil, the attributes of land. 2. How soli Is made. (1) Basis of soli Is rock dust or fragments. Ex- 
amine sand for rock particles. Examine clay. Which made of harder rocks? How was the rock prepared? (2) By change of temperature, frost, Ice, rain, wind. Weathering. Find some crtlmblfng rock. After It cmmbles what becomes of It? Transportation. Signs of the same? (Water muddy, hill-side gullies, sand banks along streams.) Leveling pro}~sses of water and wind. Mountains laid low. (3) Organic matter. WlII plants thrive In pure rock dust, sand? In pure clay? These gi,e body, but something else is needed to gi.e heart or life to soil. (a) Examine some dark soli for organic matter, such as chips, bark, leaves, etc. Loam. Humus. (b) Plants help soli-making In two ways. Roots have acid effect; also crack and break rock. First plants, lichens, mosses, etc. Plants also decay and add matter to the soil. Humus. (c) A.nimals help soU-making too. Thpy die ard add decayed matter. Humus. The earthworm contributes how? the groundhog? (Burrowing.) 3. Kinds of SoU. (1) Sandy solI, mostly quartz with humus. Pecu 
larities ot. 
 
 197 
(2) Clayey, mostly feldspar with humus. Pecullari. ties of. 
(3) Loam, sandy of clayey, or both, with greater proportion of humus. Peculiarities. Which kind is best for gardens? 
4. Resource_ or uses of soil. (1) Give root-hold for plants; also necessary con- 
ditions for root work, such as protection, moist Ul'('. regulated temperature, ail', etc. (2 Storel1ouse of plant food, such as potash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid. Plants unlock tile soil and air and take from tllem certain elements for plant material. (3) How does nature regulate tile fertility? (Returns plant to soil.) How Illl-S man modified tllis plan? (Sends crops away.) \Yllat sllould man do then 1 (Make some restoration, fertilize.) 
EXPERIMENTS. 
Take some fresh earth and weigh It. Let It remain la sunlight awhile and weigh again. Why the difference? Moisture. 
Heat it hot so as to burn or bake it. Weigh again. Why this difference? If you burn wood wllat matter will be left behind? What burned up? 'I'his is the case with the soil baked. Pulverize this baked soil and try to grow something In it. Explain results. 
5. Treatment of 5011. (1) Water Is nece sary In soil. (a) To dissolve plant 
food for root to take in. (b) To contribute to building the plant. What proportion of our bodies is water? Is any part without water? (2) The direct supply or plants Is capillary water. tha.t Is, water held by soil particles like 011 is held up In upper part or lamp wick. 
 
 198 
(3) The capacity of soil to hold moisture may be In creased' by: (a) Loosening If. too hard, so that water will go in, not run ofl'. (b) Addition of humus-green manure, barn manures, chip dirt, leaf mold, etc. (c) Tillage, to increase depth of capillary soil and to increase capillary capacity through pulverizing; also to admit air an~ warmth. 
(4) Escape of moisture. How pre,ented. Moisture works upward by capillary attraction, and 
at surface may be rapidly evaporated by sun and wind during drouth. Prevention. Deep preparation so moisture may sink and plant roots may go down deep; then shallow working to keep crust from forming and to keep a surface covering too loose for capillary action. Query: Why plow ground? Mention all reasons you can. 7. Perpetual Motion. 
'I'ue plaut gets its food where? The plant.ln turn becomes food for what? Animals finally return to what? Are any new elements created by these changes? Are any lost? 
What is the aim of agriculture? (To raise the plant.) See Bailey's "Elements of Agriculture." 
FIFTH GROUP. 
No effort will be here made to classify topics accord ing to sea on for this group. Much matter is at the disposal of the teacher and pupil. 
The following al'e some topics which may be used I.. convenient order. 
I. Physiology. A text-book may be put in the hands of the pupils for the last year's work. This wl:I aummarize, fix, aa enlarge the oral work. 
 
 199 
II. Physlclal Geography. 'early all the topIcs In a good physical geograpb3' like Davis's or Tarr's. should be co,ered orally in connection with advanced commercial geography. 
III. Summary of the Animal Kingdom. Give some idea of microscopic animals. tben trace the development up to man. 
Geograpblcal DIstribution of Animals. 1. Some barrIers. (1) Climatic. (2) Altitude. (3) 
Otber physical barriers. 2. Great areas of distribution. (1) Of continental masses. (2) Types In these areas. How anImals are fitted for environment AnImal communities and socIal life. Instinct and rea- 
son. ("Animal Life," by DavId Starr Jordan, treats tbese topics.) A sImilar summary of tbe plant world. Bergen's Botany Is good; so is Bailey's. 
IV. THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
Relation of agriculture to prosperity. Tbe dependence of the city upon agriculture. etc. The country as the place to develop character. 
Success of country bred boys. Wbat farm resources are. The plant In Its relations to agrIculture. Forrestry. 
Fruit trees. Animals In their relations to agrIculture. ("Elements of Agriculture," by Bailey, will furnisb 
material.) 
\'. LESSONS FROM PHYSICS A.'D CHE;\I1STRY. 
1. All'. (1) Pressure in all direction. Experiments. The 
barometer. (2) It occupies space. Show this. (3) An agent of 
combustion. 
 
 200 
(3) Relation of heat and air pressure. (4) The thermometer, studied more fully. Dltrerent 
makes. 2. Light and the Solar System. Reflection of light and mirrors. Refraction and lenses. The telescope and spectro- 
scope. Shadows and eclioses. 3. Heat. How produced. Etrect on matter. How dif 
fused. Evaporation, condensation, dlstiliation. Energy and heat. Steam-engine. 4. Machines. 5. Elements and compounds. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon. 
SOME ANIMAL OUTLINES. 
L CLASSIFIOATION. 
1. Invertebrates. (1) Protozoans. (2) Porifera. (3) Coelenterata. (4) V{'.rmes. (5) Echinodermata (6) Mollusks. (7) Arthropoda.. 
2. Vertebrates. (I) Fishes. (2) Amphibians. (3) Reptiles. (4) Birds. (5) Mammals. 
II. PROTOZOANS. 
These are microscopic animals of one cell only. Myriads of them are to be found in water, but these are not available for ordinary Nature Study. When a good microscope can be had for upper grades, some hay may be steeped in water and a drop of this water studied for the tiny infusoria. Some protozoans have shells. The chalk clll'l's. 
III. PORIFERA. (The sponge as a type of a slightiy complex animal.) 
 
 201 
This may be studied In the upper grades In conneetlon with geography. It Is not the best topic for lower grades, since pupils cannot find them In their daily surroundings for application. 
IV. COELE TERATA. 
These are slightly complex also, and include such as Jelly Fish, Hydra, Polyp, etc. No type from these is good for ordinary lesson. '['he coral polyp should be considered in Its proper geographical connection. 
V. VERMES. 
The earthworm as a type, L Haunts and Habits. 'Where have you seen earthworms? Where can you 
find them now? What have you ever seen them do? When do they come out of the groond? Did you ever see a I'obin try to pull one out of hi. hole? Did you every try the same? How does h. hold on. Can he climb? 2. Note carefully his body. Have specimens distributed to class. How long Is he? How does he travel? Try to make him go the other en!! foremost. Lea"e him alone again; which way d'oes be crawl? What is your inference? (Head and tail ends.) Are both ends exactly alike? Tel! the difference. Roll him on some other side. TIDat does he do? Will he crawl with the saUle side under every time? Can you tell any difference between sides? (Upper and lower sides.) What else can you tel! me about his body? (Rings, collar, veins, etc.) Look for his digestive canal. Where Is h;s mouth? What will he eat? 8. Sensation. Has he any feeling? Can he see? Will light atl'ect him? Do you tWnk he has any lDtel1lgence? He will feel around a leaf. theD 
 
 202 
turn the small end toward his hole and drag it  in tlJat end first. To lJa,e sense he must have a nervous sy tem. Explain his brain, spinal cord, and ganglia. 4. Young. Raye you ever seen young worms? Are tlJe~' at all like old ones? Hatch from eggs? How abou" If one is cut in two parts? 5. uses. (1) Castings. Plow soil; nature's first plows. Average of about ten tons to the acre brought up this way. Soil maker. (2) Holes, for roots, water, air. (3) Leaves. Enrich soil. (4) Coyer seeds. How is he adapted to his life? (Shape, eyes, bones, legs, slime.) Draw a worm. Draw a robin pulling a worm out of hole. Darwin's "Yegetable Mould and the Earthworm" Is good to read here. 
VI. ECHINODERMATA. (Spiny skinned.) 
Star fish, crinoids, sea urchins. A star fish Is a good thing to ha,e in a school cabinet. A brief lesson may be given on It, but this will be more of a knowledge lesson that an observation lesson, hence not one of the best for a primary grade. 
VII. MOLLUSKS. (Soft bodied.) 
The snail is a convenient type. The oyster may be used also. 
Have you ever been on the seashore? What did you see? What shells did you find? Which the most plentiful? Do you find any shells about fresh water creeks and ponds? Do you find any shell animals on land? Where? What? 
Have specimens distributed for individual discovery. Or have members of class bring them In. 
Where did you find the snails? Are they there all the year 'round? Sunshine or warm water will make 
them put out heads. How doee he tral'el1 no. 
 
 203 
 
be use bJs whole body to move, or only a special 
 
part, his toot. Has he any bones? Sott body, 
 
mollusca. How protected? Shell made up ot 
 
how many pieces? Univalve. an he come all 
 
the way out ot his shell? Did you ever see a 
 
snail without a shell? A slug. What else do 
 
you see about the snail? Horns! How many? 
 
Their difference? What does he do with them? 
 
Can he sell? Where al'e his eyes? At end ot 
 
long stalks. What advantage to him this arrange- 
 
I.. 
 
ment? What other animal has eyes on stalks? Do 
 
snails llve In water? Difference between land 
 
and water fmails? Who can find where the snail 
 
breathes? Look for a hole In side of neck. What 
 
does he eat? Does he grow? How can he when 
 
his shell will not stretch? Look for lines of 
 
growth in shell? How is shell made. What kind 
 
)f path does be leave? Why secrete'sllme? Is 
 
he a good tbing to have In gardens. How protect 
 
garden beds? Paths of a hes 01' lime will cause 
 
so ,great use of slime that snail will wa te away. 
 
What animals have two shells opening hinge-like? 
 
Bivalvps. Can they close their shells very tight? 
 
Find muscle spot in shell; also the mus- 
 
cle In tbe oyster. Flnd sometblng like 
 
tbe mantle ot the snail? This the oyster's 
 
mantle. Find his mouth. Use ot mantle? 
 
Tell me something about tbe shell. Com- 
 
pare the two val,es. 'ote shape, size, com- 
 
position, surfaces. lines of growth. Find about 
 
tbe young and habits tbrough life. Did you ever 
 
see a pearl? Where come from? How made? 
 
Pearl fisheries. Oyster fishing and culture. 
 
VTIJ. ARTHROPODA.. (Jointed-legged.) 
 
1. Crustaceans, crawfish a type. Tbls Is an InterestIng and often usetul animal, good for study In any grade. 
 
 204 
Get some specimens early In spring and keep them In a bowl of water in the schoolroom. Get one large one if po ible. 
Where found? Behavior in retreat? When frightened? Morning and evening? Winter? Did you ever see a well he had dug? What damage done? 
Look at his body. How many parts? What else do you see? Frighten him with a pencil. What do? How defend himself? What about these feet? (Jaw f) Has he many such? Tell me more about his body. (Hard outside, segmented, collar or carapace). What appendages has the head? Uses of these? 
The mid-body has what appendages? The hind body? Describe the tail? Which are his walking legs? How does he swim? Do you think he can hear? Where his eal's? What does he eat? He Is a cannibal and wllI eat flesh, tadpoles, snails, etc., dead or alive. A scavenger. His value in 8 8pring? Find out about the young and their development. 
(1) Eggs attached to swimming feet. (2) Young In shape of adults. (3) His shell can not stretch. He cannot add to It like the snail. lIe mouUIJ. He may pull off a leg or jaw or foot in moulting. What then? 
Find out about the hermit crab, his habits, and occasional relations with sea-anemone. 
2. Insects. This class furnishes the richest and most inviting Il.eld 
in the whole Invertebrate group. Its animals are of such variety, beauty, Interest and Importance that they may be studied in any grades as time wllI admit. 0 one animal will serve a8 a complete introduction, but types should be S8lected from the following orders. No detailed treatment, only a general outline of this ettenatve class can here be given.. 
 
 205 
(1) Stralgbt-wlnged (Orthoptera), grasshopper, 10cl1!'t, cricket. 
(2) 'caly-winged (Lepidoptera), butterfly, motb. (3) Sbeatb-winged (Coleoptera), beetle. June beetle, po 
tato beetle, etc. (4) Half-winged (Hemiptera), bug. cicada, squasb UIl;;. 
plant lice. J. Tote differences between bugs and beetles. (5) ~lembrane-winged (Hymenoptera), bee, wasp, ant. (G) Two-winged (Diptera). fly. mosquito. Cbaru cter' tics. [alsect, cut in. The body Is di"ided how? How many legs? ""Vings? What peculiar life c)'ele: ~Ielamorphosls. Beetle eggs hatch what? But terti:! eggs what? Motb eggs? Fly eggs? Mos quito eggs'l 3. Aracbnids. Spiders, TI}p.se are sometimes classed as insects. Find points of difference between spiders and true inseets. Haunts and bablts. Find out about tbe trapdoor spider. 4. l\Iyriapods, many-footed. Thousand legs. Not ot Importance. Point out as you go tbat a few Insects are lfeneficlal to man, many are very destructive. The reports sent out from the experiment station. at Experiment, Ga., and tbe farmers' bulletins publisbed by the United States government, Washington, D. C., are useful and may be had for the asking. If man had no help in keeping these Insects in cbeck, they would dri\" ~ him off tbe face of the earth. What are our allies? How do we show our appreciation of valuable services? Huxley's Crayfish and Comstock's Insect Life are valuable books for reference. 
IX. VERTEBRATES. 
What fi"e orders of vertebrates can you name! 
 
 206 
Only two of these wl11 be outlined here, 1. Amphibians. Tbe common toud as a type. Life 
history. Are there any toads to be found about here? When? 
Tbey came from wbere? (1) Out of the ground. Hibernation. The tuad is a cold-blooded animal; its blood Is 
about the same temperature as the surrounding air. "'hen air gets too cool, toad becomes stupid, idactive. He goes into a kind of death sleep in which he hardly mo,es or breatbes. Do you know of any other cold-blooded animal? Any other hibernating animal7 What does toad do to get ready for this sleep? Watcb one dig sometime. What wakes bim? "'bat wlll he then do? (2) Out of the water. Cycle of life. '''m. Harvey tells us that every animal comes from an egg. For what else is Harvey noted? Does toad live on land or in water? Often far from water, but tbe early purt of bis life was spent in the water. There is where you mu t look for his eggs. Look for some about the ponus in April, 01' wben you hear tbe frog chorus on a summer e,ening. lIow does he make tlJM noise? Can you tell toau's eggs from frog's ('ggs? ('I'oad's in strings 01' egg ropes; frog's in bunches.) Take some ('ggs from the pond and place in a basin of wuter from same pond. {f weather is riglJt, they hatch in two 01' tllree daJ'. Wbat is the young toad ca lied? What is it like? Watch one several oays and see if It likes to stay under water. How does it breathe under water7 Describe it actions as it ~ows older, and account for them. How distinguish a toad tadpole from a frog tad pole? (Color.) Get toads, for they develop fast- 
 
 207 
 
ft.'- Watch carefully when they are trom four to six weeks old. Legs begin to grow. Which ones first? Shape changes! What becomes ot tall? (Absorbed.) Finally one Is transformed Into a. toad. 
 
What wl1l It eat when on land? Any flying, creepIng, crawling thing It can swallow-fly, caterpillar, spider, worm, hornet, etc. One has been leen to eat twenty-fouf caterpillars in ten minutes; another to catch and to eat thirtyJive celery worms In three hours. One will eat ten thousand Insects In a' year. How Is he a friend to man? To the garden? What harm does he do? You should watch one catch a fly sometime. How does It do It? What are some enemies of the toad? Should you be an enemy or a 
 
friend? 
 
Toads look brighter and fresher at times. Why Is this? They change their coats. Find ont about this. 
 
Does a tadpole have bones? Does a toad? Does It 
 
have ribs? Backbone? What other animals 
 
have backbones? Describe toad's feet. Try to 
 
make It hear you. Can Atter hibernating two or 
 
It hear? three wi 
 
nters 
 
the 
 
little 
 
toad becomes a bl"! one. Some spring when It 
 
awakes from long sleep, It has longing to get back to pond where its Ufe began. It finds a. pond, lays a great many eggs, perhaps a. thousand or two. Its cycle of life Is complete, though It may live seven or eight years longer. 
 
The leaflet on The Toad, published by Cornell's. Bureau of Nature Study, fills In the above outline. Prof. Hodge, of Clark University, has a pamphlet on the toad, price five cent.. Address him, Worcester, Masi. 
 
 208 
BIRDS. 
So the Bluebirds have contracted, have they, tor a house? And a nest is under way for little Mr. Wren? Hush, dear, hush! Be qUiet, dear, quiet as a mouse. These are weighty secrets, and me must whisper them." 
(Coolidge.) 1. Some characteristics. 
What is a bird? Can all birds tIy? Which birds can not tIy very far? How prevent a hen trom tIying o,er the fence? Is a bird's tail any help to the bird? Why are the feathers of the wood pecker's tail so stiff? What differences have you noticed in the feet of birds? (Three types-walk ing, swimming, perching.) 
In their bills? Name some bird famllles you know. (Parrot.) 
Where find the different birds you know? 2. Haunts and habits. 
What birds remain about here all year? Why do some birds migrate earfier than others? Are many birds to be found in dense forests? Why so? What birds like trees, what the meadows, and what the houses? What birds may be called "birds of the air?" 
Do all birds sing? Name some song birds you know. Tell something of their songs? Which is your favorite? Do you think the songs of birds can be set to music? What poet speaks of these songs as "Sweeter than Instrument of man e'er caught?" 
In what dlfferent ways do birds move about on the ground? Perch on limbs? What evidencetl of bird Intelligence can you give? 
8. Bird enemies. Do birds have enemies? Know their enemies? How do they show this? In what ways are some birds enemies of others? What birds build 
 
 2UlI 
 
where enemies can not well get at their nests' How do the young behave In these nests? In other nests? Why do some birds build about houses rather than in woods? This has brought what new enemies? How? 
 
In what way do old birds protect young? What Is a parasite? What buds have parasitic tendencies? Why have many men become enemies of birds? What kind of bird study has done much harm? In what way are girls and women enemies of birds? What birds make choicest decorations? How are these decorations prepared? Is this ornamentation civilized or barbarous? Should we be friends or enemies of the birds? Why? 
 
4. Nests and nesting. 
 
When do birds build the first nest!! of the year? Why are these birds like pioneers? Which stand the better chance, April or July Jests? Why? Suppose the early nest is robbed? Do birds return in pairs, or do they mate In spring after return? Which birds sing, male or female? Which have the gay plumage? Account for this? Which do the work, build nests, sit, fe'd young? 
 
Do most birds build high or low? Why? WIl:lt 
 
bird lays eggs on dry leaves, no nest? How be- 
 
10: 
 
have when approached? 
 
What birds rear more than one brood a sea on? 
 
Only one? Do birds ever return to the same 
 
place year after year? Do birds teach their 
 
young? Do birds have emotions, su('!:l as grief, 
 
sorrow or joy? Should we respect these? 
 
I. Original research. 
 
Observe some nests, noting: (1) location, I!:lrroundIngs, material of nests. (2) Color, shape, number of eggs. (3) Time from first egg till 1I.rst hatch. From hatch till leaving nest? (4) Appearance 
 
 210 
 
and behavior of young birds. (5) Which birds feed young? What food? (6) Difference In appea rance of male and female. 6. Study of special birds. Partridge, meadow lark, crow, sparrow. blue jay, woodpecker, robin, owl, etc. Families of birds and their characteristics. The hen family. The pigeon. 
Query:-Judged from commonly accepted standards of human success In life, what bird Is the most successful of all? 
A.re birds decreasing In number? 7. Summary. 
Distinguishing marks. Location In animal kingdom. Families and their characteristics. Parts of a bird, their functions. Uses to man. Life story of a bird. 
Write to Singer :\Ianufacturlng Co., Richmond, Va., for their pictures of sixteen A.merlcan singers. Sent free. 
THE SES OF BIRDS. 
1. Birds destroy millions of Insects and their eggs. 2. Trees and all 'l'eg-etation are necessary to human 
life. Insects mnltiply so rapidly. jf left alone, that they would destroy all 'l'e~etat1on. 3. Birds inspect all trees, limb by limb, bud by bud, searching for insects. eggs. and larvae as no human eye can search. 4. Lawns. gardens, gt'o'l'es. grain fields. would soon be desolation without birds to check Ins('ct ravages. 5. Take all birds from woodlands. field and yards and we would then realize how much beauty they add to pur landscape. Their glorious music is the sweetest iI:l llilWre. Birds fill the world wUh beauty and melody. 
 
 211 
8. Blrdll are as necessary as the showerll of spring. They are worth $500,000,000 annually to farmer!! of United States. 
7. In 1891 and 1892 there was a starvation time In Russia due to Insect ravages, the birds having been killed by excessIve winter freezes. 
A French philosopher says, "Without birds, human life would be Impossible." 
Birds are decreasing In numbers. Why? How save them? 
1. '.rhe clearing of forests Is partly responsible. Teach folly of ruthless destruction of trees. Schools should have arbor days. 
2. The wearing of feathers, breasts and entire birds on hats causes annual slaughter of mil lions of harmless, beautiful and useful birds. Discourage such wear. 
S. Sportsmen and boys unthinkingly shoot thousands. Teach their use and beauty. 
4. Let boys expend their "shooting" in tincts on English sparrows. 
Report of N. Y. ZOOlogic&1 Society, 1898, W. T. Hornaday. The most nluable document ever pUblished on this subject; reports th&t in 16 ,&&n bird life in Georgi& deoreased 65 per cen t., in U. S. 46 per cen t. 
SOME .PLA T OUTLI ES. 
I. WHAT IS A PLANT? 
Is a tree a plant? Is a growing onion? A weed? Rock? 
II. WORK A PLANT HAS TO DO. 
Dki you ever think a plant has to work for a. IITIng? What has it to look after or do? Must have food? How get It? After it gets its food III Its work done? No, It must digest It. 
 
 212 
Why do we need food 7 What use has the plant for food7 To live, to grow. 
A. part which enables to do a particular thing is an organ. An ol'gan is any part which has its own work to do. Eye, mouth, stomach, heart, lungs. Has a cow organs7 Has a rock 7 Has a plant! 
Ill. ORGA'S OR PARTS OF A PLAJ.'iT. 
1. For liVing and growing. Root, stem, leaf. 2. For reproduction. Flower, fruit, seed. 
What is a root7 Rootlets? Use? What do we mean by the stem? It bears what? Why has & plant leaves? Let us find out all we can about leaves. 
IV. LEAVES. 
1. Comparison of oak leaves with maple. Generalize. 1. The stem of a leaf is called its petiole. 2. '.rhe broad green part is called its blade. 3. Petioles of maple are long and green. Of oak. short and green. 4. The blades are not shaped alike; the margins are different; blades of oak thicker, dark green; of maple, lighter green. 
2. Compare oak and maple with elm. 1. Have petioles, blades, margins, are green. 2. Elm blade not so long as oak, not shining, not o wide as maple. Petioles differ how? Oak leayes of different trees differ. Identify. 
I. Draw an elm leaf; a maple; an oak. Color. Cut In paper. 
Cilanges in leaves. 'Yhen cold weather comes? Maples change to red 
and yellow. Oak to red and brown., Others how? What becomes of leaves then 7 And then 7 Do all leaves have petioles? No. Find some lrithout. (Mari., pink, mul'n). Review. See l\ I' on leaves. 
 
 213 
5. Veins. 1. Examine maple and I~y lea~es for hard lines: examine oak, plantain, gra ,etc. All ha~e a vein through middle. (1) ;\Iidyein. (2) Yeinlets. 2. Uses of veins. (1) Keep leaf spread out; sunlight; shade. (2) Carry sap; out of broken ~elns comes juice-leaf's blood. 3. Kinds of leaves according to ~eins. Hold lea~es between you and ligllt. (1) Peach leaf, lace or fish net; net ~eined. (2) Plantain, mid~ein and others side by side; parallel ~eined. Lily another kind. Look at corn leaf, grass, wheat. I Cotton. 
6. Shapes.  1. Base. Apex. Broad base; sycamore, tulip, birch, morn.ing-glory. Pointed apex: elm. Rounded, black oak. 2. Oval: Plum, pear. Lanceolate: willow, gra s. Cordate: lilac, violet. Some lanceolate are net~eined; some parallel veined. 3. :lIal-gins. (1) Crenate: broad, rounded notches; violet, catnip, geranium. (2) cITate, sawtoothed: elm, apple. (3) Dentate, tooth-notched: dandelion. 4. Lobes. Deep cuts in some margins, portions between cuts called lobes. 
7. Simple and compound lea~es. Is there one leaf or three on the stem of what we call three-Ieu\"ed clover? In the cllinaberry tree find one leaf. Find one I af of a blackberry brier. Just where do these lea "es breal, ofl' when they fall? Vi'here will the next lea~es come out? Can you find next year's lea ~es? Villere? If this specimen is not oue leaf, then it must be a limb or twig. Do twigs fall lib.ooe leaves? Then how much of this is a leaf? Some leaves are simple, some compound. Find examples. Walnut? Oak? 
 
 214 
8. Arrangement on a tree. 
Looking up from beneath a tree, where do moat of the leaves seem to be? Why there? Are any leaf buds on or nearer the trunk? Why do not they open out? (Dormant, suppressed.) What would make them open out? What suppresses them? Leaves arrange according to sunlight. Why? The leaf aided by the sun works for life of plant. Sunlight necessary. 
9. Offices of leaf. 
The great purpose of the leaf is to enable the plant to perform Its vital functions. These are: 
1. Respiration. Everythin" that lives, breathes. Plants like animals glv orr carbon-dioxide In breathing. Why do we breathe? Where does the all' do its work? This for the plant takes place in leaf. What then may you call the leat? Lungs. 
2. Transpiration. Taking In mineral food through the roots it must take in much water holding mineral in solution. Some of this must be giYen orr through doors. Stoma. Find these. In tiry easons doors nearly close. Why? 
3. Feeding. digestion. 1. e., starchmaklng. Story of Chlorophyll. 
10. Other uses of leaves. 
1. Sllade. 2. Food: Insects, squirrels, cows, man. What 
leayes do we eat? Cabbage: turnips, lettuce, etc. 3. Co,er: to protect roots. cover seeds. 4. Commerce: tobacco. tea, fans. chair bottom.. 
ornaments. 5. Feltillzer: humus to soil. What the greatest use or real purpose of leaf? Of 
plant? 
 
 215 
V. ROOTS. 
1. What? What part of a plant Is under ground? Is any part of the stem under ground? Do you know any plant with roots not under ground? Why does a plant have roots? Food, drink hold. 
2. Kinds. 1. Primary. Originate how? (From caulicle.) Tap root. What work has the tip end? Capped for it. "2. Rootlets. 3. A.erial roots. Water roots. 4. Thick or fleshy roots: beet, turnip, etc. Office of thee:e? 'Viii they go to seed in one year? Is an Irish p tato a root? Does it not bear buds? It Is really an underground stem. 
3. Work. How do plants get food through roots? Mineral food in water. How roots take In water: mouths like sponge pores. Root pressure. 
~. Structure of roots. Of a tree, sassafras; to note corky layer, paler layp.r, woody cylinder. Uses of each layer. Roots help soil how? Loosen. prevent washing, fertilize. 
VI. STEMS. 
1. What? The work of nourishing plant done by root and IElaf. The stem connect these. It lifts the leaves high, bear up the branches to spread leaves, and communicates with roots and leaves. 
2. Parts. Place on stem from which leaves grow, nodes. Places between nodes are internodes. Compare internodes on same twig, then on different twigs as to length, distance around. Whe.n leaves fall, how teil where node was? Describe scars of dif'l'erent twigs. What is at 
 
 216 
end or tWig in winter and spring? Does terminal bud lea,e scar? (In many trees. See eIm.) A ring about twig. How many such rings on a tWig? What will the number tell? 3. Arrangement of buds: 
(1) In pairs. Opposite. Maple, horse chestnut. (2) Singly. Alternate. Elm, oak. (3) In whods. Pine. 
. Covering of buds. Find the scales, the velvety, woolly or waxy outer parts, and smooth, soft lining. Uses of these? 
5. Place of leaves on tree. Umbrella like. Why? The dormant buds and "The Battle for Exist ence." 
6. Study the unfolding or leaves from buds. Find how they are packed in maple, elm, peach, apple. l\1ake drawings of buds, leaves, twigs, 
trees. What else besides leaves come out of 
buds? Flowers, twigs. 
7. Structure and growth. Compare tree with corn. Exogens and endogens. 
VII. FLOWERS. 
1. Work of the flower. 
What becomes of the flowers or an. apple tree? Of the beau stalk? Peach tree? Pumpkin? What remains where the flowers were? Fruit. What is the work of the flower? To produce fruit. Why should the plant bear fruit? Seeds within to reproduce the plant. Let us find about the work of the flower. 
where have you seen flowers? What trees have flowers? Do leaf buds open first, or flower buds? Which remain longer on the trees, leavetl or flowers? Let us see how the f1owel' does ita work. The story of the flower is one of the most wonderful of the plant world. 
 
 217 
2. Parts. 
Study a crab-apple twig ot flowers. Describe oue. 
Draw it. ~ow again tell what you see. Who sees yellow dust. Flowers have to help one 
another. Story ot pollen. 
tl) What part produces pollen? Stamens. (2) What part receives pollen? The part extend- 
Ing to seed. Pistil. (3) How get trom flower to flower? Wind, bees, 
butterflies, etc. Use of colored parts. Petals. (4) Petals w'ere enclosed In other parts; these at 
base of petals, very oft~n green, sepals. Here calyx, carolla, perlanth may be taught. If onelacking, which? 
(5) Compare carollas as to color, number ot petals, 
regular or Irregular, as the apple vs. sweet pea. (7). Compare stamens. Anthers; number, length. 
color, use. 
3. Fragrance. What wild tlowers have you tound to be tragrant? Non fragrant? 'Vhlch the more common? "Genlu's a specialty. It does not grow in every soil." Do bees get honey from any Zion fragrant flowers? Do they from honeysuckle? Rose? Where does the little white violet grow? Is It frngrant? Is the blue? Your favorite fragrance? Flower? 
VIII. FRUlT. 
The use ot the flower? The parts of the flower? 
1. What is fruit? Matured ova:y, ripened pistil, together with Intimately related parts. 
2. Kinds. (1) Fleshy. (a) Stone: peact. cherry. (b) Gourd: pumpkin, melon. (c) Pome: apple, pear. (2) Dry. (a) Grain. (b) Nuts. (c) Akenes: strawberry, sunflower. 
 
 218 
 
Kinds accordln;r to III . emlnutlon. (] I That roll: pea, beao, nnt. Testa smooth. (2\ all: dandelion. (31 Fly: pine, maple. (41 Stick: burrs. 
Fill these classes with others. Tell how each III adapted. 
3. Agents. Seed carriers. Water, wind, animals, birds, flsh, beasts, man. 
4. Queries. Which fruits have eatable pulps'! Why so many'! Why are seeds of pulpy frnits often bitter, as orange seeds'! Why coated as In stone fruits'! Why some too small to be chewed. as flg, banana'! Account for raspberries growing In forks of trees. 
 
IX. GROUPS AND FAMILIES. 
1. 'rrees. Common trees of Georgia; peculiarities and uses. 
2. Corn group. 3. Cotton. 4. Legumes. 5. Potato and tomato. 6. Weeds and struggle for existence. 7. Wild flowers. 8. Cultivated flowers. 9. Flowerless plants: inould, yeast, mosses, lichens. 
mushrooms, ferns. Flowerless plants are of much great&c importance and interest than gener. ally thought to be, and should be fully noticed in lower as w~ll as higher grades. 
 
TREES. PINE AS .... TYPE. 
1. Compare pine with other trees. lea,es, branches, section, etc. growth from bud. root, seed. 
2. Called coniter. Other conifers. Flowers of the pine tree. 
 
Color, trunk. Difference In 
Comparison!! 
 
 219 
8. What Is a forked tree? What made It so? Did you ever see a forked pine? Why scarce? Destroy a terminal bud of young pine and note the results, a race for leadership, one branch winning, others dropping back as branches. 
Does the pine shed Its leaves? How prove It? How many leaves In each bunch? What rna)' the number tell you? Uses of pine leaves? 
. Kinds of pine. Size, age. 15. Uses to man; to other animals. 6. Turpentine farms of Georgia. Where? How up 
procured? Waste In present methods. 
WEEDS. 
What is a weed? Name some. "A plant out ot 
place." "A plant whose virtues we have not discovered."-Emerson. Burroughs styles weeds "the most human plants." Why? They cling to man; follow him around the world; crowd hili barn, house, crops. Who seem to be the greatest enemies of weeds? Art! they? How do they help weeds? Where do weeds begin to grow? Why do they grow? To cover bare places; to replenish. From what do they grow? They seem to spring up like magic. How deep do seeds sometimes get In earth? How long live? In what ways will a weed protect Its species? Wild carrots multiply heads; toad flax and Ber~ muda travel under ground. Late corn starts off as usual, but a late weed will hurry up a short stem and go to seed as quickly as possible. Weeds have been called the tramps of the vegetable. world. Justify. How do they travel1 Where most easily? How far known to travel1 Why Ilhould weeds flourish In our country? Roomy. waste. What weeds are natives of th w world? Milk. rat:. poke. goldenrod. De 
 
 220 
these Infest crops, or come atter them'1 Are they hard to keep down? What weeds have come to us from over the seas? How do yea1'll of contact with civilization change habits of vermin and weeds? Pugnacious, persistent. Compare wild wood mice with house rats. Have we given any mean weed to Europe? Tobacco. What weeds are plants escaped from civilization? Radish, carrot, liveforever. What weeds have pretty flowers? Uses of weeds, especially gras8. Have weeds any virtues to be admired? Not easily discouraged; take what they can get; make the most of their opportunities; die game. Study of particular weeds. Dandelion, Cocklebur, etc. Read Burrough's A Bunch of Herbs. For some good suggestions on the dandelion, Bailey'. Lessons with Plants. 
THE CORN GROUP. 
1. WHAT IS CORN? 
In the United States we think of maize as corn; In Scotland, oats; in England, wheat. At the beginning of barley hal'\'est, Ruth asked to glean corn. Corn lOeant hard, dry grain. Called cereals. Tell the story of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, and Pro erpine, her only daughter. Al80 the Indian legend of. corn, Mondamin. 
II. COMPARE CORN, WHEAT, RYE, AS TO GRAINS, PLANTING, GROWTH, STALKS, FLOWERS, EARS, HARVEST, ETC. 
1. Note adaptations to fields, winds, rains, springy stalk, tubular arrangement, long, wavy, springy leaves. Did you ever see a field of grain waving? A beautiful sight. Advantages of tubular arrangement. 
 
 .,.p_ ... 1. 
 
2. Growtb. (1) Internodes lengtben. Race for life; a rapid grower. How bigh have rou seeu com? (2) RoB within 1'011 as it grows. llovable sheath protects wheu wind blows. Rain guards. Brat'.. IOOtS. 
3. Drouth. (1) 1\1ay root dcep. Rye as deep as fOUf feet. 1\1ay stop loss of water; 1'011 lea\'es. Leaves 1'011 wben'! Spread wby? How arranged to send water to roots? 
 
III. LIFE WORK. 
 
1. Food making for self. This the main pUl-pO e of early life. (1) Whicb parts aid in getting raw , materials from eartb and air? (2) Which serve In bringing materials together? (3) Green parts use sunligbt to make oyer the, materials. (4) Some parts carry digested food where needed. 
 
 
 
Roots, stems, leaves grow rapidly in early life. 
 
(5) Branch factories established. How many 
 
heads from one grain wbcat? 
 
2. Provision for offspring. This the final duty ot 
 
plant. 
 
(1) Floral parts. (a) When made? Wben plant is well under way. (b) Maize flowers compared with 
 
wheat anu oats. In maize, pistils, ilk. (C) Tbc ear, taken husks and all, a specialized stcm. Tbe flower bud, a specialized leaf bud. (d) Beginning of seed. Wby all these parts? "Oro s pollination." How guard against "close pollination?" whicb better? (e) Agent of pollination, 
 
wind. Dcst \'arieties; how obtained? Examine corn on a solitary stalk. (f) After pollination, bow do stigmas and antbers bebave? Wbat furtber work is to be done? Sap must canoy sugar to be converted into starcb, whicb In turn mu t be stored. Where stored? Protection of ripen- 
me kerneL 
 
 222 
(2) Scattering of seed. (a) Wild vs. cultivated plants. How did nature plan to scatter maizeseed. (b) Coyote corn found in Mexico. Sectionsor ear. (c) Coyotes, wolves, birds, etc. Halt stan'ed Indians rob stores of birds and other animals. Did man first learn from these the nlue of this food? (d) Barley scattered by grainloving ants. See Proverbs vi., 6-8. 
HARVESTING ANTS. FARMER ANTS. 
IV. GERMINATION. 
The infant plant and Its food. "Surely the vegetable kingdom has no greater marvel than a kernel of corn. It represents the joint achievement of man and nature working together for untold generations upon this kind of plant to promote the most perfect provision for Its offspring." 
1. Contents of kernel. Starch, gluten, fatty oil. life germ. Wlly these? Chew a handful of wheat. Note change in taste as you chew. Ptyalin In mouth, pepsin In stomach are ferments. Ferments change starch into sugar. 
2. How use this material? (1) Moisture. This wakesup the seed; starts ferment. (2) Ferments. Starch to suO'ar; proteids to peptones, makingliquid food. (3) Main roots sent out. This soon co,ered with hair roots which help plant to begin to feed Itself. 
V. ADVAKTAGES OF CEREALS AS FOOD PLANTS. 
1. Savage food; how obtained? Hunt, fish, ather roots, nuts, fruits. Does this make large and strong nations possible? 
2. Superiority of cerea.ls. (1) In yield. (2) In separation of seed. (3) In bulk. condensed. (4) III' 
keepln~. 
 
 223 
3. Influence of cultivation on yield. Pliny tells of Cresinus charged with sorcery for Increasing yield. How much wheat sown on an acre? How much reaped? How much corn planted on an acre? How many hills to an acre? Ears to an acre? Advantages of drilling wheat? Food taken from the soil? Effect on soil? 
'- Separation. (1) Plant depended on Wind, hence easily shattered. (2) Food stored by germ In grain, hence simply crush. Mills. (3) Plant -depended upon liquid food, hence easy dIgestion. 
5. Bulk, compact, light, much condensed. 6. Keeping, dry, hard, like weed. 
VI. COMPARI~O OF CEREALS. 
1. Which Is king of cereals? Wheat. "Starr of life." White bread. 
(1) Native home, Mesopotamia, Tigris and Eupltrates. 
(2) Its relations to civlHzation. In Palestine, Egypt. PreWstoric. In Persia, IndIa, Greece, Rome. 
(3) Where most cultivated to-day? United States. Vast fields where? 
(4) Wheat harvesting and threshing. Wheat products. Mills of lIIinneapolls. 
2. Oats. Grain of hardiness. (1) Some advantages. Contains protelds, muscle substance. In fll:.tty material, richest of grains. Tht;ves north. (2) Home, middle and eastern Europe. (3) Oats products. (1) Will grow on poor soil, in climate too hot or dry for others. These conditions met in northern Europe and Asia. (2) Native home, south Europe, middle Asia. 'ot probably known to early great nations. Cultivation spreads about Christian era. 
 
 224 
(3) Rye products. Straw tough, not good todder. Good for packing, for hats, paper, boxes, etc. 
. Barley. The brewer's grain. 5. Rice. The corn of the east. 6. Maize. The corn of the west. 
(1) Native home. (2) Advantages In raising, yield. (3) Kinds. (4) Uses. (5) Relations to history of this country. Benja- 
min Franklin's method of parching. Why should Georgia raise more cereal crops? Corn Plants, by Sargent, (Houghton-Mifflin Co.,) 
covers the above. 
TEACHERS' IIELPS. 
It has been said that teachers need no books to prepare for nature lessons; that God's great b(\ok Is spread out before them. Such ofldvice is not only discouraging"":'-it Is folly. It Is not the fault of the teachers that their preparation has been unsuitable and inadequate.. This is the fault of the schools. '.rhe greatest need of the teacher in this work is scientific knowledge. Teachers can get knowledge, stimulus and suggestion from books. Just as the teacher is to guide the children, books can O'uide the teacher. However, the teacher should always verify book knowledge by personal observation. 
There are books of knowledge, of inspiration and of method. The writings of Burroughs, Thorean, Long, Seton-Thompson are inspiring. Text-books In zoology, botany, physiology, physical geography, etc., may be good for knowledge, but many of these are nnsnltable In method for InItruction of children. Some of the late handbooks of method contain also valuable informll.tion. Such boon are McMurry's Elementa.ry 
 
 226 
Science, :50 cents; Lange's Handbook ot Nature Study, 1.25; Howe's Systematic Science Study, $1.50; Jackman's Nature Study, $1.50; Scott's 1\30ture Study and the Child, $1.50. Any teacher can make a good beginning with McMurry's Method and Lange's Handbook. McMurry discusses the underlying principles, gives an outline course for first four grades, and. works out In full many valuable lessons on domestic animals. Lange Is adapted to higher grades, as well, and is full of good material. Another cheap but suggestive little book Is Boyden's ature Study by Months, first four years, 50 cents. Some books have already been suggested in the preceding outllnes. Without any attempt at classification or complete list, the following al'e added as helpful: Nature Study, Wilson. Seaside and Wayside Readers. Lessons on E!ementary Science, Longman. How to Know the Wildflowers, Dana. A Year With the Birds, Flagg. Birdcraft, Wright. The Great World's Farm, Gaye. Trees of United States, Apgar. About the Weather, Harrington. Story of a Piece of Coal, The Story ot the Cotton Plant. The Story of the Earth's Atmosphere, The Story of Electricity, all trom D. Appleton Co. Bees. Wasps, and Ants, Lubbock. The Crayfish. Huxley. Butterflies, Scudder. How to Teach :'.1Inerals and Rocks, Kellogg & Co. Familiar Animals and Their Wild Kindred. Monteith. One ot the most valuable and suggesti,e ot books tor teachers of any grade Is Jordan's Animal Life, D. Appleton & Co. 
Any books can be bought &t discount tbrouib a 
S. Cole, Atlanta. Ga. 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
By SUPT. C. B. GIBSON, CoLUMBU8 PUBUC SCHOOLS. 
(CopvrigllUd. ) 
EXPLANATORy.-This chapter on School Management is in tended to be suggestive merely. It aims at quickening thought among the common school teachers of Georgia !tnd brinbring them to c nsider and discus in the county institutes que tions of vital imponance to the sllt-cessful management of their schools. It is written with the ungraded ruraillchools in view-the schools that stand mo t in need of a better management;-and for the purpose of aiding especially the large body of young, ambitious, and comparatively inexperienced teachers who constitute iO large a part of the teaching force of Georgia. The sUl!gestions are not the direct or indirect result of reading and theorizing alone, but they come from actual and sometimes painful experience in the most rural of rural schools, the semi-graded village school, and the wellI1;raded or overgraded city school. In one chapter it is impossible to enter into a didactic discussion of the principles laid down or the brief statements ventured. This must be left to the conductor and conducted at the institute. 
INTRODUCTORY. 
. DEPINITION.-8chool mana~ement is the art of properly di recting internal and external school affairs. 
SCOPB.-Broad enough to embrace all the influenC6ll and agenci~8 that operate on the school from within or without. That management which aims at only the internal affairs of the IChool will fall short of a full measure of SUC068l. There Ia an intimate relation exillting and a cordial co-operatioa which Ihoald edit hetw'8en the iIduencel of the hOlDe, wh. . 
 
 228 
the child spenda sixteen bours a day. and thOle of the lehool, where he spends leu than eight hours a day. Bound, rational IChool management should aim to reach and manage educationally the homAS, the parents, and even the school officiall. 
BASIs.-The soundest ed ucational principles. .As an art it is the outgrowth and exponent of the science of education. 
RELATION TO GooD TEA-CRING.-The sine qua non; the chief thing needful; absolutely indispensable. Especially is thil true in rural and villa.e:e schools, where more evils can be traced to a lack of management of the school forces than to any other cause. There are mllJlY good Instructors in theBe schools, but their measure of success is small because they fail to orKanize and systematize and manage the educational forces of the community-pupils and patrons, material as well as mental resources. 
DIVISION&- I. School Facilities. II. School Organization. III. School Government. IV. Outline of Work. V. Tests, Records, etc. VI. School Hygiene (sufficiently important to 
constitute a division of the subject.) In this brief article the first three only can be considered. 
I.-FACILITIES. 
I. Building cind Grounds.-It is a mistake to suppose that these are facilities with which the teacher haa nothin.e: more to do than to accept them as he finds them, adapt himself to them, use them under'distre sing disadvantages, and when he leaves, surrender so much of the grounds as the rains have not washed away, and so much of the buildinl/: as the pupils, unhindered, have not whittled or torn away. 
These are thinltl with which the teacher haa to do: 1. As he finds them. 2. As he uses them. S. As he leaves them. 
.. ..u he is instnunental in supplying them. eoa. Fint. Btatistic~ from the office of the State School 
misaion.. r .t",.. that (j"orllta baa 7419 common tlChools, aael 
 
 229 
that these are taugbt in 5207 schoolhouses. Problem: Determine the schoolhou~efacilities for each school. 
After careful investigation the Commissioner gives the followinl: in his report, 1894: .. The average number of schoolhouses, outside of the city, is about sixty. As reported by the county commissioners, the value of all the sixty IlChoolbouses, outside of the towns, is less than $2,000. (Find the aVl.lral!'e. The average value of decent barns for Georgia mules is 175.) Of those in this number tbat are ruilable for ,chool purpoau, the average number is not over four or five." 
The natural results are: 
1. Nine-tenths of the country schools must be conducted during the hot, sultry summer months. 
2. Many of the schools are U kept," and the results arol distreBSin~ and discouraging to teacher and patron alike. 
3. 1I1anyof the best citizens are movinK from the country to the towns and cities, to have the advantages of good schools. 
4. Conflicting duties on the farm in summer keep many children away from school altogether. With a school population of 604,971 the average attendance is leae tbau 250,000. 
The teacMTI of tM pcut and pruent aTe largel1l reapomibu for thi" condiJ.ion of things. 
Second. The teacher should be careful how he usee the school building, grounds, and appliances. It is the teacher'e duty 
1. To see that the building is provided with means of pro' tecting the school property against burglars and vandals, and to keep the building locked when not in use for educational or other ~ood purposes. 
2. To replace or repair anything that he may break or damage, and require the same to be done by pupilB, whether the damage be accidental or otherwise. 
8. To inspect closely the furniture and premise. at lean once a week, and cause amende to be made for ally" thing found to be ami... 
 
 230 
-t. To keep in order and rudy for use all apparatus and 
appliances belonging to the school. 5. To exerci~e a business care and vigilant @npervision 
over all tbe school property-ground. buildinj!, furniture, apparatus, library, appliances. 
Third. If every teacher were careful to leave the school facilities in at least as good ('ondition as he filllls them, Bnrl all /'arefully locked ancl protected, the sclJOols of Georgi'\ would he far better equipped than they now are. No matter what mllY he the circuli tances attending the teacher's leaving a school a proper regar,1 for his good name will lead him to Pllt everything in order before going away. II q SUCCt'ssor, whether he ever meets his prtld..cesBor or not, \\ ill he sure h form and express an opinion of him. \Vllen the ""'IO"lh'luSe door is opened on13 sort of impre sion will he made if th .. de~ks are found in disorJer and much damaged; an IICCIlIllU lation of dirt on the floor, dirt on the desks, dirt on the walk dirt everywhere; window panes out; bucket gone or fallen to pieces; dipper rusted out; teacher's desks full of chaotic confu. ion; no c.opy of scbedule; no record; nothing that "'ill help and much that will hinder. 
Quitl! a different sort of impression will be formed if everything is found to be clean and in order, with as much at hat d to help the new teacher as can be left by the retiring one. 
A duplicate in ventory of everything in the building should be left Wilh the county school commissioner. 
.A few sug~estions on leaving a school: 1. Put the teacher's desk in order. See that it containa a carefully prepared copy of your program, a copy of your rules and regulations, the school record, and such information as will enable your successor to carryon your good work. 2. Place in the desk under lock and key such small articles as may be easily lost or misplaced. 8. See that no windowpanes are out . See that the pupils' desks are clean-within and without-and in good condition; that the ink-wella are clean and ready to receive ink. 
 
 231 
I. See that the school library (if there be one-and there Fitlould be) is arranged and eecured, and a lilt of the ':>ooke in the teacher's desk. 
e. See that the bucket is scoured and left inverted, or on 
its larger base, that the hoops may not fall off; the dipper scoured and dried that it may not rust out. 7. See that the locks are provided with keys properly 18beled, the window-sashes are fastened down, the house securely locked, and the keys left with a proper person, from whom take a receipt. 8. See that the ~ounds are left in sucb good condition that they will not be badly washed by raine during the l'acation. This done, and your successor will blese forever your name i and, encouraged by the condition of things, will strive diligently to carryon your good work. Fourth. Statistics show that a large number of our I!choolhouses are unsightly-erushing to the child's natural love for the beautiful; uooomfortable in summer and winter alike; unhealthy, because of the accumulation of filth in and about the building j poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, poorly heated (even to the danger point),-an abomination to the eye of the -::onsecrated teacher. It is the teacher's duty to use his intelligence and enthusiasm and unceasing hard work to .upply better school facilities to a hitherto indifferent and apathetic community. If he is called a benefactor who causell two blades of grase to grow where one grew before, what shall be said of a faithlul teacher who causes a neat, substantial echoolhouse to be erected where a miserable, dilapidated, disgraceful shack stood before 1 The teacher should be authority -the proper teacher is authority~n educational matters in his community. He should manage the school-sentiment of that community as one of bill educational agencies, and mold it for a better schoolhouse. How long would a live Methodist preacher remain in a community without having a neat, COIJlfortable house in which his people may worship God two hours a month 1 The live (1) teacher continues to teach school in a miserable hovel 160 houri a month. The school building and grounds are often the greatest oblta- 
 
 232 
 
cle that the ambitious teacher meets when he goes to take 
 
charge of a new school. It is a mistake to try to persuade one'll 
 
self that the average country schoolhouse i not a hindrance 
 
to good teaching. It is a mistake for the new teacher to express 
 
himself in a community as contl'nt with the schoolhouse as he 
 
finds it, unless it ill what it should be. His aims and ideals 
 
are at on1:e rated as low, and he loses a golden opportunity to 
 
impress the importance of at least repairing substantially the 
 
old house. 
 
Why should the teacher insist upon improvements to the 
 
schoolhouse? 
 
/ 
 
1. Because it is due the people that the teacher place before them and impress upon them higher ideals of education and of the facilities ne<!etI8ary to carryon the work. 
2. Because it ill due the children to be taught that they should be instructed in the best house and with the besi appliances, as well as by the best teacher, to be had. 
S. Becaee it is due the teacher himself that he surround himself with the most helpful aids, the most useful appliances, the best opportunities for doing good work. 
Some suggelltions on securing means of improving the school- 
property: 
1. Be not too quick to accept the school with dilapidated buildings and corrugated grounds. 
2. On going to a community with a view to teaching, make a thorough inspection of the schoolhouse and groundB. 
s. Study all the school architecture you can get your 
hands on. 4. Mature and prepare plans for makin~ the desired im- 
provements. 6. Secure a meeting of a few leading citizens. Fire into 
them all the schoolhouse ammunition with'which you are loaded. Insist that they then and there pledge themselv_their meane, or labor, or material, or teamll, and then fix an early day for thl' improvementf 
 
 233 
6. In carr}'ing out your plans be not shy In asking favol"l of those good people-from grandsire to grandson. 
7. Keep tbe qups~on of scboolbouse improvements warm in tbe community, and on tbe appointed day, be on hand early and give direction to every detail. 
Some points of improvement: 
1. A substantial plank or picket fence, wbitewashed or painted, should inclose a suitable portion of the grounds of every scboolhouse-only so mur.h of the ~rounds as can be kept in good order. 
2. Tbe grounds sbould be laid off, walks made, trees planted, shrubbery added. 
3. Tbe building sbould be painted. Nothing will add more to tbe community's respect for the scbool buildin~ and pride in the school than a nicely painted schoolhouse. 
4. Tbe roof sbould be in good condition; the front steps will probably need attention; the window panes should be in place. Don't wait for a bitterly cold day. Outside blinds I\re not best i ~ood oil sbades mounted on strong sprinl'( rollers are better for rejtlllating the light. 
5. If the desks are not in good condition they should be sandpapered and one or two coat3 of Kood hard oil put ou them. This can be done at a cost of twelve or thirteen cents per desk. If the desks are beyond satisfactory repair, get new ones. How? Show the Board that tbey are necessary' and that tbe Board h8B the right to buy them. Good, new, modern, double desks can be laid down at your schoolhouse at a cost of $2.30 to $2.75 each. If the Board will not furnish all the money get it to furnish part, and get up contributions or some entertainment for the remainder. Country .choou CAN be well equipped. 
6. Every schoolroom sbould have from 50 to 100 lineal feet of blackboards. Enameled duck or drilling, tigbtly stretched, sandpapered and coated with alaiing, makes one of the best, most durable and cheapeet blackboards to be had. The cosi t. SO to 40 oent. pal' yard, 40 or 50 inches wide. 
 
 234 
7. Have a lltove or heater. With loll open fireplace you lose from 70 to 95 per cent. of the heat produced by the combustion of your fuel, and therefore find it almost impossible to heat the room so that it ill not nereslary for pupils to leave their desks and collect around the fire-a source of perpetual annoyance. 
Have a ventilating (not radiating) stove i thereby the 
hot air is kept in circulation and every part of the room is kept comfortably warm. One of the best Tentilating wood stoves for a schoolroom ill the "Wonder," made by the Wonder Manufacturing Co., Washington C. fl., Ohio. ~ One medium-size ventilating stove in the corner of the room will heat every part of it. Do not pl~ OLe atove in the center of tILe room. Other things worthy of consideration are the library-importance, cost, care of, kind of books; apparatus-cost, means of supplying, IIchool-made, ownership; maps, globes and charts; weights and measures; blackboard, erasen, and pointers. 
n.-ORGANIZATION. 
Careful, thorough school organization is e8llential to SUCCellllful teacbin~. If a teacher had only one or two children to teach he coult! afford to regard lightly the matter of school or~anization j but with thirty or forty or fifty children demanding at the same time a part of his teaching force, there must be systemization of school work or ignominious failure. 
CLA SIFlCATION.-Naturally, the first step towards organization is the cla8Bification of pupils. Unless a large draft is made nn the teacher's wisdom and firmne8B tbe pupils will make their own classification, and the number of cla8Bes will equal the number of pupils enrolled. Then if the teacher perform the miracle of making a sCflE'flule of recitations, what can he do in a five-minutes recitation period? On the other hand, the teacher should guard against the leadings of some rural school reformers, who, holding up the city schools as a model, would have them .-0 to the other extreme of making a 10086 claBBitlcatioD with one-year or two-year intervall in a1ll1ubjects. 
 
 In clusitying pupill a few principles should govem. L Pupils should be classed and promoted upon their ability to do the work. 2. Tbe number of classes, say IS or 6, should be determined by the length of school day, the course of study, and the teacher's ability. S. Classl's should be divided into two sections, about a hal f-year apart, in Arithmetic, Language or Grammar, and Ueography. 
Whatever may be said of the advantages of the graded city Ichools over the rural schools in the matter of clas ification or grading, it must not be forgotten that the rural schools have certain advantages over the city schools. 
1. The pupils of the several ,classes are thrown together in the same room and are not separated by thick walls. :Much information is thus had by the younger pupils that will btJ useful and helpful in their development. 
2. It is not necessary to withhold. pupil's promotion altogether because he is deficien t in one study. 
Temporary Classijlcatum.-On taking charge of a school a temporary classification is necessary. It is unwise and dangerous to undertake to make a permanent classificatiou on the first day of the session. The pupils and the patrons should be made to feel that the classification is only temporary. Much dissatisfaction and complaininl': may thus be avoided. 
To make a satigfactory temporary classification some preparatory work should be done before the session begins. 
1. You should have a personal conference with your prede_ cessor, or communicate with him by mail, aud go to the schoolroom on the first day with the information obtained from him noted down and cia silled. 
2. A few days shonld be spent visitinjlt your prospective patrons. It is always well to form their aequllintance before the school opens, but especially should you visit them if you are seeking help in making a good temporaq classification. Talk with them about wbat their children have done, what their habits are, what thejr dispositions aTe, what their weakneseel are. Make. record of thia infonnation. 
 
 236 
.. Kab the acquaintance of the pupila; wba their friendlhip ; dnd out what they have Itudied, how they han Itudied it, how they like it, what books they haTe uaed. Two or three dayl of visitin. in  community before openin~ the school can be aa profitably Ipent lUI any week of the achool year. It iB profitable to the pupill throu.lthout the year, becauae it prepares the teacher to make an intelligent, auapicioUB atart. 
AI you will probably not be able to teat your pupils thor! oughly in all aubjects on the firBt day, it will be beat to take about two aubjecta, preferably .Arithmetic and Reading, a8 a basia on which to make the temporary classification. Have a carefully prepared plan and abundant fresh, intereating material at hand for teating pupila in these lubjects. lnaiat quietly and firmly that everything ahall lx done in an orderly, syatematic way from the Tery beginning on the morning of the drst day. 
An illustration may be helpful to the inexperienced. For IUch the following from Baldwin's School Management il given: 
TeacMr.-" .All who are prepared to read in the Fourth or Fifth Reader may raise their handa." 
Pupil.-Fifteen pupila raise their handa. Teacher.-"Take your Readers. .At signals, take places aa directed. Ready; riBe; pass." (Such directions are given &8 will insure order.) Pupila.-The pupils pass to placea at the board. TeacMr.-" You may write your namea on the board. Board erase; write; attention." Pupila.-Each pupil writes his name, and at the siKnal, .Aitention, turns, facing the teacher. TeacMr.-" Turn to page 120; read as called." Pupila.-Each one reads a short portion. The teacher, during the reading, makes out a roll of the class from the namea on the board, and at the same time noticea the reading. Such as evidently belong to a lower class are told to take placea in the class to which they belong. Teacher.-"Turn to page 30 for the next lea80n. Yon may prepan the fi1'8t and lecond par&ltJ'llphs. Notice the Ilpellinl 
 
 237 
ADd meaning of each word. A~ lignall, tate lIeati. Board; erue; attention j turn; P88S." 
Pupill.-The class pass to seats, and prepare the leSIon ... lIigned. 
Teacher.-uThose who are prepared to read in the Third Reader may raise their hands." The same course is pursued with this c ass as with the class in the Fourth Reader. In the lame way the classes in the second and First Readers are organized. Now each pupil is at work. 
Permanent Clauificatian.-The pupils should know in the beginning that while the first classification is temporary, a permanent classification will be made at the end of the first week. Most of the first week should be spent in testing pupilll for the permanent classification, recitations going on all the while under the temporary classification and program, yet recitationl that are made largely tests of the pupil's ability to do the work of the class under the permanent classification. Beyond the second class or grade Reading should no longer be considered a basal study in making classifications, promotions, or demotions. By good teaching a pupil's reading can be strengthened in the fourth Krade as well as in the third. in the fifth grade as well 88 in the fourth. To have harmonious progreBI and development effort should be made to have the pupil advance with equal pace in all subjects of his class, and yet if he be up in five studies and behind in one. he should Dot, and need not, be held back in the country lIChool on account of this one study. He should be required to give extra time to this one study and make himself as proficient in that as in the other studies. For a pupil to be allowed to beUeve that he cannot learn anyone study is a reflection on his former or present teacher, or both. 
After the permanent classification has been made irregular promotions should be made from section to section whenever the pupil is able to do the work of the advanced section in nch bual studies 88 Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar Qr Lani11a~. In the 1I.rlIt two grades the basal studies should be Arithmetic and Reading. Regular promotions from section to eection should be made lIemi-annually, and from (TRde 11 lJ'&de aunually. 
 
 Uniformity in the text-books of a school should be ri~dly enforced. There can be no classification unless this is donp, The school law of Geor~ia plainly says: "No teacher 8hall rt'ceive pay for any pupil who is allowed to USB any other than the prescribed text-books." There may be liability somewhere for fraudulent reports, and liability for money paid out contrary to law, With five-year county adoptions and hookR furnished through county boards at publi hers' wh esale Ii~t pricp, there can be no ground lor rea onable complaint that text-bOOks are too expensive to have uniform;ty in a school. 
;\1akinl!: a daily program is no easy task. It requires earnest thoul!ht and careful study. Every teacher should make his own program upon pedago!!:ic principles. Unle s the program of another 6uit~ your school with its peculiar environments, do not adopt it. A I!:ood su~gestive program was given in the In t Outline of Methods for Georgia Teachers, ",everal good oneQ are given in Baldwin's chool Management. 
ToB FIRST DAy.-A large number of teachers are young and comparatively inexperieuc'ed; all are itinerant. The fir"t dlly at a school is an eventful one. If a ~ood hpginuing is to prepare the way for work that will lead to a good ending, it iR highly important that favorable impressions be made upon both patrons ami pupils by the end of the first day. Prepara tory to the suc('e<sful work of the first day, the teacher shonld spend a few days visiting his prospective patrons, because (1) hp should let tbe patrons know him, (2) he should have the coutidence of the patron, (3) he should have their willingness to co- 
opprllte, (4) he should let them know hoUl to co-operate, (51 I c should know as much as possible of the children, (6) he shouhl begin at once to manage the educational forces of the community. 
He should have a carefnlly preparerl, elefinite plan of work for the first dlly-a telllporary program, ~nitable school tactics, nece8 ary stationery and appliances, chalk, ink, etc. Leav" notloin~ to the iJllpnlse of the moment. A hektograph will be founel very ustlluJ ill preparing busy work. Every teacher ILonlel hav.. olle. To make one, dissolve a box of lI:t'laline in warm water, mix eight ounc'es of glycerine; heat gently, and pour over a slate around the frame of whieh lome ImaUltripli 
 
 239 
of wood hue been tacked to add depth. A. bottle of hektoI"8ph-ink can be had for ten centa. 
Be punctual. See that everything is in order, enrythlnl needful provided. Greet pupils cordially by name, if pOBlJible. Any child esteems it an honor to have the new teacher rec0i'Due him by name in the presence of bis companions. Awaken in them an interest in the success of their school. Preserve' order; prevent jokes, pranks, boistero,llsness. Be most vigilant; but do not nag. 
Begin work promptly at the appointed hour, whether there be five or fifty pupils present. Require pupils to move by tignals and words of command given in a kind but firm tone. Promptness, positivity and precision will do much to create a favorable impression. Announce no rules until afternoon a\ the close of school; then give as few as possible. Add to them from time to time as they are needed, but always announce them in a formal, dignified way at the close of the school-day. 
As soon as pupils are seated, somewhat under the tactful direction of the teacher, have a word of earnest prayer or the Lord's prayer in concert, sing a fllmiliar song, give the pupils a brief welcome-not over five minutes, and at once begin work on your pro~ram. Have something for every pupil to do and see that every pupil does something under your diraction,-test problems In Arithmetic, copying and memorizinll ems, letter-writing, autobiographical sketches, thought questions in Ilistory and Geography constitute good busy work for the older ones while you are testing and classifying pupils For the little ones stencil-drawing, color work with bite of worsted, word-building with letter cards, sentence building w;'b word cards, stick-laying from copy, are all good. Suitable, busy work must be provided i you might as well have it on the first day. Have a number of short quick recitationa. 
III.-SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
The best equipped and best organized school will be a failure withoot good government. School facilities and organization have to do more especially with the beginning; government coDtino.. ae long RI the school continues; indeed the effect! of pod -Y~nuneJlt' bued on right principl8l, continu.. lona 
 
 240 
after the IChool hae ceued and the boy! and girl! are boyund girls no more. But the good -echool continues no longer than good government lasts. That gonrnment which aims at producing and sustaining order alone, in it! generally accepted sense, by the exercise of authority, by the enforcement of rules and regulatione, by punishments-in 8 word, by forcing the child to submit wholly, automatically to the will of another-is vicioU! and should be shunned. Proper &11001 Gov- 
ernment iI such control oj IChooI Jorel' (II will condUCll to tM belt 
training oj pupiZ, jor tM dmiea oj life. The best training of pupils for the duties of life is character- 
building; therefore, character-building is the end or aim of proper school government. School government is, howt'ver, only one of the meane to this end. Many of the strongest characters, many of the men and women who have discharged most acceptably the duties of life, have not had the advantage of good school government; many other characters have been good and strong in Ipite of certain forma of IChool government. The teacher should have a reason for every mean! or method employed in school work, a clear aim in every undertaking. In matten of school discipline, which, by the way, is not coextensive with school government, there Ihould be clearly in view the developing and strengthening of character of the individual pupil or of the pupils of the school. Character determines future conduct j conduct is guided by directive force within the individual. As it is the province of intellectual training to develop and strengthen the mental faculties. so it is the peculiar office of school government to develop this seU-directive and eeU-controlling force. 
Order in the !choolroom may be the result of a very bad IChool government. It is one thing to have order by restraining the physical energies, repressing the'llpirits, cramping and terrorizing the children; quite another thini to have order by setting up high ideals of conduct, creating a strong IChool sentiment in favor of conduct in accord with the ideals, developing self-control and self-directive force. Not inconsistent with these latter aims are luch means as vigilance, llrmn!'M, certain form! of punishment-ilnn corporal punishment. 
In a certain !choolroom the author b_u in mind are thirty 
 
 241 
pupl1l from the beet homes of the place. Tla room II equipped with good furniture and appliances for teaching. The teacher is a cultured lady of experience in teaching. She aims at good order, but she must draw largely on her time and attention from the beginning until the end of the !lchool day if she haa no more than quiet. The pupils are listle88 and indifferent to the recitation, noisy and nagging, ready to drop a book or slate if the teacher's eye be not on them, rebellious in their spirits,-in short, younJl: anarchists. If the teacher leaves the room, pandemonium reigns. At the end of the day the teacher is worn out; at the end of the session she feels like going ~ her reward. No wonder she despises teaching. 
In another schoolroom not far away are forty-six pupils from inferior homes. The school furniture is poorer, the ap' pliances more limited. The teacher's methods of conducting the recitation are perhaps not so good, and yet the children get far mo~e good out of it than in the first school. They freely and yet courteously and in the most orderly manner ask questions of the teacher and of the pupil reciting or of any other pupil in the class. A beautiful spirit of harmony and consideration and self-control is manifest. If the teacher leaves the room the work goes quietly and earnestly on. There is not a constant strain on the 'teacher. At the end of the session she has ener$)' h;ft with which to work during tbe vacation. Naturally the teacher loves her work. 
Why this difference T One has the troe elementl. of governing pou;er; the other haa not. What are the elements of li:overning powerT 
LovB.-The easy government of most schools means the control of a comparatively few pupils of unhappy disposition _ To these the teacher must give most attention; why not win their esteem and confidence, bring yourself to take a warm interest in them, and, as ap easy, natural consequence, love them T It is not impossible to love even the unlovely. They 
are nsually those who have leaat love at home, and are therefore quite susceptible to genuine love of a teacher-not declared but manifested. Love is one of the strongest incentives ~ 1000, &8 well as reltraintl from evil, that can be ued. 
 
 242 
 
OoNIISTlI:NOT. - The teacher cannot co.ern prope'l'ly 
 
without the respect of his pupils. He may bave order, but 
 
order of a low degree. i:le cannot have the respect of hia 
 
pupils unless his living be consistent with his teachings. 
 
Pupils are as quick to discover inconsistencies in a teacher's 
 
living and teachinltll as the world is to discover them in the 
 
minister of the gospel. Not only will pupils lose their respect 
 
for the inconsistent teacher, but the more thougbtful ones 
 
will be forced to despise him. A teacher ought to be the em- 
 
bodiment of the high ideals placed before bis pupils. Then 
 
indeed is it good for a boy if he is allowed only to sit on the 
 
end of a log with his teacher. Not only should he be consist- 
 
ent in his living and teaching, but he should be consistent in 
 
: 
 
his daily requirements of bis pupils. To be rigid one dllyand lax the next, makes it the more diffi({ult to be rigid on the day 
 
following. Consistency in tbe teacher is a rare jewel. 
 
CBARAcTER.-Unconscious tuition is stronger than eloquent 
 
exhortation. Not only should the teacher's cbaracter not 
 
be smirched with vice and polluted with corruption, but. 
 
in its purity and nobility, it should stand ont boldly, and im- 
 
press itself on the life of the pupils. A strong moral influence, 
 
emanating from a hi~b moral character, will do more to lead 
 
pupils into rigbt conduct than all the rods and rules tbat can 
 
be plied upon their backs and brains. Order may be had by 
 
force, but the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life is 
 
necessary to secure good Kovernment, Character means abso- 
 
lute truthfulne88, it means good temper. it means good habits, 
 
it meaDB purity of life. 
 
GOOD JUDGMENT.-This is the child of common sense and 
 
the parent of tact, both of wpich should be found in every 
 
school governor. The ability to handle judiciously, tactfully, 
 
skilfully, special cases of misconduct and real or imaginary 
 
grievances of patrons is the secret of many a teacher's success 
 
in government.C Judgment in dealing with the little every- 
 
day affairs of the schoolroom is a good preventive of tbe 
 
KI"eater, more serious problems of school government. By find- 
 
ing the pupil's true motive for the troublesome conduct with 
 
wbich he may be charged. and dealing judiciously with him. 
 
he may hI' saved from being a rebellious young anarcbiat. r- 
 
 243 
 
VIGILANCJ:.-Alertness with eye and ear III an el!Sential 
 
element in governing power. The school impressed with the 
 
fact that the kind, consistent, faithful teacher sPes and heara 
 
all that goes on in the schoolroom, even while having his 
 
attention centered mainly on the recitation, will he found to 
 
be an orderly room. Constant fault-finding and nagging are 
 
not necessarily concomitants of vigilance. Nor is it neCE'ssary 
 
that the pupils should rejZard the teacher as suspicions and 
 
distrustful of them. If they feel that the teacher is always 
 
looking for mi chief they may be obliging enough to see that 
 
he is- not disappointed. If the teacher's vigilance is not 
 
 
 
Beasoned with s)'mpathy and love, there is apt to be frequpnt 
 
occasion for faulL-finding. Never hould a violation of a moral 
 
principle be passed unnoticed. The vigilance of the teacher 
 
should extend to the little details of the schoolroom-the 
 
condition of tbe Curniture, apparatus and appliances, the seat 
 
ing of the pupil -all tho e things that bear on eas)' control. 
 
ScHOLARSHIP.-A broad margin of ripe scholarship, giving 
 
th".l teacher confidence in himself and increasin~ the con- 
 
fidence of pupils in their teacber, will go far towards ren- 
 
dermg control an easy matter. If the teacher is able, or un- 
 
dertakes, merely to keep Bchool and incidentally to hear what 
 
the children learn from the text-books, control is a burden- 
 
some business. Thorough, fresh scholarship and a good store 
 
of rllatly inCormation will awaken in pnpils an interest in the 
 
pWfluit of knowledge; interest begets application i application 
 
drives away mischief. A liberal amount of cholarship is not 
 
lufficieut unless it be fresh and appropriate to the topics of 
 
that day. To keep it fresh and appropriate one must study 
 
daily. Daily stndy means not only increased scholarship, but 
 
it means ready and appropriate methods of teaching; and all 
 
this makes school government easy. 
 
MINOR MEANS. 
 
&au and Seating. The seats and the seating of the pupile bear a very important relation to control. The seats all they are found by the new teachE'r will probably need repairing, improving, rearranging, adjusting. If through the neglect of the former teachers the deeks have been whittled, scratched 
 
 244 
earYed. lOiled or othenri.e abueed, it II h~hly important that you remove the evidencel of gr088 Jleglect on the part of the teacher and gr01l1l disrellpect for the IChool on the part of the pupils. Theile evidenc811 conlltantly before the pupil are not only damagin~ to the esthetical in his nature but are a IItron, temptation to be disorderly. A carpenter'. plane can remove the evidence. of the knife j II&nd-paper and hard-oil will then put the d8llk in good condition. 
The seats should not be 110 high that the pupil'l feet cannot rest firmly on the floor and partially IIUpport the weight of the le~. The thigh bones, being somewhat flexible in childhood, are often deformed by allowing little children to sit for lonll periods of time with feet dangling. Besides, the pressure of the edge of the seat on certain nervel on the back of the thigh causel! irritation and, if continued, considerable pain. The effect on the good order of that child is evident. 
If school government is to be successful the physical comfort of pupils while in the schoolroom cannot be overlooked. Care must be taken that neither deskll nor seats are too high or too low. Adjustable desks are the ideal. In the absence of these we must try to adjust the pupilll to the desks by using foot rest and mounting the desks on blocks or strips running parallel with the row. The desks should be arranged in rows with an eye to symmetry and the proportions of the room. When once arranged properly they should be fastened to the floor, or four or five desks should be fastened to the same pair of strips. This will prevent shaking or noise or tilting. 
The pnpils should be seated with all due regard to the light And heat. To avoid intense glare and hurtful shadows the light should be brought chiefly from the left, some from the rear, ant! all from as high up as possible. If shades are used they should draw up' from below instead of drawinJl: down from above. The matter of 1;lZht in the schoolroom is of great importance. Certain eye-tests in representative schoolll show tbat from 40 to 50 per cent. of the pupils have defective vision. 
Care shoulll be taken to seat pupils with reference to one another, so as to reduce to  minimum temptations to disorder. In this, tact must be used. Let the pupils undentand 
 
 245 
on the 4J'lIt day that while they are left to lelect their teats then, the teacher will from time to time seat pupils as, in his judKJIlent, he thinJal beet. Troublesome puplle should not be left together, nor should they be left far from the 
2acher. They need the teacher's special attentioil and help. Esthetic Surrounding.. Nothing is too good for the roughest 
schoolboy. The more attractive his surroundings the better will be his conduct, other things being equal. If the home should be adorned to develop the better nature of the children who are growing up, why not the schoolroom? The refining Influence of beautiful and attractive pictures on the walls of the school has been felt by teachers who were thoughtful enough to hang them there. Neatness, cleanliness, order, ornaments, all tend to soften the rough schoolboy's nature, lead him to higher aspirations and greater efforts, and develop within him a respect for the school and its surroundings that will prove helpful in government. Where cobwebs are found on the walls, cobwebs are apt to be found somewhere in the inner life of the inhabitant. 
Mmic. I am aware that this is not a standard aid to school government, and yet I have seen a bit of simple vocal musi~ work so charmingly in reducing a chaotic room to order that I am constrained to mention it as one of the valuable minor means. Young children naturally like to sing. If allowed to bawl instead of sinjZ, it may become a source of disorder. After a few elementary lessons, which any ambitious teacher can give, a few songs should be taught the school; and the teacher should insist that they be Bung in BOft, smooth tones. Where a Bchool is found in which the pupils are taught vocal music well, and where much attention is gien to it, there will be found good order, easy control, and good Bchool govern., ment. 
Ventilation and Heating. There is no more fruitful source of disorder than poor ventilation. When the atmosphere becomes vitiated to over five-tenths of ;>ne per cent., headaches begin, children become indifferent to studr or the recitation, they are soon restless and disorderly. Just at that time the teacher, because of the effect of the vitiated atmosphere on hlm, III in a poor condition to cope with the diaorder. The 
 
 atmosphere in a poorly Tentilated IlChoolroom beeomes impure by such slow degrees that it is almost impossible for one shut up in the room to detect it. Whenever a room becomee disorderly, slowly but surely, the teacher should at once look to the ventilation. No matter what system of ventilation be adopted it is safe to have the windows and doors opened at recesa. The fresh oxygen in the pupils' lungs will more than compensate for the temporary reduction in temperature. Two pupils should be appointed weekly to see that the win dows are raised at recess. 
However, while the pupils are seated in the room, ventilation should not be secured through open windows. A blast of cold air may bring death within a few days to the strongest. Fresh air may be safely admitted by lowering the sash a few incbes at the top, and using a shelving board to defi ct the cold current upward. The impure air laden with heavy carbon dioxide falle to tbe floor and should be drawn off through a ventilating fiue or duct operated by the ileat from the stove pipe. 
While the open fireplace is a good means of ventilating, it is a poor means of heating, and is a source of disorder and annoyance on colc! days. Every country schoolroom should be heated with 1\ ventilating stove, located in the corner of the room. By such a stove the air is kept in circulation aud all parts of the room heated almost equally. Then it will not be necessary for the pupils to crowd around the fireplace or radiating stove, which is apt to heat the atmosphere for only a few feet away. All parte of the room, up to a height of five or six feet, should be kept at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
By D. L. EARNEST, STATE NORMAL ScnOOI'1 
ATHENS, GA. 
L PURPOSES. 1. General culture-'tls a shame not to know Creation's masterpiece. 2. Increase of personal efficiency-he can best use Nature's forces who obeys her laws. 8. To know and respect the laws of Ufe-mlstake. and disobedience are never overlooked and never forgiven, though the penalty may be d&layed, no mercy, no favoritism, no escape. 4. '1'0 develop admiration for the human body and the human being, the whole person In Its present excellence and the grandeur of Its possibilities. ~. To show the value and the beauty of a pure, a healthy, and a wholesome, holy life and for it create aspirations and furnish motivell. 
II. SOME TEACHING PRINOIPLES. 
Proceed from the near to the remote, from the concrete to the abstract, from the specific to the general, from the practical to the theoretical, from the useful to the ornamental, from the Hving to the non-living, from the actual to the fdeal, from the clear to the vague, from the personal to the impersonal, from the egoistic to the altruistic, from the easy to the difficult, from the pleasant to the disagreeable, from the Interesting, the gay and the changeful to the unattractive, the serious and the eternal - 
 
 248 
III. INTRODUCTORY. 
A microscope will show In a drop of stagnant water many moving form, minute animals: what does the scientist mean by calling them one-celled? A cell Is the smallest living thing. the minutest living Individual. It may li\-e alone, as In the case of microscopic animals Just mentioned, as very small plant forms called disease germs, or they may be combined In more complex forms; all plants and animals are colonies and communities of cells with some Intervening matter. 
'ot all cells are alike; dilIerent parts of animals are composed of cells that are very much uulike. Cells are combined Into tissues, tis ues luto organs and organs Into systems. The function of an organ is the work It does. Anatomy treats of structure, Physiology of action and Hygiene tells how to u e body and mind so as to get the most and best olit of life. 1. Define cell, tissue, organ, system, anatomy, physiology and hygiene. 2. Tame six tissues, six systems. 
IV. FOOD. 
A food Is a substance which nourishes the body. It feeds and furnishes lire to the cells, which are Injured by a polson. The two uses of food are to build up tissue and to furnish force and heat when oxidized. The food elements are: 
1. Protelds, fonnd in flesh, eggs, milk, cheese, peas. beans, and grains. 
2. Starches and sugars, In grains, potatoes, fruits, etc. 
3. Fats and oils, In milk, hutter, cheese, grains. 4. Minerals, water, salts of various kinds, found 
In all foodl. Proteid! are the t1lsue builders, 
 
 249 
also furnIsh force. Sugars and fats furnish force and heat; minerals build bone and furnIsh proper conditions for carrying on life. A food Is a combination of food elements; diet Is the blending of foods In hygienic ratios and amounts. The average person needs dally not more than 22-24 ounces of solid food, one-third of whlcb should be proteid, vegetable or animal in origin. and at least an equal amount of water. The study of food values Is the problem of to-day In Georgia homes. The science of cooking is the legitimate province of woman; cooking and eating have equal dignity-the one requires aptness, the other appetite. The amount and kind of food for each must be learned from experience and sense, not by authority and taste. 
V. DIGESTION. 
1. Mastication and Insalivation. The teeth grind the food Into small bits, preparing for the other acts of digestion. Saliva softens the food and changes starch into sugar. As the most abundant valuable part of vegetables In. starch, thorough mastication Is Important. 
2. Deglutition or SwallOWing. The food passes through the esophagus Into the stomach. 
3. Gastric Digestion. Pepsin, an active principle of the gastric juice, changes the albuminous portions of the food Into a fluid called peptone. The acid prevents decomposition and promotes the flow of the bile. Rennin curdles milk. 
4. Intestinal Digestion. The bile makes an emulsion of the fats, promotes Intestinal action and prevents decay; the pancreatic juice digests starCh, proteids and fats; the Intestinal juice finishes the work of the other fluids, and, In addition, digests sugar. 
 
 250 
.. Absorption, by either lacteals or minute blood vessers, occur" in every part of the digestlTe tubes. 
HYGIENE OF DIGESTION. 
L Fruits, graham bread, oatmeal, green vegetables. etc., are laxative; highly concentrated foods have opposite tendency. 
I. Drinking at meal time has dilIerent ertect upon dilIerent persons. No drink should be taken whlle food is in the mouth. Some weak stomachs require a dry diet; the digestion ot some is best promoted by drinking llttle, onl;,; at meals. Water is the only natural drink. Hot drinks are stimulating and would better be reserved for medicinal purposes. 
8. Normal hunger should I'egulate time and amount of eating. Reducing tbe meals In number or amount often bas good elIect. Fasting is a proper prayer for a forgiveness of many physical sins. Wild, depraved appetite is man's fiercest foe. 
'" Solid foods sbould not be swallowed; cbew ever"f particle until it becomes a liquid-haste in eating is waste of life. 
G. Avoid prescribing medicines for self: laxatives are tempting but hal'mful-diet and exercise pI'omote digestive activity, Let conscience control appetite; be regular, be temperate, be serene. 
8. Clean the teeth after eacb meal. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Wbat is the dilIerence between a food and a food element? 
2. Wbicb is tbe cheaper, animal or vegetable food? 8. Name the most nutritious and least costly f '" What is the use of each food element? G. What is the benefit of a pleasant flavor? 
 
 251 
6. How much does necessary food cost-least cost! 7. Through what changes does a mouthful of brelLd 
and butter pass In becoming blood? 8. 'ame five causes of Indigestion. 9. 'ame ten parts of the alimentary canal and ten 
use of each. 10. Write ten rules for eating, not using "Don't." 
SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS are suggested by all good texts. 
1. Weigh a day's rations and show to class. 
2. Observe sweet taste of any starchy food ww 
well chewed. 3. Show osmosis of absorption by placing In water 
egg with shell removed from large end. 4. TeaclJ Importance of first and last step In dI- 
gestive process, the only ones under control of will. 
VI. THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 
Plasma is the fluid part of the Qlood, in which float the corpuscles. The red corpusclqs caIT1 oxygen to the cells; the white corpuscle,. destroy disease germs and repair injuries. The minerals and proteids of the food and CO2 from the cell, are carried dissolved in the plasma. One's blood Is one-thirteenth his weight. It is circulated by the heart, arteries, capillaries, ,eins and lymphatics. It is driven through the arteries and capIllaries by the contraction of the heart and the elastic action of the arteries; through the veins by this force and by the compression of the muscles in action, by the action of the lungs, which In expanding produce suction, backward flow being prevented by the action of the venal valves. 
The food eaten Is used either in building up the tissues or in furnishing force by oxidation; this material is obtained from the blood, the liquid 
 
 F"olll Bta slelf. I ilysio'(lf/Y_ 
 
 Ph.vsio1ogy. 
 
 254 
portions or which with some white corpusclea ooze through the wal1s of the capllIaries and bathe the cel1s; the unused materials and the waste products find their way back Into the veins through a set of vessels cal1ed lymphatics. 
HYGIE E. 
1. Active exercise promotes the circulation and the prompt removal of waste, giving the buoyant feeling of vigorous, healthy lire. 
'2. Clothing sbould be loose enough to al10w unimpeded circulation. Be healthy and happy; let fools seek tbe beauty of smal1 feet and trim figures by deforming nature and thus mocking God. 
8. Select nutritious food, digest It; promptly free system of al1 waste matter. 
SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Test pulse of pupils as affected by posltlonlying, sitting, standing-after exercise, after rapid bl'eathing or bolding breath; draw Inferences. 
2. Show bow to stop bleeding; have pupils men tion familiar remedies and discuss values of same. 
8. Pupils wllI be interested in a graphic accoun~ of the battles between the white corpuscles and disease germs. 
4. Take a sympathetic interest In the habjt~ or your 
pupils; correct the bad: fix and exemplify the good. Dare do no wrong which you would not have grow into a habit. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. State uses of the blood; the corpuscles; the plasma; the clot: the fibrin. 
 
 266 
2. Detlne pulse. anery. caplllary, pericardium, Iympbatic. portal. pulmonary and systemic circulation. 
8. Compare arterial and venous blood. 4. Trace tbe course of a drop of blood. 5. Explain tbe term "good-bearted." 6. Explain. "blood will telL" 7. What is "beart failure?" 8. Ask and an,swer ten questions about eacb of the 
Illustrations. 8. How does ~erclse cause more blood to flow to 
any Dart? 9. Why does exercise cause tbe heart to beat 
faster? 10. Giye cause and treatment of fainting. bleeding 
at ,the nose. 
RESPIRATION. 
Tbe two purposes of respiration are to obtain oxygen for carrying on the processes of life and to remove waste. A. full study of this work concerns the nose. pharynx. larynx. trachea, bronchi. and air cells of the lungs as well as their covering and lining. Through the delicate lining of tbe air cells some' of the oxygen of the air passes Into tbe blood which gives in exchange heat, vapor. effete organic matter and CO 2. Breathing is at the rate of eighteen per minu.te. The capacity of the lungs is 330 cubic Inches. but only a gallon of this air can be exhaled. 1'he diaphragm. a muscular partition between lungs and stomach. aids tbe muscles between ribs in respiration. 
HYGIENE. 
1. Supply me lungs with an abundance of pure air. Learn bow to ventilate. If necessary wake up 
 
 OBJECT From Blais <U's Ph y.iol,.gy , 
 
 267 
community to importance of education 10 that they will build a schoolhouse good enough to need ventilation. 2. The clothing must be loose enough to allow free lung expansion. 3. Learn to keep the mouth shut, at least when breathing. Breathe through the nose. 4. Fill the lungs; practice deep breathing. To expand the lungs, read aloud. Sing. Frequently inhale and exhale forcibly through a short tube with a small bore. Make and use a spirometer. 5. Use diaphragm largely In breathing; this im proves the voice and aids digestion. 6. Food is fuel; the fires of life need oxygen. The burning furnishes all our force, that of plowboy, preacher and poet. If you breathe at night, get fresh air. 
SUGG.ESTIONS. 
1. Tie a piece of rubber over bottom of a lamp chimney to represent thorax and diaphragm; tle tube in small rubber balloon to represent lungs, pass this tube through a cork which insert In top of chimney. 
2. Test lungs by counting aloud In a low tone; It 
lungs are !l'eak, the count will not exceed forty 
or fifty. 8. Test breath for CO2 by blowing through lime 
water. Prepare this by putting small piece ot unslaked lime in water. 4. Count respirations, normal and after running. 5. Using a tape measure find chest expansion. Do not rest content with two Inches. 6. Gi,e exercises In voice culture. The tone. should be clear, low, pure, smooth and pleasant. A well modulated voice in the teacher is .. source ot power, ot pleasure, ot greatest good. The tone ot the voice is the language of the soul. 
 
 268 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Why do we breathe? How much fresh air do ". need per hour? 
2. How much air in an ordinary breath? In a full breath? 
8. Define pleur&, pneumonia, bronchitis, eplglottll, thorax. 
4. Explain yawning, sighing, coughing, laugh1nc~ sobbing. 
5. What is the difference between inspired and ex. plred air? . 
6. How may the strength and volume of the lunp be increased? 
7. What Is ventilation. How regulated? 8. Why breathe through the nose? 
VIII. THE SKIN. 
The cuticle covers and protects; the cutis absorbll, excretes waste matter, regulates temperature, Is an organ of sensation, contains persplrato17 and sebaceous glands, blood vessels and nerv. . 
HYGIE E. 
The skin can be educated. Too much clothInc is a frequent cause of colds; the skin, by too much protection becomes too sensitive. Cold air and cold water are valuable tonics; frequenft, apply both to the skin. It unused to their action, proceed by degrees. 
A good, clear complexion is the reward of correct living-exercise, fresh air, good dIgestion, cleanliness. 
Soap Is a great civilizer; a good bath is a step toward righteousness. A pure heart may be found beneath a dirty skin: but is out of place. The first step toward reforming a Lome or a people is to remove the dirt. Care of the per- 
 
 259 
Bon is the simplest, stl'ongest show ot lelt-rel' pect. Perfumes are sometimes u ed by persons who do not need a bath-sometimes are a badge of hypocrisy. The pure in heart-they that shall see God-shall they not have clean hands? Some can keep clean by bathing only twice per week. Hair and nails, appendages of the skin, adorn only when kept free from dirt; they show the first signs of di tress. As goes the camel through the needle's eye, so in the heart of her pupils do the moral precepts of the untidy teacher find lougment. A dog will recognize you by his nose, but this should be possible for no other friend. Train your pupils to be neat and clean; this is not all, but it Is the beginning of good things-and your own habit shall lead the way. Teach cleanliness about school and home; filth and fever are firm friends. Be clean, and tear not the deadly disease germ. 
QUES'l'IOJ.'S. 
1. What are the two layers of the skin? Their uses? 
2. What Is the relatlou between the skin and other organs of elimination? 
8. What Is the difference between a secretion and an excretion? 
. What is the normal temperature ot the body? How is this maintained? 
5. Define complexion and tell to what it is due. 6. Write ten rules for takin~ care of hall', naill 
and skin. 
IX. THE BO~ES. 
The bones, more than 200 in number, properly put together, form the skeleton. Uses: protection. 
 
 260 
IUPPOrt, motion. Composition: 2 parts animal; 1 part mineral matter; ratio varies with age. 
HYGIE E OF BONES. 
1. Impress the dignity, the beauty, the value of the erect position. Have you ever tried the ef feet of straightening up on your own spirit! "Keep your head up" is a good life motto. Teach effect of bad position at bones and Internal organs-train rather than teach. 
2. Clothing must not compress waist, neck or feet. 3. Children must not walk too soon; briefly, do not 
distort bones while young. 
SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Nothing Is so easily taught as' the skeleton. Get one, human, if possible; prepare and use that of the family cat it necessary. 
2. Weigh a bone; burn and weigh again to show amount of animal matter which has been burned. 
3. Soak bones several days in dilute muriatic acid: show flexible animal matter left. Skeleton of young is much like this; what Inference? What are bones of old like? Why? 
4.. Inquire for the reason why not only In relation to bones but about every part and function of the body. 
Why are there two bones In the forearm? What Is the u e of the patella, the skull, the carpus? Whl are some bones made hollow? Why are there two plates of bone In .the skull? What is the use of the marrow? Why Is the spine curved? Why Is out skeleton Internal? etc., etc. 
 
 From Hutchism's P,'tyaIQlogy. 
 
 262 
 
l ::::::::::::::::::: Cii rFrontal 
 
.. 1 
 
:; Occipital 
 
.1 
 
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'"001 
 
~l&lflr 
 
~'" 
 
 . 
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2 
 
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001 Palatal 
 
.' 
 
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2 2 1 
 
eC;;. 
 
[H 
 
yOid ternum 
 
.. 1 .1 
 
101 RIbs 
 
.. ~ 
 
~ 
 
~~{~~:::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::: 
 
~ 
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' 
 
Cl&vicle 
 
.. 2 
 
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capula Humerus Radius 
 
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lo T&rsus 
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X. THE MUSCLES. 
The 500 muscles, voluntary and involuntary, are composed of fibres, bound in bundles. The shapes are pinnate, circular, spindle, fiat, according to use. They are attached to the bonea by the tendons, which are tough, white Cl"QS ot a material familiar to all in tough meats. 
The importance of sound, firm muscular tissue is rarely realized; heart-power, lung-power, Itomach-power are forms of muscula.r energy, 
 
  264 
 
and muscular activity and the resultant mt18C1Jlar health are the only rational means of their pre ervation. 
Physical culture, manual training, drawing, penwork, cooking, sewing, sculpture, painting, designing, architecture, agriculture, all sorts of mechanical effort, all forms in which Ideas are embodied by muscular activity, make civilization both possible and progressive. 
Some sort of industrial training has a place In the education of all; It Is putting It too mildly to say that every girl should be able to cook and sew and every boy able to handle tools. This much would be a gain on present condI tlons; then we should go further. The education of no one Is complete who has not served IlOma sort of apprenticeship, upon a farm or In a shop, or If a girl, has not served her apprenticeship In the practical duties about 
.. the home. Carefully investigate this subject: Benp-flts of Manual Training, Financial, Physical, Ment:tl. Moral (Sociological, Political). Give at least an hour daily to exercise, If possible In the open air; not lazily-heartlly. Benefits: Strengthens all vital organs. and by furnishing to the nervous system pure, rich blood abundantly supplied with oxygen energizes and vitalIzes the powers of thought and feeling. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
1. What are the uses of the muscles? 
 
2. What are their shapes? 
 
S. How are they made to contract? 
 
4. Define Physical Culture, Manual Traininc, In- 
 
dustrial Art. 
 
.... 
 
5. Give three reasons why exercise Is a duty. 
 
 265 
 
6. "What Is expl'es iou? Is It Increased by culture? 'What is tbe effect of expression upon Impression? "'hat inference? 
7. Wbat exercises along manual training lines may properly be provided for In country schools? 
8. Give five rules for taking exercise. 
 
XI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
The function of the nervous system is to control all \lfe 
 
proce ses, voluntary and involuntary. Nervous 
 
tis ue is composed of cell and fibres. Knots of 
 
cells are called ganglia; bundles of fibres are 
 
nerves. Cells receive impressions and send out 
 
Impulses, both of which are carried by the 
 
nerves. 
 
Part. 
 
Function. 
 
Nervous system 
 
\Ital control. 
 
Cerebro-Spinal Tervous Sy tem. 
 
Brain: Cerebrum Cerebellum 
 
Thought, Intelligence. Coordination of movements. 
 
J Medulla Oblongata .. ) Automatic and reflex action. pinal column 
 
Sp. Np.rves: ,rotor 
 
Movement. 
 
Sensory 
 
cnsation. 
 
Cranial ,Terv s Special sense; digestion, respiration. Sympathetic Nervous System ..Coordination and auto- 
matic action of vita\. 
 
organs, heart, lungs, 
 
stomach. 
 
The sympathetic nerves are bundles of gray fibres. 
 
Gray cells compo e the ganglia, the outside of 
 
the brain, and the Inside of the spinal cord White fibres are founa in the brain, on the out- 
 
side of the spinal coru and form the spinal and 
 
cranial nprves. 
 
ILk. 
 
 266 
HYGIE E. 
Atter all, the chief work of education deals with the nervous system, or rather, with the mind, its noble tenant. How to treat it so that it may be kept healthy and strong is the serious problem. Dear teacher, do you know about the mind and its laws of growth? Are you a rational or an impirlcal teacher? It Is not wise to give to your pupil a reason for e,erything you do or say but you must honestly give/yourself a reason. Will you do this? 
1. :i}very faculty must have active exercise. What are the faculties? What studies more especially appeal to each? How may each study be used wisely in calling Into healthy activity the several faculties? This .study is Methodology. 
Activity must be intense but without strain, without worry. 
2. Learn how to let go, to rest, to play, to sleep. 3. Education develops power by concentration, 
complete, prolonged at will. 
4. Thinking is the mind's search for truth. Thinking is intellectual digestion. Thinking is the relating of Ideas. Does each pupil think during each recitation? How do you know? Is his study thoughtful? Is his observation thoughtful? Is his life thoughtful? Are yours? 
5. Power should not only be developed but COlltrolled. Training in self-control begins wrth controlling muscular movements. Stop here and think what this means and make up your mind about physical culture and manual training. Logically follows control of thought; then con trol of feeling. 
Consider the case of the puglist, the savage and other .illustrations of arrested development. 
 
 267 
Object teaching has its Ilmltatlon for the samp reason. Neglect not the lower, but strive to reach the higher. 
6. 1.'he moral, yea, the religious life, is the normal life, the strong life, the healthy life. Develop the cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude and order; train the will in deliberation, decision, doing. 
7. StUdy the effect of the body upon the mind and mind upon the body-the results of hope and 21th on effort, on health, on life-and train along these lines. 
1. Helps. Manikin, charts, photographs, stereopticon, microscope, outlines, skeleton, specimens. Make realistic, objective. Use drawing freel~ copy pictures and diagrams from the text, draw from nature. Prepare lists of question relating to the cuts given herewith and In the text; Why? 
2. Consult several terts for question- and experiments; all the newer ones contain valuable suggestions. For younger pupils compare organs and functions to things with which they are well acquainted. 
3. upils write hygienic rules for different vocations. different conditions. Give rules relating to bathing, clothing, diet, drink, breathing, exercise, position, rest, mental state, narcotics, excretions (skin, lungs, bowels, kidneys), teethi eyes, ears; give reason for each. 
4. Study materials and colors of clothing. Bird in bush worth two In hat. Teach love and respect for living things. Read Spencer's "Education" upon the ornamental. He who needlessly, cruelly kills a helpless, Innocent bird, suffers more by the act than does the creature slain. Is thi. true? 
 
 268 
5. Tea and coffee contain no nourishment, and by the young and the sedentary should not be used. It you can omit your cups for a day or two with out a feeUng of discomfort they are probably doing you no harm. Excessive u e Is alwaYll harmful, but what Is excess? Why use stimulants? Does tobacco help or hinder In the race of life? Ask even the conscientious user. 
6. Since Prof. Atwater's famous declaration that alcohol is a food since it Is oxidized In the body and therefore gives force, many are un ettled. Though oxidized It yet may not be called a food because even in moderate quantities it Injures, as his own figures prove. Other poisons are oxidized; they are not, therefore, foods. 0 amount of scientific theory can stand against hard facts; the railroad companle forbid its use to their employees because even a small amount unfits for gl'ave responsibility, and life Insurance companies have learned that it shortens human life. Wine Is a mocker; the drinker think he Is stronger and brighter, but he III deceived. Alcoholics are narcotic In .their action: true wisdom teaches us to leave alone dangerous things. 
 
THE TRUTH ABOUT 
 
ALCOHOL. 
1. A cert..ln qll..ntlty will produce .. c~rt..ln ~ffect ..t first, but It r~qulres more ..nd more to produce the 81\mp effect when the dru~ IS ueed hRbltually. 
2.. When used habltu..lly It IS likely to Induce &n uncontroll..ble desir.. f"rmore,1n ever increasIng amount. 
I. AflPr It~ hl\bltu&l u"e .. sndden total abstlnencp IS lIkely to cause .. serlou~ deranl';ement of the centr&l nervous system. 
 
FQOD. 1. A certaIn qu..ntlty will uro. 
duce &certl\ln effect at first, &nd the same quantltv will &Iw..v~ produce the same in .. h~althvbody. 2. The habitual use of food n~verInduces I\n uncon troll&ble de"lre for it. In ever IDcres"lnjt ..mounts. 8. Afler It habitual use .. sudden t01l\1 o.bstlnence never c&uses &ny dern.nl';emen t of the cen tra1 nervous system, 
 
 269 
 
'- Alcohol Is oxidized rapldiy In the boJy. 
6. Alcohol. not being used, Is not stored In the body. 
6. Alcohol Is & product of decomposition of food In the presence of a scarcity of orygeu. 
T. Alcohol Is an excretion, and, In common with all excretions, Is poisonous. It may be beneficial in certft,ln phases of disease, but It ls never beneficial to the healthy body. 
8. The nse of alcohol, In common wi th narcotics ln gener&l, Is followed hy a reaction. 
t. The use of alcohol Is followed 
~rt~~~~~~r:g:l1~h:n~t~;\~~ar~ 
cells. 10. The use of alcohol Is followed 
by a decrease In the excretion of 00,. 
11. The use of alcohol ls followed by ftn accwmulatlon of fat through decres cd activity. 
12. The use of alcohol ls fol1owed by a fallln body temperature. 
13. The use of alcohol we&kens and unsteadies the muscles. 
14. The use of alcohol makes the brain less actlve and accurate. 
 
i. All foods are oxidized .IowIy In the body. 
6. All foods. being useful, are stored In the boay. 
6. All foods are the products of constructive actlvlty of protoplasm In the presence of abundant oryKen. 
T. All foods are formed by nature for nourishment and are by nature wholesome and &Iw&ys beneficial to the healthy body, though they may lnjure the body In certaln phases of dlsea e. 
8. The use of foods ls followed by no reaction. 
9. The UEe of food ls followed by an lncreased a.ctlvity of the muscle cells and braln cells. 
10. The use of food ls followed by an Increase ln the excretion of 0 0 . 
11. The use of food mfty be fol lowed by accumulation of fat, notwl thSI&nding In- 
12. ~:~e~ ~~t~~~a' is fol1owed 
by a rlse ln body tempera.. ture. 13. The use of food strengthen. and steadies the muscles. 14. The use of food makes the braln more active and accurate. 
WINFIELD S. HALL, M.D. 
 
Deplorable as are the physical ~ffects, greater ruIn Is wrought In man's higher natm'e; 75 per cent. of both crime and insanity are directly and indirectly due to drink. '0 one sees his mental or moral sIJipwreck while playing in the shallow of moderatlon. 
7. Delight in the care of the body. the temple, and its nobl('r tenant bring both to that perfection wbich their origin and their di~nily demand; but not witb flnxious thought about yourself, your life, your health, for lJe that loveth his life thus shall lo~(' It. Obey the Inws of life In the hopeful spirit of faith. (or God bas made thl. the pI'ice whleh Hi children pay for the bl~ lngs with which He crowns their days. 
 
 DRAWING. 
By FRED J. ORR, STATE 1: ORMAL SCHOOL,. 
ATHENS, GA. 
In a brief space, a presentation of methods in drll.wini'. to fully meet the present needs of the majority of Georgia. teachers, cannot be attempted. What follows, therefore, does not pretend even to outline exhaustively. Rather is It in the nature of an initiative, hoping for a larger an,d more definite plan of work In Art Education for the Common Schools. later. 
Teachers may adapt suggestions to local conditions and to plimary and advanced classes, in accordance with thegeneral principles of procedure outlined. It will be noted that suggestions are given for the cultivation of technical skill on the part of the teacher, as well as how to apply the same hints to class work. Also, that the possibility or a stated period for this subject in the recitation schedule, Is presumed. This is deemed necessary In order to placesuggestions in a more systematic form. 
If a regular period is not to be had, the suggestions. gi,en may be applied at such other times as are at disposal. and as a form of busy work. 
I. PURPOSE. 
Educative. "The aim of instruction in drawing is culture, through the senses by which we apprehend the forms of things. The ends to be secured are sensitiveness to beauty, an intelligent appreciation of beautiful things, the power t~ make things beautiful and to reveal beauty ~ others." 
 
  
272 
 
~I. METHODS. 
 
1. Of learning. 
 
(1) First, gain facility in the use of materIal: (1) 
 
by tree handling of brush or pencil or crayon; 
 
(2) by drawing masses and large outlines, rather 
 
than details; (3) by adhering to simple subjects 
 
drawn in the easiest manner possible. 
 
Illustration: With ink-brush grasped not too near 
 
 
 
the point, and with handle standing upright, 
 
make a silhouette drawing of a flower pot with 
 
plant in it; or, with pensil, held with long lever- 
 
age, make an outline drawing of a spray of 
 
simple leaves, as apple; or, an outline drawing 
 
on the blackboard, using the human figure. 
 
Leave out details, such as facial features, fin- 
 
iers, etc. See only mass. 
 
(2) Accuracy in seeing. 
Study: (1) The relative directioD,B and lengths of lines by drawing first, a line (In the object before you), whose length is easily determined, then compare others to it. For direction, compare with that of imaginary lines (e. g. horizontal and vertical), whose directions are easily -determined. 
(2) The relati.ve. size and location of spaces, as above, by first drawing, (or ma - ng a mental note of) the outline of a space that is easily decided upon, then comparing others to It. 
(3) The differences In tones of light and dark, and of color. Reduce tones of light and dark to lowest terms, e. g.: see in an .object, the light-est portion, the darkest portion, and a medlumthree simple tones. 
(.) The efIect of distance on the apparent size or 
an object. 
 
 273 
 
(5) The difference between appearances and 
 
acrual facts. as. when horizontal, receding straight lines, belolo the eye, 8eem to rise, as they 
 
retreat; or the same abovt! the eye, seem to fall as they go away; or, circles In certain po itions appear elliptical, etc. (See Cross' "Free Hand Drawing"). 
 
 
 
(6) illak.e an effort to visualize f()T'm and. ooWr, or 
"see it" 1cith the eyes clo-~ed. 
 
(7) Keep in mind the outline 01' the whole. Don't 
 
become engrossed with details and thereby lose the proportions of the mass. (3) Practice. 
 
You must not be discouraged at first attempts. This is a thing not to be learned witbout practice and a great deal of it. Persistence in careful observation and in the effort to execute with a pencil or brusb, will yield results after a wbile. 
 
2. Of teaching. 
 
(1) Materials. 
Water-color box and bmsbes may be bad for about 25 cents, from Prang Educational Co., . Y., or Milton Bradley Co., .Atlanta. Send for cata 10l:ue. 
Ink.-Ordinary writing Ink, preferably black. 
Ink brusb.-Use one <1'1' the brusb s in color box, or 5 cents Japanese bnlsbes may be procured from Bunkio Matsukl, 3 0 Boylston t., Boston. 
 
Pencll.-Dlxon's Cabinet, No.2, serviceable. It' this .cannot be bad, use ordinary writing pencil 01' nwdittll~ softness. 
 
Paper.-See catalogues suggested above, under "Color." A good grade of paper may be obtained at moderate price I'rom Storrs & Bement, BOltoL 
(2) Regular class work. 
 
 Note.-Four kinds of lessons are suggested. Tbl8 is thought to be sufllc1ent at the present stage ot development of the subject In the Common Schools. 
 
(a) Lessons In the suty of form. Note carefull.v the directions given above, under "accuracy In seeing." Apply the same to the teaching ot form. 
 
1. Ink. 
SilhQuette8 of natural objects, such as flowerll, leaves, grasses, fruits, vegetables, butterflies, birds, trees, landscapes, the human form, etc.. etc. 
(See also, lessons In Decorative Design). 
 
2. Penc1l or crayon. 
 
Outlilne8 of objects named above. Also boxes, hata, pigs, dogs, chickens, and other famlllar things. 
 
(b) Lessons In the study of color. 
 
. '1 
 
For models, use such objects from nature as are named above. Try to select simple models, e. g., If It be a spray of leaves, don't have too many, or else leave It optional to each ch1ld to represent as few or as many as he wishes. Be sure every child gets a good view of the object studied. To this ead have as many models as necessary. Models should have a white or gray backgrOllnd. as e. g., cardboard or a piece of white drawing paper. Don't dictate the color as 1!1}" see it. bllt elicit an expression from the child with the brush, as M sees it. Each pair of eyes may see color In a different way. Your effort Is to make the expression conform to t~e observation h.v questioning. You are then training an Individual to "see" and "do." Example of questions: "Is the leaf before you I of the same color. Qt (reen as the green cake of color In your box 1" "No?" "It II more yollowllb, or mOI1l bluish 
 
 275 
than your green cake1" "Then, what other color will you mix with the green to get your picture 'i" etc. 'York primarily, not for results in the way of "pictures," but for the training of a perception of beauty and a skillfully guided expression of the same. Technique: Mix color in the top of the box. Haveplenty of color on the brush. tir the mixture~ each time brush is replenished. Wash brush in. water pan, when changing from one color t()another. Avoid muddy, messy, effects. Keepcolor pure. Try to get the desired effect witb first "going over." c. Illustrative or imaginart:ive drawing. Example: Read to the class a few selected lines. from Hiawatha, or one of lEsop's Fables, or a rhyme from "Mother Goose" (01' other selection). Take plenty of time fOl' the descriptive matter~ endeavoring to form a picture in each child's. mind. Dwell on parts suggestive of a picture. Class then draws with ink of pencil or crayon. or color each draughtsman expressing his own. idea of how the picture ought to look. Poses, and incidental objects named in the reading.may be used effecti"l'ely. It is better for each child to draw first a rectangle 01' square ("frame"), to inclose his picture, using the matirial with which picture is made-ink or crayon, etc. His effort thus takes tbe form of a. composition, being to a greater or a less degree~ an arrangement or related parts within a space. (See lessons on pecoration below). 
t. Lessons In Decorative Design. 
This work w1ll serve to give application to what might otherwise be abstract drawing. It 1. drawing applied to a definite esthetic purpode. It will ...lId iuIPr.... 1 I" ",,,,Itell In form. color, etc. 
 
 276 
 
1. Ink. Pleasing arrangements of a drawing of natural 
forms in square, rectangular, and circular spaces, e. g.: take a branch of persimmon leaves 
 
and fruit. A space, say two by four inches, Is outlined free-hand with the brush. (Pencil first, if desired.) Then by a study of the object, the stems, leaves, and persimmons are arranged Inside this space, so as to give a pleasing effect. Either, background may be made black, and leaves, etc., white, or vice versa. Or arrangement may be in ink lines. (Hold the brush In an upright I!0sition always, while working.) 
 
When is a space arrangement pleasing? This question may be answered in a very general 
 
way as follows: 
 
Avoid dividing the sides of a space into halves, thirds or fourths, or any easily distinguishable parts. 
 
Avoid space divisions which are equal In area or 
 
similar in form. 
 
Avoid a monotonous effect, I. e., tiresome repetition of the same shape (of course this Is not meant to apply to surface coverings). 
 
 
 
Avoid a scattered effect. Strive for good drawIng, variety, beautiful lines and shapes, an.d 
 
harmony withal. 
 
~. Miscellaneous. 
 
Space arrangements as above, using color, I. e., Instead of simply representing the object studied, In color, do this, and also arrange the same 
 
pleasinglY, In a space. 
 
"- 
 
Space arrangements may be used to decorate 
 
covers for composition work, number work, etc. Decorations for simple Christmas cards, Easter cards, invitations to school entertainments, etc. 
 
 277 
Snrface designs might be attempted, it the teacher has some knowledge of the snbject. Space does not permit of Its treatment here. 
3. Bnsy Work. Illustrate parts of a Readi..:g lesson (Ink, pen('il. crayon, or color). See above. Draw maps l1lustrating Geography lesson. Make drawing ot the object used in trre Nature Study, of Botany lesson. For Primaries: Simple drawings to l1lustrate number work, having an ob1ect to study, e. g.: apples, balls, potatoes, leaves, boxes, hats, etc., etc. Decorative work (see above). 
IlL GE ERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
1. The best materials for beginners are those that will permit the freest expression, and largest unstralned movements ot fillgers and arm. Choose models for primaries with reference to live Interest and simplicity. 
2. Tiny drawing should not be tolerated. Avoid anything that tends to cramp freedom. 
3. Do not forget that the free expression of child ideas, under skl1ltul guidance of the teacher, Is ever Important. 
4. In regard to copying: tbe best use to which this can be put, Is, as a means to an end. Copy. to study thereby, the technique of a master. As, for example, reproduce good pencil sketches of trees, houses. etc., In order to learn how to make sucb picture" yourself, from nature. Models, so used, should suggest, ratber than dictate methods, and sbould be only the best. Make it a positive principle, to use no aid or method, in such a way as to hinder In tbe least degree, the creative power of the student, or tbe originality of bis work. 
 
 27M 
 
rI. Position to be assumed while drawing Is that 
 
which will permit of the most perfect freedom 
 
in the use of arm and hand. and conform to 
 
hygienic con. iderations. 
 
6. It is suggested to teachers who themselves have 
 
had little experience in drawing, to go over 
 
practically (I. e. with brush or pencil), just the 
 
work to be given the children, before the recita- 
 
tion. 
 
7. In criticizing or judging resul[s, look for good 
 
points first. Also. remember that the actual re- 
 
eult, as a drawing, does not rep~esent the en- 
 
tire product of the lesson. The child may have 
 
been made to see or think a good deal more 
 
than he has power to express correctly. Very 
 
probably, every stroke means something to him. 
 
Estimate work accordingly. 
 
c# 
 
8. Decorate your walls with reproductions of art 
 
masterpieces-painting, sculpture, and architect- 
 
ure. Use these same pictures in teaching His- 
 
tory, Geography, Reading, etc. 
 
Where to get pictures: J. C. Witter Co., 123 5th 
 
Ave., ew York; Perry Pictures Co., Malden, 
 
Mass.; Prang Educational Co., New York; Hel- 
 
man-Taylor Art Co., rew York. 
 
Good reproductions can be had for from one to five cents each, and excellent things for twentyfive cents each. 
 
IV. REFERENCE BOOKS. 
"Composition," by Arthur W. Dow. J. M. Bowles, Boston. $1.50. 
"With Brush and Pen," by Jas. Hall. J. C. Witter Co., New York. 60 cents. 
"Lessons in Pencil Drawing From Nature," by W. N. Bartholomew. Prang Educational Co., N. Y. (with plates). 75 cents. 
 
 279 
 
'Illustrative Blackboard SketchIng," by Bertha Hintz. El L. Kellogg & Co., N. Y. uO ceDts. 
 
"Free-Hand Drawing," by A. K. Crosll. Ginn & Co., Atlanta. 80 cents. 
 
4'A Catalogue of Workll ot Art SuItable for School 
 
 
 
Room Decoration." Helman-Taylor Art Co., 
 
N. Y. $1.00. 
 
A very helpful magazIne: "Art Study," (monthl,) .J. C. Witter Co., N. Y., SubscriptioD per year 
 
f1.oo. 
 
 SYLLABUS 
FOR YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE DISCUSSION AT THE SUMMER INSTI TUTES FOR 1898. 
ARRANGED BY J. 8. STEWART. 
(Let two hours be devoted to this subject.) 
I.-THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL READING CIRCLE. 1. To cultivate a taste for good reading. 2. To bring child:-en into contact with beauty and truth sa 
found in the best books. 3. To counteract the vicious influence of detective heroes by 
the positive influence of commuoinp; with real heroes of the race, thus creatinp; higher ideals of life. 4. To awaken an interest in good reading in the home. 6. To put a library in every schoolroom in the tate. 
!I.-ITS IMPORTANCE. 
1. Notice the lack of reading on the part of the young. 2. Notice the dearth of school and home libraries. 3. Notice the vast increase in sales of cheap detective storie 4. Notice the results of the habit of reading upon the morlU 
life, upon the tastes, upon the social life of a people. To teach a child to read and not to cultivate a taste for 
good literature is dangerous. 
m.-GOOD RESULTS FROM THIS WORK. 1. Its effect upon the regular studies. 2. Its effect upon the interest in school work. 8. Its effect upon the character of the pupil. 4. Its effect npon the home. I. Its effect upon the community. 
, 
 
 IV.-HOW TO CREAn: AN INTERERT IN IT. 
1. Among Ltlachers: a. By bowil1~ the importance and value of tbe work. b. By di~cus ion in tbe institutes. c. By tbe commissioner creating a rivalry among the schools of his county, as to which can make the best report. 
2. Among pupils: a. By putting the books within their reach. b. By reading or telling part of the story. c. By using tbe books in connection with school work, not as additional tasks, b1,!t to throw added beauty and life into it. cL By offering membership cards to all who read twc.. books of the course during the year. The State Educational Department will furnish these upon tIte application of .the commissioner or superintendent. 
a. A.mong patrons: 
G. By interesting the children. 1I. By having the books in the home. 
V.-HOW TO SECURE THE BOOKS. 
1. By taking small collections from the pupils and purchaling one or more books. 
2. By encouragi,,!g individual pupils to buy books. S. By securing subscriptions from enterprisinll: citizens. ~ By giving entertainments at whi<;.h take up a collection. 6. By trustees purchasing the books for each school. 6. By donations from the teacher. We hope to see the day when every school will have a good library. Will not the teachers who teach in 1898 make a ~nning and leave behind them, if not a fine library. at least a cracker-box, with a part of the list selected for the year therein , 
 
 HOME READI G. 
 
The following books are recommended for home reading. . Parents can not overestimate the advantages which their 
children will derive from reading aloud in the family circle. The children will not only learn to read well, but they will also gain valuable stores of information, and they will be dl'awn closer in love and sympathy to every member of the family circle. 
These books are selected from the list of School Library Books issued from this department in 1905. The Educa tional Publisning Company, Atlanta, Ga., will fill orders for these library books at prices indicated. On all orders -of ten dollars 01' more the express charges will be prepaid. 
FOR PRIMARY PUPILS. 
 
Christmas in Other Lands. Cooley.................. .05 
 
Story of Longfellow 
 
.05 
 
Story of Washington 
 
.05 
 
Story of the Telegraph. S. F. B. Morse 
 
.05 
 
Boyhood of Famous Americans 
 
.32 
 
Stories of Great Americans. Eggleston 
 
.33 
 
Stories of Great Artists. Horne and Scobey 
 
.33 
 
$1.18 
 
FOR I TERMEDIATE PUPILS. 
 
Collection of Most Famous Paintings 
 
.04 
 
Album of Authors and Memory Gems 
 
.04 
 
Life of Gen. Robt. E. Lee.......................... .29 
 
Little Flower Folks, Part II. Pratt................. .32 
 
Stories of Bird Life. Pearson.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 
 
Makers of American History. Chandler and Chitwood. .49 
 
 284 
 
Black Beauty. Sewell.............................. .n 
 
Laddie................. 
 
.22 
 
$2.11 FOR SIXTH AND SEVE TH GRADE PUPILS. 
 
Selections from Irving's Sketch Book................ .21 
 
Southern Poets. Weber............................. .21 
 
Fairyland of Science. Buckley...................... .22 
 
Seed Dispersal. Beal 
 
.29 
 
Cheerfulness as a Life Power. Marden... . . . . . . . . .. .29 
 
John Ploughman's Talks. Spurgeon................ .22 
 
Stories of Industry. Vol. 11. 
 
,............ .48 
 
$1.92 
 
Total 
 
. 
 
$5.21 
 
If the 22 books are ordered at one time they will be 
 
supplied for 
 
. 
 
$5.00 
 
 EVANS' HISTORY OF GEORGIA. 
L. B. EVANS, Supt. of Schools, Richmond County, Ga. 
Division ot Book into Two Years.-The present text-book in the History of Georgia is easily divided into two years. The first year's study should end with Chapter XXXIV., which concludes the history of the State in its firm establishment. The second year's study should begin with Chapter XXXV., which introduces elements that have affected the State's history ever since. 
In those schools whose term is limited to the length prescribed by law, it may be necessary to study two chapters a week in order to finish each year's work. Where the term is lengthened to eight or nine months one chapter a week will be sufficient. 
Study ot Each Ohapter.-The lesson having been assigned for study the pupils are expected to prepare themselves for questions upon the chapter. In the class the pupils should read each chapter aloud. This may be considered the reading-lesson for the day if the teacher so desires. The teacher should then question the pupils upon the contents of the chapter, using the questions or the topics at the end. The pupils may then be required to summarize the lesson in a short statement. In addition to this each one may name one fact learned, or express an opinion as to which fact is the most important, what date had best be Tocorded, what questions should be memorized, etc. Each lesson should add its quota to the general knowledge tha child has of the State's history. 
 
 286 
 
Quotation,s.-The selections found at the head of each 
 
chapter are to be memorized in whole or in part by the 
 
puplls. They afford a splendid collection of the sayings 
 
of our great men, poems about our State, or extracts from 
 
notable documents worthy of being stored in the mind of 
 
our Georgia youth. These quotations can be used for 
 
public exercises, for exhibition days of all sorts, for visIt- 
 
ors' occasion, and can be made the means of beautiful, in- 
 
teresting and profitable instruction. 
 
Dates to be Remembered.- 
 
Oglethorpe landed at Savannah February 12, 1733. 
 
Oglethorpe invaded Florida 
 
December -, 1739. 
 
Spaniards invaded Georgia 
 
June -, 1742. 
 
Slavery allowed in Georgia 
 
October 26, 1749. 
 
Meeting of first Legislature 
 
January 15, 1751. 
 
Georgia became a royal province 
 
June 23, 1752. 
 
Georgians arrest the royal governor .. January -, 1776. 
 
First Constitution adopted ........ February 5, 17i7. 
 
Savannah captured by Britlst. 
 
January -, 1777. 
 
Savannah surrendered by British 
 
May -, 17 2. 
 
Georgia enters the union of States January 2, 17 8. 
 
George Washington visits Georgia 
 
May -,1791. 
 
Eli Whitney invents cotton-gin 
 
1792. 
 
Burning of Yazoo Fraud papers February 15, 1796. 
 
Second Constitution adopted 
 
May -, 1798. 
 
The State University opened 
 
1802. 
 
The western territory of Georgia ceded 
 
1 02. 
 
Longstreet operates first steamboat. 
 
1806. 
 
Milledgeville becomes capital 
 
1 07. 
 
First steamship crossed Atlantic 
 
1 19. 
 
Troup and Clark controversy 
 
1819. 
 
Troup defies the general government. 
 
1 26. 
 
Gold discovered in North Georgia 
 
1828. 
 
Indians finally removed from Georgia 
 
1 38. 
 
First chartered woman's college opened 
 
1839. 
 
Georgia- railroad built 
 
18371839. 
 
 2~7 
 
Anesthesia discovered by Dr. Long 
 
1842. 
 
Georgia secedes from the Union 
 
January 19, 1 61. 
 
Georgia enters the Confederate States .... March, 1861. 
 
Fall of Atlanta 
 
September, 1864. 
 
Sherman's march to the sea 
 
November, 1864. 
 
Atlanta made the capital 
 
April, 1868. 
 
Georgia readmitted to the Union 
 
July, 1870. 
 
Great Men to be Studied.-The history of the State is the 
 
history of the great leaders. These should be studied in 
 
detail, biographical sketches written about them, and their 
 
influence upon their times impressed upon the pupils. Lat 
 
the pupils study such men as 
 
James E. Oglethorpe, 
 
Charles J. Jenkins, 
 
John M. Berrien, 
 
Crawford W. Long, 
 
Joseph E. Brown, 
 
Alexander H. Stephens, 
 
John Clark, 
 
Robert Toombs, 
 
Elijah Clark, 
 
George M. Troup, 
 
George W. Crawford, 
 
George Walton, 
 
William 'H. Crawford, 
 
George Whitfield, 
 
John Forsyth, 
 
George R. Gilmer, 
 
John B. Gordon, 
 
H. W. Grady, 
 
James Habersham, 
 
Benjamin H. Hill. 
 
James Jackson, 
 
Oounty Study.-The pupils should be required to espe- 
 
cially learn all the history of their own country, when 
 
formed, out of what other counties, for whom named, what 
 
noted men have come from it, what events have transpired 
 
in it, for whom the town was named, and what noted men 
 
have lived in it as lawyers, doctors, farmers, etc. If there 
 
are any historical points of interest where battles were 
 
fought, great men lived, or noted events of any kind hap- 
 
pened, they should be visited and explained. A child 
 
should know all about his own county and his own imme- 
 
diate people. A county map should be drawn and studied 
 
In connec ion with the county history. 
 
Anniversaries to be Oelebmted.-Once a month there 
 
 288 
should be celebrated the anniversary of one o~ the great events of the State's history. Some suggestions are as follows: 
January 19-Georgia secedes from the Union. February 12-Gglethorpe landed at Savannah. March 19-Lafayette lands in Georgia. March 3O-First operation with ether. April 26-First Memorial Day celebrated, etc. The teacher himself had best decide what anniversaries he will celebrate. He can choose the birthdays of certain men, the dates of certain great events, and make out the list of his own celebrations, varying them from year to year. Test Questions.-Much importance is to be given to the test questions and the search questions at the end of the book. The pupils should be able to answer all the test questions rapidly, and should be required to search the book until he has found answers to all the search questions. This will give him a good knowledge of the general history of the State in its outline. Topical Studies.-A good way of teaching is by topical studies, using the topics at the end of the chapters or making them to cover periods of history. These topical outlines should be written on the blackboard and made the occasions of oral as well as written exercises. They are a kind of a skeleton or framework of the recitation, or review, or composition, and are great aids to the pupils In fixing clearly certain definite information. 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 
By WILLIAM 1:. SLATOX, PRIXCJP.\L BOY , liIGil Sciloor.... ATUXT.l, GA. 
MAX A OCTAL BEIXO. By instinct man is a social being. In the companionshil> of his fellows, he finds safety, profit, pleasure and progress. The North American Indian, the Kaffir, the enlightenell Anglo-Saxon, each representing his type-by nature seeks. the society of those like himself, and in it enjoys his ~reat est happiness. Thus society is formed, complex conditions are produced, different interests are born, and moral obligations, laws, and government are created. To live ill peace, safety and' happiness, man must have a recogni:ted fOFm of government, he must understand its spirit and character, and honestly obey its laws. Thus life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness are secured to the rich and poor, the ignorant and the intelligent, the strong and the weak. 
WilAT ill TORY TEACHE AS A OO\"ERXMEXT. Government is a necessity, not an accident. In the evolution or the human race, man's greatest work has been to ascertain the form of government best adapted to secure the greatest amount of happiness. The deciphering of the Rosetta Stone reveals to us the struggles that raged in the early ages in Egypt and Babylonia and other Oriental countries as they tried to establish some form of government to protect, preserve and promote the interests of man- 
 
 kind. In all the world empires as Persia, Greece and Rome, down through our own Revolutionary and Civil and Spanish-American wars, the idea uppermo t in the mind of man has been to enforce certain forms of government. 
A DEMOCRATIC FOR)I OF GOYEBX:\IEXT TilE BE T. 
Oligarchies, monarchies, and despotism are curses to mankind. When a few men get supreme political power, selfis!l interests dictate policies, liberty is destroyed, human life :8 despised, property is confissated, either directly or by taxation, and avarice, cruelty and tyranny reign supreme. supreme. 
"A government of the people, by the people, and for the people" is the highest type of government evolved by man under the providence of God. The children should be taught that fact by many illustrations. The youth of the State should know what liberty has cost, how lcng it has taken the world to learn the value of democracy, and ;;0 cherish and transmit our government unimpaired to future generations. 
FA:\ULY GOVERXME:1\"T. 
The teaching and training of the fireside underlie all government. What the child believes and does at home he will believe and do through life. Strong, clear impressions of obligations to God .and man received from the intelligent, consecrated parent will control the child in aU his relations to classmates, tljachers and magistrates. Hence, strict, prompt, absolute obedience should be taught with energy and system at home as an essential condition to good citizenship, usefulness and happiness. 
The vast amount of time and nervous strength spent, wasted, in securing discipline at school is due to the crime of parental neglect, ignorance, and weakness. If the average parent governed wisely, the percentage of scholarship 
would be greatly ir:::reased, the burdens of the courts 
 
 291 
would be reduced, and the cause of civilization materially advanced. 
These principles should be taught the classes !n civil 
government because some day the pupils ..,m become heads 
of families and should impart sound precepts to their children. 
OBEDIEXCE I ::II.L'I'LY. 
Teachers should instruct the children that obedience is manly, not servile. The popular idea among pupils and even with many parents that only the "goody-goody" are obedient should be dynamited. General Lee is said to have graduated at West Point after four years of severe drlll and discipline without receiving one demerit. He was not a weak, vacillating, cowardly, ignorant man. In history he shines as the highest type of character produced by the world's best civilization. 
Revelation empha ize the importance that God places upon obedience. Legislatures, congresses, parliaments, and  reichst.'1gs are useless, and society is perpetual chaos, unless obedience prevails. The idea that every boy must sow wild oats is abominable heresy. The idea that he must suffer evil to know and appreciate good is rotten to the core. Must a boy blacken his character and name by lying, theft, impunity, drunkenness, to become honest, pure and sober? Must he have smallpox or scarlet fever 01' diphtheria to enjoy the blessings of health? 
Impress upon the pupils that God and man, teaching in history and daily experience, exalt obedience to positions of highest honor and power, but place disobedience under the ban of public contempt, in chains and in the penitentiary. 
THE TEACllERS MUST PREPABE TO TEACH. 
To attempt to teach civil government without special preparation for each recitation is a great injustice against the pupil, the teacher, the home and the tax-payer. Let 
 
 292 
the teacher know his particular text-book thoroughly and read and study other books for breadth and -variety of view. He will soon find his class aflame with a love of civil government, and anxious for the recitation period. Every teacher has observed that his pupils are fondest of the study of which he knows most. The reason is evident_ 
THE so Til DID NOT REBEL. 
Impress upon the children the truth that the South d\d DOt rebel, and that such a charge is absurdly false and historically untrue. Teach them that the Constitution war; a compact between the States, and was binding only so long as parties to the contract supported its provisions. The South was true and loyal in obeying the Constitution, but when the North refused to recognize the property rights of the South, our fathers by formal State action seceded. Such a course was the assertion of our Constitutional right and privilege, and he who brands us as rebels is either very ignorant or without regard for the truth. 
The victory of the orth was the triumph of brute forces and vast resources, over the most patriotic and valiant heroes who ever fought and died for a great cause. General Lee, General Jackson, General Gordon, President Jefferson Davis and many other noble spirits like them were incapable of rebellion. Only bigotry and blind fanaticism could charge rebellion against a people who periled all for honor and Constitutional liberty. The success of the North did DOt fix a stigma upon the South. The war was revolution, not rebellion. 
GEORGIA'S STATE GOVERNlIIENT. 
It is important to teach thoroughly our own political system, the duties and powers of our civil officers from constable to governor, the function of the organic law, the relation of our State Constitution to the Constitution of the United States. Teach the boys to inform themselves 
 
 293 
upon current questions and always exercise their right or sufrrage in electing officers and deciding issues. 
OME AUTHORITIES. 
Peterman's Civil Government; Publishers, American Book Company. 
Thickinger's Civil Government; Publishers, D. C. Heath & Co. 
Government: Its Origin, Growth and Form in the United States, by Lansing & Jones; Publishers, Silver, Burdett &  Co. 
Boynton's School Civics; Publishers, Ginn & Co. Alexa.;lder H. Stephens' War Between the States. J. L. M. Curry's The ew South. Jefferson Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederacy. 
SO~IE DETAILS. 
Assign lessons of reasonable length. Do not require them memorized word for word, but exact the recollections of ideas, principles and facts. This suggestion should not be followed in all cases. There are parts of the text which should be carefully committed to memory. The pupils should know the Bill of Rights word for word, and be able to expound its meaning clearly. In the same class are the definition of duties, forms of government, writ of habeaR corpus, bill of attainder, ex post facto law, and the preamble of the Constitution of the United States. There are parts of the Constitution of the State and of the United States that ought to be memorized. Each lesson ought to be reviewed by a series of questions to fix the salient points. Frequent class debates on questions involving civil government would inspire interest. Monthly written examinations would be stimulative, conduct the recitations with closed book. Return the examination papers to the class with errors pointed out and graded according to theirmerits. If time can be found it would be well to go over 
 
 294 
the papers with individual pupils and designate errors of omission and commission. Incidentally a good opportunity is thus offered, to correct faults in spelling, grammar, diction and sentence and paragraph structure and argumentation. 
 
 
 TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 
FrOnt Circular for Teachers Institutes, Wisconsin. 
The true subject-matter of a nation's history is the record 'Of the deeds of that nation. But deeds are the expression of the thoughts, feelings and motives of those who do them; ~onsequently any study o( the deeds must nece'Ssarily con cern itself with the study of the motives which led to enactment of the deeds. The emotional element in history must receive due emphasis if the backward flight of the student's imagination enables him to live in the deed. The historical fact in itself is the resultant of various forces, and may be the cause of subsequent events. This causal relation must be appreciated by the pupils largely through this study of motive. As the treatment in the textbook is largely chronological it becomes necessary to present logical units of studY, which, taken as a whole, emphasize some large phase of national life. 
In tracing this expansion of territory the pupil will note the material development of the country, and realize the enlarged area over which our prized republican institutions find an abiding place. 
So much of the outlines as can be well mastered should be presented in the Institute, the knowledge of the subject matter and method of presentation there obtained enabling the teachers to present the work as a whole in their schools. 1. Original territory of the United States. 
1. Boundaries as fixed by Treaty of Ii 3. 2, See map and determine what parts are natural. 
Political. 
 
 296 
3. Parts or boundary arterwards likely to be disputed_ 4. Original area and population. 5. Population and area to-day. 6. Relative area of original and acquired territory. 7. What advantages were secured to United States by 
this treaty? 8. Peoples bordering original t~rritory. 
II. Louisiana purchase. 1. Settlements west of mountains at opening of 19th century. 2. Resources of the territory. 3. Markets for products and the relation of the Mississippi thereto. 4. 'ations controlling navigation of the river. Right of deposit. 5. Louisiana-its transfer from France to Spain and from Spain to France. 6. Napoleon's motives. 7. Right of deposit under France. 8. Haiti and Toussaint L'Ouverture. 9. Alarm in the West and petition to government. 10. Jefferson sends Monroe to France commissioning him to purchase West Florida. How would that aid in settling the problem? 11. Sale of entire territory negotiated through Livingston. Terms. 12. Why apoleon sells. 13. Opposition to purchase on the part of Federalists. Why? 14. Constitutionality. Jefferson's attitude. Consult Constitution of United States and read sections bearing on constitutionality. 15. Area and resources of the territory acquired. 16. The boundaries. Why indefinite? 17. Material development. 18. Name States and Territories included in it. 
 
 297 
19. Density of population at time of purchase as compared with present. 
20. The St. Louis Exposition. 
In. The purchase of Florida. 
1. Exact boundaries of Florida. 2. Resources of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia. 3. Market and means of transportation. Pupils study 
map or region. 4. Inhabitants of Florida, 1 151 20. 5. Jackson and Seminole war. Character or Jackson 
and importance of this war. 6. Treaty with Spain. 
a. Amount paid for it. b. Trace on map all of the boundaries concerned. c. What terri tory did we yield? d. How did it affect our claim to Oregon? 
V. Oregon. 1. Boundaries and resources. 2. Claimants: Russia, SPlilin, England and United States. 3. Grounds of the American title. 4. Elimination of Spanish Claim. 5. Elimination of Russian Claim. 6. Treaty with England, 181 . 7. Meaning of joint occupation. 8. Campaign of 1844-"54 degrees 40 minutes or fight." 9. Marcus Whitman; Hudson Bay Company. 
10. Treaty 1846. C~mpare boundary of Oregon in 1830 and 1846. 
Annexation of Texas. 1. Independence of Mexico and other Spanish colonies in America. 2. The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 
 298 
3. Relation of Texas to boundaries of LouiSiana. Did the North give Texas away in 1 19? 
4. Relation of Texas to Mexico. 5. Abolition of slavery by Mexico; its effect upon slave 
holders in Texas, and in Southern United States. 6. Area and resources, and movement of Americans 
into Texas. 7. Sam Houston and the Texan war for independence. 8. Application for admission into the Union. Attitude 
of Van Buren and Tyler. 9. Campaign of 1844-H The reannexation of Texas." 10. Oppos"ition by Whigs in the North. Why? 11. Annexation by joint resolution. Why? See Con- 
stitution of United States as to making of treaties, and note reasons for this process. Constitutionality. 
VI. Mexican cession. 
1. Disputed boundary of Texas. Student note map. Trace disputed boundary. Estimate area. Resources of region. Would it be wise to arbitrate? Compare Oregon. 
2. Occupation of the disputed territory. 3. Declaration of war and voting supplies by Congress. 4. Leading military operations. 5. Terms of Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. Area and 
resources of territory. 6. Motive for prosecution of this war. 7. Questions arising therefrom and the Compromise 
of 1850. 8. Gadsden Purchase. Location, area, resources, sum 
paid. 
VII. Purchase of Alaslia. 1. Relations of Russia and United States during Civil War. 
 
 299 
2. Questions of its value, area and resources. 3. Would you have favored or opposed its purchase 
at that time? Why? 4. The boundaries. Recent settlement of boundaries. 5. The annexation of non-adjacent territory a new 
problem in expansion. 6. Present governmental status. 
VIII. Hawaii. 1. Location, area, resources. 2. Its strategic importance. ote its position, distance, and direction from San Francisco, Tacoma, Yokohama, Manila. 3. Arguments favoring and opposing annexation. 4. Annexation by Joint Resolution. Compare Texas. 5. Present government. 
IX. Spanish cession. 1. Causes of war with Spain. Our relation to Cuba. 2. Declaration of war by Congress. 3. Territory acquired. a. Porto Rico. Location, area, resources, present status of g0vernment. b. The Philippines. 1. Location, area, resources. 2. Provisions in treaty in relation to Spanish SUbJects, ana native inhabitants. 3. How governed now? 4. Was Monroe Doctrine violated? 5. Division of people of United States into Imperialists and Anti-Imperialists. 
X. Panama. 1. Our efforts looking forward to construction of canal. 2. Two routes in question-Panama and Nicaragua. Advantages of each. See map. 3. Relation of Treaty of 1846 with New Granada. 4. Recent Treaty with Colombia. 
 
 300 
 
5. Panama Resolution. 
 
 
 
6. Treaty .with Panama-area over which United 
 
States will have jurisdiction. 
 
7. Cost of canal. When is it to be completed? 
 
8. Probable effect of canal on trade between Eastern 
 
United States and the Orient. 
 
XI. Suggestive questions. 1. Political parties as a rule favoring expansion; opposing. Would it be natural for Clay to favor expansion? Polk? Cleveland? Webster? HamU ton? Jefferson? Roosevelt? 2. What law does expansion seem to follow? 3. Our most valuable acquisition in your judgment. Why? 4. Rights granted to inhabitants of territory acquired. 5. In how far was slavery a question in expansion? 6. When United States acquires territory in whom is title to public lands vested? How about Texas? 7. Would you favor the newer possessions coming into the Union as States? WhY? 8. Compare the government of Arizona, Hawaii, and the Philippines as to (a) Executive; (b) Legislative powers; (c) Qualifications for voting; (dJ Self-government. 9. Should we take more or less part in affairs of the East than formerly? Why? 
10. Should the policy of expansion continue? If so, where? Effect on the government. 
11. What e~6ential differences do you note between the earlier and later annexations? 
12. Draw maps showing the terr~torial growth of the United States. 
 
XII. References. 
1. l!lxpansion. 
Pupils wlll use the text-books in United States History. 
 
 301 
Connor: Uncle Sam Abroad, pp. 159-196. Eggleston: Primary History United States., pp. 
186-196. 2. The Louisiana purchase. 
Brooks: First Across the Continent, pp. 1-5. Coffin: Building the Nation, p. 120. Drake: Making the Great West, pp. 171-183. Gordy: American Leaders and Heroes, pp. 241 
244. Wright: Children's Stories of American Progrelll3, 
pp. 55-58. Mowry: First steps in United States History, pp. 
177-183. Eggleston: Household History, pp. 238-242. 
3. Florida purchase. Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress, pp. 145-158. Coffin: Building the Nation, p. 243. Eggleston: Household History, p. 269. Bolton: American Statesmen. Andrew Jackson. 
4. Oregon. Brooks: First Across the Continent. Drake: Making of the Great West, pp. 212-241. Kingsley: Story of Lewis and Clark. Eggleston: Household History, p. 294. Mowry: First Steps in American History, pp. 228-233. 
5. Texas. Wright: Stories of American Progress, pp. 229247. Brook, Noah: Abraham Lincoln, pp. 100-108. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, pp. 241249. Eggleston: Household History of the United States, pp. 284-295. Mowry: First Steps in American History. 
 
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6. Mexican cession. Eggleston: Household History of United States, pp. 288295. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, pp. 248263. 
7. Gadsden purchase. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, p. 2 9. Eggleston: Household History of United States. Mowry: First Steps in American History, p. 220 
8. Alaska. Drake, S. A.: Making of the Great West, p. 142. Eggleston: Household History of United Statea, p.362. 
9. Hawaii. Greater America, pp. 131140. Twombly: Hawaii and its People, pp. 363-384. Krout, M. H.: Alice's Visit to Hawaiian Island~. 
10. Spanish cession. Philippine Islands and Porto Rico in Greater America, pp. 3120. Spears, John: Our Navy in the War with Spain. 
11. Panama. Consult papers and magazines of the current year. 
 
 THE RECITATION. 
 
I. E~D 
 
From Institute Manual, Maine. 
 
1. To secure study. 
 
2. To influence the form or method of study. 3. To ascertain the results of study. 4. To give direct instruction. 
 
5. To fix knowledge in the mind. 6. To train to clear and correct thinking. 
 
7. To train to ready, clear and correct expression of thought. 
 
II. E SENTIALS: 1. Every member of the class must recite, either orally or mentally, the entire lesson. 
 
2. Every fact in the lesson must be recited in full, accurately and in its proper connection. 
 
3. The interest of every pupil in the class mu t be enlisted, and his attention held fixed upon,' the entire recitation. 
 
III. MEl'llODS: 
 
1. General.-(l) Call upon pupils to recite in no regular order. 
 
(2) Indicate the point to be recited, before calling upon any particular pupil to recite it. 
(3) Hold every pupil in the class to haH? 
 
made the mistakes of every other, unless he notice and correct those mistakes. 
(4) If any pupil is detected failing in iHlen- 
 
tion, call upon him to recite at once. 
 
(5) Seldom allow books in the hands of npils, except in reading, during the recitation. 
(6) Have the recitation made in complete and correct sE;ntences, and, when practicable, in connected discourse. 
(7) Take up all parts of the lesson in which pupils have failed, in immediate and thorough review. 
 
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.. Jake thorough work. Hence: (a) give short les on; (b) give out lessons but once; (r) assign to-morrow's lesson with great care; (l) hear the recita.tion of the lesson before giving instruction relating to it; (e) make every point; (f) call back all new instruction given. 
Special.(1) The Catechetical. 
A. Of Its Characterlstics:-l. It assigns a certain quantity of the text-book to be memorized. 2. It ascertains the pupil's knowledge by the use of set or leading questions. 
B. Of its Defects:-l. It rna es the text-book the master and not the servant of teacher and pupil. 2. It leads the pupil to studY rather to recite than to know. 3. Knowledge gained by it is not in its most usable form-is fragment..1.ry rather than classified. 4. It fails to form correct habits of investigation to be carried into 
atter life. 5. It fails to train to habits of clear, consecutive thinking. and expression of thought. 
C. Of its Advantages:-1. It is peculiarly adapted to classes of pupils whose reasoning powers are not fully developed-primary classes. 2. It is a powerful agent for waking up classes by bringing large numbers rapidly "under fire." 3. It trains to quickness of thought.t. It is a potent method of ascertaining the pupil's knowlf"lge of facts learned and 'recited by other methods. 
D. Of its Uses:-l. It is the proper general method for primary classes. 2. It should be used for review of lessons recited by other methods. 
E. Rules:-1. 1 se the set questions of the text-book a little as possible. 2. Guard carefully against so putting questions as to suggest the answers. 3. Have all answers made in complete sentences. 4. In review lessons taught b this method, have the pupils tell as much as possible about the subject-matter without questioning. 
(2) The j[emoriter. 
A. Characteristic:-l. It assigns for lessons definite 
 
 35 
portions of the te.t-book. 2. It generally requires th2 lesson to be memorized verbatim. 3. It requires th~ recitation to be made without questions.. 
B. Its Defectl:l:-l. It leads to the memorizing of words instead of ideas. 2. It confines too closely to th~ order and method of the text-book, and requires absolute uniformity of text-books. 3. It is a method never used in after-life in gaining knowledge. 
C. Its Advantages:-l. It is an excellent means of disciplining the memory. 2. It serves to fix in the min.l tho e formulated parts of knowledge which are the summaries of processes of reasoning and investigation. 
D. Its Uses:-l. To teach rnles and definitions. 2. For scripture lessons, etc., to be used in opening and gen eral exercises. 3. For the propositions of Geometry anll sImilar exact statements. 
E. Rules:-Supplement all recitAtions made by thl!!> method by analysIs to _prevent "parroting," and uy test questions to draw out the pupil's knowledge of the meaning of the lesson. 
(3) The Concert Method. 
A. Characteristics:-Same as either of precedln~ modes, with the addition that all the pupils recite in uni on instead 01 individually. 
B. Special Defects:-l. It gives opportunity for shirking in study. 2. It allows mere mechanical repetition without attention. 3. It is defective as a test or the pupil's knowledge of the lesson. 4. It tends to beget a drawling, unseemly habit of el:pression. 
C. Advantap;es:-l. It enables the teacher to multi ply his force by teaching whole classes at once. 2. It aids the diffid('nt in givIng expression to ideas....,.in telling 
what they know: a It helps often to wake up classes. 
D. Uses:-l. In teaching rules, formulas, etc., to whole classes. 2. For drills in arithmetical ork, such as rapid addition , et~.; in Geographr, as map work; in vocal training, etc., and in a!l examille teaching. 3. In infant classes in which all teaching IS direct and not by 
 
 306 
studr. 4. Sometimes to give variety and wake up sluggish classes. 
E. Rules:-l. Guard carefully against all unnatural drawling, and mechanical forms of expression. 2. (f any pupil in the class fails to take part in the recitation, call upon that pupil to recite alone. 
(4) The Topical. 
A. Characteristics:-l. It sets before the pupil definite things, about which to learn. 2. It requires him to learn them in systematic order or sequence. 3. The pupil muSt recite without questions, and yet not in the exact language of another. 
B. Its Advantages:-l. It does not require uniformity 
or text-bool{s, and saves multiplying classes. 2. It makes 
text-books the servants and not the masters of both teacher and pupils. 3. It imparts knowledge in classified and associated form; hence, usable knowledge. 4. It trains to consecutive. orderly thinking, and to Clear, definite and ready expression of thought. 5. It forms practical habits of independent investigation to be used In after-life. 6. It compels the teacher to thorough dally preparation. 
O. Rules:-l. Have each meml'er of the class provided with suitable topic-book. 2. Arrange and write on the blackboard topic-lists as needed, and have pupil copy them into thp.ir topic-books as guides in study. 3. Assign to-day a proper number of sub-topics for a lesson; to-morrow, reassign to-day's lesson for review, with other sub-topics as advance; so continue till the general topic Is completed, thus making the last recitation one of the whole general topic. 4. At the recitation of each lesson . have some pupil in the 'class write upon the blackboard the topic-list or the day, from which list let the recita tion be made. 5. Review each general topic as a whole. requiring the class to be prepared to give both the topiclist as an anaysis of the lesson, and also the subject-mat tel'. 6. Draw out by proper questioIlR, all necessary facts which the pupils fail to bring out In theIr independent recitations. 
 
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