MANUAL OF METHODS 
FOR 
Georgia Teachers. 
ATLANTA, GEORGIA : 
GEO:'W. HARRISON, STATE PRINTER. 
The Franklin Printing a nd P ublishing Company. 19!'2. 
 
 . , , I ' 
 
'. 
 
 PR EFACE TO REVISED EDITION. 
 
fn presentin g this revised NLwual of :M:etlvJds to the 
 
teachers of Georgia, a few words only are necessary. 
 
Th e work has been done by President E. C. BranRo n, 
 
of the State Normal School; Professor Fred. J. Or r, of 
 
,!Je State Normal School; Superintenclent Lawton B . 
 
Evans, Aug usta, Ga.; Presid ent J. Harris Chappell, G eor- 
 
g ia Normal and Industrial College; SLI perin tend en t G . G. 
 
Bond , Athens, Ga.; Professor T. J . \Voofter, Georgia 
 
Normal and Industrial College; Superintendent C B. 
Gibson, Columbu s, Ga. ; President J. S. Stewart, Dab- - 
 
lonega, Ga.; Professor D. L . E arn est, State Normal 
 
School, and Professor Euler B. Smith, State Normal 
 
School. 
 
These good gentlemen have given their time to this ser- 
 
vice without any rem uneration whatever. The first ed ition 
 
was one of the most helpful books ever placed in the hands 
 
of our teachers. It ia hoped that this new edition will be 
 
e1P.n more suggestive and helpful. 
 
At least half of th e questions for the nex t exaininatic.n 
 
will be upon the methods discussed in this volume. Fifteen 
thou sand copies of this edition will b~ .pr-ilited. A num- 
 
ber sufficient to place a copy in the band "of\cach hade; 
 
in G'eor.,;ia . 
 
G. R. GLENN, 
 
State School Commifsioner. 
 
  CONTENTS. 
 
. SPELLI KG  - -- --------- - ----- ----- 
 
7 
 
PEKlii ANSHIP ----------------------- - --- 17 
 
READING -- - - - - -- --=- - - ----- --- -- - - --- - -- 7" - 23 
 
E NGLISH GR .HfllfAR -------------------- - - 45 
 
GEOGRAPHY- - -- ------- - ---- ---- - - --- - -- - 81 
 
HISTORY- - -- - - - --- ':_ ___ --.- -- --- - ------ - -- 107 
 
ARI1'HMET !C - - --- - -- - --- - - -- - --- - ------ - - 139 NATURE STUDY _ ___________ _ : _ ___ ~ ------ 179 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEM-ENT --: - - - - -- - ------ - -  - 227 PHYSIOLOGY - - - - --------- - --------------- 247 DRAWING ---------- ~ - - - - - -- -- ---- -. -- _- - 271 SYLLABUS.---- - - --- -- ----- - -- --- -------- 281 
LisT OF BooKs FOR THE CoMMON ScHooLs oF 
GEORGIA---~----------------------- 291 
 
'" 97:-J 
 
  SPELLING. 
 
nv E. c. BRANSON, STATE NoRMAL Scnoor" - 
( CopyTighted.) 
 
I. P UItPOSES. 
 
J. To teach vocabulary of every-day English. 2. To teach the vocabulary of the common school 
texrs. 
 
These two purposes concern about 10,000 
 
words; abo ut one-third the [\Umber in the 
 
average speller. 
 
3. To teach the use of the dic-tion ary in urdcr to 
 
 
 
extend. his vocabulary, now and later. 
 
4. To teach (1) the forms (spelling and pronuncia- 
 
tion) of t he words acquired, (2) their meanings 
 
and uses, and (3) their forms in written Eng- 
 
lish (capitals, hyphens, quotations, etc.) 
 
5. To a im directly at re-ading from the start. - 
 
G. To develo p promptly a ready self-determination 
 
of words by pupils. 
 
7. To lodge a memory of word-forms in the . fingers. 
 
8. To excite an int2rest in words: (1) derivation, (2) 
 
composition, (3) his,tory, (4) choice. 
 
9. To teacrh the imporbant rules of spelling. 
 
10. To educat e the pupil. Teaching spelling and 
 
ed ucating the pupil by means of spelllng are 
 
different things. Appeals to arbitrary memory 
 
of word-forms a~one are no-t quickening but 
 
deadening to in telligence. 
 
II. METHODS. 
 
1. Primary Grades. (Words from Readers nwstly.) (1) Copying words in script from daily lesRons. 
 
 8 
(2) Sight spelling; orally from open book. 
(3) Memo.ry spelling, words in all lessons. l4) Word-building; using _lette r cards 
script and Roman tex-t.) ~5) Phonic word-building. a. 
eye and ear the sign- and nesses of words. b. In order to velop ready self-determination uf n word'S. (6) Picture spelling. for things seen in pictures. of outline drawings. (7) Sentence building. a. Using word-cards, in script and Roman text. (8) Short sentences. a. Dietated by teacher. b. From given words. (9) Elliptical sentences. Copied and ted. (10) Picture stories. Short sentences sugge..ted by pictures. (11) Classifying words. a. AlphaJbetically. b. According to No. letters. c. Ar.cording to No. syllable'S. d. e. Action words or name words, etc. 
2. Intermedlate Grades. 
(1) Sentence making, for d~:>ubtful or difficult words, in all lessons, (1) orally, (2) in writing. 
(2) Dictation exercises. Paragraphs assigned for Sltudy from any school bool!., the readers mostly. 
(3) Recollection lessons. (4) Obse rvllition spelling. (1) Indoor obser- 
vatlons. (2 ) Outdoor ob'Servations. Spelling to be centered largely around nature studies. 
 
 9 
(5) Reproduction stories. (6) Marking words diacritioally~beginnlng 
wit h 3d Reader classes. (7) Making word lists for given sounds. (8) GrammaJtical spelling. (1) Plurals, (2) 
Possessives, (3) Past tense forms, (4.) Contractions and abbreviations, hy -. phenated words, etc. {9) Memory verses and maxims. (10) Supplementary lists, made by the pupils (1) in school, (2) out of school. 'l'hings se en on the way to school; common farm or garden products; hou.sehold furniture; table ware and foods; articles made . of clay, iron, s!lyer, etc.; garden and farm tools; Bible characters; amusements and games; things found in a boy's pocket; animals that eat grass, flesh, that swim, wade, etc. (11) Common miss;peUed :vords. (12) Spelling matches. Suggestions: 1. Preserve side~ throughout the session 
if possible. 2. Keep pupils in the ranks throughout 
the exercise. 3. Each side notes the misspelled words 
of the qpposHe side in all exercises; reports them to its captain, -who lists them for the teachers to give out to the other side. 4. The teacher -tallies tlhe words missed by each side, and also records the victories by days. 5. Matches once a fortnight. (13) Trapping in oral spelling. (14) Listing, sounding and spelling words dimcult of articulwtion; mists, lists, morning, ringing, etc. 
 
 10 
( 15) Recr eations. l. Spelling rhymes. word, pupil spells, gives out rhyming word and spells. 2. Building words out of the letters a given word; "legislature," for example. 3. T eacher gives out the name of a tool, say; pupil spells and calls the name of another tool for the next _p upil to spell  and so on down a list of tools. 4. Each pupil calls out and spells a word beginning with the last let ter t h e word previously sp elled. 5. Pupils point out objects, parts or qualities of objects; class spells. 6. Pupils describe words, cla.ss spell ~. "Wha,t gums envelopes?" Class spells, "mucilage," etc. 7. One pupil gives out a word, the next spells its . opposite. "Straig!,t," "crc.Qlced." 
8. Spe-lling synonyms. 
3. Upper Grades. 
(1) Dictations. (2) Co mmon misspelled words. (3 ) Teach the imporlaJ?.t rules of spe!ling 
(1) by induction, (2) by use, for ex ample: 
Rule for doubling the fina,l conson:ant. Rule  for dropping the final silent e. Rule for changing final y into i. (4) Spelling derivatives  from primitives given. (5 ) Defin1ng deriva,tives etym~logieal ly. (6 ) Forming words from common roots ; like graphein, tacere, etc. 
 
 ll 
(7) Making word . lists for given suffixes or roots; like un-, -iou, -logy. 
(8) Listing words . according to ongmLatin, Greek, Arabic, Celtic, etc. 
(9 ) Word stud ies, as they occur in course of upper class work.  "Swinton's Ram_bles Among Words," a good cue to the teacher. 
(10) Listing ang sounding words commonly mispronounced. " 
Il L SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Get spelling mostly from the readers the first three years at lea-st, and aim all spelliLLg an. the time at intelligent reading and coa ,,ct written forms. 
2. Omit, therefore, infrequent words-mere catch words diffic;,:lt to sp(lll. Stress the words the pupil needs constantly- the vocabulary of the various school books certainly. 
3. Do no t have the pupil spelling words from the 
spelling books, the meaning and uses of which neither he nor the teacher knows. 4. Make sure of meanings and uses, a long with forms of words everywhere. Breed in him the habit of using the Dictionary. 5. Remember that oral spelling teaches (1) the sound values of the letters, (2) syllabication, and (3) pronunciati ons; and cannot the.reftJre be dispensed with. You can easily have too much of H, and you can easily rob it of its chief val ue, by neglecting to have pupils for the first thre e ye ars to pronounce syllab les as they are spelled. 6. In oral spelling: 
(1 ) Give out the words once, distinctly. l2) P ermit !10 guessing. 
 
 12 
 
(3) Have pupil to pronounce word . 
 
spelling H. 
 
(A lesson In articulation and 
 
at!on, this). 
 
(4) Have 'him pronounce each syllable 
 
spelled. Also to call capital 
 
hyphens, &c. When they occur. . 
 
(5) Have sentences for doubtful words. 
 
(6) Do not begin always at the head of 
 
class, nor with the first word 
 
lesson. 
 
(7) Vary the methods only when 
 
interest requires It, but do not 
 
, 
 
do so then. 
 
(8) Preserve good lines and postures. 
 
-7. But remember that spelling is first an aid to 
 
r eady recognition of words (relliding) and next 
 
to the ready reproduction of words (JVrit!ng); 
 
that we do not need spelling in oral speech, but 
 
only !n written speech; th131t we spell in lite 
 
with 9ur fingers; thlllt writing words !s the best  
 
way to learn to write words; and that at last 
 
we must lodge in the fingers the memory of 
 
word forms. 
 
8. Written spelling. 
 
(1) Teaches the ~arms of Engl!sh, capital- 
 
ization, punctuation, use of hyphen, 
 
apostrophe, Capitals, quotation marks, 
 
pamgraphings, etc. 
 
(2) Gives each pupil more words to spell in 
 
each lesson. 
 
(3) Keeps all tlhe pupils engaged. 
 
(4) Gives a better chance to criticise 
 
correct misspelled words. 
 
(5) But takes more time for the recitat!Jn. 
 
(6) Tempts pupils Into d!shoneSity. 
 
9. Have no more written work than you have time 
 
to correct, be that much or l!ttle; much writ- 
 
 13 
 
!ng as certa-inly fixes bad habits as good ones; hence the absolute need of inspe.ction. Take 
 
only a pupil's best work. 10. Develop In pupils the power of self-criticism and 
 
correc tion. (1) Have pupils correct their own work with 
 
open books. 
 
 
 
/ 
 
(2) Or check up. one ano.ther's work simi- 
 
'Iarly. Ea~h pupil corrects his own 
 
work. Correction is the aim; not de- 
 
tection of errors by teacher, merely. 
 
(3) Examine the work yourself only after the corrections of the pupils. 
(4) Have misspelled words re~wr i tten a number of times by the pupil. 
11. As~ign spelling lessons occasionally from the day's lesson In Arithmetic, or Geography, or 
 
any of the school books. " 
 
IV. QUIZ REVIEWS. 
1. State ten purposes in teaching spelling. 2. How teach the use of the dictionary? 3. State the three elements of mastery of a vocabu- 
lary. 4. W<hloh one Is usually negleCJted in teaching spell- 
ing? 5. How aim spelling directly at reading? 6. How make spelling aid In the mastery of aJI the 
pupil's school books? 7. State so me ways of teaching spelling which are 
not educa;tive. 8. State and explain five methods of spelling adap- 
ted to Primary Grades. 9. State t:he purposes of Phonic word-building. 10. Illustra,te what is meant by Phonic word-building. 11. State six varieties of written spelling lessons (In 
any grades). 
 
 12. St&te what is taught in 
 
- Jictation exercises. 
 
13. Outline two kinds of observation 
 
(object spelling). 
 
14. State the special educational values of 
 
spelling. 
 
15. State four use~ of di'aeritics. 
 
16. When begin drills in diacritics? 
 
17. Mark the following words:-(To 
 
teacher). 
 
18. State the values of dictating memory verses 
 
maxims. 
 
19. State the ways of making spelling mll!tches 
 
able. 
 
20. Criticise a spelling match 
 
21. State five class,es o.f words usually 
 
carelessly. 
 
22. Pronounce the following words 
 
manly mispronounced, sleoted 
 
the teacher). 
 
23. State and explain five forms of written 
 
' 
 
for intermediate grades. 
 
24. State and explain five forms of oral spelling 
 
in.trmediate grades. 
 
25. State and explain five forms of spelling 
 
26. State and illustrate the three most i 
 
rules of spelling. 
 
27. Abbreviate the following words: 
 
and given by the. tetacher). 
 
28. Write sentences for the foilowing words: (to 
 
selected and given by the teacher). 
 
29. Give words for the following suffixes a nd 
 
each: -er, ;-ist, -ness, -some, -al, 
 
(or others as teacher chooses). 
 
30. How t eaoh pupils the use of the dictio;-:ary! 
 
31. State the uses of a.ral spell ing. 
 
32. State the uses of writlten spelling. 
 
33. What docs each teach that the other teach? 
 
 15 
34 . State six cautions in giving an oral spelling lesson 35. State six ways of correcting writte n spelling 
lessons.. 36. State two dangers in written spelling lessons. 3i . How avoid each? 38. How decrease t.he opportun~ties .Jor cheating in 
written spelling? 39. How use a spelli ng book wisely? 40. Give opinion upon the following matters: 
(1) At wha:t stage in a pupil's course would you put a spelling book into his hands? 
(2) Should a pupil !mow the meaning of every word he is called on to spell? 
(3) Should pupils in writing words in columns begin them all with capitals? 
(4) Should pupils be allowed to correct each o-ther's work? 
(5) Should pupils be given incor rectly spelled words to be corrected? 
(G) Should we abolish the spelling oook? 
V. . R EVIEW TEXT-BOOKS IN THE COURSE. 
1. Penniman's Commo n Words Difficult to Spell. D. C. Heat<h & Co., Boston. 
2. P enniman's Prose Dictation Exercises. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 
3. AbernMhy's Academy Orthoepist. Maynard, Merrill & Co.. New York. 
\'!. R~FERENCE BOOKS. 
Swett's Methods of Teaching, Chap. III., Part II. American Book Oo., N. Y., $1.00. 
2. DeGraff's School Room Guide, p. 6.0. Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y., $1.50. 
:l. Moore's Suggestions for Seat Work. A. Flanagan, Chicago, Ill., 25 cents. 
4. Methods in Reading and Spelling, by Dr an son, D. C. Hea~h & Co., Doston. 
 
  PE T\ 1IANSHIP. 
Br FHED J. ORR, STATE NoRMAL ScHOOL, krnExs, GA. 
I. rrr:PllRE. The plll'l10se of handwriting is obvious, yet an undue emphasis on the teaching of ,certain of it~ features, to the neglect of others, frequently makes of it an end in itself, rather than a means to an end. It is therefore well to remember tha t its senice is rendered, completely, when the writer has been enabled by its use to record his thought quickly, and in such manner that it ma~' be easily rend. The tencher, then, may devote himself principally to these two desiderata: legibility and speed, or, as thought of in the class-room-form and moYement. 
1. L ' REG.\IW TO TEACHING FORM. 
The hTo classes of script letter forms taught generally are: "Yertical" and "Slant." Their relative mC'rits may be adjudged by reference to the following CO\lsiderations, Yiz.: that, in general, a s~;;j em of penmanship should be so planned that its forms w ill be easy to read, easy to write, and ('flsy to learn. This _generalization is meant to iucludC' hygienic considerntions and a reasonable nm onnt of atte ntion to beauty. It is advisable 'to use tl1nt system which most nearly conforms io these <:onditions. '1\'hatever the style of writiug ;dopted, a series of . "copies" or models in some l'orm is essential. 
 
 18 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Models may be provided in copy-books plied by the teacher. In the latter by supplying each student at every period wlth an engraved or written series of letter forms, mounted on or by models written distinctly and the blackboard. The first plan is 
2. Be sure that the pupil is making an reproduce the given models, and is not ally copying his own errors. 
3. 'Point o,ut differences between the written and the models, and lead pup\1 to see the 
4. Be specific in a ll criticisms of faults. 
5. Commend progress, but always in such a as to encourage its continuance. 
6. Use the blackboard to illustrate methods of correction; formation of ters; correct and incorrect proportions ; beauty, essential and non-essential, etc. 
7. Stress a proper spacing between letters: tween words. (Note the difference). 
8. Emphasize uniformity in the size of a page. 
 
is, don't expect- every child to write alike, nor need it be expected that will write e.xact@ like the models given. ever, the models are ideals and should be stantly the goal toward which the class 
 
10. Do not permit a student to write only a a letter at a time, having to refer to the before finishing. See the whole-write it. pare with model, then rewrite, correcting Apply this to sentences and words as 
 
letters. 
 
# 
 
 19 
, 11. It is unnecessary to emphasize "joinings" (or connecting lines between letters), or in fact, any feature not esse ntial to _good form. Pla in, wellproportioned letters are the essentials to know. 
12. Detect the elements that go to make a wellformed letter: proportion (height to width), curves, straigllt lin es, stems, and loops. 
13. Require and exemplify neatness, on the blackboard and on paper. 
14. Don't teach writing at tile writing period only. Discountenance careless work in any written ex- 
. ercise. 15. Large forms are perllaps preferable for begin- 
ners (children). After the proportiotts are learned, the 'size" of one's writing is a matter of individua lity. 
lo. From the standpoipt of care of the eyes, and in- 
dependent llandling of the pen, single line paper would seem to be preferable to pages with spaced interlinings. 17. See that each member o~ the class is supplied with good writing materials. A long, mediumsoft -pencil is preferable to a scratchy pen; and a good pen is rather to be had than a hard stub pencil. Use judgment as to when to begin the use of pen and ink. 18. It is to be remembered always, that ability to visualize the forms of letters being studied, must precede free con struction of the same with the pen or penciL H ence, use methods that wlll sel'Ye to fix t hese fo rms in every student's minu. 19. Blackboard work (see above). 
MOVEMENT, OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED. 
1. Posit ion. 
(1)Body-should be free from all strain (shoulders, eyes, fingers, etc). It does not seem wise to re- 
 
 20 
quire all pupils. to sit In g enernl, llo"IYeYet, enough from the page upon which he insure perfect freedom in the u s~ of !Janel. A line through the two e.res parallel to the line of writing. ''l'his the head is inclined neitber to the left, and shoulders same l!eigllt. 
I 
(2) Pen-should rest lightly on the second fi nger at tl.!e root of the nail, and in position by tbum b and first 1i11ger, the being bent slightly ouly. l<'inger tips tha n one incl.! from the p eu poiut. _ fourth fi ngers folded under the palm. crossing knuckle of the first fiu ge t ancl so that the nib~ of pen point rest eq ua lly paper. A Yoid: grilJlJing of the ven; g ras near the poiut; a rigiJt angle iu the middle ol' the fi r st finger; in k sta ins on t he 
parallel to a line through the two eyes, insuring equal fo cal distau<.:e. 
Note. Teach 
too large. Otlwrwise, by defi nite cli rec 2. l\Iethods. 
(l ) Kinds of movem ent-three: 
u. \\' hole arm, with sho ulder as pi I'Ot. 
b. .i\Iuscular, or forearm, with the um1r" r jus t below_the elbow, stationary on the c1e~k acting as a cushion and pi\ot upon '"ll ~cll arm rests and D'oves. 
c. I<'inger, in which the entire control of the 
is exercised by mo1ement of the fingers. 
Note. A combination of these the best form of moYerncnt. 
 
 21 
(2) :\fo1ement exercises sho uld be gi1en in co ncrete form, i. e., letters, and their combinations ln words and sentences. Begin with the easiest and ad1ance to more difficult, e. g. : c, e, i, a, o, tl. Y, W, n, m, etC., and COmbinations. 
I :\IISCELLANEOUS. 
1. 1'he wri ting period. 
(1) DeYote a part of each 12eriod to study and rep roduction of correct letter fo rms, in whi cb f orm is especiall y stressed; part to movement ex.er ises, in which movement is especiall y stressed. :\'eitheJ' form nor movement must be forgotten ho"eer, at any time. 
" Grade according to generq,I conformity to co-r- 
ercises may be given w ith pen, pencil a nd ern yon . (31 Wri ting per iod should not be more than twenty minutes in length, for primary pupils : nbout twenty to thirty minutes for a dvanced students. 2. B rad e according to gen eral conformity .t o correct letter forms, improvement a nd neatness. 3. Blackboard work. 
(lJ HnYe your own writing on the board, on ho rizontal lines (not drawn), distinct always, and never ca reless. 
(2) Guard neatness sc rupul ously. Never erase with fi ngers. 
(3 1 1'his is a good place to train in full, free, arm moY e men t. 
-4 . A defini te understandin g of correct posi tions is essential at the start. It may well precede any tllought of letter form s or of movement. 
 
  READING. 
BY LAWTON B. EVANS, SuPT. OF ScaooLs, - 
AuGUSTA, GA. 
 
JIATERIAL FOR TEACHEB.'8 USE. 
 
1. Na-tural objects-:ll.owers, inseets, grain, etc. 2. Phenomena-boiling water, growing plant, burst- 
 
ing cocoon, etc. 
 
8. Familiar objects-a. ball, a cap, a. top, a. fan, a 
 
knUe, etc. 
 
_ 
 
4. Toys-a. horse, a cow, a cat, a. donkey, etc. 
 
&. Pictures cut from 10tory books, magazines, etc.'" 
 
Noii.-This mlllteria.l is named in the order o! lmportanee. 
 
B:r all means use the natural object itself i! it can be done. Children love nature, and' objects of nature excite Uaeir curiosity and interest. Use 'the every-day familiar objects, and teach the thing>S a:bout them that a child ordinarily does not see. Train him to observe and count. An ear o! corn will give a great deal of work in language, reading and nature study. 
 
'I'BACHING THE WORD. 
 
L Conversation exercise. The first thing to be done 
 
is to show the child the relaJtion between the 
 
spoken and written word. Show the object to 
 
t'he class, and induce the pupils to talk about 
 
it. Call their attention to the main featurns. 
 
Lead them to talk by asking questions. Arouse 
 
their curiosity, gain their attention and JWakeu 
 
thetr millU. 
 
 
 
 2-l 
Note.-When the pupils come fOTward to recite stand around the teacher, or sit down, assuming ever easy and natu'r~l pos-IItion they prefer. The to be insisted ou in the recitation are attention, tion, enthusiasm, freedom in speech: If these tained, the pupils are in order, do what they not repress any of the natural activity of the 
Merely r-equire au movements to be natural, "'"''""''"'; 
spontaneous. Books a r e not needed for several Use the black'board, sla,tes, writing-paper, etc. 
 
2. The Word Symbol. Allter the pupils cussed the object, and named its teacher can write or print the word bla ckboard, making an intimate bet ween the object its elf and the word symbol. At the first lesson onJy two or words should be taught. Pupils should tice naming tlhese until t:hey know them out t ile aid of the object. For seat work. should be required tQ copy the words they learned. 
 
3. In the next exercise the pronouns may be objectively and such simple verb forms lUI and Hhave." Also "a," "an" -and "the." pend upon the child's memory to retain call these word forms. With this the teae!h-er may proceed at reading of simple sentences. 
 
Note.-This me-thod is known a:s the word method, and 
 
ceeds on the principle of first the idea, then the 
 
word, then the wri tt en or prinrted word_ The 
 
always us ed in the beginning, and each word Is 
 
ted and memorized. No acco unt is taken of the 
 
se parately unt il some thirty or forty words . have 
 
me)lloriz ed. Do not teach tl~e alphabtn. II !AU leciM 
 
a{tc1 awhile. Teach the word. 
 
{ 
 
 25 
~<' 
The following test is severe, but developing and helpful. Let the pupils be shown some object, say a hat, and let them name it and watch the teacher as she writes in her best style on the board the word l!a,t. The pupils attent ively regard it until they think they know it. Let them memorize the form as best they can. Then let each one, whenever he chooses, turn his back on the copy and write wha t he remembers of it on the board or on his slate. The reproduction must be from memory and not from sight. This stimulates intense perception and aids the power of recollection. Wonderful results can be obtained by a patient trial of this form of word-making from memory. 
TEACHING THE SENTENCE. 
As soon as a few words and phrases have been taught, the teacher should lead the pupils to read written or printed sentences. Get to the simple sentence as quickly as possible. These sentences should be developed by conversaMon, and every word previously studied. The teacher should 
of write or print them on the blackboard in the best 
IPtyle. The use colored crayons adds beauty and variety to the exercises. Let the teacher regard the following rules: 
L The pupil is to read silently all the way through the sentence, and be sure that he knows every word before he tries to read any part of lt. He can then give his entire a.ttention to the manner of expression, a nd knowing all the word-s beforehand he can more easily read in a natural tone of voice. 
2. The pupil is always to read naturally. He should never be allowed to spell his way 
 
 26 
tJhrough t'he sentlenoe, .humdrum, monotonous manner. tho-ught g-etting an'll thought mere calling of words In a sentence ways reading. 
3. In reading a sentence fr om the pupil himself is to use the pointer. is to move evenly and rapidly a.iong under the whole sentence at one hand . It Is not to tap the boa.rd word. The pupil reads the podnter has designated it. 
4. The pupils must , e trained to as a whole. They must understand it talning a thought, and speak It as a 
Note.-The teacher must begin with the first teach naturalness and to avoid monotone. much car e for expr esSiion , for 8Jll easy flow of and for proper emphasis, as for correctness In ing the words. In order to accomplish this the be made to go llihead of the voice. We can get silent r eadin.g of the sentence and calling it memory. All the work d'eveloped on the be left there for the pupils to copy on their slatea. 
Exercise. 
Let the teacher draw a pretty oolored ploture board of some fiower m animal, by using crayon, or a blackboard stencil. Better a butterfly, a be,eUe, an autumn leaf, a flowers, or any other object of interest to Develop by conversation six or seven to the class, and write these neatly about 
~ ure or object. Then develop a few seJo.Utnc write these below in white crayon. Make . feet artistic and pleasing. Teach the 
 
 27 
~lloeti thoroughly, a.nd then allow the pupils tD dra.w the object and t'he words and sentences on slates or paper. This kind of exercise will take the place of charts, and has the advantage of variety and adaptation. 
 ....-~H ChtJrU. 
If you must have'Preading chart, make one for yourself. Get 24 sheets of stout unglazed manilla paper, about 24 by 36 inches in size . Paste in center of each of two or three sheets some bright colored picture of a familiar object-a dog, a cat, a horse, etc. Print a few names above it and print one or two phrases underneath. Make each sheet progressive, every few pages have one for review, have one with sentences only, one with words only. Use ink and a rubber pen for printing. Use the spare pages for penmanship , colored maps, etc. Bind together at the top between two laths, leaving six inches projecting. Hang up by nails in the wall. This chart will cost you, for the paper, 25 cents, for ink and a rubber pen to do the printing, 15 cents for the pictures, nothing, for the laths and nails, nothing. Total cost of a ten-dollar chart, 40 cents. 
PBf?NIC SYNTHESIS. 
Exercise in phonic 81Jnt~. that Is putting of sounds together into words, should precede p1honic analyats. Ask the pupils what words these sounds make, touching the object at first yourself, and afterwards having them touch it, viz.: m-ou-th; ch-ee-k; f-a-ce; d-e-s-k; t-ee-th; n-e-ck; b-oo-k; h-a-n-d. Tell the pupils to r-u-n s-t-a-n-d ~-i-t 
l-u-m-p. Point to the b-e-ll; c-i-o-ck; b-~a-r-d; 
ch-al-k; etc., etc. ~onounce the sounds slowly and dllltinctly;' prac- 
tise beforehand so as to get it right. Reverse the 
 
 28 
 
proceSIS and have the the word tlhat names view, etc. 
 
PHONIC ANALYSIS. 
After the pupil has learned the words, them on his slate and cai...tell one from he llliitUl'ally obsocves thar'" the words are cOIJllposed of several pa!'ts. Phonic has aided him in this. The teacher then to analyze the words into their vocal 
1. Let the teacher choose any word that knows, as rat, and write it on the have the pupils pronounce it. 
2. . The teacher will tJh~n pronounce the ~rlowly and separate it by his voice three sound elements, represented by letters. As he pronounces each part he it with the pointer. 
3. The children repeat after !him the nearly as they can. The teacher board the letter r, and gives tlhe value, the children repeat it after he writes the letter a and gives it sound, the children repeating it He does the same way with the Jetter 
4. The word has been separated into its long pronunciation. The first part, part and tJhe third pa rt have been sounded. It only remains for the tell the class the names of the three 
 
t wee n - 
 
 
 
(a) The appearance of the letter. 
 
(b) The sound or phonic value of 
 
(c) The name of tJhe letter. 
 
 29 
 
At the nex't lef!'Son the teacher takes the wor<J man, allld by tre31Mng it in tlhe same way aE the word rat was treated, 1n:roduces two new elements m and n The pupils now have five sounds, represented by the letters r, ~ m, n, and a. These five letters should be wntrten on 
the board in tile bes't style. The pupil should copy in order to get the appearance. The 
teacher should drill in the names and In tht> 
phonic values. 
 
From the known plbonic elements new words cal. be discovered. From the a;bove five eiements the teacher can con,struct such new words as ron, mat, tan, ant, ram, by le,ading the puplls to give the sounds of the letters as he points to tbem and by writing t11em down as given until a word is made. 
 
'1. In thta way the entire alphabet is grll!duaHy acquired by the pupils, according to the use of the letters in the words. It may happen that an enUre year may pass without the pupil learnIng some of the letters. 
 
-It fa generally agreed that time is wasted by teach- 
 
... the alphabet first. The c'hild cannot associate the 
 
. _ ot the letters with the pronunciation of the words 
a., Qell. There is indeed no connection. On the other ltlacl tbere is a vital connection between the separate 
 
- 4 'ftlues and the un1ted sound value. This phonic 
 
aa.lnta should be continued until the child acquires the 
 
,..... 'aDd the habit of coootructing the sound of a word 
 
...,_.Lllllllaelt. Many word's are not subject to the above 
 
fonn 
 
Thes-e mu'St l.lld spellfng. 
 
be 
 
m emorized 
 
by 
 
the 
 
pupils 
 
both 
 
411 teachers complain that they themselves are igno. tile elementary &Dd composite eounda of the Ian-  
 
 0 
guage. In order to overcome t.his diffi cult.y the directions are given by Mr. E; P. Moses of Raleigh, 
"First, learn to speak accurately the vowel 
language. They are seventeen, and are a as in mate; mete; i as in pine ; 6 as in note ; u as in pure; it as 
l\ as in met ; I as in pin; 6 as in not; 11 as in bud; 
far; a.w as in law; l\ as in her; oas in move; ow as 
oy as in boy ; oo as in foot.'' Second, learn the consonant sounds, of which 
twenty-four, making with the seventeen vowels forty--one elementary sounds in the language. 
The biPi t lvlz SO'Unds are found 'by noti ng tlbe these six letters an{! dropping the final ~ sound each. 
The f, 1, m, n, s, x sounds are found by noting the of these six letters and dropping preceding ~ sound 
The j and k sound are found by noting the names two letters and dropping the final a sound in each. 
The r sound is found by noting t!he name of the and dropping the preceding A sound. 
The c, g, h, qu, w, y sounds 1are found 'by initial sound heard in the spoken words cow, we, ye. 
The ch, sh, th (fiat), th (sharp) and wh sounds are by uttering the initial sounds heard in the words the, thin, whip. The ng sound is found by uttering sound of the spoken word ring. 
The zh sound is found in the word azure... 
PHONIC ANALOGIES. 
After the children have learned the phonic of most of th e letters, the teacher should 
an exerci se designed for the construction or. 
by adding a letter to a certa in termin&lon. is the arranging of words according to their analogies. Take such terminations as: at, ag, fit!, e#, en, eg, etc., and placing e&ell 8lt the 
 
 31 
1 
of a column arrange all the monosyllable words that have that particular termination. Many hundNld words can be found and the drill in phonics ts made very definite and valuable. The following are given as examples of 1!his class of l"ork. Each one may be called a family: "Mrs. at and her children," etc. 
 
I at 
 
. ag 
 
et 
 
bat bag bet 
 
cat fag 
 
get 
 
fat 
 
gag let 
 
hat 
 
~ag 
 
net 
 
mat Jag 
 
pet 
 
nat 
 
Jag 
 
set 
 
pat mag wet 
 
rat nag yet 
 
Pat 
 
rag 
 
etc. 
 
tat sag 
 
vat tag 
 
chat wag 
 
that etc. 
 
etc. 
 
en 
 
ill 
 
ad 
 
od 
 
den fen hen men pen 
then when etc. 
 
bill fill gill hill mill pill 
r ill 
sill t oll 
will chill quill etc. 
 
bad cad fad gad had lad mad pad 
sad shad 
etc. 
 
God hod nod pod rod EOd shod  
etc. 
 
THE USE OF THE BOOK. 
1. Teach the new words. Before th:e pupils are called to read, the teacher should find the new words in othe lesson and place them on the blackboard, and have tlheom thoroughly learned. These new words cons-tit'Ute the advance of the pupils in word knowledge. Use the illnstratlonB in the text to develop interest. 
2. All the pupils read each sen:ten~. .The teacher should handle a class so that all get the instruction given to eaoh. Every pupil is required to read the sentence silently. Hands show w1hen each has finislj,~. One or more 
 
 32 
can be called on to read aloud. The must have a ca re that every pupil in the is readi ng and is prepared to read 
.called on. 
3. The value of expression. insure proper expression of the l*lntence. it be read over and over until the PUPila r ead as t hey would say it . Let t hem wHhout looking at  it. A good exnr.~"-"''"" 
r eading is or as much value as corTect 
elation of the words. 
4. Word exercises. It is of the utmost tlhat the pupils k now the words at sight, wise t hey cannot read easily and fluently, the words are learned the teacher should or print them on the blackboard. Every use word calling, word finding, worn If the child be given a small object or and told to find the word which na;mea will a.ld interest to the exercise. 
6. Enunciation. The pupils should be requl pronO'unce every syllable and every letter 
ought oo be pronounced. Omitting final 
ters, slurring syllables, running words are fau1ts that should be corrected. To correct reading, t he pupils should not lowed to read too rapidly. Time should taken for enunciation, pronunciation, sis and expression. Most pupils read too 
6. Emphasis. Pupils can be taught emphasis judicious questioning better than by ll'h.e :tacher may write a sentence on 
, board such as, I have a red top. The pupils required to r ead the sentence so as to give swers to such que'I!"Uons: Who has a red What is the color .t;t your top? What ia 
 
 33 
red thing you have? In the reading lesson require tihe sentences read with a variety of emphasis a;ccording to the questions to be an-  swered. 
7. Posture. Pupils should stand erect while reading, well in front of the recitation seat or out in the aisle. They should not lean on anything, nor stand up lazily or ungracefully. Let them assume a military posture, standing erect on both feet, head up and shoulders back. The book should be held in the left hand unless the book is too heavy, in which case both hands may be used. The book should be held down below the level of the face, fourteen inches from the eye, at right angles to the line of vision. 
s. Corrections. Allow no interruptions while the 
child is reading. Let him fin1sh the sentence or his paragraph. The child's aHerution should not be distrac>ted by other pupils shaking their fing ers or raising their hands. Any criticism that is to be made should be reserved until the pupil has taken his seat. In all cases require the pupil to pronounce correctly the words he has previously missed. 
Cau.tton.-The teacher must not allow the pupils to come to her desk as individuals to have the lesson pointed out to them as they recit e. IDach pupil should keep his own place. The puptls must read loud enough for the class to hear, wtthout distracting those not in the class. The teacher must not give too long a lesson. A page or half "pa.ge well learn ed is far beUer than a half dozen pages Indi fferently J.earned. Remember that in all teaching It Is not how much but how well that counts. Do not allow the bright pupils to answer all the questions. It is the dull ones thait need the teacher's help. 
 
 34 
The bright ones can teach themselves. The teacher 
have a care thaJt the backward pupils be given au 
aHention vossible. Do not allow other pup1ls to interrupt the 
during a recita;tion; time is wasted and attention is tracted. Use a monitor in ungraded schools to questions. Use hand signals for permissions. seat work to keep pupils busy who a.re not 'busy at recitation. 
Exercise. "What I see", "Wha.t I think."-Take a f!llp Gf paper of ordinary size and paste a picture at top of it and have the pup1ls write a list of the jects in this picture, or sentences of whwt they in the picture. A story can also be made of tihe picture suggests to the child. These may wards be read in class. 
SEAT WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES. 
1. Pupils may print or write the lesoon Gn or on paper, copying from the book or from blackboard. 
2. Pupils may be provided with small cards on of which is a letter of the alpha:bet. these they can build up on their desks the sons fur the day. Sentences on the board be copied in the same way. 
3. Small cards witih words written or printed them can be distributed to the pupiJs, out which they are to build sentences of their making. 
ITHE I cow I EATS I GREEN ! GRASS.! 
 
 35 
4. Gards on which the teacher has drawn one or two simple Objects and written or printed three or four short sentences can be distributed to the pupils. These they may study at their seats, copy on paper; and may also use in reci tation. 
[i. In the seco~d and tlhird year pupils may be required to write a summary of the story of the lesson in as mooy sentences as they can remember. 
6. Pupils should be allowed to draw simple objects, from drawing cards or from the blackboard, or bette'!" still, from the objects themselves, color them with colored crayon and write original stories. In this way should nature and science be brought into the schools and related to the language and to the life of the. children. 
READlNG IN ADVANC'ED GRADES. 
Selecting a twt-b6ok.-After the third .reader in tb.e cours.e, the pupils are prepaTed to begin the study of literature proper. By this time they should know how to read, and their instruction should regard information and cultivation. The teacl1et should select a suitable text which will be 
1. Of recognized literary standing. 2.- Entertaining to the class.  3. Full o! inform3it!On and CUltUTe for tlie pupils. 4. E3!Sy enough for them ~o understand. 
Reading for lnfonnation.-In ord& for the pup!ls to 
derive pleasure from t!he reciltatlon it is best for the teacher to keep the text-books and distribute them when the class is ready to recite. Let the teacher and pupils study together. The followinc rules are to be observed: 
 
 311 
 
1. Tlle Pllplls stand as they rectte. 2. Each pupil reads until the teacher 3. Co-rrections must be made by class at end 
dividual recitations. 4. The meaning of new words must be ~~....""""-' 6. Each paragraplh must be read by several 
until it is read mtis!lactorily as to effect. 6. An allusions of an Mstorical or geographical ture must be explained. 7. Make t he lesson short, but let the study be sive. 8. Question pupil? as to the meaning of what are re-ading. 9. Let the pupils summarize the SJtory in their language. 10. Write the very ha rd words on the blackboard be used for spelling exercise and for tions. 
 
7\'ote.-One of the main duties of teachers In higher 
 
is to crerute amtd cultivate a love fOT good reading 
 
their pupils. For this purpose every school should 
 
a library, large or small, of brooks adapted for 
 
and the teacher should see <that books are given the 
 
pils to read. When the chlldren are at leisure in school 
 
. they may be allowed to quietly read the boak they have 
 
taken from the library. They had better lie reading tha.n 
 
1 
 
be idle or noisy. The t each er may r equire or them a 
 
written summary of' the story, or a composition about 
 
some feature of it. Th ei r r eading oan thus be of profit 
 
as well as entertainment. , Some child's book or perlodlcal 
 
containing stories, descriptions, etc., could be read in 
 
the school. The teacher could r ead it aloud or the pu- 
 
pils could r ead aloud to one another. The story s-hou!d 
 
be r eprod uced orally or in writing. Resort to every 
 
means to m -ake the pupil s fond of reading good books. 
 
Show them whrut good books are. Place them In t.he 
 
hands of the pup1ls and see tha t they read them. After 
 
 :37 
ftavtng taught the children to read, let us see that they read to some purpose. 
Reacling tor Expression.-The pupils having studied a selection and mllJStered the story, understood the words and their meaning and had all the allusions explained to them, are prepared to study the same seJ.ection from another standpoint. That is the standpoint of elocution or expression. For this purpose t!hey cHmnot know it too well, nor study it too closely. The best expression is possible only when the words are in the memory. 
1. The pupils st:and with especial care to posture. 2. The rate of reading should be adapted to the 
piece, never so slow as to be sluggish, nor so rapid as to be indistinct. 3. Pupils should be taught the vaJue of rhetorical pauses and how to determine their use. 4. The quali'ty of the voice is decided by the sentiment of t!he piece to be read. Tones must be joyous, light, grand, solemn, revere!lJt, fearful, acoordin.g to the nature of the pieee. 5. EmphlllSds is the stress of voice on one or more words, with reference to meaning, and must be taught from the beginning. 6. The force of the voice, whether loud or soft, and the pitch, whether high or low, are indispensable parts of good reading. 
Notc.-The teacher can gdve instruction to the pupil in the use of the voice and in bl"eathing exercises. Every day the pupils should take deep breathing movements. Show them how and when to fill the lungs with air in order to expel it with ease and force in reading. Appropriate 
 gestures are not to be discouraged. If pupils wish to em- 
phasize their reading by physical movements encourage them to do so. 
 
 3S 
ReiuUng for Culture.-Atter the child read fairly well, the time has come for h<lm aside the study of the mere form, and study the content of the text. The "''""'-'O.UI~E! the words, mther .than their shapes and should e:n.~e his attention. He should learn to read and to enjoy classical literature. The sons should be short and intensive. Thirty of a great poem is enough for a day's lesson. the meaning of every word be understood; metaphor and comparison Qe studied; every erenoo be explained; every choice expreeeion memorized. Let it be tramslated into his and language as though it were a Latin uv~"uq The teJd is no lon.ger to be read, but it is st udied, and studied intensely, with reference the beauties of the literature lit contains. A year can rbe employed in the study of the poems-Evangeline, Enoch Arden, and the ted Village. They then become a part of the life, his thoughts are elevated, his character no'bled, his love for high literature cultivated. is shown how to study 11teratlp'e properly, and key is given him wherewith he ca,n unloek storehouse of the world's literary treasures. 
"Sweet Auburn! loveliest vH!age of the plail.n, Where health and plent y cheered the laboring swain, Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid, And parUng Summer's lil!Jgering blooms delay'd; Dear lovely 'bowers of innocence and ease, Seats o.f my youth, when every sport COl!ld please; How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green, While humlble happiness endeared each scene! How often have I paused on every charm, The sheltered colt, the cultivated farm, The'"'never-failing brook, the busy mill, fi The decent church that topt the neighboring hill; The hawthorn bush, wit,h seats beneath the shade, For' talking age and whispering lovers made." 
 
 39 
Where a.nd whe.t was Auburn? What was its real name! Wba.t made it sweet to the poot? What part or his life was spent there? Was it a plain? What is a ewain? What should hea.l>th and plenty do for every one'! Why Ia Spring c-alled smiling? What is meant by parting sunimer'a? What are lingering -blooms? What are bowers? WhY were they of innooonce 111!1d ease? What does loitered mean? What does green mea.n? Wha;t is meant by humble happiness? WhaJt. is the significance of paused on every charm? What is a decenlt church? Note the spellIng topt. Describe a hawthorn bush. Why talkiug age? WhY whispering lovers? etc. 
 
SUMMARY OF FAULTS IN ADVANCED GRADES. 
 
Ttacher to Avoi4: 1. Using too hard a text 
book. Pupils find no pleasure in severe reading. Err on the side ol simplicity. 
Z. Using an uninteresting text book. It is a great deal easier for pupils to  learn when they enjoy learning. It is the same Wa.y wtth grown people. 
B. Otving too long a. lesson. It is better to give short lessons and have them ~ well prepared. Not how much but how Well is the keynote In education. 
 
Teacher to Correct: 1. Inattention on the part 
of t >he pupils. This is done by calling on t'hem unexpectedly, by using an interesting lesson, loy having them watch for errors. 2. Reading too fast and without expression. Pupils are in too great a hurry to finish, and read with no effort for effPct. Take time to pronounce and enunciate everv word. Do not slur nor elide. 
3. Lazy and ungraceful posture. Require the pupils to rise promptly, to stand up well, book in one hand, head up, shoulders back.~ Posture is essential to iOOd effect. 
 
 40 
 
4. Giving too much assistance. Mak e th e pupils rely on their. labors, and find out things for -themselVJes. Throw the burden of edueation on the ch!ild himself. 
 
4. Monotonous and te~reSiting reading-, generally shows 
 
6. TeacMng by individuals. Every pupil should get all the teacher's instructions, should read silently or aloud all the lesson, and be ready to answer a ll thP. questions. Class work is different from individual work. 
 
5. Faults in 
enunciation. knowledge meanings, lusions, etc. 
 
6. I nterruptions while pupil is read'ing. Let the teacher, the class and the pupil be undisturbed during- the individual rOO!tati,on. Corrections made a,t close. 
 
6. Lack of 
necessary, by tion one with 
 
Some Helps in T.eaching Reading: Cyr's Reading Slips. Ginn & Co., Atlanta. Pictures of Simple Objects. From any source. Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw. E. L. Kellogg & 
New York. 
 
Word Cards and Alphabet Gards. Milton Bradley Atlanta. 
 
Some Books on T eaching Reading: 
 
Language and Reading-(Anna Badlam.) D. C. Heath & Co. Atlanta. 
 
Primary Rea,ding-How to teach it. (Boston Method.) Educational Publishing Co., Boston. 
 
 41 
 
. --..- ~ 
 
Methods of Teaching Reading. (Branson.) D. C. Heath & Co.. Atlan,ta. 
How to Teach R eading. (LeRow.) Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York. 
Calkins' "H0w to T each P.honi cs." E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 
How to Teach Reading. (Hall.) D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta. 
preparing to Read. (Spear.) New Eng. Pufb. Co., 3 Somerset St., Boston. 
 
QUESTIONS ON METHOD OF TEACHING READI"~u. 
1. Name the malterial, in order of value, for the teachosrs' use in a primary reading class. 
2. What is the first thing to be t'augh<t? 3. How should the word be !n,troduced? 4. What about the conduct of the pupils in the recitation? 5. How is the word taug<ht? 6. What principle underlies the word metHod? 7. Describe the exercise of word making from memor y. 8. How many words should be memorized before any ac- 
count is taken of the letters ? 9. When and how should sentence reading begin? 10. What of r eading silently before vocalization ? 11. What of naturalness in reading? 12. How should the pointer be used on the blackboard? 13. How can an exrcise be made of a drawing, a few 
words and sntences? 14. Describe the making of a home-made chart. 15. Describe an exercise in phonic synthesis. 16. How should phonic anal~is be introd uced? 17. How many sounds in the word rat and man, and what 
other words can a child discover from those sounds ? 18. Name the 17 vowel sounds. 19. How can the consonant sounds be l earned? 20. Mention the consonant diphthongs. 
 
 42 
 
21. What exercises can be arranged 1n phonde 
 
Construct one. 
 
22. Draw a phonic diagram to illustrate Vlllriety in . 
 
Hcls 
 
. 
 
23. What should first be taught in the reading lesson? 
 
24. How can every one be made to read the erutire 
25. What or expression? 
 
26. How should word exercises 'be conducted 1 
 
27. What about enunciation? . 
 
28. How should emphasis be taught? 
 
29. What should be the proper posture in a reading 
 
30. When should oorrections be made? 
 
31. In oonducting a recitation what cautions should 
 
observed? 
 
32. What can you say of seat work in reading and 
 
guage? Word cards? Alphabet cards? 
 
33. IllusVn!Jte the relating of science and language 
 
34. What are the points of excellence in a text-book 
 
advanced grades? 
 
35. Mention some of the rules for good reading in ad grades. 
 
36. How can a love of good reading be aroused in 
 
~7. What can you say of reading for expression? 
 
38. Mention the six rules for expression. 
 
39. What of breathing exercises? 
 
40. What is meant by reading for culture? 
 
41. How long should a culture lesson be? 
 
42. What should be studied? 
 
43. Mention three poems that could take a year to m 
 
44. What are some of the faults a teacher should avoid advanced grade teaching? 
 
45. What are some of the pupil's faults the teacher correct? 
 
46. Mention some helps in teaching reading. 
 
47. Mention some books on TeachinS" Readinj;. 
 
 43 
INSTITUTE PROGRA-:\f ON READING. 
FIRST DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Material !or teaoher's use. 2. rntrodu ciory conversation exercises. 3. Teaching the word. 4 Teaching the sent ence. 6 Home-made charts. 
SECOND DAY-45 Minutes. 
1. Exercises in phonic syntheIS. 2. How to introduce phonic analysis. 3. Exercises on the vowel and con.sona,nt gounds. How 
to learn them and how to rteaoh them. 
THIRD DAY-45 Mi nutes. 
1. Phonic ana logies; construct one or more columns of words according to the analogy of termination. 
2. The use of t'he 'book. Teach ing new words, enunciation, emphasis, posture, etc. 
3. Certain cautions for the teacher to ()bserve. 
FOURTH DAY-45 Minutes. 
1. Seat work for prima ry classes. 2. How to r ela te nature to r eading work. 3. Reading in a dvanced gmdes. Selooting & text-book. 4. Reading for information. 
FIFTH DAY-45 Minutes. 1. Reading for expression, posture, rate of reading, rhet- 
orical pauses, qua.lity, emphasis and force of the voice. 2. Read ing foT" culture. Illustrated by some selections. 3. Sum mary of faults in advanced grade. What should th e teacher avoid and what should the teacher correci. 4. Some helps In teaching reading and some books on ~aching readint;. 
 
  ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
BY EULER B. SMITH. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, 
STATE NORMAL ScHOOL, ATHENS, GA. (Copyright ed .) 
 
PART I.-GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR. 
 
JNTRODUCTION.-Language lessons should precede, but 
 
not supersede, the study of formal grammar. Language lessons afford instruction in the art of correct expression; grammar is a science as well as an art. In teaching language lessons, the instruction is inductive and synthetic; 
 
ln teaching grammar, the process is both deductive and inductive, analytic as well as synthetic. Language lessons, then, can no more supply the place of grammar than num- 
 
ber lessons can afford instruction in the science of arithmetic. "Practice precedes theory, the art comes before the science;" but, as Dr. DeGarmo srays, "It is a poor art 
 
that does not lead toward and culminate in corresponding 
 
science." It would be unwise to discard grammar because 
 
1t has been poorly taught. Would it be wise to banish from 
 
the sehools all the common-school branches thaJt. have been 
 
unsuccessfully taught? Anarchy Is a poor substitute for faulty government. 
 
llany have argued that technical vammar* should not he taught in 
 
the public sc)lool8. But it will be noticed that every such person, though 
 
hll education may ha.ve been only such as the public school affords, is 
 
always ready to .apply the principles of technical grammar in the cr!ti- 
 
cllm and correction of errors.-RAUB, 
 
. 
 
Grammar does not dictate language; It only records the 
 
tlSage of the bes-t writers and speakers, and states the principles that underlie their use of language. A child uses 
 
language long befOTe he begins the study of grammar. If 
 
he has always "heard good  English, read good English, 
 
and Practiced good English," he doe'S n'Ot need to <rtudy 
 
-.w.!w~~:rYW'ithhntihcealscgireanmcemitasrelfis, 
 
meant that part of grammar which dealll includinl: the technicalities and ldlom8." 
 
 46 
 
IP"!Lmma.r in order to speak and write correctly. 
Is true th.rut there are eminent wrLters and SIJeakers have never studied grallllmar, still irt must be tba t they have devoted a large par.t or their lives to a ful study of standard English. Is it necessary to 
the earth in order to learn t'he science of "'"'u""'..,'"''" 
favored few have the llidvantage of associa'bion with who use COTrect .language; the vast majority are not 80 tunate. As a rule, pupils ca:nnot acquire right habits speech from their associates; and, un:fortunately, not ways from their teachers. Practice, of itseH, does make perfect. Principles should underlie practice. fore the sciene6 of grammar shoul-d be understood, and princlples s'houLd be applied in the study-and use of guage. This paper deals mainly with methous of advanced ~rammar. 
 
PURPOSE OF TEACHING GRAMMAR -The two 
 
objects in teaching gramma r shoul'd be to aid the pupil 
 
In understanding language used by others, (2) -in 
 
ing his own thoughts correctly. The immedirute aim 
 
be to eruable the pupil (1) to recognize the parts of 
 
(2) to analyze sentences as to structure and syntax, (3) 
 
construct senltences properly. BeSJides its prnctical 
 
as an aid in CO!I'reC't . interpretation and expression 
 
thoug'ht, grammar holds a most important place aa a 
 
ciplinary sttudy. 
 
~ I ~j IJ 1 
 
SCOPE OF GRAMMAR-In order to :teach e.ny successfully, it Is of paramount importance that the er should have a cl.ear conception of the nature and of that branch. The teacher of grammar should co1rrst:antl ask hlmself these questtioD'S: What is grammar? are Lts parts correlated? What does each part to the whol.e? Knowledge is of 11ttle value un.Jees are known in their relations. On page 49 is nr<BSEinted  bird's-eye view of grammar, showing its divisions of which each division treats. ' This outline, while especially for teachers, w111 be helpful to adVIII.nced 
 
 IL O:aTBOJ:PY-Pronunci&UOD ol worda. II. ORTHOGRAPHY-Spelling of worda. III. LEXICOLOGY-Meanlng and derivation of WOrdL 
 
Noun. 
 
Verb. 
 
Pronoun. 
 
I 
 
( 1. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS AAddvj eecrtt>iv. e. Preposition. 
 
Conjunction. 
 
J IV. ETYIIOLOGY 
 
\ Interjemion. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
l~ l MODIFICATION OF WORDS.. 
 
Number. Gender. Person. VCoasicee. .  Mode. Tense. 
 
..,. 
..;r 
 
Comparison. 
.1. A.NALYI!IB-Sepnration of aentenca into elements{WPhorradse. . I _ Clause. 
 
V. 
 
SYNTAX~ 1 
 
2. 
 
PARSING-Analysis of 
 
elements 
 
Ill! 
 
to........................ 
 
{Clas<ification. Modifi ca tion. 
 
l Construction.; 1. Construction-Syntactical relation of elements.  3. SYNTB:xsrs{2. Collocalion-Arrangement of elements. 
 
3. Punctuation-Pointing elements and sentencea. 
 
VI. PROSODY-Versification of sentencea. 
 
 
 Gi-amma.r is tlhe science of correct language. is spoken as well as W!itten. Correct language th en, JWt only the r ight spelling of written words, the proper pronunciation of spoken words. To  nounce a spoken word is as grave an error as to a written word. Language, in order to be correct, quires a knowledge of the meaning of words. orthography, and lexicology are studied grammar; because, long before formal grammar they have received particular a:bten,tion in and readers. 
Again, langua ge is expreSBed in verse as well h en ce prosody cla ims a place as one of the di grammar. Prosody belongs partly to grammar, rhetoric. The mere form of verse (verse-making) to grammar; the dri0tion of poetry belongs to ru1~rnr" 
Clearing this branoh of its exte rnals, so to speak, we left the two main divisions of grammar-etymology syntax. In fact, grammar deals almo&t exclusively the etymology of wonls and the syntax of sente1wu. make it plainer still,<gra mmar treats of the and modrificaJt.ion of words, and the structure of 
~tax treats of the structure of se,ntences. It analys1s, J)arsi.ng, and synthesis. Analysis shows 
ot structure the selliience by separating it into its 
Parsing corutinues the analytic process: it is the of the elements of sentences. Parsing deals with not ll!s individual words, but as parts of sentences; in their sentential relation. Synthesis combines to form sentences; iE views sentence-structure from constructive stamdpoint. . 
Referring to tJhe outline, it will be seen cw,n<o.pL;ymiOlG deals with the word as the unit; syntax, with as the unit. } Whether the sentence or the word tlie startingf'point, is a question still mu(!h discussed. talk and _write in sentences. Rules and principles proved by reference to the sentenee. Elements are according to their .sententia l use. In expressing words are but fr;:tctional; the sentence alone is The true grammatical unit is the sentence. 
The l!tartlng point of the Instruction should be the simple sentence. cedure from the lll'hole to its parts takes precedence of that from the to the lll'bol..-.1oOJIIIml. 
 
 , 
 
.- 
 
49 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. -There are two 
 
pneral methods of teaching grammar, which I shall call 
 
the sentence Method and the Word Method.r In the Sentence Method, the sentence is regarded as the nnit; and It is 
 
separated into its elements, which, in their last analysis, 
are words. After a study of analysis, the cla ssifiration 
 
and modificatio n and construction of words are cons'i<lerl'd. 
 
The tendency of this method is to devo te too much time to 
 
analysis and diagramming. In the Word Method, which 
 
Ia the one in general use, the word is considered the unit; 
 
and the sentence Is studied synthetically through its parts. 
 
rn this method, parsing usually receives undue attention; 
 
and analysis, if studied at all, Is taken up as being last and 
 
least. Of the two methods, the Sentence Method Is much to be 
 
preferred, since it begins with the true grammatical u nit 
 
-the sentence. In the Sentence Metood, the procE>dure is 
 
analytic and Inductive; principles and rules are learned 
 
through a study of language; there Is no foolish attE'mpt 
 
to learn language through a study of definitions. Laurie 
 
says, "Grammar has to be studied in and through ~ent,nces, 
 
and to be extracted from sentences by the pupil if it is to 
 
be rcallv taughT.'' 
 
. 
 
In successful teaching, the above-mentioned methods 
 
should both be employed, thus forming what may be called 
 
the Combined Method. By this method, he sentence is 
 
Orst separated Into Its elements'; or, in other words, speech 
 
Is reduced to parts of speech:" Then each part of speech  
 
Is classified and defin ed as soon as its nature and use are  
 
clearly un derstood in the analysis of the sentence. The elas~IJl~aDJ.PJl-O words should be t'aken up in con n<'c!ion 
 
With analysis, because some elements oif the sentence are 
 
nameti from the parts of speech. For instance, an adjr-r t - 
 
lt1' clause implies a knowledge of the adjective. On tile 
 
other hand, analysis aids the pupil iu bettl;!r understanding 
 
the Parts of speech ; a conjunctiw adverb is more clE'arly a~erstOOd after analysis has shown its use in connpcting a ependent clause. In the Combined Method, as the pupil 
 
Proceeds with the study of an alysis, he is taught the flrst 
ftep In Parsing; namely, to recognize th.. 1"1r' ~ of 
 
 speech. Aft~r the different kinds of sentences analyzed, the pupil takes up the modification and 
tion of .the parts of speech; a.nd he is then prepared to 
elements in full. 
pART H.-SENTENCES. 
Jt is not my purpose to give a detailed method of the various topics of grammar, lest this paper be but it is hoped that the general plan suggested and illustrations given, may be of service. As has been 
Fuggested, the proper method of teaching grammar is to 
with- 
1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
e, Begin with short declarative sentences. Using 
like DoGS BARK, for examp teach pupils the two elements of the sentence-the subject and the predica~. subject and predicate are well understood, introduce principal parts of speech-the noun and the terb. the sentence Dogs bark, substitute they for dogs; and an idea of the third part of speech-the pronoun. like DEAD leaves fall QUIETLY, introduce modifiers of ject and the predicate; and pupils begin to fourth and fifth classes of words-adjectives and sentence VERY LARGE trees {!rOW VERY SLOWLY, j a new form of word elements-the complex form. plex word element consists of two or more wordil together without the aid of a conjunction. In the last ple given, pupils also see the remaining uses of the namely, to modify adjectives and -adverbs. 
The book lies ON THE TABLE illustrates a new ph1ase; and pupils are shown the use of the speech-the preposition. Before requiring a .,fi,nit.i"" phrase, se_e that phrases are clearly understood. 
~The word phraM Is often used In a wider sense. Under crammarians Include participle phrales, verb phrases, and expressiona. T.b.e terlllS UBed l11 crammar should lie as clear l)OSI!ble. 
 
 01 
 
Is an element consisting of a preposition and its object. A 
 
preposition can never be used alone as a word element: it is 
 
an inseparable part of a phrase. Tile sentence He live3 r N A 
 
uousE NEAR TilE cu uucn, contain s a complex ph rase . A complex phrase consists of two or more phrases joined together 
 
without a conjunction. BoYs and GIHLS study A'l' HOME and AT 
 
ICUOOL illustrates compound word and phrase elements and gives an idea of the seventh class of wordu-th e eonjttncUon. 
 
A compound elemernJt co11sists of two or more elements con- 
 
nected by coordinate conjunctions. AHI I am so glad I con- 
 
tains an interjection-the eighth and last part of spee<>h. 
 
The following sentence contains all the parts of spee~h: 
 
Dl bul you speak liglltly of sacred things. 
 
The three kinds of complements should 'be carefully dis- 
 
erlminated. Teach pupils thwt a complement completes the 
 
predicate, not the verb. A subjective* complement relates lo 
 
the subject by denoting a class or a quality a;sseTted of it; 
 
u, Man is an animal; God is good. Pupils frequently bave 
 
trouble in di~tlnguishing object complements from object- 
 
Ive complemernts. 'fhe former is always a substantlvet; it 
 
denotes that wMch receives the act. The latter relates to 
 
the object complement; it may be a noun or an adjective. 
 
At! a noun, the o:bjective complemerut denotes the class to 
 
which the object of the act is made to belong; as an adject- 
 
lYe, it denotes a resultant quality t:!hat the object is made to 
 
JC)IBess. The foUowing sentences illustrate the two last- 
 
named complements : They elected him PRll:SIDEl>T; The 
 
IDow made the ground WHITE. In parsing, the obj ect complement is called the direct object; the olbjective comple- 
 
ment, the factitive object. 
 
Other offices of nouns, prornouns, and adjectives should be 
 
taken up, the teacher moving by safe gradations from the llmpler to the more difficult. Common nouns and prop~>r 
 
nouns should be discriminated, and the pupil tau ght to 
 
eapitaliz" the !alter in his written work. The su bclasses 
 
-::e~ective me~tns relating to the subject. This term ! m ore precise thm 
 
.tl.laabe,':ee~co~mJo~vslttchm1e13esent 
 
t. The objecti ve C'11npleme he socalled attribute c<>m pl complements has a right to 
 
nt em be 
 
denotes an ent d oes of called an at 
 
a~ tri b utd of the subject ; tribu te com 
 
t41116et411tive Is a noun, a pron:mn, or any element used as a noull. 
 
 of the other par ts of olh.. e d1 ol1uuid be studied later. the pupil is famili a r with declarM ive sentences, he analyze interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory 
ces. 
The pup il should be taught to classify and "'"'."'"-"'.:.' dividual fac ts. Then, the process being reversed, be r equired to Illustrate; that is, give examples Iars) ol t<he gen eralizati-ons he has made. each new principle and definition .should be ~vu"'"'"'u plied In t-he construction of sent~mces. Synthesis closely follow analysis: the pupil should learn to well as tear down. Too little attenti-on Is usually sentence-bullding. In connection with each punctuation should be taught In order to aid the writing his exercises correctly. 
In studying the simple sentence, the pupil has familiar wlth two kinds of elements; he has three forms of each; and he has also obtained a of the eight parts of speech, classified according nse in the s-entence. He Is now prepared to that a simple sentence is one that contains only word phrase elements; and he knows tha:t these elements simple, complex, or compound In form. Beyond the parts of speech, no parsing should yet be llLLemptEJCI 
II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
rr the simple sentence is understood, the 
the complex sentence is not difficult. The third element of. sentences, the clause, must now be By examining the sentence Pupils wno study will pupil can see that it has two parts, and that each tains a subject and a predicate. Develop the delll.nl.tlo,Ji: 
When the underlying facts are understood, a u,........u .. comes Intelligible. Rules and principles are learned 'by deriving them from the facts to refer. 
Now, select IHl a model a sentence like this: 
 
 53 
 
::=:-fleethe ~ttn rose. Show that the clause when the sun rose started, and therefore has the use of an adverb. Let 
 
the pupll see that whim modifies 1ose, and also connects an 
 
~adunercbUcvlaeusaed. veHrbe. 
 
is thus prepared A subordinate 
 
to get an idea of conjunction may 
 
the also 
 
.anect an adverb clause ; ~s You can learn IF you study. 
A t10t1n clause is conta ined in t1le sentence Geogr ap hy 
feiChel THAT the earth is round. Call attention to t he fa ct that a noun clause, strictly speaking, has no connective. 
 
It 11 generally introduced by the subordina te conjunction 
 
llllli but the conjunction is frequenrtJy omitted, and it need 
 
DOt be supplied in parsing. Require pupils to write exor- 
 
eltell mustrating the punctuation of complex sentences, 
 
and see thai. they unders<tand the difference between :re- 
 
atrtcttve and unrestrict ive clauses. 
 
Do not accept either of the following dBfinitions: A de- 
 
peodelllt clause is one that does nOit make sen se when stand- 
 
Ing alone; A dependent clause is one that d epends on some 
 
other clause for its meaning. Th ~~:.n nb.iect ion to these 
 
atatementa is, that they are not crue, ~ ~ , ~. ~o far as 
 
oun clauses are concerned. In the sentence Bacon says, 
 
"KNOWLEDGE IS PowER," the depend en t noun clause mak es nry good sense; moreover, it does not depend on any- 
 
thinK else for its meaning. 
 
To determine whether a complex senrtence is declarative, 
 
IDoterrogartive, imperative, or exclamatory, always exa mine 
 
the fndeptmdent clause. Although the ind ependent cia u~e 
 
of a complex SBntence always decides the kind of sentence, 
 
a final noun clause gBnerally dictates the terminal mRrk 
 
of punctuatrion. A pe1iod is not pl aced at the end of evPry 
 
declarative sentence. Examine these s entences: Tha 
 
teacher asked, "Who will got" Shakespeare says, "What a 
 
piece of work i8 man/" Each of the senten ces is declarative ; 
 
the ftrst 'ends with an interrogative clause ; the second, with 
 
Ill exclanJata;ry clause. 
 
Let us sum up the facts th:at have been lea rn ed in stu dy- 
 
Ing the complex sentence. A dependent clause is one th a t 
 
... the nee of an adject1ve, an adverb, or a noun. An in- 
 
. . .,_, clauae 1a one that does not perform the omce ot 
 
 54 
a single part or speech. tuins one independent clause and one or more clauses. Three parts of speech are used to connect ent clauses; namely, r ela!tive pr onouns, conj verbs, and subordinate conjunctions. Each of connectives is a lways a part of the de-pendent which it is used. The independent clause of a tence Is necessarily simple in form; a dependent may be simple, complex, or compound. A simple is a single clause; a complex da:use consists of two clauses joined by subordinate connectives; a clause consists of two or more clauses conn~ted by 
dirrate conjunctions. The following sentences will 
t ra;te the forms of dependen1t clauses:! believe he is honest (simple noun cl au~e). This is the cat that caught the rat that ate the maU 
adj ective clause) . The clock struck when we started and when we returned 
pound adverb clause). 
III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
The compound Aentence contains no new elements: sents new combinations of elements already studied. pound sentence is one composed of two or more clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions. These pendent clauses, in form, may be simple or complex or pound. The following sentences illustrate the several 
Both clauses simple-Man proposes, but God disposes. B oth clauses complex-He who receives a favor should forget it, and he who does a favor should  never .,..,,,.,.,,~.,., First clause compound-Wrath is cruel, and anger rageou ~ ; but who is able to stnnd before envy? The expressions" compound-complex" sen tence and pl e'x-compouud '' sentence are misnomers. These very con fusi ng to pupils, and the use of them conraged. A complex sentence is always compl pound sentence is a lways co mponnd ; they need no to defin e them. As I ha \e already stated, the sentences may be complex or compound. To 
eecond ee~ten~e i~ t!w preced~g paragraph ~ 1 
 
 55 
tentence consistin,; of two complex Independent elanset; the third sentence contains one compound independent clause and one simple indepen'<lOOit clause. 
In classifying compound sentences as to mooning, remember tJhat independent clauses are of equal rank, and that each clause has its influence in determ-ining the kind or sentence. The following sentences Hlustra;te . the princi- 
ple:Imperati!*-declarative-Trust men, and they wlll be true 
to you. Declarative-interrogative-Knowledge 1a power, and who 
will deny it? It Ia seen that a compound sentence conslsta of two or 
more simple, complex, or compound independent clauses. The three kinds of sentences may be easily dlscrimina t~>d. It a sentence contains on.Iy words and phrases, it is simple; If it contains only one independent clause, it is complex; if it contains two or more independent clauses, it is compound. A compound sentence may contain a dependent clause; a complex sentence must contain at least one dependent clauoo. The essential parts o! compound sentences are connected by coiirdinaJte conjundions; the essential parts of complex sentences are join.ed by subordinate con 'ectlvea. 
After a study o! simple, complex, and compound senten- 
ces, the pupil should oo well prepared rto ciassify sentences 
u to form and meaning: he should understand the three kinds of elements, words, phrases, and clauses; and he should recognize r eadily the three forms of elements: simple, complex, and compound. He should be able to construct the different kinds of sentences and punctuate them properly. Punctuation is a much-negleded part of synthesis, and Intelligent punctuation is largely dependent upon a knowledge of grammatical analysis. 
ANALYSIS. 
Teachers should appreciate the importance of .analysis. It this exercise ts profitable and necessary in teaching art~metlc, it Is still more helpful and essential in teaching 
~. Th~ mt4~ eQI~ ot ~iences pvee a tnowJ 
 
 56 
 
edge of sentence-structure that can never/ be a study of mere words. The psychological value of matical analysis in training the pupil's judgment, Teloping In him t'he habit of accuralte thought, overestima ted. 
Analysis should precede parsing. Analysis first 
W: the sentence into Its eJ.ements, or parts of speech 
parsing, going Into detail, describes each element classification, modification, and construction. This natural order of procedure. Wickersham says: botanist analyzes a plant, and then names and Its several parts. Grammar can be studied in no other way. Parsing without a preceding can lead but to a very Imperfect knowledge of the structure of sentences." In connection with analysis, 
grams should be used but not abused. Diagrams are 
useful In analyzi ng sentences as geometrical figures In demonstrating propositions. A strong  argument favor of diagrams Is the fact. thl!it i'hey show, at the time, both the analysis and the synthesis of tdle 
 
Give me a man who can, with full lntell.lgence, take ~entence, brief and not too complicated, even, and I better prepared for further atudy In other languages both Cesar and Virgil, and could parse them iu the routine 'hey are often parsed.-WJIITNI:Y. 
 
PARSING. 
 
Parsing Is the complement of analysis. Each has Ita 
 
teach both; do not make a hO'bby of either 
 
should not be studied for the sole purpose either of 
 
lng to parse or of knowing how to analyze and w<tgram 
 
Too much time is usually devoted to parsing. lt la 
 
always necessary to require pupils to parse every word 
 
a sentence. When they are familiar with a 
 
leave that, and direct their attention to something 
 
well understood. Teachers s'hould clearly understand 
 
object of parsing.  
 
-' . 
 
Par.lug aids pllpll in becoming familiar with the definlt!one and 
 
of grammar, by frequent repetition: a'ld It teaches tbem to 
 
)[.,owledge in a systematic manner. lt requires pupils t o exam 
 
ii 
I 
 
and ascertain the r>ature and relation of words In sentences; 
 
Ioabnslytragcht 
 
ea power In the analysis tboaght.-BROOU. 
 
of 
 
languqe, 
 
but 
 
cultintea 
 
and the 
 
It seems to me there ahould be ao o'bjeotton to aa 
 
 57 
 
) 
llloJlal exerCise in "false syntax." If a pupil every day sees 
 
I)ICI bears errors outside of school, is it unwise in school to 
 
ect errors and teach him to avoid bhem? Grammar 
 
eorr er Is not inten ded for small childre n; a pupil old pro~gh to study grammar is old enough to appreciate 
::.~at not to uo." A grammaltical "keep-o:II-the-grass" 
 
~11g1 unlodtebloeaadrdsm. a 
 
ny astray. Signboards are Right is often impressed by 
 
useful as contrast 
 
well with 
 
wrong. Should the 'l.'en Commandments be taught to a 
 
child? They are all negative except one. 
 
BeloW are given models for oral analysis and written 
 
paratng. One advantage of such modeis is, tlhat they ae- 
 
cure system an'd uniformity in the pupil's work. When 
 
the teacher has no plan, it often happens that no two pu- 
 
piJJ ot a class parse or analyze a sentence in the same man- 
 
uer. The model for written parsing, while intended for 
 
nouus, may be modified so as to serve for the other parts 
 
of speech. MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS. 
 
L Describe the sentence 1i.S to (1) form, (2) meaning. 
 
2. If complex or compound, name the clauses and analyze 
 
each In order. 
a. Give grammatical subject. 
 
4. Name modifiers of subject and describe them as to (1} form, (2) kind. 
 
&. Give modified subject. 
 
8. Give grammatical predicate. 
 
7. If Incomplete, give its complement and name the com- 
 
plete predicate. 
 
' 
 
8. ' Name modifiers of predicate and describe them as to (1) form, (2) kind. 
9. Give modified predicate. 
 
10. Name and describe connectives and independent elements. 
 
MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING: 
 
CLASSIFWATIO:-<. 
 
MODIFICATION. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
"'""'"""" l""' : - - - - - - Claa Subclass. Kind. Number. Gender. Person. ca.Se. ---- 
 
- 
 
I 
 
 L DEFINITION-A sentence II the verbal expre~~~!on of a thouch\. 
 
1. Simple. 
 
L 
 
AI 
 
TO 
 
FolUl...... { 
 
2. 3. 
 
Complex. Compound. 
 
' 
 
Interrog~tive, II. CLASSES 
 
1. Declarative. 
 
\ 
 
2. 
 
AI 
 
TO 
 
MEANING { 
 
2. 3. 
 
I m p er a n v e .  
 
4. Exclamatory. 
 
r1. KIND: Word, phrase, clause. 
 
SENTENCE~ l . (' THE 
 
2. FOaM: Simple, complex, compound, 
 
III. ELEMENTS 1 
 
1 
 
P 
 
. nn 
 
e1pal 
 
..... 
 
{ 
 
1. 2. 
 
Subject. Predicate. 
 
Ol 
 
8. RJ.NJt 
 
l f 
 
1. 
 
Complementary 
 
j 
 
Snbjectlve complement Object complement. 
 
1 
 
Objective complement. 
 
r:A 
 
1I { \ 2. Subordinate 
 
Ad j ec ti v a l. 2. Modifying......... Adverbial. 
Nounal, 
 
Conjunction. 3. Connective........{fl,elative pronoun. 
Conjunctive adverb, 
 
~. Independent. 
 
1. ANALVSta: Oral, written, diagrammed. 
 
I-V-.-P. R. ,O.C. .JI-S_SE. .S;{:82.. 
 
PARSING: Oral, 
8rNTHESI8. 
 
written. 
 
 PART III.-WoRD!!I, 
I. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
In studying analysis, the pupil has learned that words are eJa.ssified according to their use in sentences. The sa.nHl word may be one part of speech In one sentence, another part of speech In another sentence. In the following sentences, the word well has the use of five dHferent parts of 
speech:The well Is deep. (Noun.) Springs well from tJhe earth. (Verb.) Is your father wellf (Adjective.) She sings well. (.Adverb.) Well, what shall we do? (Independent a1verb.) Well/ I am surprlsOO to hear it. (Interjection.) In addit ion to Its general use, a part of speech has specla:l 
syntactical uses called its constructions. For instance, a noun Is always a name; but It may have various constructions; as, subject, olbject of verb, etc. Below are given the eight parts of speech, classified according to their sentential use. The t<erms used in connection wlth these classes of words are Intended aa conci'se descriptions rather than formal deflnltlons:- 
NOUN-Name-wOT'd. VERB-Asserting-word. PRONOUN-Noun-su'bstltute. ADJECTIVE-Noun- or pronoun-modifier. ADVERB-Verb- or adjective- or adverb-modUlar. PR:lPOSITION-Phrase-!ntroducer. CO~JUNCTION-Element-connector. INTERJECTION-Feeling-word. W.hi!e the pupil Is studying the amalysis of sentences, he learns Incidentally some of the subclasses of the parts of IP600h. Ailter simple, complex, and compound sentences have been st udied, the pupil should take up and study In detail the su'bdiv!s1ons of t:he pa r bs of speech. The prePOSition and the Interjection are the only classes of words that an~ not subdivided. Below are given the eubclasses, kiDAis, and subklnds of 'the part of speech. 
 
 60 
 
THE NOUN. 
I. CoMMON. 1. Concrete; as, tree. 2. Abstr.act. a. Attributive; as, goodnei!B. b. Verbal; as, running, to sleep. 3. Collective; as, clas8. 
II. PROPER. 1. Strictly proper; as, Atlanta, Rocky MuumauuJ, 2. Used as common noun; as, a Daniel, a. Oicero: 
 
THE VERB. 
 
I. FoRV. 
1. Regular; as, walk. 2. Irregular; as, see. 3. Redundarut; as, ha:ng. 4. Detective; as, beware. 
 
II. UsE. 1. Transitive; as, Farmers raise corn. 2. Intransitive. a. Complete; as, Dogs bark. b. Copulativet; as, Snow i8 white. 
III. RANK. 1. Principal; as. He has rejurnecJ. 2. Auxiliary; as, He ha8 returned. 
 
Corn u 
 
THE PRONOUN. 
 
!. PERSONAL PRONOUN. 1. Simple; as, he. 2. Compound; as, himself. 
 A proper noun bas no meaning: It Is merely a distinguishing mart brand. A noun usually proper becomp,s a common noun when, Instead indicating a particular individual, it den otes the clJ.SB to which that 'f'idnal belongs. In this sense, a Cicero is an orator, not a Roman name. When proper nouns become common, the capita\ letter Is retaltledl) 
tA copulatiVIl verb is one that bas a eubject1ve complement. verbs In the pass!ve voice are sometimes copulative ; as, He 'IDOl 
CBAlallAN. 
 
 61 
Il RELATIVE PRONOUN 
1. Simple; as. who. 2. Compound; as. whoovcr. 
s. The double relaJtive. 
a. Simple. what. 11. Compound; whatever, whatsoever. III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN; as, who? IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUN.* 1. Demonstrative; as, 'l"ltar is mine. 2. Indefinite; as, Some are scholars. 3. Distributive; as, He gave each !ln apple. . ' Reciprooa.l; as, The children love each other. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
I. DESCRIPTIVE. 
1. Common; as, sweet. 2. Proper; as, Cuban. 8. Participial; as, charming. 
 
II. DEFINITIVE. 1. Articles. a. Definite, the. b. Indefinite, an (a). 2. Pronominal. a. DemonstraJtlve; as, That book Is mine. b. Indefinite; as, Sorne men are scholars. c. Distributive; as, He gave each boy an apple. d. Reciprocal; as, Each child loves the other. 
 
3. Numeral. a. Cardlnal; as, three, ten. b. Ordinal; as, third, tenth. c. Multiplicative; a.i, triple, tenfold. 
4. Relative; as, Which things containan allegory. 
 
(Gal. 
 
IV. 24.) 
 
. 
 
5. Interrogative; as, Which book will you take! 
 
 Adjective pronouns sometimes lay aside their substantive nature, and become modi fiers. When used to modify nouns, they a.re called pruoomioal (t. e., pronoun) adjectlv.,., 
 
 THE ADVERB. 
I. SrMPLL 1. Time; as, now. 2. Place; as, here. 3. Mannr; as, quietlv. 4. Degree; as, verv. 6. Cause; as, why, therefore. 
II. MoDAL*; as, You surely are mistaken. III. RESPONSIVE; as, No. (Al way s ind e p endent.) IV. ExPLETIVE ; as, There is a G od. Well, let us go 
(Alwa,ys ind ep endent.) V. NUMERAL; as, once. VI. INTERROG ATIVE; as , When d i-d you come 1 VII. CoNJUNCTIVE ; a s, I came when the bell r ang. VIII. GoRRELATIVE ; as, J am es is as old as John. 
THE CONJUNCTION. 
J, CoORDINATE. 1. Copulative; as, and. 2. Alrternativ; as, or. 3. Adversa tlve; as, but. 4. Illative; as, therefore, consequcntly. 5. Correlative; as, both     and. 
II. SuBORDINATE. 1. Real cause; as, because. 2. Reason; as, tor. 3~ Condition; as, i/. 4. Purpose; as, that. 6. Concession; as, although. 6. Correlative; as, though     flet, 
II. MODIFICATION OF WORDS. English is, comparatively speaking, a non-inflected guage. In a highly inflected language like Latin; word "has its function as noun or verb or adverb upon it;" but English words are seldom labeled, and classification must be determined by their sentential The modificat ions (or sD-called inflections) of words are changes in meaning and use raA:'her th-an 
 A modal adverb Is one that nen otes the manner in which regarded by the s peaker,-whether a(Jirmative, negative, or Veril11 I say unto you. Than shalt not !<ill. Perhaps b e will come. 
 
 torm. In English, the construcllon of words riepl'nd~ 
 
Ia upon rela tion than upon inflection. It is a na rrow 
 
aaore of anY grammar, especially of English gramma r, to 
 
ytewose that it shou ld trea t of i nflect ion alone. In stuuy- 
:;~nglish, the pupil has little to do with telltale for ms ; he 
 
11f81wmorudcsh. 
 
to do with the use and relation and Pupils should study and master the 
 
arrangement few inflected 
 
~rms that do exist. Following are th e names of the five 
 
IJtlected parts of speech, with their modifications:- 
 
NouNs AND PRoNOUNs.-Number, gender, p erson, case. 
 
Vzaus.-Voice, mode, tense, number, person. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.-Com parison. 
 
]ll'umber.-The mles for forming the plural of nouns 
 
mould be well understood, and applied in practice. The plu- 
 
rals of words like the following are often imp rope r! y 
 
written: lily, money, hero, tobacco, spoonful, court-martial, 
 
IOD-In-law, pair, fish. The pupil should understand th e 
 
number and gender of collective nouns in order that the 
 
yerbs and pronouns may be used properly. 
 
Gender.-Since the i{{:!nder of noun s denotes th e ~ex of th e 
 
object, the term "common gender" is a misnomer. A com- 
 
110ft 8CX is unthinkable and absurd. With equal propriety 
 
we could say that deer and the pronoun you are common 
 
tlumber. In the sentence My pupils are boys and yirls, p11pils 
 
11 masculine and feminine. In the sentence He called to see a 
 
(rle11d, the gender of fli end Is unknown. 
 
Person.-It should be impressed on the minds of pupils 
 
that person In grammar does not necessarily refer to human 
 
beings. In the sentence Fido, come here, , Fido is second 
 
person, although It is the name of a dog. Person (from 
 
Latin persona, a mask) denotes the speaker, the one spoken 
 
to, or the one spoken of. The same noun, John, In differ- 
 
ent sentences, may personate these three different relations. 
 
Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words 
 
tbat have person-forms. 
 
Case.-Nouns have only two case-formB-one for the 
 
possessive, and one common to the nominative and nb- 
 
Jectlve. As far as form Is con cerned, errors in the use of nouns are limited to the possessive case; therefore the formation of the possessive singular an d the possessive plural 
 
 64 
should be tho\oughly understood. It is important for to know the nominative and objective constructions that they may use the proper case-form of pronouns. sentence I th011ght it was John, it is of little value, per know the construction of J ohn. But, when a substituted, it makes a difference whether one hought it was HE, or says I thought it was Hm. 
There are only five words in the Engl!sh language have three case-forms each: /, thou, lie, she, and who. declensions of these five words will be found the only native and obj.cctive ca'Se-forms in our language, See your pupils are thoroughly drilled in the forms and structions of these few words, which give lng people so much trouble. Mo'St of the rules or tion apply practically to these fourteen words:- 
ErGHT NoMINATIVE FoRMs.-!, we, thou, ye, he, she, who. 
Srx OBJECTIVE Fomrs.-Me, us, thee, him, 1JJ em, Before lea ving this topic I must say, See that your are thoroughly famillar with the following grammatical construction:1. The su'bject of a finite* verb Is in the nominative 2. Every verb consists of two parts-the finite verb the infinite verb. 3. The finite verb consists of all the forms or a verb ccpt Its participles and infinitives. 4. The i;lflni:c verb consists or the participles and tlves of a verb. 5. A predicate noun is in the same case as the word which it relates. 6. A predicate noun is always either a subjective ment or an objective complement. 7. The subjective complement of a finite verb Is nominative case. 
 A finite verb [Lat.j!nilm, !imtted] derives Its name from the fact i.a limited or restricted to a subj ect; that 1, it cannot be used in a unless it has a subject expressed or implied. A pa rticiple or an ma11 have a so-called subject, but we cannet >ay that it must have They &re frequently used in a sentence to express action or bein~ In a raJ waJ, no subject being expressed or implied. 
 
 65 
8. The objective complement is always in the o1Jjcctivf' 
ease. because it relates to the object complement (direct 
object). 9. The subject or an infinitive is in the objective case. . 10. The subjective complement of an infinitive, when the 
Infinitive h'as a subject, is in the objective case. 11. Sometimes rthe infinitive has no subject, but has a sub- 
jective complement. 12. The subjective complement of an infinitive (or a par- 
ticiple) used without a subject, is in the nominatire case, used a.bstractly; that is, without any word to which it gratnmatlcally relates. 
Voice.-Voice is that modification of a verb th at voices or tells something concerning its subj ect. The active l'Oice shows that the subject denotes that which performs an act 1eceired by an object. The passive voice sJ1ows that the subject denotes that which is passive, or receives an act. A transitive verb is not a verb that may have, tH.ri a verb that does have, an object.* This object in the a cti \'e voice Is the direct object of the verb; in the passive volc'3 lt ta the passive subject. An intransitive verb is one that does not have an object. A verb may be transitive in one aentence, and Intransitive In another; hence a verb should _ be parsed according to Lts use in the particular sentence under consideration. An intransitive verb may be a complete predicate; as, The wind blows. It may be complemented; as, The wind blows cold. Be careful to teach pupils tbat a verb may assert action, and yet not be used in tho actit-e voice. In the sentence Horses run, the verb run aslerts action; but the ver'b is intransitive, and consequently has no volce. 
l!llode and Tense -English verbs have very few inflected forms. A regular verb has only seven inflections, all told. The verb to  be, the most irregular of ail verbs, has only eleven inflected forms-am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert, be, being, been. Most of the verb-modificati ons are formed by an external change ; that is, by auxiliaries. A knowl edge of the verb demands a careful study of auxiliary 
t'fhe object denoteo that which receive the act exp ressed by the verb. 
 
 verbs. Pupils should be drilled in the proper use ot 
past tense and past participle of irregular verbs. like the following are heard too frequen tly: Who that? Th e bubble bursted*. T he man was hung. 1 guttcnt my lesson. He lit:j:. the lamp. Is it possible any teacher uses these expressions : taken the. school "? 
As a rule, the im perative mode is used only in the person. Teach pupils that the forms Let me go, Let 8tay, are not imperatives of the first and the third In the express ion Let me go, let Is imperative mode, person, agreeing with you implied ; me is indirect object let; the infinit ive {to) go  is direct object. It is tlie that is permitted or allowed ; me denotes the person whom permission is granted. 
Instead of tihe r egular constructiO'Il with let, an ldi imperative of the first or the third person is sometimes espec ially in poetry; as,- 
Now !read we a measure, said young Lochinvar.- &ott. Fall he t.h>Lt must beneath his rival's a.rms.-Pope. 
I n t'b.e example just given, trea.d is first person and with we ; fall is third person and agr ees with 1te. 
The subjunctive mode expresses doubt or szm,nolrftll.lii This mode has four tenses: the present and present fe ot , denoting doubt; the P'ast and pasf perfect, supposition. The present perfect is rarely used. The ent tense expresses a doubt to be settled in future time; If he study, he ,vill learn. The present perfec t  a doubt conc.erning past action or being,-a doubt still !sting at the present; as, If he have studi ed, he has The past tense expresses a supposition contrary to fact the present ti me ; as, I wish I wene aJt home. The past feet expre,sses a supposition contrary to fact in tWSt as, If he had k11own it, he would have gone. As far form Is concerned, the subjunctive differs from the ind tive in having no infl ect ion for the thdrd person si and usually none for the second p.ersou singular. 
Bursted is n ot f ot.1 11d in di ctionari es. r~'~"ebster says (Jdten is (,b so lescen&. ~.idghlul )s prefe ra bl e to lil. 
 
 67 
 
Jn the au'bjunetive mode the name or t'he tense does not ln- 
 
d~'ecatpertehseenatcttueanlsteimree.ferIsn 
 
meaning fach ten 8e to future time; the 
 
is anticipathe: present perfect 
 
and the past, to present time; and the past perfect to time 
 
simply past. The indicative mode, with ij, unlrss, etc., is also UHed to ex- 
press a condition or doubt: but, in the indicative, the condi- 
 
tion is assumed as a fad, not as a future contingency; as, If two Jines are parallel, they will never intersect. When the indicative expresses doubt, the doubt is not in the fact itse(f, but in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. Examine the fol- 
 
lowing sentences:- 
 
Sllbjuncttve-If Miss Durant come, give her this book. Indicative-It she~ in the room. I have not. seen her. 
In the first sentence, Miss Durant's coming is doubtful: it Is a future contingeney. In the second sentence, it is a fact flOW that the person referred to either i~ or is not in the room ; therefore it is not a future contingency, and the doubt exists only in the speaker's kn owledge of the fact. 
In the potential mode the auxiliaries are always notional; in the other modes the auxiliaries, having lost their original meaning, are used as mere tense-signs. Compare these sentences : I have a book, I have lost my book. In the first example, /tare means possas; therefore it is notional. In the second example, have does not denote p ossession: it is an auxiliary, a si!m of the present perfect tense. Shall and will, as used in the indicative mode, are mere signs of future time. When ahall and will are notional, they are properly auxiliaries of the present potential. Examine the following sentences: - 
I unngo (present determination) . 
IJe 1vonld go (pa<t determination). He sa.ys you shnil 1>:0 (present obligation), He said you should go (past obligation). 
Since would and should are auxiliaries of the past potential , it seems remarkable that grammarians have not considered will and shall as corresponding eigne of the present potential. In the examples gi ven above, doe8 not ~hall go (xprt>ss present obJig,ltion just as truly as should. go expresses past obligation? Is not !h all go a present paten tidl' form, rather than a so-called "future of determination" T 
 
 os 
ill. CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 
 
THE NOUN. 
I. NOMIN.~TTV E. 
1. Subject of finite verb; as, Birds sing. 2. Prwicate of finite verb; as, Atlanta ts 3. Abstract predicate of infinite verb. 
(l)With infinitive; as, To be a penman practice. 
(2) With participle; as, No one thought ot being a teacher. 
4. In appoJlition; as, Milton, the poet, was bllnd. 6. Independent. 
(1) By address; as, J!arv, lend me your (2) By pleonasm; as, William, he is my (3) By exclamation; as, Poor man! he is 
fortunate. (4) By inscription; as, Adam 
book). (5) By subscription; 
as signature). (6) With participle; 
s1arted. (7) In apposition; as, John, my boy, come 
II. PossERSIVF.. 1. Modifier; as, The boy's hat was lost. 2. In apposition; as, Miltont, the poet's, life was 
III. OBJECTIVE . 1. Direct object; as, Ring the bell. 
2. Indirect:!: object. (1) With trlli!lsltlve verb; as, Lend me knife. 
 
. By prtdicate Is meant, of course. a predicaU - "  
 
mentIs ca lled a subjective complement.  
t Mill<m I a possessive modifier of life. The nominative form is 
 
enallage for the possessive cou. In English, case Is determined 
 
tion r a ther tha n bv form. In the expresinn thilt tongue of 
 
the possessive used by en allage for the objec tive. John' 
 
~verned by of. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or 
 
tion for another. 
 
. 
 
 
 
t'fhe following verb are frequentl y use~ with an indirect object: 
 
bring, girt, lend, ojft:r, pay, BtU, send, oh0111, teU, teach, etc. 
 
 69 
 
{2) With intransitive verb; as, The hat lasted 
 
me a year. 
 
1. Factitive* object; as, They made him rnrside11t. 
 
4. Cognatt object; as, He lived a usef ul lift~. 
 
5. Retain ed:j: object; as, He was offered a i"iliull 
 
(without governing word). 
 
 
 
6. Objec t of preposition; as, He goes to srllool. 
 
7. Adverbial objective {without governing word). 
 
{1) Time; as, It ra!ned last niullt. 
 
(2) Place; as, We returned home. 
 
(3) Direction; as, The ship sailed west. 
 
(4) Distance; as, We wa lked a mile.  
 
(5) Value; as, The bool{ is worth a dollrrr. 
 
(6) Weight; as, I paid him ten cents a f)l)1tnf. 
 
{7) Measure; as, This wine cost a dollar a 
 
quart. 
 
{8) Extent; ae, he 1s a grea t dro.l better than 
 
he was. 
 
{9) Manner; as, The word is pronouuced both 
 
tcovs. . 
 
{10) Specification; as, They bound him hand and ruut. 
 
8. In apposition; as, I spoke to Miss Davis, the 
 
tea cher. 
 
9. Subject of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a law- 
 
:ver. 
 
10 Predicate of infinitive; as, He wants me to be a 
 
lawyer. 
 
A jactiti~ object [Lat.jacere, to make] Ia a ret~ultant obj~ft. the verb- 
 
being used causnt!ve1y. 
 
f~ttmeaus kindred, of ~!mllar nature. A cognate object has a mean- 
 
lngllke that of the verb which governs it. A verb Ia transitive when it 
 
hU a cognate obJect. 
 
 
 
tWhen a verb fs changed from the active voice to the passive, the direct 
 
obJect b8CQmes the subject, a nd the Indirect object Is retalnetl; As, He of 
 
fered xa a po8ititm, A po.Uinn was offered ME. Sometimes, however, the 
 
Clldirtct object Is used idiomatically as the subJect; and th en the direct 
 
object Is carried over to the passive as a rel'Lina! object. Since a verb In 
 
*he paS!llve voice has no governing power, tbe retained object Is without a 
 
BOvernlng word. 
 
 
 
~ITmhlslaosbtjneciqtlilvt.e 
 
Is somethtes When thus u 
 
used <ed, It 
 
wIsipthronpnerulmy ;c~all,edH-aisn 
 
return home, My arijecti1Jal object 
 
..~. The Indirect object, the retained object, and the adverbial objective 
 
arel diagrammed .... the b>Le of a phrase without II. prei>ositlon expre<sed 
 
:.~Piled. The indirect object and th~ retained object alway modify a 
 
 70 
THE VERB. 
Tl!e ftnlte verb always constitutes Lhe predicate, or form~ a part 
prodkn~e. 
1. Used alone as the predicate; as, Horses run. 2. Used with o.ther word or words. 
(1) With subjective complflment; as, Roses are (2) With object complement; as, Boys play ball, (3) With objective complement; as, They chose 
leader. (4) With inseparable adverb; as, They putout the (5) With several words, the combination forming 
inseparable romp/ex verb; as, I wtU taken care 
THE PRONOUN. 
Generally speaking, the constructions of the pronoun similar to those of the noun; there are, however, some constructions that deserve attention. 
1. Him destroyed, all else will follow. 2. Than whom n one sat higher. 
Him and whom are Miltonic solecisms.t In rl<>lfprmlonl~ case, constn-1ction takes precedence of form. I-Ii-m [he] iA native independent with destroyed. Whom [who] is subject sat implied. The sentence in full is, Than who (sat high) sat higher. When the comparative is expressed, the must be supplied in parsing. In order to justify whom, authors call than a preposition; but it is a conjunctive denoting comparison, instead of a preposition showing tion. 
3. Poor me I what shall I do f Me is objective by exclamation, a construction peculiar to pronoun. 
 This Is a favorite book or mim. 
"The words of this group cannot be parsed separately : the complex must he treated as if hyphenatcu ; as, W<UJlaken-care-oj. This Is an matlc passive construction. The sentence He took care of me, changed to the regular passive, becomes, Care of me W<UJ taken by him. idiomatic passive, which is the form generally used, the object of the osition is made the subject; and the passive verb, the retained objec~, the preposition are thrown together to form a complex verb. 
tA solecisfll is a deTlation from established usage in the structure tentencllll. Dr. Hill definea aoleclama to be "constructions not English" 
 
 71 
Jlfril 11 a personal pro~ou~, posses~ive. case, moJi!ying the 
partitive objective books tmpl1ed. Mtne IS a euphomc form of just as the article a is a variant of an. 'fhe euphonic 
:':ns mine, ours, thine, yoms, hen, and theirs, are used when 
th: name of the thing possessed is not expressed. 6. This heart of mine will buak. J/ifll is objective case, obj ect of the preposition of. The 
poese11slve form is used by enallage for the objective. The polll!ellBOr is denoted by the possessive form, or by a phrase introduced by of; as, Solomon' temple, temple of Solomon. Sometimes the two constructions are combined: of and the possessive form are both used, and there is formed an idiomatic double possessive. This idiom is used to make the pos11811801 more emphatic and the expression more euphonious; hence, instead of the regular construction of ME, we have the idiomalic form of MINE. Another reason for using the idiomatic form is, that it often prevents ambiguity. For instance, a picture of MINE does n ot necessarily mean a picture of ME. The double possessive is used with nouns as well as pronouns; as, tbat tongue of John's  Some authors make a separate class of mine, thine, etc., calling them possessive pronouns. Properly speaking, they are possessive forms of personal pronouns. John'B, in the expression given above, is the possessive form of a noun; we would hardly call it a possessive(/) noun. 
6. Bring such IU you have. 
A. is a relative pronoun, direct object of have. After auch, ~ame, and many, as is used as a relative. 
7. There is no one but makes mistakes. 
But is a negative relative, equivalent to that not. The sentence means There is no one that does n )t make mistakes. When but is used as a relative, some other negative word 1s always found in the sentence. 
8. It was from me that he obtained the information. 
The foregoing sentence contains two English idioms: 1. The relative that is used after the indefinite it; 2. The relative that never immediately follows the preposition that governs it. The preposition is generally placed at the end of the sentence; as, This is the house that I referred to. That may come after the preposition provided one or more words intervene. . . 
The meaning of the sentence i8 this: It was I (me) from 
 
 72 
 
tc,hom (that) he obtained the 
 
apparently the object of {rom., th e objective form 
 
inst ead of th~ no minative. We have here an 
 
attraction as well as enallage. Ale is nominative 
 
icate n ominat ive after u:as. That is objective 
 
of from. 
 
/ 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
l. M ODIFIER. 1. At tri butive; as, Red apples. 2. Appositive; as, A man, old and fnfl,rm. 
II. PR li: DICA'fE ADJECTIVE. 1. Subjective complement; as, He is like hla 2. Objective complemenrt; as, The dinner 'bOl' sick. 3. Used abstractly after infinite teet is impossible. 
 
THE ADVERB. 
J. 1\fODII'lER. 1. Modifying verb; as, We walkoo slowly. 2, Mod ifying adjective; as, It is very cold. 3. Mo difying phrase; as, She studies only at 
n. J ND E PENDENT j as, Well , what do you Bay? 
Ill. CoNJUNCTIVE. 1. Conn ecting adverb clause; as, We came u;f&elt bell rang. 2. Conn'eeting adjective clause; as, I remember bouse where I was born. 
3. Correlative; as, J ohn is as old as I am. 
 
THE PREPOSITION. 
1. Showing r elation; as, She goes io schooL 
2. Merely introduCJtory; as, Out of sight is out of 
 
*Tn is Implied n.fter like used a s an adje~tlve or an adverb. Good 
 
!ish condemns the use of like as " conjunctive a dverb. As should be 
 
Instead. See that pupils avoid such solecisms aa "li.l:t I told 
 
11he said. " 
 
 
 
~> .-- ,-:; .: - - - -- - 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
L ColJRDINATE. 1. Connecting" words; as, James mtd John study. 2. Connecting phrases; as, She studies at home and at schc.<Jl. 
s. Connecting clauses; as, Mary reads, and Blanche 
writes. 4. Merely Introductory; as. And the Lord spa ke unto 
Moses. 6. Correlatd.ve; as, Both Mary and Blanche h ave gone. 
II. SUBORDINATE. . 1. Connecting subordinate clause ; a;s, You can learn if you try. 2. Introducing subordinate clause; a s, That the earth is round is a fact. 
 
THE INTERJECTION. Always lndevenden<t. 
 
THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
I. DxriNITION .-A participle is an assuming forrn of th e 
 
verb, having the use of an adjective or a noun . 
 
I I. CLASSES. 
 
Common form; as, writinq. 
 
1. Active* Progressive form ; as, being writ 
 
f { 1. Present 
 
ing (rare).  
 
l2. P assive, as, being written. 
 
2. Pmtt (active and passive); as, writ~n. 
 
Common form; as, having written. 
 
3. Perfect 
 
1.. 
 
Active 
 
{ 
 
Progressive writing. 
 
form; 
 
as, 
 
having 
 
been 
 
{ 
 
2. Passive; as, having been written. 
 
1ra"nTohletlPvlelrvt.iecribpsl 
 
es In 
 
of intransitive verbs the active voice. 
 
are 
 
form ed 
 
l!ke 
 
the 
 
particlpleR ol 
 
.:;:erIatThe Paal parti ciple has t he same form In both voices. This part iclple used. alone In an active sense: Its onl y use in the active voice Ill 
 
Ux!Jio.nes to form compound tensea ; ae, haV<l ,.,.ittm, /14141/0M. 
 
 74 
 
III. CoNSTRUCTion. 
1. Adjective, 
 
(1) Modifier; as {The man, rUing, started to 
The sun ruing, we started. 
 
(2) Predicate adjective. 
 
a. Subjective; as, We stood watching the 
 
b. Objective; as, He had his watch 
 
c. Used abstractly after infinite verb 
 
To keep COmplaining is unwise, 
 
' 
 
2. 1\'oun. 
 
(1) Nominative. 
 
a. Subject of finite verb; as, 
 
hard work. 
 
b. Predicate of finite verb; u, Steallnr 
 
taking wit!hout permission. 
 
c. In apposi tion; as, Her task, 
 
floor, was unpleasant. 
 
d. Independent. 
 
(a) Simply independent; as, 
 
his advantages, he deserves much 
 
(b) With a participle; as, Talking 
 
been forbidden, the children 
 
silent. 
 
(c) 
 
(d) By exclamation; as, KUling his er! What a crime he has 
(e) In apposition; as, Delightful 
teaching rthe young! '(2) Objective. 
a. Object of verb; as, She 
a letter. 
 
doing. 
c. Subject of infini tive; as, I want your ing aloud to be continued. 
d. Predicate of Infinitive ; as, He thought gramming senteu ces to be wasting 
e. Factitive object; as, Some one haa silent reading getting thought. . 
 
 75 
 
(. In apposition; as, I consider this exercise, writing compositions, to be very profitable. 
g. Adverbial objective (without governing word) ; as, The field is not worth plowing. 
The participle, as its name indicates, always pa'l'licipate:J the ture of two parts of speech. While it retains all the govnaning power of a verb, it ditl'ers from the finite verb in :eking power to assert. In addition to its verb nature, the PARTICIPLE ALWAYS has the use of an adjective or a noun. 
The dogs, bakin.g loudly, kept m e awake. He supported his mother by selling papers on the street. 
In the first sentence, barking shows its . verb nature (1) by 188uroing action, (2)- by taking the adverb modifier loudly. It ahows Its adjective use by modify'ing dogs. In the second eentence, selling show/ s its verb nature, (1) by assuming action, 
c2l by taking the direct object papers, (3) in being modified by 
the adverb phrase on the street. It shows its noun use, (1) by naming the action, (2) in being governed by the preposition by. 
When a participle loses its verb nature, it ceases to be a parliclple, and becomes a participial noun or adjective or adverb or preposition. In the sentence The water is boiling hot, boiling is a participial adverb. The sentence Regarding his conduct we have the same opinion, contains a p articipial preposition. A~ an aid in distinguishing participles from words that are participial in form, the following suggestions are given:- 
A PARTICIPLE WITH THE UsE OF AN ADJECTIVE!. Assumes action or being of the word modified. 2. Is oomplemoo;ted in sa me manner as finite verb. 3. May be mO'dified by an adverb, adverb phrase, or a.dverlb clause. 4,, Usually follows the word modified. 5. Is set off by the comma unless restrictive. 
 
A PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE- 
 
!. Doootes a quaJity of rt'he word modified. 
 
2. Has lost its verb na-ture Mld cannot be comple- 
 
me'Illted. 
 
3. Can be modified by an aJdverb only. 
 
f. Unless used as pr,ed.icate &Jdjectlve, always r,:."l'edea 
 
tJhe word modified. 
 
J 
 
6. Is never set off by the c~JmmL 
 
 7G 
 
A. PARTICIPLE WITH THII: UsE OF A NOUN1. Not only names, but assumes action or being, 
2. Is e_omplemented in t.he same manner as 
verb. 3. May be modified by adjective, possessive, 
adverb phrase, or adverb clause. 4. Is not preceded by article or followed by 
tlou. 
A PARTrCIPIAL NouN1. Simply names, without assuming action or 2. Doe.'3 not admit a verb-complement of any kind. 3. Is modified only by adjective or adjective 4. May be preceded by article and followed by sition. 
We, starting early, arrived In time (pn.rticlple used as adjecUTe), Running fast is tiresome (puticiple u sed as noun). Our cradle is the ota~ting place (participial adjective), Llld is the running of the race (participial noun). 
 
THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. 
 
I. DEFINITION. -An infinitive ptrase is one that 
an infinitive* preceded by the preposition to. 
II. CLASSES. 1. Present. 
. {Common form; as, (to) write. (J) Active Progressive form; as, (to) be writing. 
(2) Passive; as, (to) be written. 
2. f'ertoct. 
. {Common form;  as, (to) have written. (1 ) Active Progressive form; as, (to) have been tllriling, 
( 2) Passdve; as, (to) have been written. 
 
1. Noun. 
 
III. 
 
u~ES. 
 
{ 
 
2. 3. 
 
Adjective. Adverb. 
 
*Au iulinltive phrase is commonly called an intlnltlve,-a lora. of IIJDIOdOche In which a part is used for the whole. The injinitivl pt'&per Is an . . suming verbform, used as a noun or an adjective. It Is used 8'1lbatanedf as the base of an infinitive phrase; It is used adjectivall!l88 a modifier of ltl asmmed subject. 
In AngloSaxon, to was not u sed with any Infinitive except an inflected form expressing purposP.; and the preposition, when thus u sed, always denoted relation. Now the preposition to, even when it does not show rela- 
nun tion, is placed before the infinitive as a mere indicator, showing that the 
following word is an infinitive. To Ia a of the infinitive, not a par& of tt. However, do not have pupils analyze the lnflnit!Te phrue: le& tb.- 
neat the element aa a whole. 
 
 77 
 
[V. CQNSTRUCTIONS. 
 
L Noun. (1} Nominative. 
 
a. Subject of finite verb; as, To steal ls wrong. 
 
b. Predicate of finite verb; as, To hesitate is 
 
to fail. 
 
c. In apposition; as, It is human to err. d. Independent. 
 
(a) Simply independent; as, To tell the truth, 
 
I was mistaken. 
 
(b) With a participle; as, To pass through 
 
the field being forbidJ en ,we f"llowed the road 
 
(c) By pleonasm; as, To hesitate, that would 
 
be to fail. 
 
(d) By exclamation; as, To drown ! what an 
 
awful death! 
 
(e) Ip. apposition; as, Delightful task, to 
 
tooch the young! 
 
(2) Objeotive. 
 
a. Object or verb; as, He lil'es to study. 
 
b. Object of preposition; as, They did nothing 
 
but (to ) talk. 
c. Factitive object; as, I r egard to h esitate as 
 
to fail. 
 
d. Retained object; as, He was allowed to vote. 
 
e. In apposition; as, The boy liked his task, to 
 
bring the mail. f, Objective subject or Infinitive; as, To ana- 
 
lyze sentences he considers to be useless. g. Objective predicate* of Infin iti ve; ~s He 
 
thinks t o steal to be to tCike witLont permission. 2. Adjective. 
 
(l, Modifiert { Th.er~ is a ti.me to laugh. 
 
- - - -- 
 
It IS Impossible for me to go. 
 
Tbi" construction, as well as the precnding one, ts rareiy used. 
 
, 
 
tNotiee carelully the use or the infinitive phn1scs in th eRe two senten ces. 
 
;od'1'0 1augh <.lor lnnghing) is an injl.niti've phrase It Is u sed as an a1ject ive, 4 lamodlfies time. 2'o is a prepositi on, ohowing the rel ation between t-inu 
 
reD~~-}buegshe.coLnfdlusgehnties 
 
an nce 
 
infin'ittve. , to is a me 
 
It re 
 
is nseii as a noun, ohjcct of to. prepositional sign: it does not 
 
denote 
 
~,...on: In fact, It is not a notional word. 'l'he infinitive go Is used nlly to mod!Iy itlllll!llumed subject me. Me to go Is equivalent to me (""fO(ng). 
 
 78 
(2) Predicate adjective. a. Subjective; as, Tllese apples are to ~ b. Objective; as, He made me (to) ltay.* c. Used abstractly after the infinite verb, (a) With participle; as, His seeming nocent was of no avail. (b) With infinitive; as, To appear to not sufficient. 
 .Advrrb. (I) Modifying verb; as, Strive to excel. 
(2) Modifying adj ective; as, Apples are good (3) Modifying adverb; as, He is old enough to 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Grammar should not be studied until the minds of pupils &re matured. Seldom should it be studied by pupils under of a.ge. 
2. Do not attempt to teach grammar through a study or aelllnltloDI::  definitions through a study o! language. 
3. Do not allow pupils to memorize definitions and rules that they understand. Ne.ver state a principle until pupils are prepared prebend its meaning. "First the Idea, then the name, then nltion." 
4. Induction should precede deduction. A study of Individual facta 
lead to definitions and principles. "The mind must ner rf1e clear individual to distinct general notions." 
5. Deduction should follow induction. After principles and roles been learned lnductiTely, reverse the process and require the to Ulustrat<J; that Is, give ext<mpies (particulars) of thl,gt!DElr&U.Lll they h&Te learned. 
Grammar Is compnratiTely useless unless Ita principles are constructing, criticising, and correcting sentences. ter understood tho.n grammar, mainly because required in the former branch. "Few rules and many exo,.CJo~e~~ 
7, Make grammar pra.ctlcal by hR.ving pupils crilicise their own as wwl as t,he langua.ge of others. "For I am nothing, if not 
8. PracU.ce what you teach. In the use of correct l!;nguage, the should be a model. Can you conscientiously IIBY to your "Follow me"f 
 To of the lnftnitln phrase ia usually omitted (Implied) alter the 
lng nrbs: btd, <Lrre,Jed, hear, let, mal;(, nud, .u. 8o111e~llle& ~t ~ 11M 
'n.e4 after Mlp, ~lea.e, and " few other nrllf. 
 
 79 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS' 
 
L 
 
~ 
 
Wh&t are the main At what age sh<'Uld 
 
objects a pupil 
 
In teaching grammar? begin formal grammar? 
 
I. What is meant by technicn.l grammar? 
 
'-Name the two grammatical units. Which should be the sta.rtlng point 
 
In teaching grammar? Why? 
 
I. What are the main divisions of grammar? Of what does each treat? 
 
n. 
 
& Define a phrase. Give example of a complex phrase. 7, Name, define, and lllustrate the three complements. 1. In parsing, what Is each complement called? t Define a clause; a dependent clause. 10. What three parts of speech are used to connect dependent clauses 'I 
u. How does a compound sentence dilfer from a complex ~entence? 
12. How Is a complex sentence cla.ssifioo aa to JMa11ing' a. compound sen 
tence? 11. I a period placed at the end of every declarative sentence? 1C. Which should precede, analysis or pa!'!ling? Why? U. Should pupils ever be given exercises In " false syntax "? 
 
m. 
 
11. Name the five English words that have three ease-forms each. 11. Since the noun has but one Inflected form, why should the construction s 
-b' nf nouns be taught? 
18. What is meant by .Wstantlve' jln!u lt. Define and ilhstrate a transitive verb; a copulative verb, 20. Wby are personal pronouns so called? 2L ntustrate In sentences the following constructions : (1) Indirect object, 
(2) retained object, (3) predicate nomlnat!Te used abstractly, (4) adverb used independently. 22. Define a participlfi'. Give an example of (1) a participle used M an adjective, (2) a participial adjective, 2S. GlTe example of an infinitive phrase used (!) M a noun, (2) as an ad. Terb. 
24. After what words is the algn of the lnllnit!Te usually omitted? 
~ Wb~t p~rt of pooch io '!aver~ I!IO'!e ~ e,n elemen~ of a scqtcnca? 
 
  GEOGRAPHY. 
BY E. C. BRANSON, ST.A.TE NoRMAL ScnooL. 
(Copyrighted.) 
CHAPTER I. 
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF GEOGRAPHY. 
1.-WHAT GEOGRAPHY IS. (1} It is a stuuy of the earth's surface, as the home of man. 
The word geography means earth-writing. In geography we study God's handwriting upon th1 1 
earth. (2) It is, therefore, a study of the conditions that make thE 
earth's surface a home for man. 
2.-WHAT THE SUBJ.$CT INCLUDES. 
(I) Geographical Forms (of land and water). a. A s th ey are. b. Map-language for these. c. The reading of map-language. 
(2) The Geographical Forces. a. H eat and cold. b. Ligh t. c. Gravitation. d. The vital forces of plant and animal life.  
(3) The Geographical Agents. n. Air. b. Water. ~. Mineral matter, d, Or~anic forms. 
 
 {4) Plant Life (Surface Coverings). Its relation to animal life specially. 
(5) Animal Life. Its relation to man specially. 
(6) Man. a. As be is conditioned by all these. b. As he modifies all these. 
 
8.-NOTE. 
 
(1) That Geography study is Nature study-the great 
 
mation study in elementary education. 
 
(2) That it is a composite o! all the sciences; hence 
 
.difficulty of teaching it successfully. 
 
(3) That getting ready to teach the subject iij a 
 
work, and furnishes the common school teacher 
 
portunity for the most liberal self-culture. 
 
(4) That a good geography text-book will have lei!Bons 
 
sensible proportion, in all. the six fundamental 
 
jects named. 
 
(5) That a poor geogmphy will neglec~ the 2d, Bd, 4th 
 
5th subjects, and overstress map-studies and 
 
geography. 
 
(6) That poor geography-teaching emphasizes man's 
 
about the earth and neglects God'l!l book about 
 
earth-the great open.book of Nature. 
 
(7) That good teaching in geography opens a pupil's eyes 
 
the great world outside, and prepares him to 
 
stand the Geography book. 
 
(8) That the main question, all the time is, How did 
 
Earth's surface come to be a home for man? 
 
What did the earth-worm have to do with it? 
 
frost? The rainfalls? The streams? 
 
(9) That a main purpose in this syllabus is to magnify 
 
dignify a commonplace subject, and to stimulate 
 
indifferent teacher to liberal self-culture in a 
 
field of learning. 
 
(10) That the . real teacher can be sp stimulated, 
 
poor teacher cannot b!J. 
 
 
 
 - 83 
, 4.-WHY WE TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 
(I) 'l'oenrich the pupil's mind with real knowledge by di rect observation of Nature- her forms, forces, procesaes, and creatures. 
(I} To prepare him to interpret and appropriate the accumulation of race-wisdom about th e earth. 
(I) To equip hi m with firs t h and _experiences for entrance 
into the formal sciences later. (4) To wake up his mind so that h e ma y go ori. to educate 
himself in studying the world he lives in. Col. Jim Smith is a great farmer because he knows bow to study corn and cattle, soil and men. G~ ograph y has a practical as well as a cultural value. 
(I) To free him from narrow, two-penny not ions of man and 
his achievements, of policies an d measures ; to broaden his horizon, and.to enable him to see a long way beyond his father's corn-crib. (I) To make him feel at home in the world he lives in; to enjoy it and subdue it for the highest uses, "for the glory of God and the relief of man's estate." ('I) !o make him feel at last that citizenship is partnership in every good undertaking and in all perfection. (I) To put hi m i nto proper relationship with Nature, Human Nature, and God. 
I.-INFORMATIONAL LIBRARY IN GEOGRAPHY. 
, . TEACHERS:- 
(1) Shaler's Geology. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. (I) Guyot's E arth and Man. Cbas. Scribner's Sons, N.Y. {3) 'Marsh's Man and Nature . Cb as. Scribner's Sons, N.Y. (C) Heilprjn's The Earth and Its Story. Leach, Shewell 
and Sanborn, N.Y. Ballard's The World of Matter. D. C. Heath & Co. 
Huxl ~'s P hysiograplily. D. Appleton & Co., N.Y. Tyndall's Forms of Water. D. Appleton. & Co., N.Y. Treat's Home Studies in Nature. .A.m. Book Cnm~ 
pany, N. Y. 
 
 84 
(9) Geikie's P hysical Geography. N.Y. 
(10) Crosby's Common Minerals and Rocks. D. C. &Co. 
(11) Hyatt's About Pebbles. D. C. Heath & Co. (12) Newell's Botany. Books 1 and 2. Ginn & Co. (13) Mrs. Dana's How to Know the Wild Flowers. 
Scribner's Sons, N. Y. (14) Hyatt and Arm's I nsecta. D. C. Heath & Co. (15) Longman's Geog. an d New School Atlas. 
Green & Co., N. Y. (16) Grove's Geography. D. Appleton & Co. (17) Martineau's Earth, Air, and Water. George 
& Sons, London. 
FoR CHILDREN:- 
(1) Wright's Nature Readers. D. C. :Heath & Co. (2) Ginn's All the Year Around. Ginn & Co . (3) Johonnot'~; Natural History Series. American 
Co. (4) Jane Andrew's Books, Seven Little Sisters, and 
Ginn & Co. . (5) Flagg's A Year with the Birds. 
lishing Co., Boston. (6) -Aunt Marth a's Corner Cupboard. 
-lishing Co., Boston. (7) Montieth's Popular Science Reader. American 
Co. (8) The Natural History of Selbourne. Ginn & Co. (9) Johonnot's Glimpses of the Animal World. A 
Book Co. . (10) Morley's Song of Life. A. C. McClurg & Co., 
(11) The Zig-Zag Journeys. The Lathrop Publishing Boston. 
(12) The World by the Fireside. Thos. Nelson Sons, (13) Rupert's Geographical Reader. Leach, 
Sanborn, N.Y. _{14) Johonnot's Geographical Reader. American 
( j.'\) Ballou's J ourney Around the World. Ghm & 
 
 85 
 
Here ie a magnificent working library in Geography. I 
 
name them as the very choicest books in my own Geograph- 
 
ical library. They can be h ad from any general book dealer 
 
in the larger cities. . 
 
. 
 
6.-QUIZ REVIEW. 
 
1. What is Geography? 
 
Meaning of th.e word? 
 
In Geography what ought we to be studying? 
 
2. What does the subject include? 
 
How are surface forms to be first studied ? 
 
What is a map ? 
 
What is necessary to the reading of a map? 
 
What is meant by map-reading? 
 
/ 
 
What are the Geographical Forces? 
 
Name the 'Geographical Agents? 
 
Difference between Forces and Agents? 
 
How is Plant Life regarded in Geography? 
 
Animal Life? 
 
What does Geography tell us about Man? 
a. What kind of a study is Geography? 
 
What is meant by an informational study? 
 
Why is Geography so valuable for the teachers T 
 
What is true of a good Geography text-book? 
 
Of a poor Geography? 
 
The chief fault of poor Geography teaching? 
 
What will good Geography-teaching accom pi ish? 
 
What is the main question in Geography? Illustrate. 
 
The main purpose of the syllabus? 1 The mark of a poor teacher always? 
 
._ Why do we teach Geography? 
 
What is "real" knowledge? 
 
How obtained? 
 
Source of it? 
 
What does good Geography-teaching prepare the pupil 
 
to do? 
 
The relation of Geography to the formal sciences 
 
studied later? 
 
What .special educative value bas Geography? 
 
 What practical value? Page calls Geography a "catholic study." Why? How is a pupil to be related to the world he lives What view of citizenship is herein presented? How does Geography help toward t his ? H ow is every man related? Illustrate. How does Geography help in this? 
CHAPTER II. 
HOME GEOGRAPHY. 
I.-WH AT IT MEANS. 
(1) It means a geographical study of the child's world outdoor life. 
(2) It is a simple study (1) of the familiar surface forma his neighborhood, (2) the changes t hat these are der going, and (3) the relations of Geographical and Agents to Plant and Animal Life. 
(3) It is teaching, also, geographical language for the edge gained. 
(4) Thus, it means, also, but much more than, mapphig schoolroom, th e school grounds, and teaching map locations and directions. 
(5) It is Nature-study from a geographical sta.ndpoint-Iln\ a book-study at first. It is meant to b e a pr~pa.ration for the geography-book, and a constant ment of book -study throughout the course. 
!.-THE METHODS. 
(1) A ten-minute quiz each day upon an orderly set topics; the purpose being (1) to h ave the really to see the geographical facts in t heir own world, and (2} to think and (3) talk about whai diScov er . 
 
 87 
 
(I) page would call these "waking-up" studies. -The 
 
method best suited for the work is completely exhib- 
 
ited in his chapter upon" Waking Up l\Jin d" (Page's 
 
Theory and Practice of Teaching). Study that chap- 
 
ter thoroughly, and t hen, in a simil ar way, give any 
 
of the follow ing lessons. 
 
(8) The teacher cannot do much fiel d-work in geography 
 
with the children. W hat he can teach them about 
 
geography in the schoolroom is-of small value com- 
 
pared with what he can stimulate them to discover 
 
for themselves outdoors. 
 
 
 
a.-H0 :\1E-STUDY LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY. 
[Ste Frye's Child and Nature, and Frye's Brooks and Brook 
Basins .] 
(1) 011 GEOGRAPHICAL FORMS OF L AND AND W ATER. (1) Slopes. 
(1) Develop idea of slope. (2) Then challenge the class to find some land that doe'l not slope. (3) Have children describe their slopes, getting such terms, meantime, as gentle, abrupt, lon~, short, smooth, rough, bare, rocky, grassy, woody, barren, fertile, bluff, precipice. (4) Thought question: What are the uses of slopes ? 
(2) H ills and Ridges. (1) Develop the idea of a pair of slopes meeting at the top. (2) Have these locat ed outdoors. (3) Call for the t erm" h ill ." Give the idea and term " ridge." (4) Have some ridges located and described. (-5) Develop the idPa of "water-parting.'' (6) Have hills and ridges modeled in sand (outdoors in the school yard at play time). Expand the ideas of hill and ridge into mountain and range. Show pictures abu ndantly here. In similar way, introduce the ideas of plateaus, peaks, volcanoes, deserts. Thought question : !What are the uses of hills and rid~es ? 
 
 88 
{3) Valle1J8. (1) Develop the idea of slopes meeting at the bottom. (2) Get or give the term "water meeting" for the line of intersection. (4) Have such slopes located in the neighborhood, and (5) the water-meeting identified. (6) Trace the water-parting around the upper edge. (7) Model the brook basin iu sand (o utdoors preferably). Study marshes, meadows, swamps. Thought question: H ow are these formed ? Study plains, prairies, llanos, pampas, gorges, caiions, showing pictures abundantly, and challenging free questions from the children. Use pictures freely. Thought question: Whatare the uses of valleys? 
(4) Shorr's (coasts , banks). S:udy the brook or branch in the brook basin. Bring out the idea of bank or shore, flood, plains, cape, promontory, bluff, peninsula, isthmus, island, and have these identified and named outdoors. Have these forma and terms firmly associated. The land modeling will help, but it ought always to fol, low a study of the real forms, if possible. Treat the idea of seaco11st, beach, coastal plains, marshes, &c., with abundant pictures and stories. The order always is observation followed by imagination and thinking. 
(FRYE'S BROOKS AND BROOK BASINS.) 
(5) Brook Lessons. Bring out the idea of banks, bed, channel, source, mouth, tributary, pool, pond, waterfall, strait, bay. Have these found the neighboring stream, and described. E xpand these ideas into river systems, oceans, h arbors, using picturE's and s abundantly. Though t questions: 
 
 89 
does the water in brooks and rivers come from ? What are the uses of brooks? Of lakes? Of waterfalls ? Of harbors? Of seas and oceans ? The teacher's own knowledge ought to be rich-richer by far than the children can give or get for many years yet. 
(~) ON Tllll GEOGRAPHICAL FORCES AND AGENTS, 
(1) Water. (Frye's Child and Nature, Chap. VI.) (1) How water gets into the air. (2) Forms of water in the air (fogs, clouds, invisible vapor). (3) How wat er gets out of the air. (Condensation lessons.) (4) Forms of water getting out of the air (dew, frost, rain, snow lessons) . Story of the water drop in the air. Thought questions : What are the uses of clouds? 01 dew? Of frost? Of rain ? W hat b ecomes of all the rain? Why does water run down bill? 
(2) Soil Making. (Ga. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 11.) 
What soil is. Lesson on a piece of granite or gneiss. Story of the grain of sand. Story of the pebble. Earthworms, ants, and beetles as soil-makers. Frost as a soi\ maker. How soil is distributed. Story of the muddy streamlet. What are fertilizers. Thought questions: How did the pebble get roun ded ? What is .the most fertile parts of slopes ? Why are pond bottoms rich 1 Lessons in Erosion, Transportation, Depositation. 
(3 ) Drainage. Overland drainage. Underground drainage. Springs and wells. Later, hot springs and geysers with pictures and descriptions. Thought questions: What k inds of slop<"e wash badly 7 Why? What h elps under 
 
 90 
ground drainage? Why do farmera t!Jeir turns? What good does water derground? Story of the drop of derground? (4) ileal and Light Lessons. \Vhy the blacksmith heats the tire putting it on the wheel-frame ? is b etween the rails on the railroad of heat on wate r? Why the smokes some mornings in winter? the water-dust in the air comes Have the pupils observe the wate the stove and a saucer of water the sun. Effect of beat on air? ' pils observe the draft around a stove place. What is wind? w hat sets motion? Eff"ct of heat on the babv When do seeds sprout? Why ? Lhe Baby Seeds' Royal Vi sitors Heat and Moisture). Have children seerl. germination. Uses of clothing. hair, fur and' feathers ? How is the heated? The hottest season ? The The hottest part of the day ? The Have children observe the noonday regularly. Quiz upon it and mark it fortnight on the floor with t he date. and night- how caused? Uses of? est days? Shortest? 'l~he four these to be .studied as they come on, comparisons elicited. (Changes in and animai life, appearance and ance of the birds and insects, fro~ snakes, and so on.) 
8. DIRECTIONS AND JYI APS. Teach and drill upon the horizon directions (N., W., N. E., S. E ., S. W., N. W.) Directions homes from the schoolhouse; of objects in the house from some central object. Map the 
 
 91 
bouse. Teach and drill upon map directions. Map of the town or county. Drills upon map directions. Introduce the gl obe again. Teach ohe continents and oceans. "Stories of the Seven Little Sisters " and "Each and All." Characteristic animals of each continent as follows: N. America, bison, wolf, bear; S. America, monkey, boa-constrictor, ant-eater; Europe, wild boar, reindeer; Asia, tiger, camel, elephant; Africa, lion, gorilla, ostrich; Australi a, kangaroo, paradise birds; Sea life, the whale, the coral animal, the star-fish. (Sea Life in Stories Mother Nature Told.-Andrews.) Bring out the iueas of zones and locate on the globe. Stories of Arctic and Tropical Life. (Agoonack, the E squimau Maiden, and Manenko , in "Seven Little Sisters.") Why it is so cold around the Poles and so hot around the Equator. Fix the attention of the children upon the continents (on the globe) as these descriptions of animals and stories of child life are progressing. 
4. PLANT LIFE. (L) How plants grow. (2) What plants eat. (3) What plants are good for. (4) Lessons on food plants, medicinal plants, clothing plants, building and furniture woods. (5) Compare plants with our bodies-identifying their mouths, noses, feet, bodies, arms, fingers, skin, blood, &c. (6) Planting seasons. Harvest seasons. (7) The appearance of the plants during the differ ent seasons. (8) How plants help underground drainage, and prevent washing. (9) Children, study Nature's Treasureyox:es (seed pods) , collecting and mounting these on boards. (10) How seeds are distributed. (11) Plant enemies. (12) What plants have to do with occupations. (13) C~ops in the county; (14) in the State. Make a product map of the State. Wonderful plants: The Big Trees of California, the mosses of arctic North America; the India-rubber. tree of South America; the vine- 
 
 92 
 
yards of Europe; the date palm of 
 
tea plants of Asia; the peculiarities of 
 
in Australia. 
 
 
 
Food lessons on mace, cloves, nir._A ____ 
 
mega, pepper, mustard, olives, 
 
lemons, bananas, coffee, tea, 
 
(nigger toes), almonds, English 
 
figs. Where do they come from ? 
 
things about them ? The idea is to 
 
continents and countries with interest to 
 
dren before they come to study the less 
 
details and features of the countries of 
 
Gray's" How Plants Grow," and" 
 
tha's Corner Cupboard" will aid the 
 
greatly. 
 
5. AN I MAL LIFE. 
(1) Animals useful to men: Food animals, animals, draught animals, scavenger Have these listed and talked two in each list studied in detail. Have dren contrast the cow and the horse; mals also. Have the children to list the eaters, the grain-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the livers, the ground-livers. Study how each of animal is fitted for the life it leads. birds: the scratchers, the perchers, the the swimmers. Compare the feet of these of birds. Hibernation:  What becomes frogs, the snakes, the spiders, the flies, the the cray fish, the birds in winter? Useful in the different countries. Have stories for these. Have each located on the 
 
6. HUMAN LIFE. 
 
Child Life in the different zones and countries as indicated. Frye's "Primary Geography,'' in the Different Countries" (Kellogg and Co., and The World by the Fireside (Thos. Nelson N.Y.), will furnish materials abundantly. "Ten 
 
 93 
Boys," by Jane Andrews is indispensable in giving a historical view at Geography for children. Locate! Locate ! ! everything. 
Study, with abundant Pictures, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Sitka, New .Mexico, Rio J aneiro, London, Berlin, Paris, Constantinople, St. Petersburg, Cairo, Johannesburg, Calcutta, Damascus, H ong Kong, Peking, Tokio, Melbournethese t wenty-one cities especially; chief industries, routes of trade, and why; r eligion, manners and customs. 
Excite the children to ask question about the pictures. Don't lecture-or no more than is absolutely n ecessary. By this time, say in the latter part of the Third Reader year, 111e children can take a good Primary Geography book. 
REVIEW QUIZ ON CHAPTER II. 
L What is meant by Home Geography? It is a simp_le study of what three thingp? What is meant by Geographical language? Why must this also b e taught ? What is Home Geography not? What relation has Home Geography to book Geography ? 
I. Bow is work on H ome Geography to be done? What three purposes are to b e k ept in min d 'l Describe Page's "Waking up mind" method? Apply it to some Geographical topic. W hy cannot the teacher do much field work with his class in Geography 'l What is more important? 
L Write out the six b eadings for the main subjects in home study lessons in Geography, an d list the subctopics. (1) What are the four things to be taught about slopes? What is the main question? Write out ten uses of the elope. (2) What is a hill or ridge? A water-parting? What are the six steps in teaching hills and ridges? The ideas of hill and ridge can be expanded into what? HowT Write out ten uses of rid ges and hills. (3) What is a valley? A water-meeting? Contrast ridge and valley. 
 
 94 
/ 
What is a brook-basin? How is it bounded? the seven steps in teaching valleys? What studied in the valleys about home? Into what ideas be expanded? How? State four good questions about valleys. (4) What ideas and terms can the child get in shores or banks of watercourses? When modeling occur? Into what can these ideas be ed? How ? In v, h tt order does the mind work in Geographical study? (5) What ideas of forms can be gotten by the child in studying a or branch? Into what can these ideas be State ten good ''thought questions" about What should be true of the teacher's (Tyndl.'ll's "l!'orms of Water" will help the he1e. )  2. Narne the Geographical Forces. Geographical Agen ts. (1) State four kinds of graphical lessons about water. How appeal child's fancy? Why do so? State ten thought tio na about the Geographical uses of water. (2) is soil? What are the constituents of granite? did the sand clay come from ? The uses of Clay? Tell the story <>f the pebble. How are worms, ants, and beetles soil-makers? How make soi l ? Frost? How is soil distribute~? the richest part of a slope? Why? Wby are pond-bottoms rich? (3) State two kinds of The uses of each? How are springs formed? by a drawing.) What kind of slope.i wash Why? Wha t helps n11d,frground dra inage? peal to the child's fan cy ? Why? Menti on three of work done by water as it flows off what is meant by eros ion ? Transportation ? tion in Geography? (4) What law of heat is brought out simply? Give fiv e illustrations of it. three ' thought questions ' about wind. State four lessons on seed~. How give observation heat plan t life? How appeal to the child's fancy? Foqr 'thought questions ' on sources of the 
 
 95 
beat 1 What observation lessons may precede a study of the seasons ? State four season lessons for children. g. StRte two kinfls of map directions to be taught in Geography. How? How introduce the .idea of con tinents, oceans, and zones? Why so? 4. Stafe some kinds of lessons on plants proper to Geography. Compare a plant with your own body. Mention five ways in which seeds are distributed. ll1ention ten plant enemies. What are the chief crops of your county ~ Its chief occupations? Chief crops in the State? Its chief occupations? Make a product map of Georgia. How increase the child's interest in the countries of the globe? Mention some wonderful points of each continent. Men tion some interesting lessons on table foods. Tell where the following foods come from: Mace, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, butternuts, almonds, dates, figs? 5. Mention some lessons showing the usefuless of annimal life to man. How give these lessons? How develop the child's faculty of comparison 1. Why? How teach the adaptation of animals to the life they lead? State some lessons in this subject. Study and draw the foot of a hen, a pigeon, a w6odpecker, a duck. How is each foot adapted to the life of the bird? State some interesting facts about hibernation. Mention some animals specially serviceable to man in the different countries. 6. Why present to children child-life in the different zones and countries? Why locate everything in these elementary Geography lessons 1 Why teach a few great cities fully instead of thousands as we used to do 1 How teach these cities to children? What are some main questions to have in mind in teaching these cities? Why not lecture on these cities to children 1 What is better? When can children begin to study a Geographical book profitably? 
 
 96 
CHAPTER III. 
HOW TO TEACH THE GEOGRAPHY BOOJt, 
I-PREFATORY. 
The chances are that you are going to have t.o use time; irrational Geography book for many years yet. only thing to do is to do the best thing possible with chance offers in the situation in which you find vo'""''"J._ will be necessary therefore :- 
1. To be a scholar in Geography much beyond the you teach. 
2. To know more about the daily lessons with your shut than the class does with its book shut. 
3. To omit the dead, meaningless, and useless the book whenever necessary; and to do so 
4. To enlarge, independently, the meager cbaptera book,--11s those on relief, geographical agents, climate, plant life, commerce and routes, for instance. 
5. To have a familiar acquaintance with standard fessional texts in the subject. (See Chapter IlL, Part III. of Swett's "~Iethod of ing" is especially suggestive to the Common teacher. 
6. To know that a lesson may be interesting being educative; but that it cannot be without being interesting. 
11.-HINTS ABOUT METHODS, 
1. Bo()k must not be too hard. Be sure that the geography book is not too difficult the class to read. The simplest good know is about as difficult as the ordinary Reader. 
2. The language of the book must be mastered. The geography book is first of all a reading book read by the child intelligently. Therefore see that he learns (J} the forms (spelling and 
 
 97 
 
elations) , (2) the meanings and (3) the uses of the vocabulary of the book, lesson by lesson; also (4) b e must be taught to look at a map and to form from it a good mental picture of the country it -represents. The power to do this will develop slowly in the best pupil under the best teaching. 
 
Translate the book by appeals to the familiar. 
 
In order to give reality and meaning to what the child 
 
studies in the geography book, call up his outdoor experiences, for illustration and explanation. Relate what he already ~nows to what he reads about. Skill 
 
in doing this evidences the true teacher. Read Page'P 
 
Theory and Practice, p. 296-8 (Phelps's Ed.). 
 
/ 
 
/)er:el''P Imagination. In order to cultivate the pupil's imagination, and make living knowledge out of dead information. (I) After finishing the study of a country or city have the p~>pil place himself, in fancy, in a particular place, and tell what h e sees. Thus, after fini shing E).!ypt, say, "You may stand on top of the pyramid of Gizeb, and tell me what you see." It is always an effectivt> and interesting review. (2) Or have them write up imaginary journeys through a country that has been studied. 
 
5 .'i<:/. nol Cabine/.8. 
 
l!ave the children to fill a cabinet or museum with all sorts of geographical objects,-treasures from nature's storeh ouse, leaves pressed, mounted and labeled, minerals and rocks, seed pods, grl!sses, bird nests, and so on endlessly ; articles from the different countries of the earth,-Ind ia-rubber and coffee from Brazil, quinine from Peru, firecrackers and tea from China, ivory from Africa, figs from Asia Minor, lemons from Sicily, and so on. Label each article, showing the c9untry it is from. 
I. Tmch the Pictures in the Book. Pay special attention to the pictures in the geography book. Quiz upon them lesson by lesson, till they 
 
 98 
have told their full story. Such quizzing dren usually look at these pictures without they have to tell. 
7. Picture S(Jrap-Books. Engage the children in filling a tie1ograJ>Meal scrap-book. A business man's Pocket hold a bushel of scraps. Each pocket can and devoted to the pictures of some one or tries. Afterwards, the pictures can be and the best selected and posted into a Advertising cards- especially the A1 cards-the monthly magazines, the rail books, book catalogues, &c., furnish 1''~'""''- dantly. 
8. Crayon Relief Maps. Maps and illustrations in crayon relief are after a little practice. Augsburg's" Easy Draw in Geography" will help the drawing of relief maps is much more lmDOII'tliDI that of outline maps. 
9. Outl~ne Map Drawing. Outline map drawing ought to accompany work throughout. Ashmore's notions tions about this are the very best. See lines of Methods, 1896, pp. 67, 72. Have work displayed on the walls. 
10. Progu-asive Outline Map1. Learn the use of progressive outline maps. buy these, or make them yourself easily.  country on stiff pasteboard, cut it out along line, and then the pupils use it for quickly their own outlines on sheets of paper. The is to put into the map the geographical these are studied day by day. Preserve and the best of these on the walls. 
11. Sand-and-Mucilage Mapa. The easiest of all relief maps to make are the mucilage maps. Draw th\1 outline on a l.ce 
 
 99 
(from the dry-goods stores). Mucilage the surface inside the outline. Sprinkle fine sand on it, and leave it to dry. Sha,ke off the loose sand, and put more mucilage where the highlands are, and again pour on the sand. When it is dry, build up your plateaus. then your mountain ranges, then your peaks. Meantime, with your finger, you easily correct any mistak es and shape up the forms before they are completely dried. It will take the best mucilage. Buy your gum-arabic, and mix yourself. (I got this idea from Supt. Noble, Wilmington, N.C.) 
12. Production Map3. Taking the outline maps, made as indicated, shade in the agricultural crops and mineral productions as these subjects are being located in course of the lessons. The production maps in Redway's Elementary Geography are good. The children easily and quickly <lo this work. Preserve and display on the walls the best work 
lS. Dissected Jfap3. 
Dissected maps are easily made-of the U. S., say. Trace upon good pasteboard the large U. B. map in the Geography. '!'hen with a cobbler's knife cut out all the St.ates carefully. The smaller children find good occupation in putting the pieces together to form the whole map. 
I'- Production Map of Ge()T"gia. 
An interesting production map of Georgia is easily made upon a large sheet of draughtman's paper. Trace it fro m a medium size wall map. Mount it against a smooth surface. Put in the rivers, mountains, railroads and cities. Then, with mucilage, stick on rice, corn, sugar-cane seed, cotton, coal, marble, &c., where these productions are found. 
In all of these forms of occupation the teacher will do as little as possible himself and arouse and direct the children's energies instead. 
 
 100 
i5. An Outdoor Belief Map of Georgia. In a protected place on the school grounds a m ap of the State can be made by the play times. The teacher outlines the State building up the slopes, highlands, ridges ' tains.  Then be can safely leave the in the rivers, railroads, cities and themselves, the teacher merely overlookina: recting errors. N. E. Ware's children did H awkinsville interestedly anrl profitably, 
16. Weather Observation3. These ought to be recorded on the blackboard twice a day at stated times. The idea is, to lead the children into noting causes. At the start the thermometer, of the wind and t he aspects of the sky ( foggy, rain, hail, snow) need to be re(:ordec~ with dew or frost, or their absence, as These records can get to be more elaborate 
17. School Correspondence8. The teacher can, by letter with some other the North, or West, or Southwest, start up respondences between t heir pupils upon graphical surroundings of the two classes. getting to be a common resort in this countl'J'. 
18. Locate everything in the History Lessom. 1 This ought to be a standing requirement iD teaching, as well as in such reading lessons as it. The habit of locating what is read, wh,PnoA'IIII sible, will teach your pupils more awhile than you can possibly do now. 
19 Attend to Current Geographical New8. 
 For instance, post on the bulletin-board of the 
a new~paper map of the Klondike regions, interesting information about the country; or of 
20. Deal Sparingly with Statistia. Areas, populations, heights, latitudes, lorlgii:U<l81 the like. Accustom pupils to turning 
 
 101 
Into real knowledge by eomparillon. Thus it is only a little problem in arithmetic to learn, for instance, that India is about as large as the United States east of the Mississippi river, that France is about as large as South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; that all the people in Georgia would make a city onethird as large as London. It is only by comparison that any kind of information becomes definite. et~mpare I Compare II All tk time Ill Every new subject should be studied by itself and then in comparison with what is already known. When the children come to study South America, have them compare it with North America; the Nile with the Amazon; the Japanese Islands with the British Isles; dry climate countries with moist climate countries ; tropical life with arctic life, and so on endlessly. If your pupils are not comparing, you are not teaching. Remember that. See the comparisons in Chapter III., Part III., of Swett. It Jllp (/uuti01u . Usually there are entirely too many map questions. In a geography book at my right hand there are nearly 6,000 of them; most of them too, entirely destitute of significant or interesting information for the child. He does not remember all these; he ought not to do it, if he could. The details in geography you have yourself forgotten ought to be a hint that the children will also forget them. Why waste time upon matters that n either enrich nor discipline the mind profitably? As a rule, it is best to have the map studies directly in connection with the dt>scriptive matter, and following it as a special review. Topical Study. 
As soon as possible, the class should settle down regularly into topical study and recitation upon geo~traphical subjects; because (1 ) it throws their knowledge into orderly systematic form, (2) provokes independent investigation, (S) brings all t he old geography books abo ut the home into service and (4) develops in the child a sense of completeness. 
 
 102 
24. Supplementary Reading Boob in Geography. Manage in some way to have just a few your desk for tbe free use of your pupils. books of J ane Andrews or J ohonnot (See will enrich and arouse the minds of your 
26. Quiz: Don't Lecture too Much. Remember that your class is much more the knowledge they have gained than in tion you have to give them ; more in their tation than in yours. Suppression on your pression on their part; or depression on part. 
III.-DoNT's. 
1. Don't forget that the geography book is usually the maturity of the child. 
2. Don't make the lessons -too long. Attraction than propulsion-leading t han driving. 
3. Don't fail to draw on the child's own experiences tration and explanation of the book lessons. 
4. Don't overload the child's memory with useless It doesn't matter much if he doesn't know angel is, or the Chuput river. 
5. Don't forget to appeal to observation, Jmagina'tlCil thinking as well as to verbal memory teaching. 
6. Don't fail to exhaust the information of your clasa you begin to lecture. 
7. Don't neglect local and current geography. 8. Don't expect the child to remember what you 
gotten in Geography. 9. Don't expect the child to know mote about the 
with his book shut than you do with yours shut. 10. Don't forget that you are not teaching at all 
pupils are formi ng the habit of comparison. 11. Don't neglect reviews. Young teachers usually 
here. 12. Don't fail to have plenty of map-drawing. 13. Don't forget that relief map-drawing is 
than outline map-drawing. 
 
 103 
 
J)on't rail to have your class<lraw a map of the State once 
 
8 yc<H at least. Don't make a hobby of . map-drawing,. and waste time 
 
foolishly. 
 
 
 
Don't fail to save all the Geography pictures that fall into 
 
your bands. Do:>n't fail to learn bow to teach Geography from pictures. 
 Don't hesitate to buy a good professional book on th e sub- 
 
ject occasionally. Don't forget that when you know too niuch about Geogra- 
phy for a small place, you'll know just about enough 
 
for a bigger place elsewhere. 
 
- 
 
a Don't fail to visit .the old b ook stores in the ,cities. I 
 
bought two good books for m y Geography library in 
 
them the other day : Captain Cook's Voyage, 5c, and 
 
Davis's Two Years before the Mast, l Oc. 
 
11. Don't put off private study in _physical sciences as an aid 
 
to Geography t eaching (and to en!arged scholarship as 
 
well). & .Don't forget th at when you have carrie to be a really com- 
petent teacher of Geography, that you have acquired a 
pretty liberal education . & Don't forget that Geography books and Geography teach 
ing are un dergoing the most r adical changes. M. Don't forget that you'll be stranded high and dry on this 
subject if you don't wake up. 
S. Don't forget that there is always room at the top in any de 
partment of teaching .. Don't fail to read the Report of the Com mittee of Fifteen 
 
on Geography-Teaching. W rite the United States Commissioner of E ducation, W ashington, D. C. 
 
ho things in conclusion: 1. My aim bas been to supple - t and not tO supplant Ashmore's notes on Geography- 
lllching in the Georgia Teachers' Outlines for 1897. That is 
Wholly admirable. I would not change a syllable of it. 2. My 
IWD notes have b een made up under great hardships-for love, 
. . not for pay, and I therefore crave, even if I do not dellna, the kindly criticism of my fellow-teachers. 
 
 t 
104 
IV.-QUIZ REVIEW. 
f. What are the faults of the old-time Ge,om"'-"'1> what is necessary in order to use a poor book wisel y ? Instance somfl of the useless poor Geography-book. What is to be done What are some of the subjects ihat are meagerly in ordinary Geography-books? the teacher be able to do? H ow is the familiar acquaintance with t he best methods raphy-teaching? Is an educative exercise interesting? Why so? 
II. 1. Why must not the Geography-book he too 
Are they usually too difficult for classes? Primary Geographies are cult as what No. of Reader? 2. What four things are necessary to undP.I~Rbln.! language of the book 'l Which is most Why? 3. How is the pupil to get firm hold of the the b_ook? State the illustration in 4. State two ways of developing the Geography-teaching. Why appeal to the tion? 5. How can school cabinets be filled 1 objects for a Geographical cabinet. such a cabinet? 6. Why set the class to studyi ng closely the the Geography-books ? Select a picture an exercise upon it. 7. What are the uses of a scrap-book of tures? How fill such a scrap-book? pictures "f 8. Why are crayon relief maps more Irnouroutline maps? Draw a relief map of 9. H ow can children come to understand means? (p. 67, Syllabus '97.) The map-drawing? The aim at first? class is to be drilled in map-drawing. labus of '97.J 
 
 105 
 
10. State how a sand-and-mucilage map is made? State 
 
three advantages t his form of relief map has. 
 
11. What is a progressive outline map? How used? 
 
How made, easily and abundantly? 
 
12. What are production maps? H ow made? Why 
 
preserve and display the best maps of the class ? 
 
Their special value? 
 
18. How make a dissected map of the United States ? 
 
Its uses? 
 
14. How make a production map of Georgia? _Why re 
 
sort to such a device ? 
 
15. How make an outdoor relief map of Georgia? Rea 
 
son for having the children mainly do the work? 
 
16. How record weather observations? Why? What 
 
records might be made ? 
 
11. What is meant by school correspondences? How 
 
start them up ? 
 
18. How take note of current Geographical news? Men 
 
tion some important Geographical news recently. 
 
19. IIow teach statistics? Why? Size of India? France ? 
 
H ow ascertained? 
 
20. How should any subject be studied 1 Reason for 
 
each step? Illustrate. Contrast N. America 
 
with S. America. The Nilfl and the Amazon. 
 
The British and the Japan Isles. 
 
21. What is true of the map questions in most Geogra- 
 
phy books ? What hint does the teacher have? 
 
The best way of teacbtng map question s? 
 
22. When should pupils b egin to study topically? The 
 
uses of t opical study? Make out a set of topics 
 
for Georgia. 
 
23. The special use of supplementary reading books i11 
 
Geography teaching? How use them? 
 
24. State the reasonsfor teaching by questions instead 
 
nt. 
 
of by lectur es ? 1. Is it tnte that Geographical books are usually too dif- 
 
ficult for the child? 
 
2. Reasons for short lessons? 
 
B. Why must explanations be given in terms of the 
 
child'B own experience ? 
 
 106 
 
 What are the dangers of overtaxing the 
 
ory in Geography ? 
 
6. Define Observation ; Imagination; Thinltin1g.r~ 
 
appeal to each in Geography teaching? 
 
6. When may a teacher properly begin to 
 
Why? 
 
7. Reasons for teaching local and current 
 
8. What may you reasonably expect the child to 
 
in Geography? What conclusion follows? 
 
9. What reasonable demand may pupils make 
 
teacher of Geography ? 
 
10. When are you re ally t eaching? When not? 
 
11. Where do young teachers usually fail? 
 
qualities of a good review in Geography. 
 
12. Why do teachers omit map-drawing? What 
 
consider proper moderation in 
 
13. J ustify, if it can be done, the superior value of 
 
map-drawing? 
 
14. Why have a county and a State map 
 
quently? How frequently? 
 
15. What indicates that a teacher is making a 
 
map-drawing? 
 
16. The uses of Geographical picture3? How use 
 
17. Select a Geographical picture and give an 
 
18. Why buy a professional book on Geography 
 
19. What advantage lies in being an expert tea.nh,~tr1 
 
20. Why visit HOld Book Stores"? 
 
21. How do the physical sciences help in modem 
 
raphy teaching ? I-Iow can the teacher be 
 
in these? Name the physical sciences. 
 
22. What reward lies in being a competent 
 
Geography? Show that this is so ? 
 
23. What radical changes are Geographical books 
 
going? What neglected subjects are being 
 
more fully ? 
 
 
 
24. Penalty for neglecting a thorough preparation? 
 
25. Who i~ getting poor pay? High pay ? 
 
26. What Report is recommended? Where obtatne<~; 
 
NoTE.-Professional courses in common school 
 
 
 
course among the others) can be had at the 
 
Normal School. 
 
 HISTORY. 
BvJ. IIARRTS CHAPPELL, PuESIDENT GEORatA 
NoRMAL A!\D INDUSTRIAL CoLLEGE. 
PREFACE. 
This article bas been prepared by the writer at the request of Georgia's State School Commissioner, Hon. G. R. Glenn. Its object is to offer to the t eachers of Georgia 110me suggestions in regard to teaching United States History. It will be confined strictly to United States History and will not embrace any part of American History outside of the United States. 
History is one of the most interesting of all studies. It Is more interesting than geography; geography is a description of th e stage on which the drama of human life Is enacted, but history is a description of the drama of human life itself. It is more interesting than mathematIcs; mathema tics appeals to the intellect only, but history appeals to the whole mind of man. It is more interesting than psychology; psychology anatomizes ancl analyzes the human soul and points out its relation to environment, but history exhibits the human soul as a living creative power in the act of producing environment. It Is more interesting than natural science; natural science deals with physical forces, but history deals with spiritual forces; how the young Napoleon led his army arcoEs the Alps Is more interesting than how glaciers slide clown the Alps; bow the Puritans established New England is more Interesting than how corals build islands in the sea; how the Southemers "wore themselves to a frazzle" fighting for the Lost Cause is more interesting than how rocks are 
 
 108 
cru m bled to dust by heat and cold, tory is more interesting than studies"; the genesis of th e American Revolution interesting than the germ ination of a bean stalk; Vlashington and Robert E . Lee are more bugs and butterflies. "The proper study of man." 
A number of other 
tory has, and are more important in the narrow none of them possess so high a culture value. properly presented and properly pursued, is most liberalizing of a ll studies. 
To teach history as it should be taught requires part of the teacher a great deal of study, thought, careful preparation. 
It is with sincere matism or cock-sureness that the a uthor offers teachers of Georgia the following suggestions: 
THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 
1. Master thoroughly the text-book that your class Kuow th e book so well that you will not have to open tlle presence of the class. You require your pupils to the lesson with book closed; surely you should be hear the Jesson with book closed. Know every the book incomparably better than the best pupil class knows it. 
2. In your own study use a number. of t ext-books t ile one that your class uses. Compare their nrf!SeJrda of each subject with its presentation by 1your class book. It is impor tant that th ese parallel texts the best books obtainable, ancl some of them .should higher grade than your class book. 
3. You should know a great deal more a bout the than is contained in any text-book. Text-books tory are necessarily bald and inadequate; especially 
 
 109 
the case with United States History, for the extent, im portance and complexity of the subject make it impossible tor It to be presented adequately within the limits of a school text-book. The very best text-book needs to be enlarged, enriched and vitalized by the teacher from his tuner, better and more vivid knowledge of the subject. Therefore, parallel with the study of text-books, read on each subject the best masterpieces that you can procure. Don't waste your time, dissipate your powers, and addle your brain by reading inferior  books on United States History. On this subject, as on all others, the world in our day Is flooded with inferior works. Beware of them. Concentrate your intellectual energies on a few of the very best obtainable books. Lists of such books will be given further on in this article. 
THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION. 
1. Require your PUI?ils to study thoroughly the lesson in the text-book. You can scarcely be too exacting about this. A foolish notion quite commonly prevails among would-be progressive teachers that pupils must not get the lessons in the book. This ioea has been propagated by certain brilliant pedagogica l geniuses who preach the doctrine that the getting of an education should all be a delightful entertainment, a charming _pastime, without labor, without pains, and without the faintest suggestion of drudgery. This is one of the faliacies of the so-called "new education." Believe not in it. "There is no royal road to learning" is a perennial truth. 
2. The text-book is the very backbone of the pupil's knowledge- the ridge connecting and holding firm all that comes to him from other sources. '.rhe pupil should be rerequircd to master the body of facts that it contains so thoroughly that he can stand a rigid examination on them. He should not be encouraged or even permitted to commit to memory, as a rule, the exact language of the book, but should be able to give in his own language the-sub- 
11auce or e:;;sence ot every p~m~aph ip the lesson ~- 
 
 110 
signed. Of course, the paragraphs in the book greatly in importance-some may well be entirely omitted, some lightly passed over, while others must be very thoroughly studied, and a few perhaps committed to memory verbatim. These differel:lCes of emphasis should, as far as practicable, be indicated by the teacher In assigning the lesson. 'l'he pupil should be instructed to examine himself before com ing to the r ecitation by asking himself the qu~astions that in most t ext-books are put at the end of each lesso n or at the oottom of the page. This Is "oldfashioned," but it. is nevertheless right and good. Of course, the teacher must not use these questions in his examination of the class, but must invent his own questions; this he can r eadily and skillfully do if he has himself thoroughly mastered the lesson. 
3. The writet w ell knows that in giving the above advice in r egard to th e pupil's use of the t ext-book he baa gone directly counter to the doctrine of some so-called "Improved methods," but from very close and careful personal observation and experience he is perfectly convinced that the so-called "improved methods" in this, as In many other matters, are wholly wrong. If the text-book Is to be studied at all, it should be thoroughly studied, and not fa the loose, slip-shod, scatter-brained way that some progressive teachers advise. 
MEMORIZING. 
No "improved method of teaching" the necessity of committing to memory certain data, such as the names of the presidents in order of sion, with da t es of theit -administration and the nnlliU.r!ti party to which each belonged; the principal wars United States, with cause of each concisely expressed, date; population of the United States at intervals of twenty year s, beginning with liDO; the dates of the import:nt events in each period, as the founding of principal ones of the thirteen colonies, etc., etc. Such 
 
 111 
Is the multiplication table of history, so to speak, and, like that, should be at the tongue's end. Some foolish "progressive" teachers oppose even this limited memorizing work in history, just as they oppose committing the multiplication table or the ten commandments to memoryfor no other reason in the world except that it is "oldfashioned." Pay no heed to the voice of these foolish "progress!ve" teachers! 
It is also an excellent practice to require pupils to commit to memory verbatim certain salient passages from state documents and from the utterances of great statesmen and orators on vital issl!es, such as closing passages of Patrick Henry's immortal speech; peroration of Webster's great Union oration; opening paragraph of the Declaration of Independence; extracts from the Constitution; the abominable Fift~entb Amendment, etc., etc. 
THE RECITATION. 
1. The recitation is the teacher's opportunity to enforce, explain, illustrate and amplify the lesson. This he cannot do effectively unless the pupil bas first thoroughly studied the lesson. Therefore, catechise the class closely on the lesson in the book, and as this exercise proceeds offer such explanations, illustratio~s, corrections and amplifications as in your judgment may best serve to illustrate the Jesson, to give it interest and vi vacity, a nd to impress It upon the minds of your pupils. Be careful, however, not to talk too much. As far as possi ble, lead your pupils to do the talking. By skillful questioning, brinr out what they kn ow and what they think on th e subject, and then in the most graphic language that you can command giv!l your corrective and illumin ating utterances. 
2. The recitation affords a splendid opportunity for the teacher to lead the pupils into impromptu, informal discussions in which they are encouraged to think for tlwmselves, draw their own conclusions and express their own views on moral and historical questions. For Instance, at 
 
 112 
the close of the French and Indian war period, being sure that the class thoroughly knows the facts of the conflicting claims, ask some such question as this: "Which do you think had the best right to the disputed territory, F ra nce or England ?" A great many such questions might be suggested. Such discussions, properly conducted, aroru:e the thinking powers and exercise the reason and judgment of pupils beyond almost any other study pursued In school. 
In these exercises (which should always be sprung upon the class unexpectedly) the teacher should very carefully direct and guide the mental processes of the pupils, but at the same time should avoid being dogmatic and dictatorial. 
REVIEWS. 
1. At the beginning of each r ecitation a few should be devoted to a r eview of the salient points In the previous lesson, especially when that lesson has any close connection with the lesson In hand. Sometimes this pr&. liminary review should cover several previous lessons; thla should be done, as far as practicable, whenever a number of successive lessons are very vitally and Intimately connected. The review questions should touch only upon vital points. 
2. I mpromptu topical reviews should be given as occasion demands. For Instance : Before beginning the lesson on the "Missouri Compromise," revi ew clearly and con ciscly a ll previous agitations and decisions of the slave1'7 quest: n in the Constitutional Convention and in Congress. J,ikewise whenever in any lesson an Important recurring subject is treated, give a concise, clear-cut topical review of that subject from its origin up to the lesson hand. Such vital issues as the Tariff., Slavery, Ri ghts, etc., etc., should be thns repeated ly revi ewed re -r e v i e w e d . 
3. About once a fortn ight give ora l r eviews covering ground goue over during tbe two weeks. Ask short, 
I 
 
 113 
(]Uestions on the most important points and require prompt, btief answ er s. Vary tlt e qu estions calling for short answers with qu estions Uwl require the pupil to give th e whole of a subjec t; for instan ce: "Give an a ccount of the settlement of Virg inia from 1607 to 1630." 
4. Gi1e written r eviews about once a month or less frequently. A good method is this: After tlte class is assembled assign to each pupil a separate subject to write upon,, selected from the lessons gone over during the month; or if the class be too large for this plan, select ten or twelve subjects, assigning each of them to a number of pupils; make sure that pupils having the same subject uo not sit within communicating distance of each other. Have the subjects and assignments either written on tile blackboard or on a slip of paper placed on the pupil's desk before the class assembles. Always notify the class at least a day in advance of a formal review, whether oral or written. Always carefully inspect the written exercises and return the papers to pupils with mistakes marked and wit!J other criticisms. 
SELEC'.riON. 
United States History is a vast subject, pervaded by complexities and abounding in important events, interesting episodes, significant facts; dramatic incidents and rom antic stories. From this enormous mass of material, what to select and what to omit, and how much space to give to each part and subject, is properly the function of the author of the text-book and not the function of the teacher. Most text-books are very faulty in this particular. In trying to tell too many things they !Javen' t the space to tell the Important things adequately, and t!Jey seem to have little regard for historical . perspective and Propottlon. This fault in the text-book may be in Jarg.. measme corrected by a thoughtful and skillful teacher. As to how this may be clone, some suggesti"ons will be offered further on in this article. 
 
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EMPHASIS. 
The subject-matter of history varies tance. In teaching history, therefore, some s hould be strongly emphasized, some moderately pbasized, some slightly emphasized, and some emphasized at all, What to emphasize, how to emphasize, what degree of emphasis to give, is one of the most important considerations in the teaching of history, and it is a matter in which the teacher must depend mainly upon his own judgment and skill. The text-books can give, or do give, but little help in this direction. The following suggestions are offered with the hope that the7 may prove helpful: 
HISTORICAL EVENTS. 
FRUITFUL AND UNFRUITFUL. 
1. There are two principal classes of historical namely, the fruitful and the unfruitful. 
(1) Fntitfttl Events are those which produce and reproduce other events, and which have a great subsequent In fluence on the history of the country. 
For Example: The introduction of negro slavery Into the American Colonies. If that event had not occurred, the subsequent history of the United States would have been far other than it bas been, and the social and Industrial conditions of the Southern States would be very different from what we see them to-day. 
(2) Urnfruitful Events are those which do n.ot other events and whose influence is transient, having or no effect on the subsequent history of the country. 
For Example: The Salem Witchcraft delusion. event had no lasting consequences on the history of country or on the civilization of New England: Things n.ow just as they would have been if the event had occurred. 
2. Distingui sh carefully between fruitful events and fruitful events, and in your teachini lay the ~eatest 
 
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phasls on the form er class. Tmce their influence through subsequent history and lead your pupils to do the same. 
3. Guard a gainst devoting too much time and giving too !IJttCh emphasis to magnificent but fruitl ess performances, while passing by with little notice less showy but infinitely more important deeds. For it frequently happens that a wholly unfruitful historical event, like DeSoto's expedition, is full of splendor and intense dra matic interest, while an event of vast and fa r-rea ching influence, like the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli whitney, makes its appearance as a modest and obscure deed. 
4. It does not follow, however, that all unfruitful events are to be lightly regarded. Many of them possess a rich historic value. Some of the most brilliant episodes in American history are events which had no important consequ ences, but which, nevertheless, are well worth t eaching for the heroism and thrilling huma n interest they contain; for instance, John Smith and Pocahontas, young Washington'!~ journey through the wilderness, Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony, etc. Others which baa only a transient or ephemeral effect, are invaluable as illustra tions of the spirit of the times in which they occurred; such a s the Salem Witchcraft heresy, the John Brown Ra id, the Kti Klux Klan in Reconstruction days, etc. 
Select the very best and most signifi cant of such stories and, In their proper place and connection, r elate them w your pupils with as much vi vid power as you can cornmaud, but don't gi ve them undue empha sis by reiterating them or by calling for them in reviews and examinations. 
5. To summarize the foregoing: In regard to every historical event that comes un<ler your considera tion a sk yourself qu estions like these : To whi ch class does this event belong, th e fruitf ul or th e unfruitful ? I s it w orth present ing t o my pupils? What is its parti cula t edu cati onal value ? H ow much emphasis should I place upon it ? By what Dleth ocl can I teach it best? 
 
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Always place special emphas is on those events that have a great subsequent influence on the history of the country and the life of the people. 'l' rain yo ur pupils to distinguish such event s and to follow them closely in their development and influences. Iterate and reiterate such events, and let r eviews, examinations a nd written exercises be made up mainly of them. 
HISTORICAL FACTS. 
ESSENTIAL AND INCIDENTAL. 
1. Every historical event is composed of two sorts of facts, namely, Essential J)'acts and Incidental Facts. 
Essential Facts are those that cannot be changed without radically changing the character of the event itself and its historical significance. 
Incidental Facts are those that may be changed without in any wise changing the character of the event or its historical signific~n ce. 
l<'or Example: In that noted event, the l<'ounding of Plymouth, the essential facts are these: Plymouth was founded by the Pilgrims, a band of Puritans who fled from England on account of persecutions, and came to the wilds of America in 9rder that they might establish here institutions in which they and their brother Puritans and their posterity might enjoy religious a nd civil liberty. They landed, by mere accident, far to the north on a bleak and sterile part of the American coast. They were a hardy, heroic, earnest and devout people, but narrowminded, bigotted and fanatical. 
Not one of these facts could be altered without changing radically the character of the event itself and its subsequent influence on the history of the country. 
'l'l1e in cid ental fa cts are th ese : 'l'here w ere 102 P ilgrim s ; they cam e over called the 1\layflower; they landed at P lymouth on Decembe~ 21st, 1G20; the Inncling was made alongside a big cranite rock; the first person to spriJg from the ship upoJJ. 
 
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the rock was a yo un g ;;irl named J\I:lry Chilton; before land ing the Pil gri t"llS dr ew up a ul1 signed, in tile ca!Jin of the :Mayflower, a constitution or agree ment known as 'l'be Co mpa c t. 
Now, every one of th ese facts mig ht be cll:wged without In the least degree affecting the character of the event or changing its influence on subsequent hi story. If there had been 123 Pilgrims, if tlieir ship had been named the But t erfly, if they had landed on the 19th of January, 1621, if the landing had been made on a sandy bea ch, if the first person to spring ashore bad been th e r edoubtable Miles Standish, and if The Compac t had been signed on terra {inn_a eleven days after the landing, it would haye made no difference in the subsequent history of New England or of the United States. 
2. Distinguish carefully between the essential facts and the incidental facts of every important llistorical event that comes under your consideration, and_ in yo ur teaching put the emphasis on the essential facts. See that your pupils get them very clearly and accurately, and that they understand their significance. Iterate and reiterate them, and let reviews and examinations and written lessons be made up chiefly of them. 
3. Incidental facts are, however, not to be slighted. They constitute the most attractive and interesting part of history. They make "the story" of history. Without-tllem history would be a dry a nd juiceless study. They appeal to the imagination and enable the mind to visualize histotic scenes and persons and to realize historic deeds. With very young pupils the lesson should be made up mainly of incidental facts, and with all pupils there should be a rich abun(lance of them; but they should not be emphasized, they need no emphasis, they are apt to emphasize themselves rather too much. They are the easiest of all facts to remember. 'l'he knowledge of many persons who consider themselves "well up" in history consist!;, almost entirely in incid ental facts. 
 
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4. In your teaching use an abnnclnnce, but not a snperabunclance, of incidental facts: Select them cru:efully, taking those that are graphic, picturesq ue and characteristic, rej ecting those that are trivial and \Vithout s ignificance. Don't emphasize or put too much stress npon them. Don't use them in re views and written examinations, except to a limited extent. 
HIS'fORICAL HEROES. 
PERFECT AND FAULTY. 
1. Every youth should be a hero-worshipper, youths are prone to be. One of the most important uses of the study of history is to give right direction to this generous tendency and to make it of high value. No more powerful formative influence can hold of the mind and heart of youth than a splendid character. 
~'here are two kinds of heroes, the ideal hero of and the real hero of history. cative purposes, the real hero of his tory is inc,orrtp~Lra.bQ more effective than the ideal hero of fiction. 
heroes. 2. The qualities that the generous soul of youth most 
mires in men are a commanding presence, physical age, great intellect, strong will, and moral grandeur. man that possesses all of these in high degree, Is your feet h ero. Such was George Washington and such Robert E . Lee. Every Southern boy and girl taught from earliest childhood to admire, love and th ese two peerless Southerners, par trwbiw book lessons and oral lessons, by song and story, should be made familiar with their pure and lofty t er and their illustrious deeds. In every school Southland Washington's birthday and Lee's should b~ observed with suitable exercises, pains should be taken to make these 
 
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presslve and edifying. The most powerful lessdn that cau possibly be giYen on pure and exalted patriotism and unselfish devotion to duty is the close study of the life of George Washington. 'l'he most splendid illustration of perfect and lofty manhood that can possibly be pres~ nted to the mind of youth is furnished in the life of Robert E. Lee. Deep, lasting, and of priceless value will be th~ benefit that you will confer upon your pupils if you will make them w ell acquainted with the character, private life and public deeds of these two great men. No other history lesson can be worth as much to them. 
3. There are perfect heroes and there are faulty heroes. Compare DeSoto and LaSalle, the two greatest American explorers-note the cruelty, avarice and selfish ambition of the former, and the kind-heartedness and disinterested motives of the latter. Compare hero Sherman, with his motto, "War is hell," devasting with fire and. rapine the defeuceless land through which .he marched, with hero Lee requiring his soldiers to respect with the utmost strictness all private property in the enemy's country. Compare that great rich Admiral having his head turned with extravagant ovations and eagerly snatching at proffered house and lot, with that great poverty-stricken General shunning all publicity and, though fortunes were laid at his feet, refusing to accept one penny except what he earned by the sweat of his own brow. Compare Benedict Arnold, brave, able, but in moral character utterly Infamous, selling his country for a mess of pottage, with :voung Andre, giving his life without a murmur for the British cause. 
Lead your pupils to note for themselves these likenesses &ad differences and these nice distinctions between heroes. Lead them to observe that perfect moral rectitude Is the quality of first consideration in the hero, and that no man Ia truly great who lacks it. Lead them to observe that a eertain f!Wral gmndeur has been the crowning glory of all tbe earth's greatest heroes. 
 
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4. Don't . weaken the faith of your pupils In human nature by Nnpllnsi7.ing too mn cb the selfi shness an u rascnlily of men in high pnl.Jlic positions. Don't Jet them get tl.Je iuca (w hich too com monly preva ils) t hat all ot neatJy a ll public men arc self-seeking uemagogues, moved  only by personal ambition, for this is not true. Show them the American demagogue, and hesitate not to give them concrete illustrations, of wbich you can find a great abundance; but put the greater emphasis on the American patriot, of which there are many sllining examples. bow your pupils that personal ambition and patriotism are not incompaiible with each other, and that most men In public life are governed by this mixed motive, but that whenever the former prevails over the latter it indicates a scoundrel. Show that a man may be ardently and unselfishly devoted to what be conceiyes to be a right cause and yet be a very bad man, like the dia~olical fanatic, Thad Stevens; and on the othm:..hand show that a strenuous political partisan may be a true patriot and a generous-hearted, just-minded man, like Abraham Lincoln. 
Show that our people are constantly exacting 'a higher and higher standa'rd of morals in men In public office, and that the scoundrel, the drunkard and tbe libertine, however splendid his talents, stands little chance of preferment by the votes of the American people. Show them that no President of the United States has ever been In the slightest degree tainted with dishonor, either in bll private or in his public life. 
HISTORICAL PERIODS. 
LOGICAL AND CHR OKOLOGICAL. 
In the life of cyery nation there is apt to be at all tlmea some one strong dominant feeling which causes the prln cipal public acts of the people and produces the principal historic events. 
For Instance: From 17G5 to 1783 the dominant in America was desire for independence and civil 
 
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from 18M to 18Gl the dominant feeling was sectional animosity. 
Logically, an historical period includes all of the principal events produced by any given dominant feeling. Chronologically, an historical period inclmles the time during which any given dominant feeling holds sway or remains dominant. 
It Is impossible to make tlw chronological period coincide exactly with the logical period, because it is impossible to say precisely when any popular feeling begins to dominate or when It ceases to dominate; but these dates may be approximated. 
PRINCIPAL PERIODS. 
In the history of the United States there have been nine principal p~riods; that is to say, there have been nine dominant popular feelings which in succession have held sway and caused the principal historic events. 
Below we give these nine periods anq underneath each period the. dominant feeling that belongs to it: 
1. Discovery and Exploration. (Love of Enterprise and Adventure.) 
2. Settlement and Colonization. (Desire for Freedom and Fair Opportunity.) 
3. The Revolution. (Desire for Independence and Civil Liberty.) 
4. Organization of the Union. (Instinct of Self-preservation.) 
5. Development of the Nation. (Love of country, or patriotism.) 
6. Sectionalism and Secession. (Bitter Disagreement Between North and South.) 
7. Civil War. (Hostility Between North and South.) 
8. Reconstruction. (Northern Malice and Southern Indignation.) 
9. The Re- united Nation. (Desire for wealth and Material Development; Commercialism.) 
 
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WHAT TO EMPHASIZE. 
In tlte following pages we give a brief syllabus we conceive to be the most important events in each historical period. They do not include, of course, neatly all the things that should be learned, but only those things that seem most vital and upon which therefore the teacher should put the strongest emphasis and the pupil the most careful study. Of these eminently important things those th a t are pre-eminently important are indicated by i/;Ulic8. 
I. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. 
1492-1681. 
(LOVE OF ENTERPRISE AND ADVEN'rURE.) 
1. Columbus's first voyage and discoveries made. Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. DeSoto's expedition. 
2. 'l'll.e Cabot-s's discoveries and explomtwns. 
3. Cm.tim's ex.pwrat-ions. Champlain's expeditions. La-Salle's expliOration Qf tliJC Mi.ssi.~sippi Ri.vor. Prench Settlements ami torts. 
4. Hudson's dis covery and exploration of the Hudson river. 
SUMMARY. 
State accurately and truce carefully on map discoveries and explorations made by Spanish, French, English and Dutch , in territory now occupied by United States, giving dates. State what t enritary each natwn claime.d on account Qf tl~JCSe disoouories. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Discovery of Amerir'a by Colmnbus, October 12, 1492. 'l'he Ca bot's expeditious, 1497-DS. f gnce de Leon's discoYCl)7 of Florida, :!,513. 
 
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Cartier's explorations, 1534-35. Champlain's expeditions and settlements, 1608-15. Hudson's exploration of the Hudson river, 1G09. LaSalle's exploration of the Mississippi, 1681. 
II. SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION. 
1607-1763. 
(DESIRE FOR FREEDOM AND FAIR OPPORTUNITY.) 
1. Sil Walter Raleigh's futile attempts. 2. Virginia-Settlement of Jamestown and account of the colony for first five years. Description of Indians, their character, appearance, mode of life. Climate and soil. Cultivation of tobacco. Coming of the "cavaliers;" thcir clwractcr; tllcir dominance. Intmduction of African slavery. Political, educational, religious and commercial condition and institutions In 1754. Population. Manners and customs. 3. l\fassachusetts.-Voyage of the Mayflower and settlement of Plymouth. Settlement of Salem and Boston. Character of the Pnritans, their piety and heroism; their higgotry, tyrawny a-nd f(JJila.tiCisnt (illustratelf). 4. Founding and settlement of Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine. 5. Climate and soil of New England. Occupations of the people. Puritan dominance, theil intolerance and tyranny. Their part in the African slave tmde. Their manners and customs. 6. New York.-Hudson's discovery (1609). Settlements by the Dutch. New Netherlands and New Amsterdam under the Dutch. Conquest by English in 1664. Effect on gowth and development of the colony. Settlement of New J ersey. 7. 1\Iaryland.- Settlement by the Catholics urider Lord Balti more. Act of Toleration. Clayborne's Rebellion. 'Coming of Puritans, their ingratitude and bad faith. Com- 
 
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lng of Huguenots. Estal>lislunent of Protestant Church. Condition of colony and character of 17GO. 
8. Pennsylvania.- Settlement by Penn and the I,JIJalter11.~!11 Their dealings with th e Indians. Rapid growth and ll'n prosperity of the colony-reasons. nists. Settlement of Delaware. 
9. The Carolinas.-Settlement by Virginia ' along North Carolina coast. The Lord Proprietors. don and Albemarle colonies- character of the 'l'he "Grand Mod el" government. Settlement of '-'IIal:llll~ ton. Coming of the Huguenots; their character and tluence. Immigration  of Virginians. Separation North and South Carolina. Climate and soil. Culti of rice and indigo. Pine lumber and turpentine. perity. Character, manners, and customs of the people. 10. Georgia.-Settlement by Oglethorpe. Slow growth colony-reason. pcrity. Immigration of Yi1ginians. Population and cond ition of colony in 1760. 11. Colonia l Government-The three types at the of the Revolutionary period; (a) Royal Ptovil!Ce. (b) prietary. (c) Charter. 
colonies li ving .under each at tlt(3 close of the Colonial 
12. French and India!! War.- Confiicting claims of and English,-the territory in dispute, on what each based its claim, circumstance that brought about first collision. washington's mission. Washington's feat at Great Meadows. Braddock's defeat. Siege capture of Quebec by the English. End of the war. of Peace and 1esult of the war. 
SUMMARY. 
Name the 13 ori ginal G:olonies and state when, nnd by whom ea ch was found ed. Wllat c/.ass or clone.: 
w poop~e beoam e dominant a.nd ga1.>c tone tr.~ civilizatiolt 
the Nc1v Engl a nd col onies, (Massa cl.msetts, Con B.hode I sland, Vermont and New Hampshire.) Wllal 
 
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or classes of poople became dmninant aml gave tone to the civilizatwn of the Soutlwrn oolowies? (Virginia, the Carolinas, Maryland and Geo rg ia). , .,That class or cla sses of people became domina nt a nd ga vc tone to tlle civilizatio u of the Middle colonies ? (New York, New J ersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Contrast the climate and soil of New England with that of the Southern colonies. Compare the character, culture, the dominant ideas, the occupations and the modes of life of the people of these two sections. Define th'e three types of colonia l government and name the colonies living under each at tlle close of the period. State t!Je cause of the French and Indian war and the result of the war. 
DATES TO BE ThiE l\IOHI~ED. 
, 
Founding of Virginia, Massacllusctts, New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Carolina and Georgia. Introduction of African slavery. First immigration of Roya lists into Virginia and of the Huguenots into South Carolina. Founding of Harvard College and of William and Mary College. Establishment of the fitst printing press. T!Je begining and the end of the French and Indian war. 
III. THE REVOLUTION. (17G5-1783). 
(DESIRE FOR INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL LIBERTY.) 
1st. Prelimlnary.-Political relation of the colonies to England. Loyalty of the colonies to England. England's Inconsiderate and oppressive treatm ent of the colonies as Illustrated by the revoking of charters, appointment of tyrannical governors, the Navigation Act, Writ of Assistance, Restriction on Manufacturers. Population and resources of colonies in 1795. 
2d. Causes of the Revolutlon.- Tlle Stamp A ct. How received by the colonists. .Protests of Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry. Repeal of ,the Act. Tax on tea. "Bo.ston Tea Pmty." Boston Port Bill. First Continental Congressfull acooun.t of its acts. 
 
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3d. Campaigns and Battles of the Revolutlon.-Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. General account of washington's Campaigns from Battle of Long I sland, August 22, 1776, to Valley Forge, winter (December, 1777). General account of Burgoyne's Campaign. Desperate condition of American cause (1777). Wa.~hington's in{hwnce, The French Alllance. War in the South. General account of conquest of Georgia and Carolina. Guerilla Warfare in the South. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and end of the War. Sketch of some of the greatest heroes of the Revolution. 
4th. Politics of the Revolution:1. The Constitutional Congresses-theW' :powers and t'OIIoo stittttiona/. positions. 2. Growth of the desire for separation from England. 3. Declaration of Independence- ftt!l account of. 4. weakness and Unwisdom of the war-time 5. Finances of the Revolutionary war. 6. Tories. 7. Full account of the French Alliance. 8. 'l'he 'l'reaty of P ea ce. 
SUMMARY. 
State clearly and concisely: 'l' he mental relations between American colonies and Feeling of colonies towards the "Mother Country" at of French and Indian war (love and loyalty). Inconsiderate and oppressive treatment of the colonies to the Stamp Act. History of the Stamp Act and quent tax measures. England's defense of right to Col{)nies' protest against. Colonies open revolt In ..,..,. __,,_. T ea Party," etc. England's punishment of the nfl~o~oii~I'L Rapid growth of insurrectionary spirit among the ists-how inspired, propagated, and spread. Outbreak the war. Genesis and develop-ment of the Decl-aration of dependence. Length and result of the war. Other t besides American valor that contributed to the defeat the British. Wasltingt{)n- first in war. 
 
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I 
DATES TO BE ME~IORIZED. 
Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party, First Continental Congress. Battles of Lexing ton and Bunker Hill, Declara tion of Independence, Burgoy ne's Surre nd er, Washington at Yall c.v Forge, Cnp ture of S:wannnll by British, Battle of Guilford Court-llouse, Surrender of Corwallis, Treaty of Peace. 
IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNION. 
(INSTINCT OF SEI:F- PRESERVATION.) 
1. Political r elation of the colonies to each other prior to the Revolution. Political relations during and immediately after the Re volution. The Artidcs of Oonfeder.a.tion- fnll accoun t of. 
2. Depl"orable condition of the country at the close of t:lle war- debts and poverty; discontent and insunectionary spirit of the army; discord among the States; weakness of t!Je government un der Articles of Confederation. 
3. The Annapolis Convention. 4. Th e Philadelphia, or Oonst'it1lU.Qnal OQnventiorlr--Qrigin of; pe~.sonnel. Debat es ' on: (a) 7'lze rontrol and 1egulcttion of commer ce. (b) Th e slave trade. (c) Manne,r in which (HCh State should be 1"CJNcsentcd in Oong1ess. (d) The ratio of representatives in sla r;e populations- how each of these question s was settled. 5. Submission of the Constitution to the people; popular discuss ion of; differences of opinion; State Sove.reignty id~a ; "The F ederalist." Ratification. G. The Const,itution a co1npact between sover eign St.atcs. 7. Explanation of form of government und er the Constitution. 8. Election of George Washington as first president of the United States. 
SUl\DIARY. 
Give a clear, concise statement of: Condition of country at close of Revolution; inadequacy of Articles of Confed- 
 
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eration; Annapolis Convention; Co!!stitntional its work. Principa l provisions ol' Constitution. Ratiuu""u ,:.~ of by the States. Different interpretations of. State Sovereignty Idea. Plan of government li' irst prcsiden tal elec tion. 
DA'l'ES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Annapolis Conven,tion, Constitutional Convention, presidential election. 
V. DEVELOPMENT 
(LOVE OF COUXTRY1 OR PATRIOTIS.l!.) 
1. Organization of the government under the constitutl.oa. Extent, population, wealth, natural resources of the States at this time. Principal cities. Distribution of ulation. State of education and r eli gion. 
2. washington's Administration.-Hamilton's plan; the first tariff and rev enue tax; -trouble with (Genet); anti-slavery petition-how dealt with by invention of cotton gin and its far-reaching effects ; render of Land Claims by Virginia and othes Sta Northwest 'l'erritory. Ham il ton and J efferson; their ing views. First political parties-Federalists and Federalists. John Adams elected president. 
3. Adams's Aclministration.-Alien and Sedition passed and repealed. Unpopularity of admiu,,.........Capital removed to Washington. Death of George ington- sketch ot his chwractel'. Presid ential triumph of Anti- Feder~lists-politi cal meaning. 
4. J efferson's Administration.-The Louisiana p,,,rclbiUI&"' full account of. The Embargo Act; New England's ca tion; New England's th1'eatened secessilon. Threatened with Engla nd. Madison elected president-political lng. Sketch of Thomas Jefferson-his character, deeds, political doctrines. 
Madison's Aclministration.-War o! 1812- brlef of New England's refu sal to furni sh 
 
 1~9 
Nullification. N ew Enuwnd Hartford Convention- claims t"igllt of sece.ssW-11 and threatens secession. Unanimous election of Monroe for president. 
5: Monroe's Administration.-"Era of good feeling." Dis appearance of the Federalist party. Expansion of the Union- num.ber of States, total population, wealth and resource, industrial development, educational conditions. growth of patriotism. The Monroe doctrine. Preservation of balance between slave and free States. The Missmwi Compromise-tun accowzt of. Election of John Quincy Adams-political meaning. 
6. John Quincy Adams's Administratlon.-High ProtcctVve Tariff-diverse inte~cst and vietvs of N arth a-nd South,. Acquisition of territory by treaty with Creek lndiims. Construction of first railway lines. Election of Andrew Jackson- political meaning. 
7. Jackson's Administration.-Establishment of the  "Spoils System" In the distribution of offices. _ Higher Protective Tariff. Smtth Carolina's Nullification-full acoount. Clay's Tariff Compromisc. Aboli tionist agitationsGarrison and Phillips. Great material growth and prosperity.' Rise of the Whig party-its doctrines. Sketch of character of Andrew Jackson. Election of Van Buren. 
8. Van Buren's Administraion.-Great financial panic. Establishment of the Sub-Treasury System-full explanation of. Presidential election- political meaning of. 
9. Tyler's Administration.-Death of President Harrison. Tyler's split with the Whigs. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. Expulsion of the Mormons. Invention of the electric telegraph. Polk elected president. 
10. Polk's Adminlstration.-Growing suspicion and bad feeling between slave and free States; struggle .to preserve ~l(tnce of power bettoeen the two (pu.rely politicat, 4Wt moml.) Adlllission of 'l'exas to the Union- politi ca l meaning of. (Short account . of previous hi story of Texa s.) Brief acco unty of l\Iexi can war. The presidential election. The l~ree Soil ra"rty. 
 
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11. Administration of Taylor (and Fillmore).-Ra[Jid set. tlement of California by gold seekers. Admission Qf Ca1J. fornia-bUter soctwnal controversy over. Bill." Rapid incr.ease of sectional of Franklin Pierce as president. 
SUMMARY. 
Name the presidents in order with political party to each belonged and length of administration mention most important events of each State political doctrines of Federalists and ists; Democrats and Whigs; Free Soldiers. Give a mary of most important Tariff Legislation-diverse of North . and South in regard to. Concise account of slavery (purely political) controversies; Missouri mise, Wilmot Proviso, Admission of Texas, Admi California, Omnibus Bill. Sketch expansion of the _rapid growth in material prosperity. Universal na1trlcltlll or love of the Union. Gr<;>wth of sectional antagonism. 
DATES TO BE MEMOlliZED. 
Period of each president's administration. the cotton gin. Louisiana Purchase. Embargo Act. of New Orleans. Missouri Compromise. New Nullification and secession threat. First Protective South Carolina Nullification. Establishment of ;:su:o-1:re1 
(BITTER DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN NORTI! AND SOUTH.) 
1. Pierce's Administration-The Kansas-Nebraska, and struggle;-full account of. Nullification of Ftl-!litive J.,aw by Northom Silii,i1JS. Increased bitterness North and Soutb. 
2. Buchanan's Administration.-Dred Scott decision. Brown Raid- its glorificl1tiou and platform. Formation of Republican pa 
 
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of which It was composed. Split In Democratic party. EJection of Lincoln and overwhelming :triumph of Republic11ns-1vlw,t 'it nuxt.nt fo.r the South.  
3. Secession.- "S tate Sa~;ereignty" doctrine- carefully em tilid,n. Secession of Southern States- reasons for. S ecession 1wt nnoonstitnU.onal; the r ight 1'e[Jeat('dly claimed by No.1the1'11 Stcttes. The Constitution always strictly observed by the South, frequently violated by Northern States, and openly defied by Republican leaders.. Secession opposed by strong minority in th~ South, but wholly o:n the growru1 of its in~xped.i encv. 
 
SUMMARY. 
 
A concise history of negro slavery In Amerlca:-lts 
 
adoption by all of the colonies; first protest against came 
 
from the South. New England its mast ardent advocate and 
 
ootmuler; Nvrthern Sfxlt.es c.ling to -it as lo.ng as it pays them; 
 
dies a natural death in the North; obtains a permanent 
 
lodgment in the South and becomes a vital and inextricable 
 
part of its civilization; ethnological place of the negro; 
 
Southern slavery civi:lized. and Christ~aniZ<Jd him, infinitely 
 
ameliorated his cand.itian i1~ evert} way, and made him do the 
 
anly good toork tllat his race has ever done in the world. 
 
Kindly relations between master and slave. Northern 
 
abolition fanatics assail the institution of slavery with 
 
great bitterness and injustice, nullify acts of Congress, defy 
 
the Constitution, and stir up discord between North and 
 
South. Statement of the several agitations of the slavery 
 
question in Congress, showing that these controversies were 
 
only political struggles to preserve balance of power be- 
 
tween slave and free States, and did not concern the moral 
 
aspects of slavery. Northern politicians combine with 
 
Northern abolitionists to form the Republican party, wliich ' 
 
gains complete control of the country. Southern States 
 
being at the mercy of this anti-Southern party exercise 
 
woot they believe to be tluM- "sovereign right" and secede from. 
 
the Union. 
 
1._ 
 
 132 
 
DA1'ES TO BE l\IEl\lORIZED. 
Pa ssage of Kansas-Nebraskan Bill; Buchanan's election; Dred Scott flecision; John Brown Raid; Lincoln.'s election; ~ecession of fir s t four Southern States. 
 
VII. CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. 
 
(HOSTILITY BII:TWEEN NORTH AND SOUTIT.) 
 
1. Much opposition In the North to coercion ceded Stat~s. Lincoln's war proclamation. Sumter affair. A careful comparison of the wealth, resources, strength, and military advantages of .North and the South at the beginning of the war. lng scenes of the war. 
 
2. Campaigns of the War.-A clear, general account 
 
the great Eastern Campaigns from battle of Bull Run 
 
Appomattox surrender, including description of battles 
 
Bun Run, Seven da'ys around Richmond, Second !V.LllllliiS6-aw: 
 
Sharpsburg, Fredericksburg, Chancellor13ville, 
 
Appomattox. General account of the great western 
 
paigns !rom Fort Donelson to Johnston's surrender, 
 
eluding description of battles of Fort Donelson, 
 
Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Atlanta, 
 
111 
 
m::n..h through Georgia and Carolina. 
 
3. Naval 'Varfare.-The blockade-its 
 
South. Overwhelming superiority of the 
 
Confederate privateer, "The Alabama." 
 
11 
 
4. War Heroes.-Sketch of Robert E. Lee and 
 
heroism. 
5. R esult of the War.-Defeat of the South-causes. careful comparison .of the size and material equipment the Northern and the Southern armies during the war; of the comparative sufferings of the people, Nortb South. Deplorable condition of the South at the close the war. 
 
 133 
SUMMARY. 
The following Is a concise statement of the whole matter of the Civil War: 
From petfectly natural causes there grew up in the Union, side by side, two distinct and irreconcilable civilization, namely: 
'!'he cold climate, manufacturing, Puritan dominated, free labor, purely white civilization of the Ndrth, and the warm climate, agricultural, Cavalier dominated, slave labor, negro permeated civilization of the South. In some important respects the interests of these two civilizations were an,tagonistic, and for this reason each civilization be came suspicious of the other, and there arose between them a strenuous political struggle to preserve the balance of power. ~'he Northern civilization grew to be physically much the stronger of the two, and became very aggressive in its attacks ~on a certain peculiar and vital institution of the Southern civilization. Aggravated by Northern fanatics and Southern extremists, the difference between the two civilizations grew more and more irreconcilable, and bitter feeling arose between Notth and South. 
The Southern States, with an earnest desire to settle the trouble, asserted the right of State Sovereignty, and withdrew from the Union; In taking this step they may have acted rashly and unwisely, but they broke no law, they violated no faith, they committed no crime, they did no moral wrong. The Northern States, denying the right of State Sovereignty, and sincerely believing it to be their duty to preserve the Union at any cost, determined to force the Southern States back into the Union; for this purpose they got up vast hostile armies, and with fire and sword invaded the Southland. The Southern people simply arose in the majesty of th eir manhood to rep el this imasion. A dreaclCul war ensued, during which the armies of bo th sections, fongh t with great valot and from pure patriotism. The odds against the South were overwhelming, but for four years she maintained the unequal contest with a sublime herlosm, and then went down in utter. defeat. 
 
 134 
 
VIII. HECONSTRUCTION, 1865-1870. 
(NORTHERN MALICE AND SOUTHERN INDIGNATION.) 
1. Lincolu's generous ideas of r~construction. assassination-sketch of his character. President son's plan of reconstruction; his proclamation; actum of Southern States. Congress rejects Johnson's plan; Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which States refuse to accept. Southern State put under mil despotism. Rule of the "Carpet-baggers." "Black and conventions. "Freedman's Bureau." Insufts and heaped upon the South. Southern indignation. Ku Klan-Its good work and Its iniquities. The Amendment-how finally forced upon the 
the abomin,ablc iniquity of the measure. 
 
SUMMARY. 
 
The Northerners had, from a high sense of duty, 
 
heroically for the preservation of the Union, which 
 
earnestly bcliev.ed to be a righteous cause. The ntl,.,..,,... 
 
had, from the fundamental instincts of manhood, 
 
I~ 
 
heroically to drive from their country and their homes 
 
army of host ile Invaders, which unquestinably 1008 a 
 
eous cause. The Southerners overwhelmed by vastly 
 
1'1or numbers, were utterly defeated, and at the mercy 
 
tl!eir conquerors. The noble-hearted President, 
 
wl!o undoubtedly would have dealt generously with 
 
was dead. The fair-minded President, Johnson, 
 
them terms that were somewhat harsh but not. unjust, 
 
which were readily accepted by the Southern States; but 
 
United States Congress repudiated these terms and 
 
lJ 
 
upon others that were outmgoous and del>asbng. In 
 
of the efforts and appeals of President Johnson and 
 
other magnanimous Northerners, both in and out of 
 
gress, the United States Government, after keeplnJ 
 
Southern Stat~s for five years undet the Infamous 
 
 lRS 
despotism and "carpet-bag" government, forced upon them the Fifteenth Amendment, which action has rightly been called the 'Worst crime ever attempted against civilization in the history of the world. 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
Johnson's Proclamation, Meeting of Congress; Passing of Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, Readmission of Seceded States in Order. 
IX. THE REUNITED NATION. 1870-1!}00.1 
(DESIRE FOR WEALTH AND MATERIAl, DEVELOPMENT, COM MERCIALISM.) 
1. Grant's Administration.-Continuance of Carpet-bag government in Southern States. Georgia under carpet-bagger Bulloch's administration- resubjected to Military Rule~ Involved In debt by Bulloch's shameful extravagance; the fraudulent bonds. The Washington Treaty. War with .the Modoc Indians. Presidential campaign of 1876; the disputed election. The "8 to 7" Electoral Commission-its decision. 
2. Hay's Admlnlstration.-The President's "Peace Policy." Disappearance of "Carpet-b.aggers" from the South. Civil Service Reform. 
3. Garfield (and Arthur's) Adminlstratlon.-Assassinatlon of Garfield-gr eat industrial prosperity. Rapid regeneration of the South. Decrease of sectional animosity. Prohibition of Chinese immigration. Presidential electionIts political signficance. 
4. Cleveland's Administration.-The Tariff question- full account of. 
5. Harrison's Administration.-The McKinley Tariff law, fully explained. 
6. Cleveland's (second) Admlnistration.-The People's (or Third) Party- its doctrines. "Hard times,"-alleged causes. The Tariff again- Wilson law. "Free coinage of silver 16 to 1 doctrine,"-carefully explained. Presidential election. 
 
 136 
7. McKinley's Administration.-The Spanish-ArneJrlc111Jl war-full and careful account of. The Philippine concise and careful account of. Great material nr.nRl~tofhNit' 'rhe "Boxer War" in China-United States relation ''Trusts,"-careful called)-explained. Presidential election. r eas011 very cmefully emp[ained. have in a measure circumvented the infamous Amendment. 
 
DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. 
 
Terms of Grant, Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland, Harrison 
 
McKinley. Blowing up of "The Main." United 
 
Declaration of War. Battles of Manilla Harbor, San 
 
Destruction of Celvera's fleet. Signing of Treaty of 
 
, 
 
at Paris. Beginning of Filipino War (February 5, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
The following books are especially recommended students and teachers of United States History: 
 
TEXT-BOOKS. 
Jones's "History of the ' United States"; "History of the United States;" Chambers's "Higher tory of the United States;" Coopel's "Our country;" Sheldon Barnes's- "Studies in American History;" gomery's "Leading Facts of American History;" Lee's toly of United States. 
 
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 
Washington Irving's "Columbus;" Parkman's of Fr:wce;" Bryant's Popular History:" Henry Lodge's "Short History of the English America;" Henry Cabot Lodge's "Story of the t\oll;" MJI.rsh;~.l'!! "!Me of Washington;" Spark's 
 
 137 - 
 
Washington;" W~>Odrow wilson's "Life of was h ington;" 
 
Goldwin Smith's "Outline of United State rolitical His- 
 
tory;" G reeley's "American Co uHict;" D:1vis's " Rise and 
 
Fall of the Co nfederate Government;" Step hens's "Con stl<- 
 
tutional Vie w of Wat Be tween th e Sta les ;" J. Ll i\1. 
 
Curry's "The South;" Pollard's " Lost Ca use ;" S. S. Cox's 
 
/ 
 
"'l'hree D ecades of Federal L egislation;" Long's "Memoirs 
 
of Robt. E. Lee;" "Fitz Hugh L ee's "Life of H. E. Lee ;" 
 
Page's "Red Rock;" Dabney's "Life of Stonewall Jackson." 
 
BOOKS ON METHODS. 
"Guide to the Study of American History," by Channing and Hart; G. S. Hall's "Methods of Teaching History.-" 
 
SPECIAL BOOKS FOR PUPILS. 
Pratt's "American History Stories;" Pratt's "Columbus;" Coffin's "Old ~l'lmes in the Colonies;" "Washington and his Country" (Ginn. & Co.); Scudder's "George Wa[uington;" Abbott's "Paul Jones;" John Esten Cook's '.'Hilt to Hilt;" "Wearing of the Gray," "Life of Stonewall Jackson;" Fitz Hugh Lee's "Life of H. E. Lee;" Thomas Nelson Page's "Among the Camps;" "Red Rock;" W. A. Caruther's Cavaliers of Virginia." Knights of the- Golden Horse Shoe;" Mrs. L. M. Child's " Boston Before the Revolution;" Richard Carvel." 
 
  ARITHMETIC. 
BY G. G. BOND, ATHENS, GA. 
( Cop y r ighted.) 
It ls not the design of this paper to be a general treatise on the subject of Arithmetic. Its purpose is, (1) to point out the ground w'hh:ih every teacher in the CO'Illiii)}OOl oohaols of the State is expected to cover, and (2) to indicate some good form for the figure process of each kind of operation. Of oourse it :~s expeoted, in every caJSe, <thlat vhe <teruoher wHl devellop the fonn lnductJively, supply'in<g aJL1 needed stimulus In the shape of question and explanation. There are no certain infallible forms, not even the ones herein illustrated. In fact they are submitted more in the hope that they will suggest other better ones than that they will serve as . models. But this one point is strenuously urged: wh en once a rational form has been adopted, see to it that the rat ilocinatiQ.n of evei:y pupii'l ol~the iitseH in this garb until it becomes so easy fitting that it can be donned and doffed at will. When this has been done, let the teacher drill his class in any short-cut process he can lay his hands on. The crazy-quilt blackboard work to be seen almost any day in many of the schools of Georgia stands as a per-  petual reminder to the intelligent observer that Heaven's first law is a dead letter in that school. In fact in some schools every pupil seems to be a law unto himself in so far as the form of his arithmetic work is concerned The form work d.s simply :tfue mrubhema;t'f.cal sign J;angnage of the probl e m, the ex pression of th e mat h <> tn fl.l ical th ought. and lhe only way to judge the quality of the thought Is by Its expressi'Oin. It th e expression Is defective the inferenca Is t hait t h e th:otlght must be defective also, and the only 
way to secure <preoiS"e ll()gical thou:gbit ts ro in sist on good 
expression~ No attempt has .been made to originate new lll.ethoda. Sugcestlons have been received from both booll:a 
 
 14.0 
and teachers. Credit Is due Mr. E. C. Branson for the general scheme of Primary Number work, and especially for the use of the story, and seat work devices, though the details are original. 
As to the ground to be covered, it is p1ain that the beginner must be taught how to perform all the operations with the ten digits beginning as low as necessary, with 4 and sometimes with even 3 and 2. He must be taught how to make figures, the use of the signs, formal Addition, including the table, Subtraction, Multiplication, includinr: of course the table, and Division. He must be taught_the four fundamental rules in, each of the following subjects: Fractions, Decimals, and Compound Quantities. He must be taught the different cases in Percentage, Interest and Proportion. Some of these subjects are so simple that they will receive very little attention in this paper, while those t'hrut usually give the <tea:cheT the grerutest trouble will receive the fullest treatment. The teacher who can teach all the above mentioned subjects in such a manner as to stand the test of enlightened criticism may justly claim to be a good teacher of arithmetic. 
a It has been the aim, in presenting each new operation, 
to illustrate teaching unit under that head. The teacher who knows how to teach one addition fact ought to be able to teach a thousand. There has ever been present a con scions purpose to show the teachers of the State. if possl ble, how to cause another to know something he did not know before without telling him, in other words to discotl## facts and ideas. The mechanical side of this teaching II expressed in the four following propositions: 
1. Present an illustration. 2. Elicit the facts wanted by means of questions. 3. Arrange the facts in the desired form. 4. Give the term. This is by c<ourtesry called ind.uctive teachling. 
 
 141 
 
PART I. 
 
Wl1 e n the six-y ear-o ld ci ,ild lirni ,l! y presP nts h imself be fore lhe teacher, a candi date for iniliation into t he mysteri es of Number, the firs t queslion that confronts the teacher is, How to begin? He must treat the beginner as he wo uld any other pupil applying for adm ission; be must examine him to ascertain what he already knows. In~truction must begin at this point. Beginners usually know 2, but it will be necessary to test 3. Two or three suggestions are offered: 
1. Ask the pupil to count 3. 2. Ask him to clap h1is lb.ands 3 tim%. 3. Show him 3 lines on the board. Erase and ask him to make the sa me number. 4. Require him to name 3 animals. if he pa.sses satisflaotOII'ilY on obese t ests, tlhe t eachar may be srutis.fied tha t he knows 3 as a whole. He is then ready to begin <a study of the contents of 3, whidh are r epresented as fulJOWS: 
 
The contents of 3 : - 
 
(I) 
1 + 1 + 1 =  3. 
2+ 1=3. 
+ 1 2 = 3. 
 
(2 ) 
3-3 = 0. 
3-2=1. 
3-1 = 2. 
 
(3) 
3 X 1 = 3. 
1 y 2 + 1 = 3. 
1 X 3 = 3. 
 
{4) 
3+3=1 
3 + 2 = 1{1) 
3+1=3 
 
Of course these abstract expressions must be presented in the concrete, must come in the shape of a problem, and be vitalized by the questions of the t eacher. The manner l,n which this is to be done will be h ereinafter snown in a somewhat extended treatment of the number 8. 
Fiynre8.-As a fbrm of seat work it will be well just at this point to teach pu;ils how to make the figures. This can be done by simply writing the figures on the board With white crayon, and allowing the children to tak e some kind 'of cololl'ed crayon and "paint" tlhem. Their fii'si attempt will be crude enough, but it will not require much .time for them to learn to make the figures. 
 
 142 
 
The Number 8.' 
 
Facts in the number 8. 
 
I. Additive :- 
 
1. 7+1 = 8 
+ 2. 6 2 = 8 + 3. 5 3 = 8 + 4. 4 4 = 8 + 5. 3 5 = 8 + 6. 2 6 = 8 + 7. 1 7 = 8 
 
II. Subtractive:- 
 
1. 8-8=0 
2. 8-7 = 1 3. 8-6 = 2 4. 8-5 = 3 
5. 8 - 4 = 4 
6. 8-3 = 5 
7. 8-2=6 8. 8-1 = 7 
 
III. Multiplicative:- 
 
1. 8 X l=8 
 
+ 2. 7 X 1 1 = 8 
 
+ 3. 
4. 
 
6 5 
 
X X 
 
1 1 
 
+ 
 
2 3 
 
= = 
 
8 8 
 
5. 4 X 2 = 8 
 
6. 2 X 4 = 8 
 
\V. Divisional:- 
!. 8-+-8~1 2. 8 -+-7=1(1) 3. 8-+- 6 = 1(2). 4. 8 -+- 5 = 1(3) 5. 8-+- 4 = 2 6. 8 -+- 3 = 2(2) 7. 8-+-2~4 8. 8-+- 1 = 8 
 
V. Partitive:- 
+ 1. t of 8 = 1 
2. of 8 - 1(1) 
3. ! of 8 = 1(2) 4. i of 8 ~ 1(3) 5. t of 8 = 2 6. t of 8 = 2(2) 
7. ~of 8 - 4 
 
Facts to be taughc I. AJdit,ive :- 
1. 7 + 1-8 
+ 2. 6 2 =8 + 3. 5 3 = 8 
4. 4+4-8 
II. Subtractive:1. 8-8~1 2. 8 - 6 =2 3. 8-5 = 3 4. 8-4 =4 5. 8 - 3=5 6. 8 - 2 =6 7. 8 - 1 - 7 
III. Multiplicative:1. 8X1=8 
2. 4 X 2 ~ s 
3. 2 X 4-8 
IV. Divisional:1. 8-+-8-1 2. 8-+- 4..:.. 2 3. 8-+- 2-4 4. 8 -t-1- 8 
V. Partitive:- 
1. ~of 8 - 1 
2. t of 8-2 3. i of 8-4 
 
Every fact in the column headed "Facts to be 
 
 143 
 
must be taught, and the pupil must be thoroughly driiled on it bPf0re he can be said to know the No. 8. In the same way all the other small numbers, probably as far as 20, should be resolved into their contents and taught. A good practice for the teacher will be to take the No. 12 and outline it as shown above. The question now is, How to teach these facts 1 And by teach is meant that the pupil must be led to discover every fact for himself under the intelligent and sympathetic guidance of the teacher. The signs should be taught the same as an operation; but as it would make this paper too long to teach all of them, it will be taken for granted that they have already been taught. 
 
The Teaching Unit r The pupils are to be supplied with 
 
in 
 
splints, toothpicks, straws, or sticks, 
 
Addition. 
 
1or with any kind of object whatsoever. 
 
Splints will be used in these exer- 
 
cises. Every pupil is supplied with a 
 
handful.  
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teaoher.-How many splints in my right 'hand? (HoldIng up 5 splints.) 
PupiL-There are 5. Teacher.-How many in my left hand? (Holding up 3.) PupiL-There are 3. Teacher.-What did I do with them? (Putting them together.) Pu]Yil.-You pwt them togeth er. Teacher.-How many are there in all? PupiL-There are 8. Teach er .-Now tell me the whole story. PupiL- You had 5 splints in yo ur ri gh t han'd, and 3 in Your left . You put th em togeth er a nd th en you had 8. Teacher.-Why ? 
+ rupii. - Because 5 3 = 8.- 
This is the unit of work in addition. By simply repeat- 
 
 14>1 
 
ing this unit often enough every addition fact can be taught. A little time every day should be devoted to teaching the tots how to count, so that when they go into formal addition they should be able to count 100 with ease. 
Sto1y TVork.-Immediately . a~ter teaching the above fact, it would be well to have a story drill on it. Have anywhere from 10 to 20 stories, every one clinching, in the 
+ pupil's mind, the fac t that 5 3 = 8. Let the pupils im 
agine th e splints to b e birds, m a rbles, top~, npples, pen nies, dolls, etc. This is all class-work, and should be done withi,n a ten O'l' fitteen minwtes' r ecitiltion. The story may be used in four w ays, all so simple that t'hey need on1y be suggested to the intelligent t eacher. 
1. The teacher performs the operation with objects and requires the pupil to tell the story. 
 
What t he teacher does. Holds up 5 sp li nts, Puts 3 more with them, Holds up all 8 in one hand, 
Asks why. 
 
Wh at the pupil says I saw 5 birds on a limb, And 3 more fl ew to tb em, 
+ Th e n there were 8, 
B.-cause 5 3 = 8. 
 
2. The teacher t ells the story, and the pupil performs the operation with objects. 
 
What the teach er says . I have 5 marbles, John gave me-3 more, 
Then I have (pausing) . 
 
Wh at t he pupil does. Holds np 5 splints, Puts 3 more with them, 
Pupil sees the 8. 
 
3. The teach er performs the operation with figures and 
 
requires the pn!Jil to tell or write _the story . 
 
What the teacber w ri ~e s. 
 
What th e pu pil says or woitfol. 
 
+ 5 3. = ? 
 
I had 5 ap pl es, and my brother gave me 3 more. 
 
+ Then [had 8, 
Because 5 3 = 8. 
 
4. The teacher tells the story and the pupil performs operation wi t h fi gures. 
 
'Vhat th e teacher saY s. I h aJ 5 dol ls, a nd mol.her ~tave m e 3 more, 
 Then I had ht>w ma ny P 
 
What the pupil writes. 
 
Thla storv work is based on th~ 
 
 !rom the simple to the complex. The first and second kinds are intended for class-dl'ill. The third and foUJrth are for seat work. 
 
Seat Drills:- 
1. With Objects.-For a few months with beginners good results can be had from a liberal use of objects in seat drills. Objects should not ordinarily be continued beyond the No. 6 or 6. Any kind of grain or seed wlll do. 
'l'he teacher makes dots on Pupil with seed on his desk. the board. 
 
+ 
 
+ -- 
 
or .. + .. =? 
 
- +- -= - 
 
Many boards. 
 
teachers get very They consist of 
 
psoatpilsafractboorayrdrse,suolntes-hfr~oJmT!npcehg" 
 
thick and 6 inohes square. Holes large enouglh /for Sh~ 
 
pegs are on one side, one-half inch apart. Pupihi._ 3JI'e supplied with peg>s w'hich tlhey stick in the holes in~ f 
 
placing the seed a:s Shown a:bove. Probably tlhe greatest 
 
gain from objective seat-work is that it affords profit- 
 
able rund CIOilltented employme~t to li ttle fellows who other- 
 
wise wotid n'ot be aible to move a peg without <the constant 
 
In'esence of tJhe teacher. 
 
2. Willi Drawings.-'l'hese are to be URe d in ~omewhat 
 
the same manner as the objects, only greater sklll ts 
 
needed on thEl part of both teacher and pupil. The draw- 
 
ings at first must be very easy. 
 
The teacher draws on the board: The pupil draws on his slate: 
 
000 + 00 
 
+0 
 
0 0 
 
0 0 
 
or 
 
o o o o o 
 
000 + 00=? 
 
000 + 00=00000 
 
The number of drawings to be used is limited only by the 
 
energy and ingenuity of the teacher. Twelve kinds are 
 
suggested : Triangle, square, leaf, fa n, cat, pitchfork, bucket, 
 
chair, hat, dog, outline of face, and b ooks. 
 
 146 
 
3. With Figurcs.- 
The teacher writes on the board : 5-f-3=? 5 -f-?=8 ? -j-3=8 ? +?=8 
 
The pupil writes on his slate: 5-f-3=8 5-f- 3=8 5+3=8 
T he te ~ cher can r((qnire as manv answers to this as he chooses. 
 
4. With Stoties.- 
The teacher writes on the board: Write a story for 5-f-3=? 
 
The pupil writes on his slate: 
I had 5 dollars, and Mary gave me 3 more. Then I 
+ bad 8, 
Because 5 3 = 8 
 
The tea~hing unit! The same material can be used as in 
 
Ill 
 
addition. 
 
Subtraction. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-How many splints have I? (Holding up S.) Pu:p!J.-You have 8. Teacber.-Wim.t am I d'oing? (Taking out some of 
them.) PupiL-You are taking out some of them. Tea;cher.----<HO!W many d'id I take away? PupiL-You took away 3. TeaJCber.-How many have I left? PupiL-You :nave 5 le!l Terudher.-Tel[ me t'he whole story. Pupil.-You had 8 splints, you took away 8, and 
5 left: TeacheT.-Villhy? PupiL-Because 8-3 equal 5. Th!is is the unit of work in subtl"action. 
unit as many tJimes as there are fatYts to be taught. Story Wo1k.-Immediately after teaehing the above 
fact, It rwould be well to have abotl!t 20 stories told lllmttrating thrut fact. This is en~ugh l'oT one lesson. Use tour forms of story drill alt. plea;.sure. 
 
 147 
 
Seat Work:- 
 
1. With Objects.-The same material as in addition 
 
Of course the use of objects mus t be disoon:tin ued just as 
 
soon as possible. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil on his desk, putting 
 
down 8 seed and remov- 
 
ing 3: 
 
OOOOOPPP=? 
 
oooooppp = ooooo 
 
2. With Drawings.-lt Is not rut all probaJble th'<!Jt it will be 
 
necessrury to CiOIII.t'inue rbhe illll!Sitra:tive number work up to 
 
this point. It 15 shO'W'n 'here simply becaUJSe this is the 
 
pmper place In this scheme to show it. Like objects, draw- 
 
ings must be discarded jus t as soon as the pupil compre- 
 
hendls the number without them. 
 
The teacherdrawson the board: The pupil draws on his slate: 
 
oooooppp = ? 
 
oooooppp = ooooo 
 
3. With FigunJs.- 
 
The teac her writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate: 
 
8-3 =? 
 
8-3=5 
 
8-?=5 
 
8-3=5 
 
?-3=5 
 
8-3=5 
 
?-?=5 
 
Require thls last J'o1"I!l rbo be answered several ways. Give 
 
drills on the differerut kinds of story work a5 Illustrated in 
 
add itioo. 
 
The teac.hing unitl Let the pupils gather around the 
 
m 
 
teacher's ta'ble just as close as they 
 
Multiplic.tion. I can. If there should happen to be no 
 
desk or table In the house, then a slate or the floor can be used just a:s well. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-<Haw many rings di:d I make? (Drawing ~ circles. ) 
PupiL-You ~ade 4 rings. Teacher.-It I put some corn In ~very ring, h!ow many Piles wHl there be? 
 
 148 
 
Pup!l.-There will be 4 plies. Teaclher.- H ow many gTa~ins In every pile? Purpil.- Tb ere are 2. Teacber .- How ma ny twos or piles are there? Pup~1.-Th e re are 4. Tea.clher.-How many grains In all? Pupil.-There are 8. Teacher.-Then tour >twos a~re how many? Pupil.-Four twos are 8. 
[n some places poplar boards about four by eight inchf&, wi th h oles in them one-eighth of an inch deep are nsed. They are called hole boards. Each child puts the seed Into t'hese holes, ins tead of using a circle as described albove. 
Class Dri ll.-H will be weH to present th.is same idea in sevel"M d-ifferent forms . For 'instance: Take 4 benches or chairs an-d put 2 pupils on each, and h-ave class see that 4 X 2 = 8. Or draw 4 nests on the board and put 2 E>ggs in each. Ask pupils bow many ears on 4 boys ; how many banda oil 4 girls ; how many feet on 4 chickens, . how many eyes 4 dngs have; h ow many horns on 4 cows, etc. Bnt in every case, h ave the pupil see and say that it is so because 4 X 28. In the same way all the oth.,.. mu tiplication operations in 8 can be taught. Drill on the first and second kind of story work as illustrated in addilion. 
 
Scat Work.- 
 
1. With Obj(Ctl. 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil uses objects. 
 
00 00 00 00 = ? 
 
00 00 00 00 - 00000000 
 
Of course Q/bjective num!ber work Is not collltlnued up 11D 
 
tih is poirut. W ith the smaller numlbers, ilowever, lit 18 &D 
 
lnvaluaible aid. 
 
2. W ith Drawings. The t eacherdrawson the board: The pupil draws on his alate: 
 
( :) (:) (:) (:)-? 
 
(:) (:) (:) (:)- . ...... . 
 
This Is a. very entertaining and pro6ta.1Jle kind of .-& 
 
work. It can be varied by drawing apples, caerrl 
 
leaves on steiilB, or by puttilng tluiii&Dle in bucketa. 
 
 149 
 
3. With Figure&. 
 
'rile teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his slate: 
 
4X2-? 4X?=8 ?X2=8 ? X ?=B 
 
4X2=8 4X2=8 4 X 2=8 
 
A very nice varialtion of this W'OTk is to begin simple 
 
work in Compound Quantities at this juncture, bOth by 
 
teacbllng and in t!he seat work. Teachers could arrange drills by having pupils write answers to such questions as 
 
the following: 4 gills = ? pints; 8 gills= ? pints; 2 feet = ? in.; 2 yards =? feet, and so on. 
4. With Storics.-Use the last two forms of the story 
 
work lllustrated in addition. The first and second forms 
 
are of course intended for dJll!Ss drill only. 
 
TEACHING THE MULT'lPLIOATION TABLE. 
Arter the pupil has been in school two or three months it will be well to begin formal study of the multiplication table. Teaclher.s are advised to have pup'ils study the tabl es br writing them out. Have pupils make 2 dots, and just to the right have them write 1 X 2 = 2. The n let th em make two groups of dot8, two each, and wr ite 2 X 2 = 4. As soon as a table is learned, have pupils write it by division. They can learn the trubles both by, multiplicatlon and division just about as easily as one way alone. It is unnece898.ry to say thaJt th!ia will pave the way to shOTt dlvl!Jlon. 
 
Teachi.ng Unit! 
In 
Division. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teac'her.-WhaJt have I in my hand? aplints.) 
Pupil.- You h.ave some splln<U!. Tea.cher.-How many7 PupU.-8. 
 
(Holding up some 
 
 150 
 
Teacher.-W"h!lit am I doing with them? (Giving 2 apiece to wrne boYs.) 
PupiL-You are giving them to the ]}oys. Teacher.-Ho-w many to each boy? Pupil.-2. Teacher.-Boys with the splints, please stand. Teacher.-lf I divide 8 splin,ts among some boys, g'lvlng 2 splints to each boy, how many boys will there be? PupiL-There will be 4 boys. Te!liCher.-Why? Pnpil.-Because 8-+- 2 = 4. (The pupil will have to be lalped along by means of question~.) Class Drill.-Put 8 grains of corn into ]Jiles, 8 eggs Into nests, 8 boys on benches, etc. and in every case after the ope1ruti-on require the pupil to say "Because 8 divided Into tv."Os are 4." Tha;t is, of course, the first form of stmy work illustrated in Addition. For the seoond form, tell the story and require the pupil to perform the operation on his desk or slate with abjects. Seat work with drawings and objects when t'he pupil ha:s !lidvanced this fur. 
 
Seat Work with Figures.- 
 
The teacher writes on the board: The pupil writes on his s'ate: 
 
8+4=? 
8-+-?=2 ? +4=2 ?-+-?=2 
 
8-T-4=2 8-+-4 =2 8-+-4 = 2 
 
There aTe seveml answers to the last problem. 
 
The partitive problem is omitted on purpe>se. There 
 
a logioal difference between partitioning and division, but 
 
without a lO'Dg explanatlion, the average teacher is apt to 
 
co-n-~und the two. 
 
A Fiftee n Minute Seat Work Exercise.- 
Jn all th e seaJt work shO'Wll thus far the d10 tlb tless noticed thaJt t!he answers are always the and has probably been disposed to cJitlcise the work tll.ls account. Tblls plan h:a.l! been followed in order to 
 
 151 
 
the different kinds of sea~t work tliat can be used with each operation. It is now in order to give a suggestive seat work exercise suitable for pupils who have just completed a studY of tJhe No. 8. 
Every exercise should involve a review of as many or the faots previously taught as possible. 
 
The teacher writes on .he board: The pupil writes on his slate: 
 
5+2-? 7-4=? 8+ 4=? ? X3 =6 ?+ 3=5 6 +3=? ?-5=3 4+ ? = 6 ? X 4=8 2 qts. = ? pts. 
1 qt. - ? gs. 2yds. = ? ft. 
+ Write story for 4 3= ? 
 
5+2=7 
7-4~3 
8+4-2 2 X 3=6 2+3=5 6+3 - 2 8-5-3 4+2=6 2 X 4-8 2 qts. - 'J pts. 
1 qt. - 8 gs. 2 yds. =6ft. I had 4 sticks of can 
dy, and John gave 
+ me 3 more. I then 
had 7. Because 4 3 - 7 
 
The foregoing is w1b:alt is ordinari1y k'n10wn as Grube 
Nombers, because a young German teacher by I hat name 
lf!lt used it. A moment's reflection will Show the teacher J1llt what ground Is to be covered in the Prim'ary Numiber 
work, th en ehe beslt pl'an 'is for him to arrange the details 
ol his own trewtment. No two systems or Primary Number Work are exa:ct~y alike, llllld yet all are essentially tihe 
 
lime. 
 
Prhlciples.-1. Since the child's mind takes the concrete 
Int. and goes from that to bhe ab~t. so the concrete ot 
 
lrlthmetic must be presented first. 
 
\ 
 
1 The work mu!Sit be SY'Stumat'ic. 
 
3. Every fact, after being taught, must be reviewed untli Qorougtb>ly kn own . 
~In plann:ing the work, ll'O from the siiD'ple to the cum- 
 
 1 5~ 
PART IL 
!NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 
This Is a subject almost entirely neglected in books propiOSing to g1ive methods in arithmetic, and consequently overlooked by many teachers. Jlt is impossible to say just tJo -what ex;tent a pupil's work in arithmetic may be retarded by a neglect or this subject, but it does seem rundamentall that every pupil should be able to readily anrd accurately rood and write figures. Many Children never learn that 
t!here are units, tens, hundreds or units, ulllits, tens, hu~ 
dreds or thousands, etc., until tJhey are grown. 
Mcthods.-Take one box or tooth:picks or one bundle of 
splints and five cents' worth of rubber bands; make bundles or 10. Then take some or the 10 bundles and mate two or three 100 bundles. Tb.is Clan be done /by simp1y futenlng ten of the 10 bundles together. T.he toothpicks &Te now distributed iwto. three kinds of bundles, ones, teDIJ, hundreds. The teacller can use three ciigar bOxes tacked toget'her as Mr. Branson UluSitrlllted ~a;st year, or he CIIJl mark off three squares on the table or floor or on the 
ground. Put 5 toothpicks in the first box to the right, two 
10 bundles In the next box, and on:e 100 bun:dle in the nexL Question as follows: 
Teacher.---<How many hundreds hlave we? PupiL-We have one hundred. Teacher.-Make the figure one just rubove the 100 bolt. Teacher.~lfuw many tens have we? Puvil.-vVe hiave two tens. Teacher.-Make the figure 2 just aJbove the 10 box. Teacher.-Hiow many single toothpicks are there? PupiL-'I'here are 5. Teacher.-Mnke the figure 5 just above this tmx. Teacher. -Now look a.t the bundles and tell me how tbothplcks t!here are In all. Pup!l.-There are one hundred, two tens, and five. Teacher.-How many are two tens? PupiL-Two tens are twenty. 
 
 153 
Tea<:her.---'Then tell me how many there are altogether usirug twenty Instead of two tcus. 
Pupd l.-Ther~ are one hundroo and twenty-five. TeachBT.-T'hat is just what the figures 125 say. Drills.-Ask the pupils to write 124 on their slates. Those who succeed In doing this have followed the teacher. Such as have no t l'ollCJ<Wed may be made to see the point by repeaJting the operat ion. Wr<ite 123 on the board and ask pupils to read it. Ask them what the 3 represents, tlhe 2, the 1. Write 225 and ask them to read. Ask them to write 226. W'ith very stupid pupils, the teacher mlight take ten 100 ]}undies to make one tlhousa nd, t'hough, a:s a rule, it W'ill not be ne<:essary. 
ADDITION. 
It all the opernrtions wHh the small numbers have been well taught, there will be only one difficulty in teaching formal additivn, 8ind that is "carrying." Teachers are 8Jdvised to rontinue drills on the additJion table by using some such aid as Branson's additJion cards, or drill cards. Let 1t be requ'ired to add 65 and 28. 
The t.P.<&"-her writes on the 'board: 65 
+ 28 
The pupils are supplied with toothpicks or bundles ot straws. 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacher.-class read the figures. Teacher-Is the 5 in the uuits or tl:e tens box? Pupil.-It is In the units lYox. Teacher.-Where are the 6 and 2? PupiL-They are in the tens box. Teacher.-Wha:t Is the sum of 8 and 5? Pupil.-It Is 13. Teacher.-How many tens and hCJ<W many units In 137 Pupil.-There are 1 ten and 3 units. 
 
 154 
Tea.rher.-can you put the 1 ten under the units column? !PupiL-You cannot. Teacher.- Wllere must it go? PupiL- It must glQ u:nder the tens column. Tea.cher.-Then whaJt do we put under the units column? PupiL-We put the 3 units, Teacher.-Wha.t do we do with the 1 ten7 PupiL-We add it Ito the telll! column. Tea.cher.--'Wbait is the sum'l Pupll.-It is 9. Tea.cher.-It is 9 What'l Pupil.-rt is 9 tens. Tea.cher.~Where does 1t go? PupiL-It goes under 1tlhe tens oolumn. Teacher.-Wbat is the total sum? Pupll.-Jit is 93. Sometimes bright pupils will understand the objects. In tlhat oase they are superfluous. Throw away objeots j'USt as soon as you can. The next opera.Uon should involve hundreds. The teacher writes on the board: 
248 
+379 
The only difference between tihlis 
one is that it !has three figures, and lthe sum ot :the teEd 
column exceeds 10. Let the pupils make the ten ltens into a hun,dred just as :they made the units iD!oo a ten in the first prolb1em. 
SUBTRACTION. 
The terms in subtractJion oon 'be !taught just as any other defin,ition. if necessary, let the pupiLs be .suppl!ed wlda toothpicks just as in addition, though it will be better, ol course, it they cam follow the 'te!IICher without them. Let it be required to find the difference between 80 a.nd 46. 
The teacher writes on the boMd: 
710 
~0 
46 
 
 155 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.--'"rnat do rwe find In the Minuend T 
 
Pupll.- We find 8 tens arrd no units. 
 
Teacher.-WlJiaJt do we find In the Subtrahend? 
 
PupiL-We find 4 tens and 6 units. 
 
Teacher.-can we take 6 units from no units! 
 
PupiL-You cannot. T'eacher.-Take 1 ten from 8 telliS an:d hO'W many are le!t? 
 
PupiL-Seven tens are left. (The teacher marks out the 8 
 
and writes 7 just above and wriltes 10 just above the 
 
nau gh t . ) 
 
Teacher.-How many unit'S have we now In the Minuend? 
 
PupiL-We have 10. 
 
Teacher.-Take 6 units from 10 units an.d how many are 
 
lett? 
 
PupiL-Flour are left. 
 
Teacher.-Four tens from seven tens are hO'W many tens? 
 
PupiL-Three \ens. 
 
It will be seen that l't Is psychologically and mathemati- 
 
cally incorrect to say "one to carry to 4 makers 5, and 5 
 
from 8 leaves 3." The above example really gives the unit 
 
ot work 1n subtracti'on. There are, however, two other 
 
kinds or problems: the problem thrut goes into hundreds 
 
and tlhousands, and the problem that has naughts in the 
 
minuend. They are illustrllited aa follosws: 
 
(1) 
4 5 13 
f> ~ 3 -2 7 4 
 
(2) 9 
7 J~ 10 ~00 -4 56 
 
It Is not necessary rto say anything about the flrst. In the second, develop 'by means of questions the following P<llnts: You cannot take 6 from 0, and since you have no tens to change Into units, you must take 100 !rom the hundreds column: That will leave 7 hundred, rund Y-ou have 10 tens for the tens column. Take one of the 10 tens and put lt over the units column. The questl'On now lB to take 451 from seven hundred and ninety ten. 
 
 I.'i (j 
MULTIPLICATION. 
Teach terms the same as any other definition. It Ia assumed tb rut when the pupil reaches this point he knows the multiplication table, though aJS a ma:tter of fact it will be found necessary t'O continue reviewing 'it for some time yet. No attention is given h ere to problems where the product is always less than 10. 
Let it be required to multiply 35 by 3. The teacher writes on t'he board: 
 
105 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-Five units ta ken 3 times are h'ow many unitaT 
 
PupiL-Five units taken 3 times are 15 units. 
 
Teacher.-How many tens and. how many units ln lli 
 
units? 
 
PupiL-Qne ten and 5 units. 
 
Teac'her.-Under which column must we put >the 5 unltaT 
 
PupiL-Under the units column. 
 
Teac her.-Three tens taken 3 tJimes are how many tenaT 
 
Pupil.-Three tens taken 3 times are 9 tens. 
 
Teacher.-How many tens did we have When we mulU- 
 
plied the 5 units? 
 
PupiL-We had 1 ten. 
 
Teacher.-Nine tens and 1 ten are how many tens? 
 
PupiL-Nine tenrs and 1 ten are ten tens. 
 
There are twe other kinds of example, but as the 
 
operandi is the sam e as in the ab ove example, they will be developed fully. Let it be required to multiply: 
 
(I) 
86 )(49 
 
(2) 
3li8 )(206 
 
In the first examp1e, the pup!l wlll have no multiplying by 9. When be begins t o multiply by 4, him understand that 6 units taken 4 tens times are 14 
 
 There are no units. Can tens go under uiiiFtS! No. Where must they g'O? Under tens. Of course teTIJs times tens will g;ive huTIJdredis, and if there are more than 10 hundreds, they become thousands. In the second emmple, the only point Hable tJo cause trouble is the presence of a naught in t.he mu!ttlplier. Develop the idea thrut when y;ou pass over the naught you are multiplying by hundreds, and must tlheretore put the result down beginning with the hundred column. The adding is always just the same as in addition. r:l'he teacher will have no trouble 'in show'ing pupils how to multiply by a muiltlp1ier ending in n:aug'ht. 
 
DIVISION. 
 
This is one of the moot difficult subjects 1n arithmetic, and yet, stlrange tJo say, in all tJhe books on methods, and in all the articles in sChool journals, It is hardly ever given anytbling like a full! trea:tment. At fine article on the subjoot of lJong Division by Superintendent Otis Ashmore, of SaV'anruah, Ga., can be found in the May or June number of The Southern :&ducati'onal Jpurnal, Atlanta, Ga. If the 
alvice given on a previous page, that the division table he taught with the multiplication table, be followed, short division ought not to give the teacher any t1 ouble. Tll ere is no royal road to long division. The two will be treated togetJher. Teach terms as any other definition. Let it be requiroo to divide 1452 by 12. 
The teacher writes on the board: 
 
First Process.- 
121 12J 1452 
 
or 
 
l~l 
 
12 Fl~."~ 12 
 
25 
2~ 
 
11 ]~ 
 
 158 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacber.-How many twelves in 14 P PupiL-There Is 1 twelve In 14. Teacher.-H(Jw many are left over? PupiL-There are 2 left over. Teacher.-How many twelves in 25? Pupll.-There M-e 2 twelves in 25. Teacher.-How many are left over? Pupit-There Is 1 lett over. Teacher.-How many twelves In 12? PupiL-There Is 1 tJwelve In 12. This is not a scientHlc process, but if It can h el p 1n the mllltter of t~hing u difficult a subject a:s long division, use It. 
Second Procus.- 
121 
12 J 1452 
12 25 24 
12 
12 
COLLOQUY. 
Teadher.-How many hundred twelves in PupiL-One. (The teacher writes 1 over the 4.) Teacher.-one hundred times 12 are how many? PupiL-Twelve hundred. (The teacher writes 1200 In prnper place.) Teacber.-How many are left? Pupll.-Two hundred and fifty-two. (The teacher 252.) . Too.cher.-How many 10 twelves In 250? Pupil.- 'fhere are two. (Tbe teacher write ~ 2 over the Teacher.-'l'wen;ty twelves are b~w many? PupiL-Twenty ,twelves are two hundred and forty. eacher writes 240.) 
 
 Tea<iher.-lHow many 8ll"e lett? 
 
PupiL-There are 'tweJlve le>ft. 
 
Teacber .-'H ow many twelves In 12? 
 
Pu piL- There is one twelve in i2. (The teacher writes I.) 
 
T eaaher.-H{)w many are left? 
 
Pup.ll~one. 
 
Another way to teach long d1V'!slon Is to take a series ot 
 
examples each just a little more dillicult than the pr&- 
 
 
 
cedl ng. 
 
1. 3) 960 Teach by short division. 
 
2. 3) 960 Teach by long division. 
 
3. 30)960 " " " " 
 
4, 31) 969 
 
II 
 
" 
 
II 
 
Teachers sometimes get good results by having the di 
 
vhrtoo ta:ble o! the divisoT up to the nines written on tihe 
 
board. 
 
PART III. 
 
!FRACTIONS. 
 
The definition of Fractions an.d all the terms must be taught in:ductive1y. They cannot be taughit here for lack ot space. '11he m:ost d~llicult term in Fractions, Denomlnator, wi!ll lbe taughlt. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Denominator.- 
 
Terudher.-WUl~ have I in my hand? 
 
Pupil.-,A piece o! crayon. 
 
' 
 
Teacher.-What am I d'Odng w~th i't? 
 
3 pieces.) 
 
(Breaking It into 
 
IPupil.-You are breaking -it into pieces. 
 
Teadb:er.-Inlte lrow many pieces? 
Pupil.-Irut:Q 3 pieces. 
do Teac!ber.-As nearly as you can judge, how t'lrey com- 
Pare In Size? 
 
Pupll.-They are equall in size. 
 
 lGO 
 
Teacher.- What part is tlds? (Holding up I piece.) PupiL- It is on e-third. Too.c her.- 1 wi ll write tha t on the b oard . (Writing one- 
tbi rtl .) 'l'eaeh er.-What part havA l now. (Liulding up 2 pieces.) PupiL-You have two-thirds. Too.cher.-1 will write that on the board. (Writing two- 
thirds.) Teacher.-lnto how many pieces did we break the crayonT J'upil.-Into 3. Teacher.-Wihich of these figures shows that, the 0111e 
albove o<r the one helow the line? Pupofl.-1'he one below the line. Teacher.-Tell me then what the number below the l~ne 
shows. PupiL-It $hows into how many parts the Qbject has beea 
divided. 
Teacher.-That number we call the denominator of a 
frnction. Now tell me whatt the den1oomina!bor is. PupiL-The denominator of a fmction is the number be- 
low the line, and it shows into how many equal parts tlhe whole thing has been divided. 
I. To reduce fractions! Require pupils to look at the to its lowest terms. gram and solve suh problems as: 
 
WHOLE. 
 
~=1(;? 
 
u = 4? 
 
~ 
G= 
 
3? 
 
: ~2? 
 
=a? 
 
f 
 
Etc. 
 
These little examples are to 'be solved by lnspectton. 
 
 .16L 
 
vnll n~rw be In order to determine a rule toT chang'ing the 
form of a fraction when l't is too large to be oolved by in- 
spection. 
The pupil has seen that i =f. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.~H+ow can you change 4 into twos? Pupil.-By dividing by 2. T eac her.-How can you dhang~ 6 in:t:o threes ? PupiL-By dividing by 2. Toocher.-But h:ow d'cms four-si xths cnmpare in ~alue with trwo-tb.irds? !PupiL-It is equal to it. Teacher.-Horw does it all'eclt the value of a fmctl~m to divide both numerator and den n minator by the same number? 
 
PupU.-It does nnt change its value. 
 
Teacher.-How could yon change i into i thus without 
using the diagram? 
 
PupiL-By dlviding bnth numeraitor and denominator 
 
by 2. 
 
Teacber.-Can you change i into a fraction having smaller 
t~ rm s? 
 
PupiL-You cann'Ot. 
 
Teacher.-Then i is said to be redncPd to its lowest terms. 
 
Teacher.-When is a fraction reduced to its lowest terms ? 
 
PupiL-When it cannot be changed to any smaller terms. 
 
Teacher.-Horw do you reduce a fraction to its lowest 
 
terms? 
 
' 
 
PupiL-By dividing both numerator a.n,d denominator by any number that wil: divide them evenly. 
 
To reduce fractions to a\ 
 
Let it be required to solve the 
 
~nmon denominator. 
 
follow ing: 
 
i - 
 
? 
fll 
 
~- 
 
ll 
 
a '1 
t- 16 1- 
 
ia 1- t-h 
 
The pupil writes answers by inspection. 
 
  162 
COLLOQUY. 
'l'e~Jd!t'er.-I.A whto1e thing equals how many al:rteen'tha! Pupll.-61neen sixteenths. Teacller.-<>ne-fourth equaJls how many sixteenJtha? Pupil.-Onefourtb equals l.if Teacher.-Three-fourths equal how many? 
.Pupil.-Threefourths equal HTeacher.-To get the H what was the first thing you did 7 
'Pupll.---The first t'Mng was to d'lvide 16 by ~. Teacher.-Whalt ~ the 16? Pupll.-The dentoml\nat'i'on of !the required fraction. 
Teacher.-How did you get the }~ ? 
Pupfl.-By multiplying h by 3. Teacher..:.....What is the 8? (Pointing tc. the fraction f.) 
Pupll.-llt J8 the numemtor o! the given fraction. Teaeher.-H'ow then do yuu chan~ one fraction anmlhler 'W'lthout altering l!ts V'alue? Pupl1.-Div1de the denomlnator of the required !racdOil by thle denJomlnllltoc of the given frnctron and mul11Jlp1J Uhe quot:ient by Uhe nUJm611ator. PIace the result over the required denO!n~naror. Teach'flr..~In l!lhe example given abtove, what do TOU JlOo tlce. dlout thle den'ominaJtore? Pupill.-They are a:ll the eame. Teacller.--iW1b.en frac1ii'On'S a:re chia.niged 
bave the ~ denom.inllltor, tlhey a:re said tO be 
to a oooamon denomina.t'Or. T.he praJOijice ot USing fracttons 'W'Itb entorm;OUB deJil01Dll~ 
tors is to be severely condemned. If, however, the llhtould be torced Ito ihandie large fracbions, the best plan 
ro tlnd the L. c. M. 
!A:DDITIOIN. 
...._The first step 1'8 to reduce rthe tractions to a common 
DIODlil.natlor. u .tlhls haB a.lrea:dy been sh'OWn, It 
tla'UD. f ~ here, anld the teadllJlq wl'll ~ 
 
 163 
 
Let it be requtred t'o ftnd the sum of two-thirds, thre&- 
fourtlhos and one-'lm:lf. The pupil reduces these fractions to a common denominator and gets It in this s'ha.pe: eight- 
twelfths plus nine twelfths plus srix twelfths equals ? 
Let it be required to find the BUm of f, t and i 
The pupil reduces these fractions to a common denominator 
+ + and gets it in this shape : 1'1- 1ar 1di - P 
COLLOQUY.  
+ Teacher.-How many twelfths are r\ + 1~ 1~? 
Pupil.-f~. 
Teacher.-How did you get this result? Pupll.-By adding the numeratom and placing the sum 
 
over the 12. 
 
Teacher.-U are how many whole ones? 
I Pupii.-H - llf. 
Forms for the figure process. 
 
(2) 
t+t+~i == ?,'I 
' =t =1\ . B1Jif =lH 
One torm Is as good as an'()ltlher. 
 
Mixed numlbers can be 
 
reduced to improper fractions anrd added by one of ltlhe 
 
above forms, or they can be added as follows: 
14} 10} = 1 
141 = 14-h 10! -10/. 
24H 
When once a ~rm has been adopted, 1ee to tt that tM 
 
work uniformly follows it. 
 
SUBTRACTION. 
 
This subject is so easy tJlmt nOOh~ng need be d.one further 
 
than to sulbmtt i 'W'O forms. Let it be required to subltnlct 
 
l from i. 
 
(1) 
l - l = t"t - ~~ = t\ 
 
(2) 
t-l-? 
i-~ 
l-~ 
 
 16 -1 
 
MULTIPLICATION. 
 
To multiply a frac1 tion by a fraction. 
 
iX~-? 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
TeachPr.-How many are 1 X i? 
 
Pupi!.-i. 
Teacher.-How many are t X i ? 
 
Pupil.-,2-:r. 
'l'eacber.-How many are ! X i ? 
 
P u p i l . - i1;_ Teadher.-How can Y'O'l take 2 and 3 and make 6? 
 
PupiL-By multJiplyin.g them toget:her. 
 
Teacher.-How can you take 4 and 3 and make 12? 
 
PupiL-By multtip11yin.g them together. 
 
Teacher.-Tell me then !1 quick way to multiply a frao- 
 
tlon by a fraction. 
 
PupiL-Mulltiply rthe numerait:ors together and put their 
 
product over the product of the denomill'atQrs. 
 
Mixed numbeTs can be reduced to improper fractions, and 
 
multiplied by the rule just given. 
 
Cancellation, which is just a short process o! simpli!ylDI 
 
tractions, should be explained and used whenever possible. 
 
DIVISION. 
 
To divide a fraction! by a fraction. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teacber.--How many times is t contined in 1? 
PupiL-4 times. 
Teach er.- How many times are~ contained in 1? Pupil.-i of 4 or~ times. 
Teacher.- How many times are~ contained in iT Pupil.-i of~ times, J. 
Teacher.-What did you do with the f Pupil.-Made it t. 
 
 lJ!) 
 
Teacher.-That !B, you ln \'el1.ed lt, and after this Inver- 
 
sion what wru:~ done? 
 
PupiL- The !racHons were multiplied. 
 
 Teachcr.- Ilow then can you divide <;me fraction Ly 
 
another? 
 
Pupil.-lnvert 
Vi on. 
 
tl:e 
 
divisolf 
 
a.nd 
 
prroceed 
 
as 
 
in 
 
multiplica- 
 
DECIMALS. 
 
Draw a square on th~ hoard. Divide each side Into 10 equal parts and conned. This will give 1 1arge square divided into 100 small ones. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-iHow many squares in the large one? 
Pupil.-100. Teacher.-Qne square is what part of the whole figure? 
Pupil.-,h (The teacher writes 1 J-o- on the board.) Tea:cher.-What part are 4 llttle squares? 
Pupil.-rh (The teacher writes rh on the board.) 
Tcacher.-(Pol:nting to 1 row of the small squares): How many squares in this row? 
Pupil.-10. Teacher.-one is what part? Pupil.-D;. (The teacher writes 11.; en the board.) Tea.cher.-Five are what part? 
Pupil.-1"". (The teache r, writes 15-o- on the board.) Teacher.-!'11 show you another way to write three fractions. (The teacher writes }3 = 1, f.r=.Ol, 1~.;=.5, rh=.Ot.) Teacher.-What do you notice al:wut these denominatOJ's  . PupU.-They are all eith~r 10 or 100. Teaoher.--Such fractions are called decima~s. Teacher.-Now tell me what is a dedi mal fraction? 
Pupil.-A decimal fraction is one whose denominator is always 10, 100, e tc. Additio~ and subtraction of decimal s are so simple they are omitted on purpose. 
 
 lo G 
 
!MULTIPLICATLON. 
 
The only difficulty in multipflication of d eclma~s ls "PO'lntlug off." Let the teacher once bring the pupil to understand this point, then it becomes a ma.!Jter of mre mu!Uplication. 
The teacher writes on !Jhe board: .5 G 
 
2.5 COLLOQUY. 
 
Tea.cher.-Five times 5 tenths are how many tenths? 
Pupil.-25 tenths. Teacher.-25 tenJths are how many w'h'Oles? Pupll.-2 whOles and 5 tenths. 
The t,.:wher writes on the board: 2.53 
X5 
 
12.65 
 
Teacher.-5 times 3 hundredths are how many dredths? ' . 
 
Purpil.-15 hundredths. 
 
TeaC!her.-How many tenths and how many hundredths!- 
 
Pupil.-1 tenth 81Ild 5 hundredths. 
 
Teacher.-5 times 5 tenths are how many tenths? 
 
Pupil.-25 tenths. 
 
 
 
Teacher.-And 1 tenth makes how many? 
 
Pupil.-26 tenths. 
 
Tea.dher.-Haw many wholes apd how many tentlhs? 
 
Pupil.-2 wholes l!lnd 6 teniths. 
 
Tel!IC'her.-5 times 2 wholes are haw many wholes? 
 
Pupil.-5 times 2 wholes are 10 wholes. 
 
Teacher.-And 2 more are? 
 
Pupll.-12. 
 
Arter solving two or three more such examples, 
 
pnpil to notice the first example. How many t!ec imala the multiplicand? In the multiplier? How many In 
 
product T lfuw does tlle number of deciiiUIIls In tha 
 
 1G7 
 
compare with the uumlber in the multipli cand and mn1tiplier? Have him cliscon ;r tha t it is the same. H a ve him s tate th e rul e. 
DIVISION. 
 
T he figure wo rk is exac tly the same as In long division, 
 
so no a tte riti'on will be paid to that part of the worlr. 
 
1. Wh e n the nnmLer of decitn n.ls in the dividend equals the number in the di visor. 
 
5.76 -+- .21 = ? 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
T eao'her.-Haw many times are 6 hundredths CO'Ilbaincd 
 
In 12 hu ndredths? 
 
PupiL-Twice. 
 
Teacher.-Is that a decimal or a wh~le number? 
 
PupiL-A whole numuer. 
 
Teacher.-When you divide hundredths by hundredths 
 
w'haJt does it give you? 
 
Pupil.-W1hole numbers. 
 
'l'eacher.-When you divide 76 hunrlredtbs by 24 huo- 
 
dr't'dtlhs what kind of an answer will you get? 
 
PupiL-Wholes. 
 
Tea:cher.-How many decimals in the dividend? 
 
Pupil.-2. 
 
Teacher.-How ma:ny in the divisor? 
 
Pupil.-2. 
 
Teaoher .-What kind of a number did you get, a wlto le 
 
numlber OT a decimal? 
 
PupiL-A whole num'ber. 
 
Teacher.-What kind of an ans we1 d10 you get wh en the 
 
number of declimals in the rliv'idend equa ls tb e number in 
 
tbe divisor! 
 
Pupit-A W.h'ole number. 
 
Require the pupil to make a Stlatement. 
 
2. When the number of decimals in the dividend ex- 
 
5. 76 -+- 2.4 n? 
 
ceed those in the divisor. 
 
 168 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-Wbat Is ltJhe wh~J1e number In the dlvlsort 
 
Pupll.-2. Teacher.-In the dividend? 
Pupil.-:>. Teacher.-If you divide 5 by 2 what d~ you geU 
 
Pupil.-2~. 
Teacher.---Dan it be as much as .37 PupH.-It cannot. Teacher.-T'hen Where must we 'PUt the decimal podnt In 
 
t!he quotient? PuP'fl.-Between the 2 a>nd 4. Teacher.-How lJ!any decimals ln tthe divMend T 
 
Pupil.-2. Teacher.-In the d'lvis<>r? Pupil.-1. Teacher.-By ll'ow much does the number in the dlviden4 exceed the number in the divisor? Pupil.-By 1. Teaclher.-And h~JW many decimals did we point otr? Pupil.-1. Tea'cher.-Then give me a rule for pointing otr when the number of decimals in the div'idend exceeds the number 1n the divisor. Pupil.-Point off as many decimals In the quotient as the num'ber of decimruls in the dividend exceed'S tihe number In the divisor. 
 
When the number of dP.d 
mals in the dividend is smaller than tl:e number in the divisor. 
 
67.6 + .24 = : 
 
The only thing necessary is to annex naughts t'O the mals In the dividend until there are as many there aa the divisor. The answer then is in wnole numbers. 
 
 16!J 
 
COMI'()UND QUANTITIJDS. 
 
This sUbject 1s comparatively easy. The ta:blee whllch 
were studied 1n Primary Numbel"S are now formally re- 
viewed. The oo!ly 1Jhing necessary Is t'O give a good rorm 
tor each o! the four fundamental operation& 
 
ADDITION. 
 
1 .Addition. 
 
8 mi. fur. 64 39 
10 6 
 
40 5i 3 12 rd. yd. ft. in. 30 7 2 8 15 8 1 9 
7 5 1 5 
 
+ 12in. =1ft. 
17in. = 1ft. 5in. 
+ 3ft. = lyd. 
4ft. = 1yd. lft., etc. 
 
In writing down the problem, care should be taken to 
 
write the columns far enough apart to keep the pupils from 
 
thlinking they represent units, tens, etc. Wrlte a.n a!b'bre- 
 
via.bion of tl'.e name over each colum'll. Write or omit the 
 
table at will. It the pupil writes tJh.e table Bit recitation, 
 
of course have him do so from memory. It is better to 
 
make tfue change or reductions in the pupil's mdnd. If he 
 
cannot do this, have them written down systema:tdcwlly. 
 
2. Subtraction. 
 
20 4 25 
 
T. cwt. qr. lb. 
 
l'>_i") 
 
5 
 
2 12 
 
80 15 
 
1 18 
 
34 10 0 19 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Tea.cller.-can Y'OU take 18 1bs. from 12 l'bs.? Pupll.-You cannot. Teacher.-What did yoou do in subtra.Ctl"on when yuu could not take the unit figure in the subtrahend from the Unit figure In the minuend? Pupil.-You changed a 10 into units. . Teacher.-1 qr. from 2 qrs. leaves how man7T :t>upil.-1 qr. Teacher.-1 qr. Ia how JliiiLllf lb..1 Pupil.-2& lblt. 
 
 170 
 
Tea.eher.-How many lib!!. have TOll already! 
Pupll.-12. Teacher.-12 lbs. and 25 lb<s. are how many lbs.? 
Pupil.-37 lbs. T eac her.-18 lbs. fr om 37 llJs. !'eave how many? 
Pll'pil.-19. Just repeat this urrit witfu the other columns. 
 
MULTIPLICATION. 
 
rEow muc'h corn in 8 boxes, aadh box contalnin:,i 5 bu. 
 
8 pk. 5 qrts. 1 pt.? 
 
The teacher writes on the board: 
 
482 
 
bu. pk. qt.. pt. 
 
5. 
 
3 5 xs1 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
T oacher.-If each lbox holds the !lm'Onn't named, how many times that amount wiH 8 boxes ho ld? 
Pupil:- 8 times. Teachcr.-Then 'lmw many p'ill'ts. In 8 boxes? Pu.p'il.-8 pints. Teacher.-8 rpini1Js are !how many quarts? Pupil.-4. T c?.c her.~Any pints leflt! PupiL-No. Teacher.-5 qoo. In 1 box, how many In 8 boxes? Pupil.- 40. Teacher.- How mwny qts. have we already? Pupi1.-4. Teacher.--How many In all? PupiiJ.-44. And S'o Oill. If the teacher wis'h, ihe can J!Ut down all of tJhese operaU<ms, lbut it 1S best rto do it always 1n !PO~ 
particulu war. 
 
 171 
 
DIVISION. 
 
U 1 doz. silver sp:YOD'S weigh 1lb. 9 oz. 17 dwt. 12 gr., 
 
wb~t is the weight of er.ch one? 
 
The teacher vrrites on the board: 
 
oz.12 20 
 
24 
 
lb. 
 
dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr. 
 
12~ 
 
17 
 
12 
 
1 
 
16 11 
 
21 197 132 
 
12 12 
 
12 
 
9 
 
77 
 
12 
 
72 
 
11 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Teachm.- Can you divide 1 }:b. by 12? PupiL-No. Teacher.~How many oz. in one lb.? PupiL-12. Teacher.-How many oz. already? PupiL-9. Teac'her.-{How many in aU? 'P u p i L - 2 1 , 'I'eacher.-How many twelves in 21? PupiL-1. T each&.-1 w'hat, Bince we are d'ividing oz.? Pupil.-1 oz. Teacher.-H'ow many oz. left? PupiL-9. 
Teacher.-Can you divide 9 by 12 and get a whole num'ner t 
PupiL-No. Teacher.-Whrat can we reduce the 9 OZ, to? PupiL-To pennywe'ights. Teacher.-How many dJwtt. in 9 oz.! Pupl1.-180. Tea;c'her.-And 17 more are bow many? Pupil.-197. Teacher.-'How maJI~.y twelve& can we pt In 197? And 90 on. 
 
 172 
 
PERCENTAGE. 
 
The Idea of percen~ Is to be taught In exact1y the 
 
same way as decimals. The terms are to be taught jus t as 
 
any other definition, that is, by an applioa:tion of the four 
 
steps ~n Inductive teaching. 
 
1. To find a certain perj cent. of a number. 
 
Find 5% of 360. 
 
m 100 per cent. - 360 
 
1 "  = 
 
of 360 ~ 3.6 
 
5 " " = 5 X 3.6 ~ 18 
 
:. 5 " " of 360 = 18 
 
COLLOQUY. 
Tea.cl:ter.-What per cerut. 1s 360 of itself? Pupii.-100. Teac'her....:....Then 1 per cent. will be what part or 360? Pupil.-d;o of it. Teacher.-How much is that? Pupll.-3.6. Teac!her.-5 per cent. will be how many tlmes 1 per celllt.? Puptl.-6 times 3.6, wthich will be 18. 
2. To find what per cent.\ one number is of an 18 is what per cent. of 360? other. 
m 360 = 100 per cent. 
1 = of 100 per cent. = ,., per cent. 
18 18 X 1"'" per cent. = 5 per cent. 
 18 = 5 per cent. of 360. 
OOLLOQUY. 
Tea.cher.-360 hi what per cent. of irllself? Pupll.-100 per cent. 
Teacher.-What per cenlt. wm 1 be? 
Pupi!.-Th of 100 pe r cent., or fi per cent. 
Teac'her.-And 18 wm be !how manoy rtf.nies as many? 
Pupicr.-It will be 18 times Ill! many, or 6 per cent. 
 
 173 
 
3. Given a certain perl cent. of a number to 18 is 5 per cent. of what number? find the number. 
100 per cent.= the rrquired number. 5 per cent. = 18. 
1 per cent.= t of 18 ~ 3.6. 100 per cent. = 100 X 3.6 = 360. 
. 5 per cent. of 360 = 18. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-W"hat per cent. equals the number? Pll'pil.-100 per cent. Teacher.-5 per rerilt. are how many? Pupil.-5 per cent. are 18. TeaOher.-Then 1 per cent. aTe h'OW many? Pupll.-1 per cent. are 3.6. Teacher.-100 per cent. wil1 be how many? Pup!l.-100 per cent. wm be 360. 
 
4. To find a certain num-~ ber when an.other, a What number increAsed by 5 certain per cent. great- per cent. of itself becomes 378? er or less, is given. 
 
+ 100 per cent. =the number. 
100 per cent. 5 per cent. = 105. 
 
105 per cent. 
 
= 378. 
 
1 per cent. = rh X 378 = tH. 100 per cent. = tH X 100 = 360. 
 
. 378 is 5 per cent. greater than 360 . 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-W"h~:t per cerut. ls tbe numb'er of litselfT Pupil.-100 per cent. Teadher.-Wlmt part of the number Is 378? Pupll.--'11l'e Whole numlber and 5 per ~nit. more. Teacher.-T)len whalt per ce:J.t. of the number Is 3781 Pupll.-105 per cent. Teacher.-JW:ha.t wm b'e 1 pier cent. of it? Pupil.--m of 378. Too.cher.-Whrut wil'l 'be 100 per cent. of tU 
Pupil.-100 X Ut, which will be 360. 
 
 174 
 
INTEREST. 
Teach terms as needed. Lot it be r equ ired t o fi nd th e interest on $120 for 1 yr . 7 mo. an d 15 <I a. at 8 per cent. 
 
120 .08 
 
6 mo. ~ 
 
1" 15 da. 
 
2t 
 
9 60 int. for 1 yr. 
4. 80 " " 6 mo. . 80 If " 1 " .40" "15 da. 
 
15 CO wh ole interest. 
 
COLLOQUY. 
 
Teacher.-How do you find ijjhe interest for 1 year? 
 
PupiL-By multiplying the principal by the rate. 
 
Teacher.-Hrow much is that? 
 
Pupil.-9.60. 
 
TeaC:her.-6 months are wha t part of a year? 
 
Pupil.-{)ne-half. 
 
, 
 
Teacher.-Then the interest for 6 m~nlth.s wlll 
 
!)'8.rt of the 'int erest :!'or 1 year? 
 
Pupil.-{)ne-half. 
 
Teadhr.-How much Is t'hwt? 
 
Pupil.-$4.80. 
 
Teacher.-The interest for 1 month Is whall: part of the 
 
Interest for 6 months? 
 
PupiL-It is one-sixth of $4.80, or 80c. 
 
Teacher.-15 dayl! are what part of a month? 
 
Pupil.-Dne-hal!. 
 
Teacher.-Then the interest for 15 days will be what pari 
 
of 80c.? 
 
Pupil.-Dne-hal!, or 40c. 
 
Tea:cll~er.-How can you get tlhe Interest tor the entllre 
 
Ill m e ? 
 
Pupil.-By adding these amounts together. ' 
 
Teacher.-lt you burrow $120 trcm a party, h<>w much 
 
wfll Y'OU owe hlim aJt tlhe end of 1 yr., 7 mo. and 16 d.a)'llf Pupll.-$120 and $15.60 inlterest. 
Teacller.-Tbat 1a ctA.Ded the a.moun&. 
 
 175 
 
iRJATIO AND PROPORTION. 
 
Thle ratio ot two numbers Is tJhe indicated quotllent of one divided by ithe other. 
lf, ~are ratios. These are also written, 12:3 : 4:1. They 
are read, 12 divided by 3; 4 divided by 1. Compare the ratio of 12 to 3 and 4 to 1. What do you observe? The comparison might be expressed as follows: 12:3 - 4:1. This is a proportion, or equality of ratios. There are two kinds of problems under proportion : 
1. Prd!YlemJB in wlhidh t'here are only 4 qmmt!ties (Simple). 
2. Problems in which there are more than 4 quantities (Compound). 
 
There is one general law about a proportion. The product of the end terms (extremes) is always equal to the product ot the inside terms (moons). Thla.t be'ing true, any 3 of the 4 terms being ~V'en, the rourth can easi1y be fo und. In all prolJ'lems of this 80flt, soonething always causes or produces something else. Because of this fact, arithmeticians are ge.'Il:erally ~.!@rOOd tJhiaJt it iB a good plan 
to state a universal proportion in the following manner: First cause: Seoond cause equalls First effect: Second 
effect. Wben the teacher meets a pro'blem in proportion, a!ll he has to do iB to a.'Scerta.in whaJt :iJs the first cause, etc.. until he finds 3 teTins, pu1Jting the blank where it properly belong'S, and then make tJhe pr'oduct ot the extremes equal to the product of the maa.ns. 
 
ILLU:STRIATIONS. 
 
Sirnple Ptoportion.- 
 
It 12 cloaks can be made from 54 yards or broadcloth, how many yards would it require for 32 cloaks? 
 
1st Cause. 2d Cause. 1st Effect. 
 
yd. 
 
yd. 
 
cloak. 
 
54 
 
X 
 
12 
 
Product of extremes = product of means. 
 
12 X = 54 X 32 
 
2d Eff,ct. clnak. 
32 
 
9 16 
fitl X f7 
x - - - - 144 
Jj 
 
 176 
 
Compound Prnpnrtinn.It 7 horses eat 21 bushels o! oruts In 14 days, how maLy 
bushels would be required to serve 35 ho1ses 28 days? 1st Cause. 2d Cause. lst Efl'ect. 2J Effect. 
 
h7 
 
3h5 } 
 
201 
 
0 
1: 
 
14 
 
28 
 
Product of extreme = product of means. 
7 X 14 X X = 35 X :.!8 X 21. 
 
By calculation : 
 
52 
p,5 X~~ X 21 
-----210. :tXJf1Xx 
 
The same by analysis: 
 
7 horses in 14 Jays eat 21 bushels 
 
1" 1" 35 II 
 
""" "1" 
""" 
 
"3" 
" . lllJ.f .. 3X35 
14 
 
3X85X28 
 
85 " " 28 " - - - - - .. = 210. 1-! 
 
These two examples are taken .trom San!o:rd'a Higher 
 
Arithmetic. 
 
 177 
METHODS OF LEARNING PRIMARY NUMBERS. 
1. 'l'lw old Wav. 'J'he pupil, after having attended school a while, learns to make figures, and then commits to memory the different tables, having rec itations at irregular intervals. This \\'Ork is often put into the hands of older pupils. 2. GruiJe Num/Je1s. P~ll't I. of this Manual is one presentation of Grube Numbers. Usually every system of schools has its own way of handling this _subject. For instance: In t eaching the manlier 8, one system will teach all of the multiplicati\e facts, then all of the divisional facts, or all of the additive facts first. ann then :ro on to the number 9. Another system will teach an additive fact, then a subtractiYe fact, then a multiplicatiYe fact, and so on. One plan is just as good as anothet, proYided the teacher follow systematically whatever piau is adopted. Here is the psychological basis of the work: Number is presented to the chilo through sew~. 'J'he perceptiYe faculties being most acute at this stage, the subject is presented in the concrete rather than the abstract. The pupils see and handle the objects, and thus gt' t a conception of number that could never lie gotten by committing tables to memory. Some variation of this plan is now used almost exclusiYely in the best schools of the country. This caution should always be borne in mind: Do not use the objects any longer than is absolutely necessary. A pupil's development may be hindered rather than accelerated by overlooking this caution. 3. 'l'he SJ)eer Sy.stern. This is a treatment of number from the standpoint or relation of magnitude. One thing is so many times larger, or longer, or heavier than another. This system uses objects the same as Grube numbers, but the objects are not 
 
 118 
so mu ch to be counted as to l!e co rn[ln.red. Th e U >'ll~ l on ttit consi s ts of a ta ble covered witl: blocks of different lengths a nd sizes. This work can be extended by using lin es on lhe board a lso. For a f ull t rea tmcnt of this s n bject, write Oi nn a nd Compauy f or Speer's Arithmetic, Teac h cr~  Ed iIion. lu t!l is book w ill be fo und illu strn.tious s howin g the numb er and size of blocks to be used, lo;;ether with s uggestio ns, lll ocl el lessons and so on, muc!J more iu detai l tha n could be expected in a short notice like this. 
 
 NATURE STUDY. 
 
' 
 
BY T. J. wooFTER, Pu.D., GEoRGIA NoRMAL 
AND lNDUS'rmAL CoLLEGE. 
l. WHA.1' IS IT ? WHY HAVE IT? 
'The study of nature is the study of tllings about us ,, hi ch w e can percei\e with our senses."-Packard. 
"Nature study is seeing what is before ns and construing correctly wllat we see." It is the study of God's world about us, placed here for our development. 
Nature is the outer world of educa.tile materials about us. It is continually and from a ll directions pressing in on tile chilli , ca lling fortlJ his activities. The clJilcl in turn really hungers and thirsts for contacts with the outer world about him: H e asks questions; l1 e lJas a bu!'lliqg des ire to know; he is e1ery read y and anxious to come in contact with th ings. Nature an<l 1mman nature are thus in thorou glJ co ncord. They mutually interact. .In other words, the child is prompted to know nnd to grow, both by nature about and by lniman nature within. 
''Teaching is nicling the mind to perform its fun ctions of knowiltg nnd growing." Natmal education will nitl th e cleYelopmc11t of the ch ild in ncconlnn cc with natnre. "\Vhnt nre t11 e leRsons nature g i1es th e child? n ow hns he bee n knowing and grow ing before he entered school ? On ll"h!! t has be spent his a ctivities '! On boo]>s 1 Far from lt. 
 
 180 
How has .nature educated tlle race from primitive man down to the present? 
1. PrimitiYe man had to learn early the use of certain plants for food and ~;helter. 
2. He learned to outwit, conquer, domesticate powerful and useful animals. 
3. He had to find out how to make of wood, bone, stone, metal, rude weapons, and to use these. 
4. He gained knowledge of tlle elements, of sun. moon and stars as clocks. 
Such is the character of the education first given the ra ce by nature. Has this eflucation been effective? 'fo floubt this is to doubt the wisflom of God's plans. 
There is somewhat of a parallel between the development of the child and of the ra ce. From these lessons nature has given the race we can get the cue as to what lessons we should first give the child. 
1. Let us note that in early education th ere were no boolis. Man learned from outside nature. Our education bas llecome too bookish, therefore too unnatural. 
2. :\Jan has divine instrtl(:tion to "Subdue the earth and have dominion o\e r e\ery living thing." There are two steps in this: (l) Domestication of animals; (2) cultinttion of soil. 
'fhl're could be no effectual cultha tion of the soil without the ox and ti-le horse. It is interesting to note that the dog was the first animal rlomesticated, prolwbly because of his companionship. 
The beginning of soil culture was decisive fot stable institutions. Man ceased to be a wanderer all he round the value of certain fertile spots and took possession of these, 
 
 181 
Hence the following are suggested as the first sc.hool steps in .1\ature study. 
1. Symvathetie interes t in animal life, especially ani mals as relatell to human interest. 
:!. 'l'he soil, its c ultiva tion, vlants, etc. This step center's in and around the garden. Competitive growing of plants and 11owers is good to bring ch ildren to obsel'l'e na t ural laws, the weather, s uns hine, rain, heat, colcl, etc.' 
3. Observation of the s un, moon, anu stars. Shalet says that city peovle to-day are losing certain 
stu ble foundations of character gotten through contact with dom estic animals. And it is true that anarchists do not come from tile country. Prof. Hodge of Clark University has been inviting passing tramps to work in his garden  that he m ig!Jt have the opportunity to ask them this question: " Ha Yc you e,cr planted or cultivated anything'/" Only one out of forty -had evet planted a sceu or cared for a plant. Are we ed uca ting a ra ce of anarchists abel tramps'! ls Nature Study then worth while? Has it any practical good in it 'l Again we may r Jce that keen perceptive facu lties are neecl.ecl: 1. rror material success, the good obserYer has th e advantage in cotton buying, merchandising, farming, blacksmithing, in all pursuits or life. 2. For enjoyment, whether in traY el, literature, a1't, or every-day affairs. 'Vho gets most enjoyment out of these? Nature Study ltas a practical nine not surpassed by even arithm e tic. Still again, all first hand knowledge must come through the senses. Without the senses we co uld neYer know. Sense knowledge is foundation knowledge. It is the concrete material that we use  inductively. We need it to interpret 
 
 182 
fnt ure k n o 11 led~;e, to appercc iYe. lin1 e to !:' i!IJply tlds scu Be !.;uo rr leU.gc . Th e ily of the se nses in youth , the plasticity of gTo win ;:;- l.nain, the iulerests of ci.J il dhoocl ~.~. Lhose of Jaler life, a ll emphas ize yo uliJ as lhe U11 1e for ~ lo riu ;; the mimi with materia I from lit e outer ''"orlll a~ founuali o u mat erial fur fu! ure d c,clopnwut a s well as tlle l.Jcst tuulerial for p resen t de ,clopm ent. Ami laslly, let me urge that Nature StuLly will react not only on the life of the imlividnal clt ild, but also on t he life of tlt e sc!Jool a ud of the whole co mmuuity. It will furuisl.! r ec reatiou aud Yari ety in school work, relieve the monotouy of book work and dull rou tine, will inten sify In. tcrest along all school lines. It \\"ill ltav e a tE'nd ency lo check the moYement from country to city, will increase capaci ty Lo eujoy country surroundings, anrl thus will materially benefit the wiJole Stat e. \Vi ll you have it'! "\Y itllout your decision to I.!ave It, fe llow tea c!Jers, all talk about met !Jods will be in vain. Yo u can not afford to be wit!Jout it. Do uot be a book murderer of natural development. a slave to past ideals. On th e other l!and, aim to develop the acti re [Jowers of t.h e child and to giu him an abidliiii!J i.nter est in the 1VI)rks of God. 
T hrough Nature Study, lay a rational foundation for the religious belief. Necessity fo i a creator may be cl n r!y sho wn. ~.rJJere is evidence of immeasurabl e power, transcendent wisdom, goodn ess everywhere m::111ifest. Mig hty come from the su n. But who endo wed tl.!e Food, air, s un shine, water, are here in tion lo our needs. "\VIto ordainN1 it so'! th e aclapla.bility of str ucture iu plant aud mal. "\Ylw arranged it'! 'Tue heavens the glory of God and tlte firmam ent sltoweth 
 
 183 
linn fli>~o t k ." ''lio1v mnnifolrl are thy \'.-o rks. In \Ti~dom thou l!asl m:trl e lil e 111 all; tho L'arth is fnll of tl 1y ri<h es. " 
IJ. :\IETH ODS. 
'!'IIi~ top ic. 1\liss .amold, in \\'n,vmarkf' fOl' T each ers. ajJ tl y di vid es info t l11ee, 'get," "see," null "sn y." 
F irs t step. Tile gcllin(!' has to do ll'i t h tl: c selectio n of tlJe s pec ime ns :wd their soq ne ncc in a co urse of study. ln selecting specim ens fo r class study, some th iugs sho ul d guiue. 
1. The specimens should belong to the immediate surroundin gs of the chilcl. 'l'hc best observation work cannot be in th~ schoolroom . The indoor lessons should arouse interest and s timulate outside obsenation. The pupils should appl y the schoolroom lessons. They are to be led to see a nd to interpret the out-of-doors, to appreciate the beauties of th ei r environm ent. Tbe toad is a bet ter topi c tllan the s tarfish. 
2. The spec im ens shou ld be types of important g roups. Of about 3!:)0,000 species of animals and 200,000 of plants on ly a few can be st ndi etl. If the few are types, a fairly good idea of a ll may be obtained. 
3. The specim ens should, as far as possible, lead to Yalua ble observati on and application. 'l'he co rnfield -pea tak es nitrogoi~ out of th e ai r and puts it into !~;he soil. Th e farmer pnys high prices for nitrogen in f ertilizers. Certai n com mon insects are d estru ctiYe. 'rhese should be recognized in any stage of develop me nt. The Y::tlue of birds, toads, etc., swmps these as useful topi cs. 
Second step. 'l'llis is the seeing. First find out what pupi Is hn Ye aJready seen , tlJon guide t hem to see morE'. Sldllful q uestiouing will do t!Jis. The observations should be ord erly. There will a t first be tile tendency to see things haphazard. 
 
 184 
without any logical connections. To overcome this the tea cher's questions should be planned in order. H a ve a defi nite pla n of procedure. Arrange your question s. Again th e observat ions s houlu be th oug htful. The pupil s hould in te rpret ptoperly what he sees. 'l'hc qu es ti on s hould lJe thought-provoking; the 10Tty should a lwa ys be in e vid ence. 'l'he obse rvations should be complete. They should not stop until they have seen all they ought to see. A definite pla n will be needed for this, one which indicates a beginning and an end. Such plans w ell foll owed w ill induce_ logical habits of thought. Third step. Observation should lead to expression. All the various form s of expression should be cultiva ted, but especially oral a nd written Jan gua ge a nd draw ing. Have ora l descriptions aJ. ways and fr equent written descriptions and life stori es. Encourage dra wi ngs of leaves, flowel'll, animal, trees, anythin g s tudi ed. HaYe tht!le jus t as a ma tter of co urse, not a s a regular drawing lesson. Leaf, fl ower, and animal fol'IDI ma y be cut in pa per or pricked and embtoldered. This is good indus trial busy work in connection with Nature Stud y. Outlines for embrolderiDI ma y be had from any kindergarten supp)J house, s uch as Mil to n Bra dl ey Co., Atlanta. Pictmes and literary ge ms shoulu lJc brought In, the poe t and the :u-t ist thu s helping the child to appreciate the beau t if ul. Free use of memory gems from litera ture a t a ppropria te tim es is valuable. '!'he reading of inspiring books is to be recoJD mended. These book s shoul cl not be mere CODI- 
pilations of fact, but should be genuine good Ut-. 
etature. Such are the works of Burrolllbt. Thoreau, Seton-Thompson, Long, and others. By way of general suggestion let me add. Do not any time Jet the lessons dwindle Into 
 
 185 
knowledge-getting lessons, or into a mere counting a nd naming of parts. Let the life story stand out. ' Vha t can the plant or animal do, then how is it fitted to do so. About the latter part of November celebra te Atbor Day. Have a program, invite patrons, and plant trees. About April first have a Bird Day. Have as much as possible of the nature work center in the garden. Make suggestions, distribute seeds, do all you can to interest them in planting and tending. If at all practicable, haYe a competitive exhibit of pupils' productions, flowers, plants, vegetables, school work. All of this will help to make the school the community center. 
Ill. SUGGESTIVE MA'l'ERIAL. 
Since this is a new field, it seems !Jest to give here a more specific outline showing what material may be used. Nature Study is not fully organized as yet. Courses of study will be found to agree generally in such suuj ects as arithmetic and geography, but there is no such agreement in 
Xature Study courses. The fo llowing outline course of study is a step towanl the organization of this material for Georgia. It is therefore suggestive in its aims. It will I.Je too extensive for some, too limited fot othe rs. 'l'opics may be talien, others left. according to iudividnnl ta stes. Some may be abbreviated or added to, brought in earlie r or postponed. 
'!'hose who feel timid about entering this yast fi eld a re ndvised to make a beginning anywhere.  :::>elect a few topics of interest to you. begin with these; and you'll soon radiate in all directions. 
'l'lwse wllo seem inclined to be critical, please bear in mind that much bas been necessarily sacrificed to brevity. 
 
 186 
To co rrelnte w ith the genernl course of study, tbe fo ll o,Yin g course is ar ranged in five grouPI agreeing witll the fil-e rea.cler grades of the gra ded course of study for the com mon sclJOoll of Georgia, publis)Jed by Commissioner Glenlljj It is pla un cd for th e rural and village scliOollj and if put into effect w ill tend to dignify anct eleYate cou nt ry li fe. 
Suggestions lluYe been adapted f rom ma ny source~t,; but it is hoped that there will be found some pedagogical merit distinctly its own In the course. 
SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
IJ'} LL. 
 
FIRS' GROUP. 
 
Life histories of dog, cow, cut, chicken, duck. Instl 
tu te compa ri so ns. Sttess use to man and care 
 
of domes ti c an ip1nl s. Bring out ha bits, adapta 
tions, bodily covering. Properties of hair, tur; 
 
e tc. 
 
H ickory a nd pine trees; form , parts, arrangemeak 
 
of buds, fruit. Compa ri sous. l~alling of Ieav-. 
 
Co1ering of buds with li ttle oYercoats. 
 
Migration of birds. Collect cocoo ns. 
From titis study of tlJe preparations of plant and ao&o 
 
ma l for w in ter, pass to our protection against tbf 
 
cold of winter. 
 
WIN'l'F-R. Sk in, hai1, nai ls; t heir uses and care. 
 
Clothing and related industri es. Houses. 
 
houses and dress; the lmlinns. Esquiman 
 
'l'eacber get information from Schwatka's 
 
dren of the Cold. Also bring in the 
 
primer (Houghton, Mil!. Co.), !or Indian 
 
 187 
legends, etc. What wete Hiawatha's Brot11ers? HiaiY:lllJa 's Clli ckens 'l Also study parts of. llumau body, botH'S and mm;clcs. Fis h, oys ter, a verteb rate and an inYe rteura Le. S l' Hl:>I G. Nature's preparation for return of warm weather. Familiar seeds and their germination. {)peuing of leaf and flower buds. Which open first in the elm? Why? in the dogwood? Note others. What are some of the first signs of Spring? Stncly butterflies and motlls. Have individnal coll ections of leaves arranged according to shape and veining. Study the horse; simple structme, habits, food, u se, care. Compare with cow. Fot wild animals. study tbe squirrel and the rabbit. ContTnst llabits. Begin an interest in birds. H ave some general weather observations. For some sample lessons worl;ed out in full on the dog, cow, horse, chicken, rabbit, etc., get :r-IcMurray's Method in Elementa!'y Sci ence. 'l'hi~ is a good book on Natme Study for th e first three grades; price 50 cents, l'ubli.c School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. Read tllem Thompson's "Raggy uug" from "Some \Vild Animals I Have Known," in connection with the rabbit. Also Uncle Remus's tales of "Bre!' Rabbit." .Give th em many interesting sto;i cs of domestic animals. Encourage them to tell about the doings of animals. 
SECOND GROUP. 
FALL. 
Teach names of months and seasons. Forms or 
 water; vapor, rain, bail, snow, ice. Simple experiments to show effect of heat on matter: (1) on air, (2) on water, (3) on iron, (4) on merc ury. The thermometer as a measure or beat. Daily 
 
 188 
record of thermometer. Weather record kep1 this year. Sum these record s weekly, then monthly. Which the hottest day? Wllich the coldest? What the average temperature? Whlcb days were about average? On which days dld it rain? How much? What the direction of wind these days? The prevai ling weather? Prevailing winds, etc.? Flowers. Work of parts of flowers. Falling of flowers . Which parts fall? Which remain 'I Use of the flowers to the plant. St111ly or any. fall flower like Goldenrod, Chrysanthemum. Study of oak and walnut trees. Recognition by bark, leaf and wood. Properties of theil wood. Nut trees in general and nuts. Collect ion of autumn leaves. Have some drawn In outline and colors. Collection of seeds; morning glory, acorn, pecan, beans, peas, cockle-burs, let tuce, radish, mustard, corn, wheat. Every child should have a seed box. Some of their own col lection should be planted next spring. How nature sows her seeds. 
The storing of food by animals; by plants In seedJ and In roots as in beets, turnips, parsnips, etc. Storing of starch as food . Id entification of starch (iodine test). Is it soluble? Try cdld water and hot. Necessity for grinding and cook lug, for conversion of starch into sugar. 
Sugar-cane, sorghum, sugar maple. F1om this study of the needs and preparation of ani 
mals and plants from the standpoint of food. 
pass to a like study of man. 
WINTER. Pl'imitive and modern methods of maldng fire, ~ log, grinding. 
The teeth, construction, use, care. Proper way to eat. 
Foods. Digestive system. Clrcuhtory system. 
 
 189 
 
of a Mouthful of Btead in "'l'he House I Live ln." 'l'he sun, our great giver of heat and light. 
SPRING. (Garden suggestions.) 
 
Germination of seeds. Parts of a. plant as developed from seeds. Morning glory, bean, squash, awJ corn, are good plants to sprout and study. 
Sheep, pigeon. !further study of buttertlies. 'l'hc ant by way of contrast. The life history of the toad. 
~ l. Cat (tiger, panther, lion). 
Flesh eaters. 2. Dlg (wolf, fox). 
Grass eaters. Horse, cow, sheep (reindeer, goat, camel, buffalo, elephant, deet). 
Study the apple-tree, its peculiarities, flower, ftuit, etc. Begin with flowers from the early crabapple. Have these observed, drawn, colored. 
"Black Beauty" and "Beautiful Joe," may be read to them this year to continue to develop kindness to animals. Beecher's "'l'he Anxious Leaf," Larcom's "When the Leaves Turn Brown," and other suitable gems showld be used in proper connection. Tyndall's "Forms of Water" and Needham's "Out-Door Studies" will suggest to the teacher. 'l'he latter book has excellent treatment of goldenrod and its inhabitants. Get 
Hodge's "Outline on the Toad." Read Jane Andrews' "Seven Little Sisters" to them this year. 
 
FA.LL. 
 
THIRD GROUP. 
 
Leaves studied more systematically. Organs of leaf. 
 
Main purpose of leaf. Uses of leaf to plant and 
 
to man. Falling of leaves, how, why? Deter- 
 
mine how much is one leaf in clover; in china- 
 
berry; in walnut; in hickory, thistle, etc. Adapta- 
 
tions. Summary of kinds of leaves. Ferns and 
 
lichen& as types of flowerless plana. . 
 
 190 
Coal, petroleum, carbon, properties in fuels and illuminan ts. 
WINTER. 
Carbon in foods. Lungs, respiration, bodily heat. Hygi ene of lJreathing. Ventilation, heating. The voice and its organs. Heview circulation and dig es tion. 
The camel and elep ha nt may he studi ed as beasts of burden in other lands. 
SPRI NG. (Garden suggestions to be carried out at home.) 
Mica, q uar tz, glass, feldspar, marlJ!e, granite. Earthworm, bugs and beetles, sna il and oyster. 
Mosq uito, dragon fly, and pond life in general. The following topics may be divided between I'all 
and Spring, according to circumstances: 1. Ideas of north, south, east and west. Observe direction and length of shadow from same 
point, forenoon, noon, afternoon. Chan ges why! Shortest when? Shape of sun's path dally? Shadow mid-clay points north. Sun- S. RightE. Left- W . Observ e sun's path fall, wlntet, spring. Compa re. Sun 's ris ing where? Setting! Drill in doors and out. OlJserv e a t home. Ia how many ways we find the north and soutJl line ? F ind north star, big dipper, and obserlllt motion of s tars. Make a weather vane and a sun dial. 
II. PARTS OF THE EARTH. 
1. Land, a solfd. Walk on what to school? House rests on wbat! 
Co mpare with water, with air. It Is a 1oJil. Give ideas of limitations in a ll clirections. 2. Water, a liquid. Do what with water you cannot do with land? (Potlft 
do- swim in, drink, etc.). Mons freely; flows 
hill ; collects in low places. 
 
 191 
il. Air, a gnR. 
\Yh cre is air? Can you fee l it'l See it? How hi gh ? 'l'ree tops, bird s, clotu'l s. Doi'~ air keep still eve1.? 'VIla t do Yl'e en ll air in motion. Ditrerence between ga le and breeze '! 
Color of distant objects, hills, sJ;y. \V lly l.Jiu e ? 
fs it wanner at noon or in mon1.ing? Day or ni g ht? On \'l'bi cb sitle of house is it cool e~t. and \Vl1 y? Why cooler nt uights? 'Vhn.t he ats th e air"! 'Vhy cooler on top of mountain than a t foot? Suo heats til t~ air ho\\'? H ow do es nir protect ns from colrl? How mauy uses of air can you nnm e 'l T ell n il " e lune found out about air. 
I ll. '1\' A'fEfl IN 'l'EIE AIR. 
Boil water and co ndense. Pla ce a pan of \Yater where it will evaporate. Ask what has become of it. Teach vapor, steam, clouds. I s all the moisture in th e air in clouds? (I ce pitcher experim ent~. ) How does the air gE> t its moisture ? On w h:~ t kind of nights do es rl ew coll ect ? 'Vll ere com p from? Docs it "fall"? Why collect on plant~ and fl owers? " That becomes of the dew-drop., 'Vhat is its "shining pathwa y?" 'Vhat bas be(' n called "cloud dust?" ' Vhat does th e air do ,,ith its moisture? Uses of water in air? Teach rain, mis t, fog, hail, snow, frost. 
IV. WEATHER. Weather observations and records continued. Get directions for voluntary observers from U. S. W eather Bureau, also their pictures of various clouds. Note th e amount of rainfall a.nd the prevailing directions of wJnds before ancl n rter rains and dnring dry seasons. Continue observations on the ~un and moon . Explain phases of moon. Onr relations to the SUJ:!., Change in length of da!s, 
 
 192 
V. WATER ON THE LAND. 
Slopes, uni versality of; kinds, gradual, abrupt, long, short, rough, grassy, etc. \Vater-m eeting, waterparting, divides, creek-bed s, rills, branches, creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans, banks, !Jasins, creek systems, river systems. 
Uses of Slopes. Suppose no slopes. Suppose all abrupt. 
(1) Sources of soil. (2) Distributes soil. (3) Variety of plants. (4) . Of animals. (5) Of climate. Produce springs, streams, oceans, etc. 
VI. WATER IN THE EARTH. 
What becomes of the water that falls as rain? What of that which soaks in the ground ? Through what kind of soil will it sink deepest? W'11at will stop its course? Change its course? Does any of it ever come out again. All of it? 
Springs, wells, cav erns, strenms, mineral ~prings, etc. Uses of underground water. 
VII. LAND FORMS. 
These have already .been taught in substance In connection with slopes. Sum up or teach bllls, mountains, plateaus, Yalleys, deserts, swamps. 
VIII. ANIMALS OF VALLEYS AND SLOPES. 
'Vhere find muskrats, frogs , turtles, crawfish, tad~ poles, snakes, drngon fli es, cranes, snipes, wild ducks. e tc"! 
' Vhere woiYes. fox es, chipmunks, squirrels, bears, robins, jaybirds, eagles? How are these adapted to their hom es '! Loug-legged, webfooted, sharp bill, etc. 
.A..olmal 1lfe iu v~~ori.QW! regions of the worlcl. 
 
 Hl3 
fX. PLA?\TS OF VALLI~YS AI\'D SLOPES. 
Where do you go for hu ckl el>e tTies'? For water lilies? \Vha t trees grow in the valleys? On slopes'!., Where is Yege ta tion the rankest? Wily so in \nll eys? 
Vegetation in Yarious regions. 
X. SOIL MAKING. 
1. Kinds of soil and rock. Examine some sand to find out what it is made out of. Examine clay in a similat way. In Georgia the mica in clay will help to tbe conclusion that it too is made out of rock particles. Bring in some black soil from tbe wood-yard or elsewhere. Find all you can in it. It has what, not founu in saud? What becomes of all tbe animals that die? Of the plants? 'l'hus teacb loam as anotber kind of soil. Wllich do you think is made out of the harder rocks, sand ot clay? Why do you think so? Sand out of quartz, clay out of feldspar. Loam out of what? 
2. Weathering. Work of frost, ice, wind. 3. Work of streams. \Vasb, transport, deposit. Signs 
of these? 4. Work of plants and animals. 
XL OUR NEEDS. 1. Food. Make a catalogue Of vegetables raised within radius of one mile. Do the same for fruits; also grains. What the cbief product of home county. Do you eat many things not raised in the county? Name some. Source. 2. Clotbing. Its materials, sources, related trades. Show by an examination that nearly all cloth is put together in the same way. Then if possible get a small toy loom and show how it is woven. 3. Shelter. Its materials and related trades. Ideal bome1. 
 
 194 
 
.S TI. OCC"CP .\ TION . 
 
(1 ; l' a rmio g . (2) S to('k-ra is iug . utc. (:1) LnmiJe ring. 
 
(~.) i\I iui ng . (G) F i shi u ;;. (IJJ i\l :wu i'a ctu riu g- 
 
etc. fi our, cl oth, iro n, s teel, w ood, 
 
(7) 'l'ra<le. 
 
COlllill Cr ce. 
 
XIIL. !' t:OPLE. Le t pupi ls rea(] " Seven Little Sisters." 
 
X LV . GOVERNMENT." 
'!.' his should fi rst be a u obJective, sense stud y, to open the eyes and th e understanding of the child to his Slll'l'OUDdings . 
Do you know any one who l.Jolds offi ce '/ 'What does be do'l Who made him an of.fi cer? Who pays him? Did you ever. pa y tax es? (How about postage stamps?) Name things tl.Jat haY e to be done for th e good of the Whole COllllllUnity. Roads, schools, etc. Care of public proper ty. 
XV. \\'OHLD AS A WHOLE. 
T his topic is brought in as a proper co nclusio n to tbe series a bove, and not becau ;;;e it is in itself a Natm e Study t opic. 
rayne's Geogra phica l Natme Studi es, 'l.'arr and McMurry's Home Geography, F rye's Child and Nature, Stories of Industry, are some valuable aids to teachers. 
FOUH'l'H GHOUP. 
I<' ALL. Soil. A more complete stu dy than in th e preceding group. (See followin g outlin e.) Birds. A fall study to be continued in the sp!'ing. The Engl ish spar row is a handy t ype. B ees, a colony of animals. Tlle grasshopper by waJ 
ot comparison. Emphasize tlll'ift. 
 
 H15 
The cotton plant. Instincts of animals, intelligence of many. How we kiWw and feel. 
<,VINTER. 
The nervous system. Its control over other organs, the heart, lungs; stomach, muscles, etc. Nervous matter in general, the white and the ~ray. The brain, spinal cord, ganglia, nerves, and the special sense organs. Adaptations of these organs. What we know through el!-ch. Hygiene of the nervous system in general. Care of the special senses. 
SPRING. 
Bird study continued. Crawfish. The corn plant. More critical study of trees. Enclogens. exogens. Life In the woods. Orchard life. (See Comstock's "Insect Life," chapter on Orchard Life.) Fruit trees. 
Metals: Iron, tin, lead, copper, zinc, -gold, silver, alloys. 
At any time of year observe moon, its phases. motion among stars, time from moon to moon. Also notice behavior of all visible planets during year, especially motion among stars. 
"Birds and Bees," "Sharp Eyes," "Fur-Bearing Animals," all by John Burroughs. "Ways of Woodfolk." Long. "Some Wild Animals I have Known," Thompson. "Bird World," Stickney. These are all interesting and inspiring books for both teachers and pupils. 
"Our Native Birds," Lang, and U. S. Government Farmer's Bulletins on Birds and Their Relation to Agrlc~ture, are good for Information tor teachers. 
 
 196 
SOIL. (A fuller outline.) 
Man's prosperity, wealth. and life depend upon the earth, atmosphere, and sunlight. Over which of these does man have little control? Which can he treat to advantage? (The "soil.) 
1. What is soil? (That part of crust o_f E. in which plants grow.) How deep is it? Distinction between land and soil? 
Land; areas. Soil, the attributes of land. 2. How soil is made. (1 ) Basis of soil is rock dust or fragments. Ex- 
amine sand for rock particles. Examine clay. Which made of ha~der rocks? How was the rock prepared? (2) By change of temperature, frost, ice, rain, wind. Vi'eathering. Find some crumbling rock. After it crumbles what becomes of it? Transportation. Signs of the same? (Water muddy, hill-side gtJllies, sand banks along streams.) Le,;eling prck!i.>es of water and wind. Mountains laid low. f3) Organic matter. Will plants thrive in pure rock dust, sand? In pure clay? These giYe body, but something else Is needed to give lleart or life to soil.  (a) Examine some dark soil for organic matter, sucb as chips, bark, leaves, etc. Loam. Humus. (b) Plants help soil-making in two ways. Roots have acid effect; also crack and break rock. First plants, lichens, mosses, etc. Plants also decay and add matter to the soil. (c) Animals help soil-making too. They die and add decayed matter. The earthworm contributes how? (Burrowing.) 8. Kinds of Soil. (1) Sandy soil, mostly quartz with humus. larlties of. 
 
 197 
(2) Clayey, mostly feldspar with humus. Peculiarities of. 
(3) Loam, sandy ~f clayey, or both, with greater proportion of humus. Peculiarities. Which kind is be~t for gardens? 
4. Hesources or US!'!S of soil. (1) Give root-hold for plants; also necessary con- 
ditions for root work, such as protection, moisture, regulated temperature, air, etc. (2) Storehouse or plant food, such as potash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid. Plants unlock the soil and air and take from them certain elements for plant material. (3) How does nature regulate the fertility? (Returns plant to soil.) How has man modified this plan? (Sends crops away.) What should man do then1 -(Make some restoration, fertilize.) 
EXPERIMENTS. 
Take some fresh earth and weigh it. Let It remain in sunlight awhile and weigh again. Why the diffetence? Moisture. 
Heat it hot so as to burn or bake it. Weigh again. Why this difference? If you burn wood what matter will be left behind? What bumed up? '!'his is the case with the soil baked. Pulverize this baked sou and try to grow something in it. Explain results. 
5. Treatment of soil. (1) Water is necessary in soil. (a) To dissohe plant 
food tor root to take in. (b) To contribute to building the plant. What proportion of our bodies is water? Is any part without water? (2) '.rhe direct supply of plants Is capillary water, that is, water held by soil particles like oil is held up in upper part of lamp wick. 
 
 198 
(3) The capacity of soil to hold moisture may be increased by: (a) Loosening if too hard, so that water will go in, not run" off. (b) Addition of humus-green manures, barn manures, chip dirt, leaf mold, etc. (c) Tillage, to increase depth of capillary soil and to increase capillary capacity through pulverizing; also to admit air an<l warmth. 
(4) Escape of moisture. How prevented. Moisture works upward by capillary attraction, and 
at surface may be rapidly evaporated by sun and wind during drouth. Prevention. Deep preparation so moisture may sink and plant roots may go down deep; then shallow working to keep crust from forming and to keep a surface covering too loose for capillary action. Query: Why plow ground? Mention all rea.sons you  can. 7. Perpetual Motion. 
Tue plant gets its food where? The plant in turn becomes food for what? Animals finally return to what? Are any new elements created by these changes? Are any lost? 
What is the aim of agriculture? (To raise the plant.) See Bailey's "Elements of Agriculture." 
FIFTH GROUP. 
No effort will be here made to classify topics according to season for this group. Much matter is at the disposal of the teacher and pupil. 
The following are some topics which may be used ID convenient order. 
I. Physiology. A text-book may be put in the hands of the pupils for the last year's work. This summarize, fix, and enlarge the oral work. 
 
 199 
II. Physicial Geography. Nearly all the topics in a good physical geography like Davis's or Tarr's, should be covered orally in co nnection with adYanced commercial geogrnphy. 
III. Summary of the Animal Kingdom. Give some idea of microscopic animals, then trace the development up to man. 
Geographical Distribution of Animals. 1. Some barriers. (1) Climatic. (2) Altitude. (3) 
Other physical barriers. 2. Great areas of distribution. (1) Of continental masses. (2) Types in these areas. How animals are fitted. for environment. Animal communities and social life. Instinct and rea- 
son. ("Animal Life," by David Starr Jordan, treats these topics.) A similar summary of the plant world. Bergen's Botany is good; so is Bailey's. 
IV. THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
Relation of agriculture to prosperity. The dependence of the city upon agriculture, etc.  The country as the place to develop character. 
Success of country bred boys. What farm resources are. The plant in its relations to agriculture. Forrestry. 
Fruit trees. Animals in their relations to agriculture. ("Elements of Agriculture," by Bailey, will furnish 
material.) 
V. LESSONS FROI\1 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 
1. Air. (!) Pressure in all direction. Experiments. The 
barometer. (2) It occupies space. Show this. (3) An agent of 
combustion. 
 
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(3) Relation or heat and air pressure. (4) The thermometer, studied more fully. Different 
makes. 2. Light and the Solar System. Reflection of light and mirrors. Ref1action and lenses. The telescope and spectro- 
scope. Shadows and eclinses. 3. Heat. How produced. Effect on matter. How dif- 
fused. Evaporation, condensation, distillation. Energy and heat. Steam-engine. 4. Machines. 5. Elements and compounds. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon. 
SOME ANIMAL OUTLINES. 
I. CLASSIFICA'.riON. 
1. Invertebrates. (1) Protozoans. (2) Porifera. (3) Coelenterata. (4) Vermes. (5) Echinodermata (6) l\Iollusks. (7) Arthropoda. 
2. Vertebrates. (1) Fishes. (2) Amphibians. (3) Reptiles. (4) Birds. (5) Mammals. 
II. PROTOZOANS. 
These are microscopic animals or one cell only. Myriads of them are to be found In water, but these are not available for ordinary Nature Study. ViThen a good microscope can be had tor upper grades, some hay may be steeped in water and a drop of this water studied for the tiny infusoria. Some protozoans have shells. The chalk cliffs. 
HI. PORIFERA. (The sponge as a type of a slightly com plex animal.) 
 
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This may be studied in the upper grades in connection with geography. It is not the best topic 
 for lower grades, since pupils cannot find them in their daily surroundings for application. 
IV. COELENTERATA. 
These are slightly complex also, and include such as _ Jelly Fish, Hydra, Polyp, etc. No type from these is good for ordinary lessons. The coral polyp should be considered in its proper ge<r graphical connection. 
V. VERMES. 
The earthworm as a type. 1. Haunts and Habits. where have you seen earthworms? where can you 
find them now? What have you ever seen them do? When do they come out of the ground? Did you ever see a robin try to pull one ou:t of his hole? Did you ev~ry try the same? How does he hold on. Can he climb? 2. Note carefully his body. Have specimens distributed to class. How long is he? How does he travel? Try to make him go the other end foremost. Leave him alone again; which way does be crawl? What is your inference? (Head and tail ends.) Are both ends exactly alike? Tell the difference. Roll him on some other side. What does he do? Will he crawl with the same side under every time? Can you tell any difference between sides? (Upper and lower sides.) What else can you tell me about his body? (Rings, collar, veins, etc.) Look for his digestive canal. Where is his mouth? What will he eat? 8. Sensation. Has he any feeling? Can he see? Will light affect him? Do you think he has any 1Jltelllgence? He will feel around a leat, then 
 
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.turn the 'small end toward his hole and drag it In tllat end first. To have sense he must have a nervous system. Explain his brain, spil}(ll cord, and ganglia. 4. Young. Have you ever seen young worms? Are they at a ll like old ones? Hatch from eggs? How about if one is cut in two parts? 5. uses. (1) Castings. Plow soil; nature's first plows. Average of about ten tons to the acre brought up this way. Soil maker. (2) Holes, for roots, water, air. (3) Leaves. Enrich soil. (4) Cover seeds. How is he adapted to his life? (Shape, eyes, bones, legs, slime.) Draw a worm. Draw a robin pulling a worm out of hole. Darwin's "Vegetable Mould and the Earthworm" Is good to read here. 
VI. ECHINODERMATA. (Spiny skinned.) 
Stat fish, crinoids, sea urchins. A star fish is a good thing to have in a scllool cabinet. A brief lesson may be given on it, but this will be more of a knowledge lesson that an observation lesson, hence not one of the best fot a primary grade. 
VII. MOLLUSKS. (Soft bodied.) 
The snail is a convenient type. The oyster may be used also. 
Have you ever been on the seashore? What did you see t What shells did you find ? which the most plentiful? Do you find any shells about fresh water creeks and ponds? Do yo u find any shell animals on land? Where? What ? 
Have specimens distributed for individual liiscovery. Or have members of class bring them in. 
Where did you find the snails? Are they there all the vear 'round? Sunshine or warm water will make ihem put out heads. How does be travel? Do.- 
 
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he use his whole body to move, or only a special part, his foot. Has he any bones? Soft body, mollusca. How protected? Shell made up of how many pieces? Unival>e. Can he come all the way out of his shell? Did you ever see a snail without a shell? A slug. What else do you see about the snail? Horns! How many? Their difference? What does he do with them? Can he see? Where are his eyes? At end of long stalks.. What advantage to him this arrangement? What other animal bas eyes on stalks? Do snails live in water? Difference between land and water snails? Who can find where the snail breathes? Look for a hole in side of neck. What does be eat? Does he grow? How can he when his shell will not stretch? Look for lines of g1owtb in shell? How is shell made. What kind of path does he leave? Why secrete slime? . Is be a good thing to have in gardens. How protect garden beds? Paths of ashes or lime will cause so great use of slime that snail will waste away. What animals have two shells opening hinge-like? . Bimlves. Can they close their shells very tight? F ind muscle spot in shell; also the muscle in the oyster. Find something like the mantle of the snail? This the oyster's mantle. Find his mouth. Use of mantle? Tell me something about the shell. Compare the two valves. Note shape, size, composition, surfaces, lines of growth. Find about the young and habits through life. Did you ever see a pearl? Where come from? How made? Pearl fisheries. Oyster fishing and culture. 
VIII. ARTHROPODA. (Jointed-legged.) 
1. Crustaceans, crawfish a type. This is an interesting and often useful animal, good for study In any grade. 
 
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Get some specimens early In spring and keep them itl a bowl of water in the schoolroom. Get one large one If possible. 
Where found? Behavior in retreat? When fright ened? Morning and evening? Winter? Did you ever see a well he had dug? What damage done"! 
Look at his body. How many parts? Whut else do you see? Frighten him with a pencil. What do? How defend himself? What about these feet"/ (Jaw f) Has he many suc.h ? T ell me more about his body. (Hard outside, segmented, collar or carapace). What appendages has the head? Uses of these? 
The mid-body has what appendages? The hind body? Describe the tail? Which are his walking legs? How does he swim? Do you think he can hear ? Where his ears? What does he eat? He Is a cannibal and will eat flesh, tadpoles, snails, etc., dead or ali>e. A scavenger. His value in a spring? Find out about the young and their development. 
(1) Eggs attached to swimming feet. (2) Young in shape of adults. (3) His shell can not stretch. He cannot add to it like the snail. He mou/.ls. He may pull off a leg or jaw or foot in moulting. What then? 
Find out about the hermit crab, his habits, and occasional relations with sea-anemone. 
2. Insects. This class furnishes the richest and most inviting field 
in the whole invertebrate group. Its animals are of such variety, beauty, interest and importance that they may be studied in any grades as time will admit. No one animal will setve as a complete introduction, but types should be selected from the following orders. No detailed treatment, only a general outline o.,f this extensive class can here be given,. 
 
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{1) Straight-winged (Orthoptera), grasshopper, locust, cricket. 
(2) Scaly-winged (Lepidoptera), butterfly, moth. (3) Sheath-winged (Coleoptera), beetle, June beetle, po- 
tato beetle, etc. (4) Half-winged (Hemiptera), bug, cicada, squash bug, 
plant lice. Note differences between bugs and beetles. (5) Membrane-winged (Hymenoptera), bee, wasp, ant. (6) Two-winged (Diptera), fly, mosquito. Character:stics. Io~sect, cut in. The body is divided how? How many legs? Wings? What peculiar life cycle? Metamorphosis. Beetle eggs hatch what? Butterfly eggs what? Moth eggs? Fly eggs? Mosquito eggs'/ 3. Arachnids. Spiders. Th~se are sometimes classed as insects. Find points of difference between spiders and true insects. Haunts and habits. Find out about the trapdoor spider. 4. Myriapods, many-footed. Thousand legs. Not ot importance. Point out as you go that a few insects are beneficial to man, many are very .destructive. The reports sent out from the experiment station, at Experiment, Ga.., and the farmers' bulletins published by the United States government, 'Vashington, D. C., are useful and may be had for the asking. . If man had no help in keeping these insects in check, they would drive him off the face of the earth. What are our allies? How do we show our appreciation of valuable sen-ices? Huxley's Crayfish and Comstock's Insect Life are valuable books for reference. 
IX. VER'.rEBRATES. 
" 7hat five orders of vertebrates can you name? 
 
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Only two of these will be outlined here. 1. Amphibians. 'l'he common toad as a type. Life 
history. Are there any toads to be found about here 'I When'/ 
They came from where? . (1) Out of the ground. Hibernation. The toad is a cold-blooded animal; its blood is 
about the same temperature as the surrounding ait. 'Vhen air gets too cool, toad becomes stupid, inactive. He goes into a kind of death slee}J in which he hardly moyes or breathes. Do you know of any other cold-blooded animal'/ Any other hibernating animal? What does toad do to get ready for this sleep'/ watch one dig sometime. What wakes him? What will he then do? (2) Out of the water. Cycle of life. wm. Harvey tells us that every animal comes from an egg. I'or what else is Harvey noted 'I Does toad live on land or in water? Often far from water, but the early part of his life was spent in the water. 'l'here is where you must  look for his eggs. Look for some about the ponds in April, or when you hear the frog chorus on a summer evening. How does he make that noise? Can you tell toad's eggs from frog's eggs? (Toad's in strings or egg ropes ; frog's in bunches.) 'Take some eggs from the pond and place in a basin of water from same pond. It weather is right, tlley hatch in two or three days. What is the young toad called? What is it like'/ " 'atch one several days and see if it likes to stay under water. How does it breathe under water? Describe its a<;tions us it grows older, and account for them. How distinguish a toad tadpole from a frog tadpole '/ (Color.) Get toads, for they develop fast- 
 
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er. Watch carefully when they are from four to six weeks old. Legs begin to grow. Which ones first? Shape changes! What becomes of tall? (Absorbed.) Finally one Is transformed Into a toad. 
What will It eat when on land? Any flying, creep lng, crawling thing It can swallow-fly, caterpll- . lar, spider, worm, hornet, etc. One has been seen to eat twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes; another to catch and to eat thirty-five celery worms in three hours. One will eat ten thousand insects in a year. How Is he a friend to man? To the garden? What harm does he do? You should watch one catch a fly sometime. How does it do It? What are some ene roles of the toad? Should you be an enemy or a friend? 
Toads look brighter and fresher at tlmeP.. Why is this? They change their coats. Find ont about this. 
Does a tadpole have bones? Does a toad? Does it have ribs? Backbone? What other animals have backbones? Describe toad's feet. Try to make it hear you. Can It hear? 
After hibernating two or three winters the little toad becomes a big one. Some spring when it awakes from long sleep, it has longing to get back to pond where its life began. It finds a pond, lays a great many eggs, perhaps a thousand or two. Its cycle of life is complete, though it may live seven or eight years longer. 
The leaflet on The Toad, published by Cornell's Bureau of Nature Study, fills in the above outline. Prof. Hodge, of Clark University, has a pamphlet on the toad, price five cents. Address him, Wor!!ester, Mass. 
 
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BIRDS. 
"So the Bluebirds have contracted, have they, for a bouse? And a nest is under way for little Mr. Wren? Hush, dear, hush! Be quiet, dear, quiet as a mouse. These are weighty secrets, and me must whisper them." 
(Coolidge.) 1. Some characteristics: 
What is a bJrd? Can all birds fly? Which birds can not fly very far? How prevent a hen from flying oYer the fence? Is a bird's tail any help to the bird? Why are the feathers of the woodpecker's tail so stiff? What differences have you noticed in the feet of birds? (Three types-walking, swimming, perching.) 
In their bills? Name some bird families you know. (Parrot.) 
Where find the different birds you know? 2. Haunts and habits. 
What birds remain about here all year? Why do some birds migrate earlier than others? Are many birds t9 be found In dense forests? Why so? What birds like trees, what the meadows, and what the houses?  What birds may be called "birds of the air?" 
Do all birds sing? Name some song birds you know. Tell something of their songs? Which Is your favorite? Do you think the songs of birds can be set to music? What poet speaks of these S<:mgs as "Sweeter than instrument of man e'er caught?" 
In what different ways do birds move about on the ground? Perch on limbs? What evidences of bird intelligence c11n you give? 
3. Bird enemies. Do birds have enemies? Know their enemtes? How do they show this? In what ways are some birds enemies of oth ers? What birds buUcJ 
 
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where enemies can not :well get at their nests? How do the young behave in these nests? In other nests? Why do some birds build about houses rather than in woods? This has brought what new enemies? How? 
In what way do old birds protect young? What is a parasite? What birds have parasitic tendencies? Why have many men become enemies of birds? What kind of bird study has done much harm? In what way are girls and women enemies of birds? What birds make choicest decorations? How are these decorations prepared? Is this ornamentation civilized or barbarous? Should we be friends or enemies of the birds? Why? 
4. Nests and nesting. 
When do birds build the first nests of the year? why are these birds like pioneers? Which stand the better chance, April or July nests? Why? Suppose the early nest is robbed? Do birds return in pairs, or do they mate in spring after return? Which birds sing, male or female? Which have the gay plumage? Account f~n this? Which do the work, build nests, sit, feed young? 
Do most birds build high or low? Why~ What bird lays eggs on dry leaves, no nest? How bellave when approached? 
What birds rear more tp.an one brood a season? Only one? Do birds ever return to the same place year after yeat? Do birds teach their young? Do birds have emotions, such as grief, sorrow or joy? Should we respect these? 
tl. Original research. 
Observe some nests, noting: (1) location, surroundings, material of nests. (2) Color, shape, number of eggs. (3) Time from first egg till first hatch. From hatch till leaving nest? (4) Appearance 
 
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and behavior of young birds. (~) Which birds feed young? 'What food? (6) Difference in appearance of male and female. 6. Study of special birds. Partridge, meadow lark, crow, sparrow, blue jay. woodpecker, robin, owl, etc. Families of birds and their characteristics. The hen family. The pigeon. 
Query:-Judged from commonly accepted standards of human success in life, what bird is the most successful of all? 
Are birds decreasing in number? 7. Summary. 
Distinguishing marks. Location in animal kingdom. Families and their characteristics. Parts of a bird, their functions. Uses to man. Life story of a bird. 
Write to Singer Manufacturing Co., Richmond, Va., for their pictures of sixteen American singers. Sent free. 
THE USES OF BIRDS. 
1. Birds destroy millions of insects and their eggs. 2. Trees and all vegetation are necessary to human 
life. Insects multiply so rapidly, if left alone. that they would destroy all vegetation. 3. Birds inspect all trees, limb by limb, bud by bud, searching for irrsects, eggs, and larvae as no human eye can search. 4. Lawns, gardens, groves, grain fields, would soon be desolation without birds to check Insect ravages. 5. Take all birds from woodlands, fields and yards and we would then realize bow much beauty they add to our landscape. Their glorious musle is the sweetest in nature. Birds fill the world with beauty and melody. 
 
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6. Birds are . as necessary as the showers of spring. They are worth $500,000,000 annually to farmers of United States. 
7. In 1891 and 1892 there was a starvation time in Russia due to insect ravages, the birds having been killed by excessive winter freezes. 
A French philosopher says, "Without birds, human life would be impossible." 
Birds are decreasing in numbers. Why? How save them? 
1. '.rhe clearing of forests is partly responsible. T each folly of ruthless destruction of trees. Schools should have arbor days. 
2. The wearing of feathers, breasts and entire birds on bats causes annual slaughter of millions of harmless, beautiful and useful birds. Discourage such wear. 
3. Sportsmen and boys unthinkingly shoot thousands. Teach their use and beauty. 
4. Let boys expend their "shooting" instincts on English sparrows. 
Report of N.Y. Zol>log!c&l Society, 1893, W. T. Hornaday. The most valu&bl e document ever published on this subject; reports that in 11> years bird life in Georg!& decreased 65 per cent., in U. 8. 46 per cent. 
SOME .PLANT OUTLINES. 
I. WHAT IS A PLANT? 
Is a tree a plant? Is a growing onion? A weed? Rock? 
II. WORK A PLANT HAS TO DO. 
Did you ever think a plant bas to work for a living? What has it to look after or do? Must have food? How get it? After it gets its food is its work done? No, it must d igest it. 
 
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Why do we need food? What use has the plant for food? To li Ye, to grow. 
A part which enables to do a particular thing is an organ. An organ is any part which has its own work to do. Eye, mouth, stomach, heart, lungs. Has a cow organs? Has a rock? Has a plaut1 
III. OHGANS OR PARTS OF A PLANT. 
1. For living and growing. Root, stein, lear. 2. For reproduction. Flower, fruit, seed. 
'Vhat is a root'/ . Rootlets'? Use'? What do we mean by the stem? It bears what? Why has a plant lea Yes'? Let us find out all we can al>out leaves. 
IV. LEAVES. 
1. Comparison of oak leaves with maple. Generalize. 1. The stem of a leaf is called its petiole. 2. The broad gree11 part is called its blade. 3. Petioles of maple are long a11d green. Of oak, short and green. 4. The !.>lades are not shaped alike; the margins . are different; blades of oak thicker, dark green; of maple, lighter green. 
2. Compare oak and maple with elm. 1. HaYe petioles, blades, margins, are green. 2. Elm blade not so long as oak, not shining, not so wide as maple. Petioles differ how? Oak leaves of different trees differ. Identify. 
3. Draw an elm leaf; a maple; an oak. Color. Cut in paper. 
4. Changes in leaves. 'Vhen cold weather comes? l\Iaples change to red and yellow. Oak to red and brown. Others how? What becomes of leaves then? And then1 Do all leaves have petioles? No. Find without. C:IIari., pi11k, mul'n). lleview. Spear on leaves. 
 
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5. Veins. 1. Examine ma.ple and ivy leaves for hard Jlnes; examine oak, plantain, grass, etc. All have a vein through middle. (1) 1\lidvein. (2) Veinlets. 2. Uses  of veins. (1) K eep leaf spread out; sunlight; shade. (2) Carry sap; out of broken veins comes juice-leaf's blood. 3. Kinds of leaves according to >eins. Hold leaves between you and 1ight. (1) Peach leaf, lace or fish net;. net veined. (2) Plantain, midvein and others side by side; parallel veined. Lily another kind. Look at corn leaf, grass, wheat, cotton. 
6. Shapes. 1. Base. Apex. Broad base; sycamore, tulip, birch, morning~glory. Pointed apex: elm. Rounded, black oak. 2. Oval: Plum, pear. Lanceolate: willow, grass. Cordate: lilac, violet. Some lanceolate are netveined; .some parallel veined. 3. Margins. (1) Crenate: broad, rom,1ded notches; violet, catnip, geranium. (2) Serrate, sawtoothed: elm, apple. (3) Dentate, tooth-notched : dandelion. 4. Lobes. Deep cuts in some margins, portions between cuts called lobes. 
7. Simple {lnd compound leaves. Is there one leaf or three on the stem of what we call three-leaved clover? In the chinaberry tree fin d one lea( Find one leaf of a blackberry Jjrier. Just where do these leaves break off 
w.hen they fall 'I Where will the next leaves 
come out? Can you find next year's leaves? '\Yhere? If this specimen is not one leaf, then it must be a limb or twig. Do twigs fall like  leaves? Then how much of this is a leaf? Some leaves are simple, some compound. Find examples. Walnut? Oak? 
 
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8. Arrangement on a tree. 
Looking up from beneath a tree, where do most of the leaves seem to be? Why there? Are any leaf buds on or nearer the trunk? 'Vhy do not they open out? (Dormant, suppressed.) What would make them open out? what suppresses them? Leaves arrange according to sunlight. Why? The.leaf aided by the sun works for life of plant. Sunlight necessary. 
9. Offices of leaf. 
The great purpose of the leaf is to enable the plant to perform its vital functions. These are: 
1. Respiration. Everything that lives, breathes. Plants like animals give off carbon-dioxide in breathing. ViThy do we breathe? Where does the air do its work? This for the plant takes place in leaf. What then may you call the leaf? Lungs. 
2. Transpiration. Taking in mineral food through the roots it must take in much water holding mineral in solution. Some of this must be given off through doors. Stoma. Find these. In tlry seasons doors nearly close. Why? 
3. Feeding, digestion, I. e., starchmaking. Story of Chlorophyll. 
10. Other uses of leaves. 
1. Shade. 2. Food: insects, squirrels, cows, man. What 
leaves do we eat? Cabbage, turnips, lettuce, etc. 3. Cover: to protect roots, cover seeds. 4. Commerce: tobacco, tea, fans, chair 
ornaments. 5. Fertilizer: humus to soil. 
What the greatest use or real purpose of leaf? plant? 
 
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V. ROOTS. 
1. What? What part of a plant Is under ground? Is any part of the stem under ground? Do you know any plant with roots not under ground? Wily does a plant llave roots? Food, drink hold. 
2. Kinds. 1. Primary. Originate how? (From caulicle.) ~l'ap root. What work has the tip end? Capped for it. 2. Rootlets. 3. Aerial roots. water roots. 4. Thick or fleshy roots: beet, turnip, etc. Office of these? 'Viii they go to seed in one year'/ Is an Irish potato a root? Does it not bear buds? It is really an underground stem. 
3. Work. How do plants get food througll roots? Mineral food in water. How roots take in water: mouths like sponge pores. Root pres sure. 
4. Structure of roots. Of a tree, sassafras; to note corky layer, paler layP-r, woody cylinder. Uses of each layer. Roots help soil how? Loosen. prevent washing, fertilize. 
VI. STEMS. 
1. What? The work of nourh'>hing plant done by root and leaf. The stem connects these. It lifts the leaves high, bears up the branches to spread leaYes, and communicates with roots and leaves. 
2. Parts. Place on stem from which leaves grow, nodes. Places between nodes are internodes. Compare internodes on same twig, then on different twigs as to length, distance around. V.Then leaves fall, how tell where node was? Describe scars of different twigs. What Is at 
 
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end of twig in winter and spring? Does terminal bud leave scar? (In many trees. See elm.) A ring about twig. How many such rings on a twig? What will the number tell? 3. Arrangement of buds: 
(1) In pairs. Opposite. Maple, horse chesti:mt. (2) Singly. Alternate. Elm, oak. (3) In whorls. Pine. 
4. Covering of buds. Find the scales, the velvety, woolly or waxy 'outer parts, and smooth, soft lining. Uses of these? 
5. Place of leaves on tree. Umbrella like. The dormant buds' and "The Battle for Existence." 
6. Study the unfolding of leaves from buds. how they are packed in maple, elm, peach, apple. Make drawings of . buds, leaves, twigs, trees. what else besides leaves come out of buds? Flowers, twigs. 
7. Structure and growth. Compare Exogens and endogens. 
VII. FLOWERS. 
1. Work of the flower. 
what becomes of the flowers of an Of the bean stalk? Peach tree? what remains where the ftowers were? ,;.,hat is the work of the flower? To fruit. 'Why should the plant bear fruit? within to reproduce the plant. Let us find the work of the flower. 
where have you seen flowers? What trees flowers? Do leaf -buds open first, or b uds? Which remain longer on the trees, or flowers? Let us see how the flower does work. The story of the flower is one of the wonderful of the plant world. 
 
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2. Parts. 
Study a crab-apple twig or flowers. Describe one. Draw it. Now again tell what you see. Wllo sees yellow dust. Flowers have to help one another. Story of pollen. 
(1) What part produces pollen? Stamens.  (2) What part receives pollen? The part extend- 
ing to seed. Pistil. (3) How get from flower' to flower? Wind, bees, 
butterflies, etc. Use of colored parts. Petals. (4) Petals were enclosed in other parts; these at 
base of petals, very often green, sepals. Here calyx, carolla, perianth may be taught. If one lacking, which? (5) Compare carollas as .to color, number of petals, regular or irregular, as the apple vs. sweet pea;. (7) Compare stamens. Anthers; number, length, color, use. 
3. Fragrance. What wild flowers have you found to be fragrant? Non fragrant? 'Vhich the more common? "Genius a specialty. It does not grow in every soil." Do bees get honey from any non fragrant flowers? Do they from honeysuckle? Rose? Where does the little white violet grow? Is it fragrant? Is the blue? Your favorite fragrance? Flower? 
VIII. FRUIT. 
'The use of the flower? The parts of the flower? 
1. What is fruit? Matured ovary, ripened pistil, together with intimately related parts. 
2. Kinds. 
(1) Fleshy. (a) Stone: peach, cherry. (b) Gourd: pumpkin, melon. (c) Pome: apple, peaL 
(2) Dry. (a) Grain. (b) Nuts. (c) Akenes: strawberry, sunflower. 
 
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Kinds according to dissemination. (1 ) That roll: pea, bean, nut. Testa smooth. (2) Sail: dandelion. (3) Fly: pine, maple. (4) Stick: burrs. Fill these classes with others. Tell how each Ia 
adapted. 3. Agents. Seed carriers. 
water, wind, animals, birds, fish, beasts, man. 4. Queries. Which fruits have eatable pulps? Why 
so many? Why are seeds of pulpy fruits often bitter, as orange seeds? why coated as in stone fruits? Why some too small to be chewed, as fig, banana? Account for raspberries growing In forks of trees. 
IX. GROUPS AND FAMILIES. 
1. 'Trees. Common trees of Georgia; and uses. 
2. Corn group. 3. Cotton. 4. Legumes. 5. Potato and tomato~ G. Weeds and struggle for existence. 7. Wild flowers. 8. Cultivated flowers. 9. Flowerless plants: mould, yeast, mosses, 
mushrooms, ferns. Flowerless plants are mucn greater importance and interest tnan ally thought to be, and should be fully noticed lower as well as higher grades. 
TREES. PINE AS A TYPE. 
1. Compare pine with other trees. leaves, branches, section, etc. growth from bud, root, seed. 
2. Called conifer. Other conifers. Flowers of the pine tree. 
 
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3. What is a forked tree? What made it so? Did you ever see a forked pine? Why scarce? Destroy a terminal bud of young pine and note the results, a race for leadership, one branch winning, others dropping back as branches. 
Does the pine shed its leaves'! How prove it? How many leaves in each bunch? What may the number tell you? Uses of pine leaves? 
4. Kinds of pine. Size, age. 5. Uses to man; to other animals. 6. Turpentine farms of Georgia. Where? How sap 
procured? Waste in present methods. 
WEEDS. 
What is a weed? Name some. "A plant out or place." "A plant whose virtues we have not discovered."-Emerson. Burroughs styles weeds "the most human plants." Why? They cling to man; follow him around the world; crowd his barn, house, crops. 
Who seem to be -the greatest enemies of weeds? Are they? How do they help weeds'! Where do weeds begin to grow? Why do they grow? To cover bare places; to replenish. From what do they grow? They seem to sprin~ up like magic. How deep do seeds sometimes get in earth? How long live? 
In what ways will a weed protect its species? Wild carrots multiply heads; toad flax and Betmuda travel under ground. Late corn starts otr as usual, but a late weed will hurry up a short stem and go to seed as quickly as possible. 
Weeds have been called the tramps of the vegetable world. Justify. How do they travel? Where most easily? How far known to travel? Why should weeds fiourlsh In our country? Roomy, waste. What weeds are natives or the Dew world? Milk, rar, poke, goldenrod. Do 
 
 220 
these infest crops, or come after them? .Are they . bard to keep down? What weeds have come to us from over the seas? How do years of contact with civilization change habits of vermin and weeds? Pugnacious, persistent. Compare wild wood mice with house rats. Have we given any mean weed to Europe? TolJacco. What weeds are plants escaped from civilization? Radish, carrot, liveforever. 'Vhat weeds have pretty flowers? Uses of weeds, especially grass. Have weeds any virtues to be admired? Not easily discouraged; take what they can get; make the most of their opportunities; die game. Study of particular weeds. Dandelion, Cocklebur, etc. Read Burrough's .A Bunch of Herbs. For some. good suggestions on the dandelion, Bailey'& Lessons witl::! Plants. 
THE CORN GROUP. 
I. WHAT IS CORN? 
In the United States in Scotland, oats; in England, wheat. beginning of barley harvest, Ruth asked to gleaa corn. Co rn meant hard, dry grain. Called cereals. Tell tlle story of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, and Proserpine, her only daughter. Also the Indian legend of corn, Mondamin. 
II. CO!IlPARE CORN, WHEAT, RYE, AS TO GRAINS. PLANTIKG, GROW'l'H, STALKS, FLOW EARS, HARVES'l', ETC. 
1. Note adaptations to fields, winds, rains, stalk, tubular arrangement, long, wavy, leaves. Did you ever see a field of lng? A beautiful sight. .Advantages of arrangement. 
 
 2~1 
2. Growtil. (1) Internodes lengthen. Race for life; a rapid growet. How higil have you seen corn'! (2) Roll witilin roll as it grows. Movable sheath protects when wind blows. Rain guards. Brace roots. 
3. Drouth. (1) May root deep. Rye a s deep as four feet. May stop Joss of water; roll leaves. Leaves roll when? Spiead wily? How arranged to send water to roots? 
III. LII!'E WORK. 
1. Food making for self. This the main purpose of  early life. (1) Which parts aid in getting raw materials from earth and air? (2) Which serve in bringing materials together? {3) Green parts use sunlight to make over the materials. (4) Some parts carry digested food where needed. Roots, stems, leaves grow rapidly in early life. (5) Branch factories established. How many heads from one grain wheat? 
2. Provision for offspring. This the final duty of plant. 
(1) Floral parts. (a) When made? When plant is well under way. (b) Maize flowers compared with wheat and oats. In maize, pistils, silk. (c) The ear, taken husks and all, a specialized stem. The flower bud, a specialized leaf bud. (d) Beginning of seed. Why all these parts? "Cross pollination." How guard against "close pollination?" which better? (e) Agent of pollination, wind. Best varieties; how obtained? Examine corn on a solitary stalk. (f) After pollination, how do stigmas and anthers behave? What further work is to be done? Sap must cal'l'y sugar to be converted into starch, which in turn must be stored. Where stored? Protection of ripenI.D.r kerneL 
 
 222 
(2) Scattering of seed. (a) Wild vs. cultivated plants. How did nature plan to scatter maize seed. (b) Coyote corn found in Mexico. Sections of ear. (c) Coyotes, wolves, birds, etc. Half starved Indians rob stores of birds and other animals. Did man first  learn from these the value of this food? (d) Barley scattered by grain loving ants. See Proverbs vi., 6-8. 
HARVES'l'ING ANTS. FARl\fER ANTS. 
IV. GERMINATION. 
The infant plant and its food. "Surely the vegetable kingdom has no greater marvel than a kernel of corn. It repre~ents the joint achievement of man and nature working together for untold generations upon this kind of plant to promote the most perfect provision for its offspring." 
1. Contents of kernel. Starch, gluten, fatty oil, germ. Why these? Chew a handful of wheat. Note change in taste as you chew. mouth, pepsin in stomach are ferments. ments change starch into sugar. 
2. How use this material? (1) Moisture. This wakes up the seed; starts ferment. (2) Ferments. Starch to sugar; proteids to peptones, making liquid food. (3) Main roots sent out. This sooD covered with hair roots which help plant to begin to feed itself. 
V. ADVANTAGES OF CEREALS AS FOOD PLANTS. 
1. Sa\age food; how obtained?  roots, nuts, fruits. Does this make strong nations possible?. 
2. Superiority of cereals. (1) In yield. (2) in tion of seed. (3) In bulk, condensed. keeping. 
 
 223 
3. Influence of cultivation on yield. Pliny tells of Cresinus charged with sorcery forincreasing yield. How much wheat sown on an acre? How much reaped? How much corn planted on an acre? How many hills to an acre? Ears to an acre? Advantages of drilling wheat? Food taken from the soli? Effect on soil? 
4. Separation. (1) Plant depended on wind, hence easily shattered. (2) Food stored by germ In grain, hence simply crush. Mills. (3) Plant depended upon liquid food, hence easy digestion. 
5. Bulk, compact, light, much condensed. 6. Keeping, dry, hard, like weed. 
VI. COMPARISON OF CEREALS. 
1. Which is king of cereals? Wheat. "Staff or life." 'Vbite bread. 
(1) Native home, Mesopotamia, Tigris and Euphrates. 
(2) Its relations to civilization. In Palestine, Egypt. Prehistoric. In Persia, India, Greece, Rome. 
(3) Where most cultivated to-day? United States_ Vast fields where? 
(4) Wheat harvesting and threshing. Wheat products. Mills of Minneapolis. 
2. Oats. Grain of hardiness. (1) Some advantages. Contains proteids, muscle substance. In fatty material, richest of grains_ Thrives north. (2) Home, middle and eastern Europe. (3) Oats products. (1) Will grow on poor soli, In climate too bot or dry for others. These conditions met In northern Europe and Asia. (2) Nathe home, south Europe, middle Asia. Not probably known to early great nations. Cultivation spreads about Christian era. 
 
 224 
(3) Rye products. Straw tough, not good fodder. Good for packing, for hats, paper, boxes, etc. 
-i. Barley. The brewer's grain. 5. Rice. The corn of the east. 6. Maize. The corn of the .west. 
(1) Native home. (2) Advantages in raising, yield. (3) Kinds. (4) Uses. (5) Relations to history of this country. Benja- 
min Franklin's method of parching. Why should Georgia raise more cereal crops? Corn Plants, by Sargent, (Houghton-Mifflin Co.,) 
covers the above. 
TEACHERS' HELPS. 
It has been said that teachers need prepare for nature lessons; that God's great b(IOk is spread out before them. Such advice is not only discouraging-it is folly. It is not the fault of the teachers that their preparation has bee unsuitable and inadequate. This is the fault o the schools. The greatest need of the teacher 
this work is scientific knowledge. Teachers c 
get knowledge; stimulus and suggestion fro books. Just as the t eacher is to guide the cbM dren, books can guide the teacher. H the teacher should always verify book edge by personal observation. There are books of knowledge, of inspiration of method. The writings of Burroughs, 'f'l>nt-e&~  Long, Seton-Thompson are inspiring. In zoology, botany, physiology, physical raphy, etc., may be good for knowledge, many of these are unsuitable in method for ~truction of children. Some of the late books of method contain also valuable tion. Such books are McMurry's 
 
 225 
ot Science, 50 cents; Lange's Handbook Nature 
Study, $1.25; Howe's Systematic Science Study, $1.50; Ja ckman's Nature Study, $1.50; Scott's Nature Study and the Child, $1.50. Any teacher can make a good beginning with McMurry's Method- and Lange's Handbook. McMurry discusses the underlying principles, gives an outline course for first four grades, and. works out in full many valuable lessons on domestic animals. Lange is adapted to higher grades, as well, and is full of good material.. Another cheap but suggestive little book is Boyden's Nature Study by Months, first four years, 50 cents. Some books have already been suggested in thepreceding outlines. Without any attempt at classifi cation or complete list, the following are added as helpful: Nature Study, Wilson. Seaside and Ways.ide Readers. Lessons on Elementary Science, Longman. How to Know the Wildflowers, Dana. A Year With the Birds, Flagg. Birdcraft, Wright. The Great World's Farm, Gaye. Trees of United States, Apgar. About the Weather, Harrington. Story of a Piece of Coal, The Story of the Cotton Plant, The Story of the Earth's Atmosphere, The Story of Electricity, all from D. Appleton Co. Bees. Wasps, and Ants, Lubbock. The Crayfish, Huxley. Butterflies, Scudder. How to Teach Minerals and Rocks, K;ellogg & Co. Familiar Ani-  mals and Their Wild Kindred, Monteith. One of the mo.st valuable and suggestive of books for teachers of any grade is Jordan's Animal Life, D. Appleton & Co. Any books can be nought at discount tbrousb B. S. Cole, Atlanta, Ga. 
 
  SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
BY SUPT. C. B. GIBSON, CoLUMBus PuBLIC ScHOOLS. 
(Copyrighted.) 
 
ExPLANATORY.-This chapter on School Management is intended to be suggestive merely. It aims at quickening thought among the common,..jjChool teachers of Georgia and bringing them to consider and discuss in the county institutes questions of vital importance to the successful management of their schools. It is written with the ungraded rural schools in view-the schools that stand most in need of a better management-and for the purpose of aiding especially the large body of young, ambiti~us, and comparatively inexperienced teachers who constitute so large a part of the teaching force of Georgia. The suggestions are not the direct or indirect result of reading and theorizing alone, but they come from actual and sometimes p ainful experience in the most rural of rural schools, the semi-graded village school, and the wellgraded or over-graded city school. In one chapter it is impossible to enter into a didactic discussion of the principles laid down or the brief statements ventured. This must be left to the conductor and conducted at the institute. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
DEFINITION.-School management is the art of properly di- 
 
recting internal and external school affairs. 
 
ScoPE.-Broad enough to embrace all the influences and 
 
; stt>ncies that operate on the school from within or without. 
 
~: 
 
eatllcm~oaon~awgeilml efanltl 
 
which aims at short of a full 
 
only the measure 
 
internal affairs of of success. There 
 
hi~n mtimate relation existi ng . and a cordial co-operation 
1r ch should exist between the influences of the home, where 
 
 228 
 
the child spends sixteen hours a day, and tho11e of the 
 
where he spends less than eight hours a da,y. Sound, 
 
school n;Janagement should aim to reach and manage 
 
tionally the homP.s, the parents, and- even the school 
 
BAsis.-The soundest educational principles. As is the outgrowth and exponent of the science of ediU~Lti~n.; 
 
RELATION TO Goon TEACH~NG.-The sine qua non; the 
 
thing n eedful; absolutely indispensable. Especially is 
 
true in rural and village schoo~s, where more evils 
 
traced to a lack of management of the school forces 
 
to any other cause. There are many good 
 
these schools, but their measure of success is small 
 
they fail to organize and systematize and manage the 
 
tional forces of the community-'i!fiupils and patrons, 
 
as well as mental resources. 
 
 
 
DivisiONS.- I. School Facilities. 
 
II. School Organization. 
 
III. School Government. 
 
IV. Outline of Work. 
 
V. Tests, Records, etc. 
 
VI. School Hygiene (sufficiently . 
 
constitute a division of the subject.) 
 
In this brief article the first three only can be ,.nrtAilll'li'IIIIK 
 
1.-FACILITIES. 
I. Building and Grounds.-It is a mistake to suppose these are facilities with which the teacher has nothing to do than to accept them as he fi nds them, adapt them, use them under distressing disadvantages, and he leaves, surrender so much of the grounds as the not washed away, and so much of the building as the unhindered, hav.e not whittled or torn away. 
These are things with which the teacher has to do: 1. As he finds them. 2. As he uses them. 8. As be leaves them.  As he is instmmental in supplying them. 
First. Statistics from the office of the State School missioner 11how that Georgia has 7419 common 
 
 229 
 
that these are taught in 5207 schoolhouses. Problem: Deter 
 
mine the schoolhouse facilities for each sc hool. After careful investigation t he Commissioner gives the fol 
low ing in his report, 1894: "The average number of school- 
 
houses, outside of the city, is about sixty. As reported by the county commissioners, the value of all the sixty schoolhouses, outside of the towns, is less th an $2,000. (Find the average. The average value of decent barns for Georgia mules is $175.) Of those in this number that are suitable for Bclwol pur]JOses , the average number is not over jour or five." 
The natural results are : 
 
1. Nine-tenths of the country schools must be conducted du ring the ho t, sultry summer month s. 
 
2. Many of the schools are " kept, " and the results are distressing and discouraging to teacher and patron 
 
alike. 
 
3. Many of the best citizens are moving from the country to the towns and cities, to have the advantages of good schools. 
4. Conflicting duties on the farm in summer keep many 
 
children away from school altogether. With a school 
 
population of 604,971 the average attendance is less 
 
th an 250,000. 
 
The teachers of the past and p resent are largely rupomibu for 
 
 
 
tlliB condition of tltings. Second. The teacher 
 
should 
 
be 
 
careful 
 
how 
 
he 
 
uses 
 
the 
 
school building, grounds, and appliances. It is the teacher's 
 
duty 
 
1. To see that the building is provided with means of pro 
 
t ecting the school property against burglars and vandals, aud to keep the building locked when not in use for educational or other good purposes. 
 
2. To replace or repair anything th at he may break or damage, and require the same to be done by pupils, whether the damage be accidental or otherwise. 
 
3. To inspect closely the furniture and premises at least 
 
once a week, and cause amends to be made for anything found to be amiss. 
 
 230 
 
4. To' keep in order and ready for use all apparatlll 
 
appliances bel onging to the school. 
 
5. To exercise a business care and vigilant R"'""v;;,; 
 
over all the school property-grounds, buildi!Jg 
 
nitum, apparatus, library, appliances. 
 
' 
 
Tl)ird. If every teacher were careful to leave the facilities in at least as good condition as he finds all carefully locked and protected, the schools would Qe far better equipped th an they now are. what may be the circumstances attending the testch.er'll' ing a school a proper regard for his good name will to put everything in order before going away. His whether he ever meets his predecessor or not, will form and express an opinion of him. When the door is opened one sort of impression will be made desks are found in disorder and much damaged; an lation of dirt on the floor, dirt on the desks, dirt on dirt everywhere; .window panes out; bucket gone pieces ; dipper rusted out; teacher's desks full of fusion; no copy of schedule; no record; nothing help and much that will hinder. 
Ouite a different sort of impression will be formed if t!:ting i_s found to be clean and in order, with as much at to help the new teacher as can be left by the retiring 
A duplicate inventory of everything in the building be left with the county school commissioner. 
 
A few suggestions on leaving a school: 1. Put the teacher's desk in order. See that it carefully prepared copy of your program, a your rules and regulations, the school such information as will enable yo~ carry on your good work. 2. Place in the desk under lock and key such cles as may be easily lost or misplaced. S. See that no window-pan es are out. 4. See that the pupils' desks are clean-within out-and in good condition; that the clean and ready to receive ink. 
 
 23 1 
6. See that the school library (if there be one_:_and there should be) is arranged and secured, and a list of the books in the teacher's desk. 
6. See that the bucket is scoured and left inverted, or on its larger base, that the hoops may not fall off; the dip per scoured and dried that it may not rust out. 
7. See that the locks are provided with keys properly labeled, the window-sashes are fas tened down, the house securely locked, and the keys left with a proper person, from whom take a receipt. 
8. See that the grounds are .left in such good condition that they will not be badly washed by rains during the vacation. 
This done, and your successor will bless forever your name ; and, encouraged by the condition of things, will strive dili. gently to carry on your good work. 
Fourth. Statistics show that a large number of our schoolhouses are unsightly-crushing to the child's natural love for the beautiful; uncomfortable in summer and winter alike; un healthy, because of the accumulation of filth in and about the building; poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, poorly heated (even to t he danger point),-an abomination to the eye of the consecrated t eacher. It is the t eacher's duty to use his intelligence and enthusiasm and un ceasing h ard work to supply better school facilities to a hi therto indifferent and  apathetic community. If he is called a b enefactor who causes two blades of grass to gro w where one grew before, what shall be said of a faithful t each er who causes a neat, substantial schoolhouse to be erected where a miserable, dilapidated, disgraceful shack stood before? The teacher should be authority -the proper teacher is authority-on educational matters in his communi ty. He should manage the school-sentiment of that community as one 'of his educational agencies, and mold it for a better schoolhouse. How long would a live Methodist preacher remain in a community with out h aving a neat, comfortable house in which his people may worship God two ?ours a month? The live (?) teacher continues to teach school tn a miserable hovell60 hours a month. 
The-school buiiding and grounds are often the greatest obstll.- 
 
 232 
 
cle that the ambitious teacher meets when he goes to 
 
charge of a n ew school. It is a mistake to try to persuade 
 
Eel that the average country schoolhouse is not a hhoth....... 
 
1 
 
to good teachin g. It is a mistake for th e new teacher to 
 
himself in a community as content with the 
 
finds it, unless it is what it should be. His aims and are at on~e rated as low, and be loses a goldPn onnortumiltv 
impress the importance of at least repairing substantially old house. 
 
Why should the teacher insist upon improvements 
 
schoo: house? 
 
 
 
1. Because it is due the people th at the teacher place 
 
them and impress upo n th em higher ideals of 
 
tion and of the facilities n ecessary to carry on 
 
work. 
 
 
 
2. Because it is due th e children to be taught that 
should be instructed in the best house and with best appliances, as well as by the best teacher, to had. 3. Beca!l!.ee it is due the t eacher himself that he BUII'!Oilal~) himl!lelf with th e most helpful aids, the most appliances, the best opportunities for doing work. 
 
Some suggestions on securing means of improvingthe-~~~.3. property: 
 
1. Be not too quick to accept the school with dil.ap:idlf4!1~<i..... 
 
buildings and corrugated grounds. 
 
2. On going to a community with a view to teaching, 
 
a thorough inspecti on of the schoolhouse and 
 
3. -Study all the school architecture you can get 
 
hands on. 
 
. 
 
4. Mature and prepare plans for making the desired 
 
provements. 
 
 
 
5. Secure a meeting of a few leading citizens. Fue 
 
th em all the schoolhouse ammu nition with are loaded. I nsist that th ey then and there themselv6!1-their means, or labor, or tflams, an d then fix an'early dar for the 
 
 233 
 
6. In carrying out your plans be not shy in asking favon 
 
of those good people_:_ from grandsire to grandson. 
 
OI 
 
7. Keep the quesl~on of schoolhouse improvements warm 
 
in the community, and on the appointed day, be on 
 
band early and give direction to every detail. 
 
Some points of improvement: 
 
1. A substantial plank or picket fence, whitewashed or painted, should inclose a suitable portion of the grounds of every schoolhouse-only so much of the 
 
grounds as can be kept in go9d order. 2. The grounds should be laid off, walks made, trees 
planted, shrubbery added. 
 
3. The building should be painted. Nothing will add 
 
more to the community's respect for the school building and pride in the school than a nicely painted 
 
schoolhouse. 
 
 
 
4. The roof should be in good condition; the front steps will probably need. attention; the window panes 
 
should be in place. Don't wait for a bitterly cold day. Outside blinds are not best ; good oil shades mounted on strong spring rollers are better for regu- 
 
lating the light. 
 
5. If the desks are not in good condition they should be 
 
sandpapered and one or two coats of good bard oil 
 
put on them. This can be done at a cost of twelve or 
 
thirteen cents per desk. If the desks are beyond sat- 
 
' 
 
isfactory r epair, get n ew ones. How ? Show the 
 
Board that they are necessary and that the Board has the right to buy them. Good, new, modern, double 
 
d esks can be laid down at your schoolhouse at a cost 
 
of $2.30 to $2.75 each. If the Board will not furnish all the money get it to furnish part, and get up contributions or some entertainment for the remainder. 
 
Country schools CAN be well equipped. 
6 Every sch oolroom should have from 50 to 100 lineal feet of blackboards. Enam eled duck or drilling, tightly stretched, sandpapered and coated with slating, makes one of the best, !DOSt durable and cheapest blackboards to be bad . The cost is 30 to 40 cent. per yard, 40 or 50 inches wide. 
 
 234 
7. Have a stove or heater. With an open fireplace lose from 70 to 95 per cent. of the heat the combustion of your fuel, and therefore almost impossible to h eat the room so that it necessary fo r pupils to leave their desks and around the fire-a source of perpetual Have a ventilating (not radiating ) stove; hot air is kept in circulation and every part room is kept comfortably warm. One of the ventilating wood stoves for a schoolroom is "Wonder," made by the Wonder Manufacturing Washington C. H., Ohio. One medium-size ing stove in the ,corner of the room will heat part pf it. Do not place the stove in the center of tk 
Other things worthy of consideration are the portance, cost, care of, k ind of books ; apparatus-cost, of supplying, school-made, ownership ; maps, globee charts ; weights and measures; blackboard, pointers. 
I I . - O RG ANIZATION. 
Careful, thorough sdwol organization is essential to ful teaching. If a teacher had only one or two childNil~ teach he could afford to regard lightly the matter organization; but with thirty or fo rty or fifty children ing at the same time a part of h is teaching force, there be systemization of school work or ignominious failure. 
CLASSIFICATION.-Naturally, the first step towards ization is the classification of pupils. UnleBS a large is made on the teacher's wisdom and 'firmneBS the will make their own classification, and the classes will equal the numbe r of pupils ,.nrnlll!lll. if the teacher p erform the miracle of making a recitations, what can he do in a fiveminutes period? On the other hand, the teacher against the leadings of some rural school relrormEIO, holding up the city schools as a model, 1(0 to the other extreme of making a loose classilll"'' with one-year or two-year intervals in a}l1ubjects. 
 
 235 
ln classifying pupils a few principles should govern. 1. Pupils should be classed and promoted upon their ability to do the work. 2. The number of classes, say 5 or 6, should be determined by the length of school day, the course of study, and the teacher's ability. 
s. Classes should be divided into two section!!, about a 
half-year apart, in Arithmetic, Language or Grammar, and Geography. Whatever may be said of the advantages of the graded city schools over the rural schools in the matter of classification or grading, it must not b e forgotten that the rural schools have certain ad vantages over the city schools. 1. The pupils of the several classes are thrown together in the same room and are not separated by thick walls. Much information is thus had by the younger pupils that will be useful and helpful in their development. 2. It is not necessary to withhold a pupil's promotion altogether because he is deficient in one study. Ttmporary Clasmjication.-On taking charge of a school a temporary classification is necessary. It is unwise and da-ngerous to undertake to make a permanent classification on the first day of the session. The pupils and the patrons shouid be made to feel that the classification is only temporary. Much dissatisfaction and complaining may thus be avoided. To make a satisfactory temporary classification some preparatory work should be done before the session begins. 1. You should h ave a personal conference with your prede. cessor, or communicate with him by mail, and go to the schoolroom on the first day with the information obtained from him noted down,and classified. 2. A few days shonld be spent visiting your prospective patrons. It is always well to form their acquaintance before the school opens, but especially should you visit them if you are seeking help in making a good temporary classification. Talk with them about what their children have done, what their h abits are, what their dispositions are, what their weaknesses are. Make w record of this information. 
 
 236 
 
8. M:ake the acquaintance of the pupils; win their 
 
ship ; find out what they have studied it, how they like it, 
 
studied, how what books 
 
the7 thq 
 
used. Two or three days of visitinc in a 
 
before opening the school can be as profitably 
 
any week of the school year. It is profitable 
 
pupils throughout the year, because it 
 
teacher to make an intelligent, auspicious start. 
 
As you will probably not be able to test your pupU. 
 
oughly in all subjects on the first day, it will be beat 
 
about two subjects, p referably Arithmetic and 
 
basis on which to make the temporary Cl2LSBln<:atlon 
 
carefully prepared plan and abundant fresh, int~erE!stiiug.JIIII 
 
rial at hand for testing pupils in these suhjects. 
 
and firmly that everything shall be done in an 
 
t ematic way from the very beginning on the morninl 
 
first day. 
 
An illustration may be helpful to the inexperienced. 
 
such the following from Baldwin's School 
 
given : 
 
Teacher.-" All who are prepared to read 
 
Fifth Reader may raise their hands." 
 
Pupils.-Fifteen pupils r aise their hands. 
 
Teacher.-''Take yo ur Readers. At signals, take 
 
directed. Ready; rise ; pass." (Such directions are 
 
will insure order.) 
 
Pupils.-The pupils pass to places at the board. 
 
T eacher.-" You may write your names on the board. 
 
erase; write; attention." Pupi ls.- Each pupil writes his name, and at the BII:U~ 
 
tention, t urns, facing the teacher. 
 
Teacher.-" Turn to page 120; read as called.'' Pupils.-Each one reads a short portion. Tile te1Lcll.~4 
 
'j ing the reading, makes out a roll of the claBB 
on the board, and at the same time notices the resLQUQ> 
 
as evidently belong to a lower class are told to take 
 
the class to which they belong. 
 
Teacher.-" Turn to page 30 for the next lesson. 
 
prepare the first and .second paragraphs. Notice the 
 
 237 
 
and meaning of each word. .A.t signale, take seats. Board; 
 
erll!e; attention; turn; pass.'' .Pupili.-The class pass to seats, and prepare the lesson as- 
 
signed. 
 
 
 
Teacher.-" Those who are prepared to read in the Third 
 
Reader may raise their hands." The same course iB pursued 
 
with this class as with the class in the Fourth Reader., In the 
 
same way the classes in the second and First Readers are 
 
organized. Now each pupil is at work. 
 
. 
 
Permanent Cl<Usification.-The pupils should know in the 
 
beginning that while the first classification is temporary, a 
 
permanent classification will be made at the end of the first week. Most of the first week should be spent in testing pupils 
 
for the permanent classification, recitations going on all the 
 
while under the t emporary classification and program, yet reci- 
 
tations that are made largely tests of the pupil's ability to do 
 
the work of the class under the permanent classification. Be- 
 
yond the second class or grade Reading should no longer be 
 
considered a basal study in making classifications, promo- 
 
tions, or demotions. By good teaching a pupil's read ing can 
 
be strengthened in the fourth grade as well as in the third, in 
 
the fifth grade as well as in the fourth. To have harmonious 
 
progress and development effort should be made to have the 
 
pupil advance with equal pace in all subjects of his class, and 
 
yet if he be up in fi ve studies and behind in one, he should 
 
not, and need not, be held back in the country school on 
 
account of this one study. H e should be required to give 
 
extra time to this one study and make himself as profi cient in 
 
that as in the other studies. For a pupil to be allowed to be- 
 
lieve that he cannot learn any one study is a reflection on his former or present teacher, or both. 
 
After the permanent classification has been made irregular 
 
promotions should be made from section to section whenever the pupil is able to do the work of the advanced section in 
 
such basal etudies as Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar or Language. I n the flret two grades the basal studies should be Arith metic and Reading. Regular promotions from section 
 
to section should be made semi-annually, and from grade to grade annually. 
 
 238 
Uniformity in the text-bo9ks of a school should be 
enforced. There can be no classification unleas this The school law of Georgia plainly says: "No teacher ceiye pay for any pupil who is allowed to use any other the prescribed text-books.'' There may be liability where for fraudulent reports, and liability for money contrary to law. With five-year county adoptions furnished through county boards at publishers' ..,},,"''"''''"' price, there can be no ground for reasonable coinpllatJlt text-books are too expensive to have uniformity in a 
Making a daily program is no easy task. It requires thought and careful study. Every teacher should own program upon pedagogic principles. Unless the of another suits your school with its peculiar envir'Onmeia do not adopt it. A good suggestive program was given last Outline of Methods for Georgia Teachers. Several ones are given in Baldwin's School Management. 
TH:s FmsT DAY.-A large number of teachers are youn,r comparatively inexperienced; all are itinerant. The day at a school is an eventful one. If a good beginning prepare the way for work that will lead to a good ending, highly important that favorable impressions be made both patrons and pupils by the end of the first day. tory to the successful work of the first day, the teacher spend a few days visiting his prospective patrons, because should let the patrons know him, (2) he should have the dence of the patrons, (3) he should have their willingnelll 
operate, (4) he should let them know how to co-operate, should know as much as possible of the children, (6) he begin at once to manage the educational forces of the nity. 
He should have a carefully prepared,"dednite plan of 
for the ftrst day-a temporary program, suitable school necessary stationery and appliance&, chalk, Ink, etc. nothing to the impulse of the moment. A hektograph found very useful in preparing busy work. Every should have one. To make one, dissolve a box of warm water, mi x eight oun ces of glycerine; heat pour over a slate around the frame of which some small 
 
 23 9 
of wood have bee1i tacked to add depth. .A. bottle of hektograph-ink can be had for ten cents. 
Be punctual. See that everything is in order, everything needful provided. Greet pupils cordially by name, if possible. .Any child esteems it an honor to have the new teacher recognize him by name in the presence of his companions. Awaken in them an interest in the success of their school. Preserve order ; prevent jokes, pranks, bqisterousness. Be m ost vigi lant; but do not nag. 
Begin work promptly at the appointed hour, whether there be fi ve or fifty pupils present. Require pupils to move by signals and words of command given in a kind but firm tone. Promptness, positivity and precision will do much to create a favorable impression. Announce no rules until afternoon at the close of school; then give as few as possible. Add to them from time to time as they are needed, but always announce them in a formal , dignified way at the close of the school-day. 
As soon as pupils are seated, somewhat under the tactful direction of the teacher, have a word of earnest prayer or the Lord's prayer in concert, sing a familiar song, give the pupils a brief welcome-not over five minutes, and at once begin work on your program. Have something for every pupil to do and see that every pupil does something under your direction,-test problems in Arithmetic, copying and memorizing gems, letter-writing, autobiographical sketch es, thought questions in History and Geography constitute good busy work for the older ones while you are testing and classifying pupils. For the little ones stencil-drawing, color work with bits of worsted, word-building with letter cards, sentenc~ building with word cards, stick-laying from copy, are all good. Suitable, busy work must be provided ; you might as well have it on the first day. Have a number of short quick recitationl!. 
III.-SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
The best equipped and best organized school will be a failure without good governm ent. School facilities and organization have to do more especially with th e beginning; government continues as long as the school continues; indeed the effects of tood &overnment, based on right principles, continues long 
 
 240 
after the school ha~ ceased and the boys and glrla are girls no more. But the good school continuea no longel' good government lasts. That government which aims at ducing and sustaining order alone, in its generally sense, by the exercise of authority, by the enforceJ:neJll. rules and regulations, by punishments-in a word, by the child to submit wholly, automatically to the will other-is vicious and should be shunned. Proper School ernment is 8Uch control of achool forces aa tDill conduc. to U&e training of pupi/3 for the dutiea of life. 
The best training of pupils for the duties of life is cll4U'III!IIiii!liil building; therefore, character-building Is the end proper school government. School government is, only one of the means to this end. Many .of the characters, many of the men and women who have <lliiChiiiJ~~~ most acceptably the duties of life, have not had the advuatl,tllli!.~j,.; of good school government; many other characters have good and strong in spite of certain forms of school 
,_,.'Il ..,. ment. The teacher should have a reason for every 
m ethod employed in school work, a clear aim in every ,.... taking. In matters of school discipline, which, by the is not coextensive with school government, there ahoulcl clearly in view the developing and strengthening of charactlr. of the individual pupil or of the pupils of the schooL acter determines future conduct; conduct is guided by~ tive force within the individual. Ae it ia the province of lD lectual training to develop and strengthen the mental--::-... ties, so it is the peculiar office of school government to velop this selfdirective and self-controlling force. 
Order in the schoolroom m ay be the result of a verr school government. It il!l one thing to have order by re1Rrllllf.~. ing the physical energies, repressing the spirits, terrorizing the children; quite another thing to have setting up high ideals of conduct, creating a sentiment in favor of conduct in accord with the veloping self-control and self-directive force. Not in~~~~~~~~ with these latter aims are such means as certain forms of punishment-even corporal 
In a certain schooLroom the author has in 
 
 24 1 
 
pupils from the best homes of the place. The room is equipped with good furniture and ~ppliances for teaching. 
 
The teacher is a cultured lady of experience in teaching. She 
 
aims at good order, but she must draw largely on her time 
 
and attention from the beginning until the end of the school 
 
day if she has no more than quiet. The pupils are listless 
 
and indifferent to the recitation, noisy and nagging, ready to 
 
drop a book or slate if the teacher's eye be not on them, rebellious in their~spirits,-in short, young anarchists. . If the 
 
teacher leaves the room, pandemonium reigns. At the end of 
 
the day the teacher is worn out; at the end of tbe session 
 
she feels like going to her reward. No wonder she despises 
 
teaching. 
 
 
 
In another schoolroom not far away are forty-six pupils 
 
from inferior homes. The school furniture is poorer, the ap- 
 
pliances more limited. The teacher's methods of conducting 
 
the recitation are perhaps not so good, and yet the children 
 
get far mo.:-e good out of it than in the first school. They 
 
freely"and yet courteously and in the most orderly manner 
 
ask questions of the t'eacher and of the pupil reciting or of 
 
any other pupil in the class. A beautiful spirit of harmony 
 
and consideration and self-control is manifest. If the teacher 
 
leaves the room the work goes quietly and earnestly on. 
 
There is not a constant strain on the teacher. At the end of 
 
the session she !;!.as energy left with which to work during the 
 
vacation. Naturally the teacher loves her work. 
 
Why this difference ? One has the true elements of governing 
 
power; the oth er has not. What are the elements of govern- 
 
ing power 't 
 
LovE.- The easy government of most schools means the 
 
control of a comparatively few pupils of unhappy dispositions. 
 
To these the teacher must give most attention; why not win 
 
their esteem and confidence, bring yourself to take a warm 
 
interest in them, and, as an easy, natural consequence, love 
 
them? It is not impossible to love even the unlovely. They 
 
are usually those who have least love at home, and are there- 
 
fore quite susceptible to genuine love of a teacher-not de- 
 
clared but manifested. Love is one of the strongest incentives 
 
to good, as well as restraints from evil, that can be used. 
 
 42 
CoNSISTENCY.- The teacher cannot govern without the r espect of "'his pupils. H e may have order, 'l....,fl"!:,...,~ order of a low degree. He cannot have the respect of pupils unless his living be consistent with his teachingL Pupils are as quick to discover inconsistencies in a teacher'l living and teachings as the world is to discover them in the minister of the gospel. Not only will pupils lose their resp41C$ for the inconsistent teacher, but the more thoughtful OD88 will be forced to despise him. A teacher ought to be the em bodiment of the high ideals placed before his pupils.- Then indeed is it good for a boy if he is allowed only to sit on the end of a log with his teac!:Jer. Not only should he be coDSiUent in his living and teaching, but he should be consistenUn his daily requirements of his pupils. To be rigid one day and 
lax the next, makes it the more difficult to be rigid on the daJ 
following. Consistency in the teacher is a rare jewel. CHARACTER.-Unconscious tuition is stronger than eloqueat 
exhortation. Not only should the teacher's character not be smirched with vice and polluted with corruption, but, in its purity and n obility, it should stand out boldly, and~ press itself on the life of the pupils. A strong moral infiuenee, emanating from a high moral character, will do more to lead pupils -into right conduct than all the rods and rules that can be plied upon their backs and brains. Order may be had by force, but the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life is necessary tosecure good government. Character meanaabeolute truthfulness, it means good temper, it means good habitll, it means purity of life. 
Goon Juna:M:ENT.~Tbis is the child of common sense and the parent of tact, both of which should be found in every school governor. The ability to handle judiciously, tactfally, skilfully, special cases of misconduct and real or imaginal)' grievances of patrons is the secret of many a teacher's succa in government. Judgment in dealing with the little everr day affairs of the schoolroom is a good preventive of the greater, more serious pr<iblenis of school government. By 11.~d ing the pupil's true motive for the troublesome conduct With which he may be charged, and dealing judiciously with he may be saved from being a rebellious young anarchist. 
 
 243 
VIGILANCE.-Alertness with eye and ear is an essential element in governi ng power. The school impressed with the fact that the kind, consistent~ faithful teacher sees and hears all that goes on in the schoolroom, even while having his attention centered mainly on the r ecitation, will be found to be an orderly room. Constant faultfinding and nagging are not necessarily concomitants of vigilance. Nor is it necessary that the pupils should regard the teacher as suspicious and distrustful of them. If they feel that the teacher is always looking for mischief they may be obliging enough to see that be is not disappointed. If the teacher's vigilance is not aeasoned with sympathy and love, there is apt to be frequent occasion for fault-finding. Never should a violation of a moral principle be passed unnoticed. The vigilance of the teacher should extend to t.he little details of the schoolroom-the condition of the furniture, apparatus and appliances, the seat ing of the pupils-all those things that bear on easy control. 
ScnoLARSHIP.~A broad margin of ripe scholarship, giving the teacher confidence in himself and increasing the confidence of pupils in their teacher, will go far towards rendering control an easy matter. If the teacher is able, or undertakes, merely to keep school antl incidentally to hear what the children learn from the text-books, control is a burdensome business. Thorough, fresh scholarship and a good store of ready information will awaken in pupils an interest in the pursuit of knowledge; interest begets application; application drives away mischief. A liberal amount of scholarship is not sufficient unless it be fresh and appropriate to the topics of that day. To keep it fresh and appropriate one must study daily. Daily study means not only increased scholarship, but it means ready and appropriate methods of teaching; 11nd all this makes school government easy. 
MINOR MEANS. 
Seatl and Seating. The seats and the seating of the pupils bear a very important relation to control. The seats as they are found by the new teacher will probably need repairing, improving, rearranging, adjusting. If through the neglect of  the former teach ers the desks have been whittl ed, scratched, 
 
 244 
carved, soiled or otherwise abused, it is highly important that you remove the evidences of gross neglect on the part of the teacher and gross disrespect for the school on the part of the pupils. These ev-idences constantly before the pupil are nol 
only damaging to the esthetical in his nature but are a strona 
temptation to be 1disorderly. A carpenter's plarie can remove the evidences of the knife; sand-paper and hard-oil -will thea put the desk in good condition. 
The seats should not be so high that the pupil's feet cannot rest firmly on the floor and partially support the weight of the legs. The thigh bones, being somewhat flexib le in childhood, are often deformed b y allowing little children to sit for lODJ periods of time with feet dangling. Besides, the pressure of the edge of the seat on certain. nerves on the back of the thigh causeR irritation and, if continued, considerable pain. The effect on the good order of that child is evident. 
If school government is to be s uccessful the physical com- 
fort of pupils while in the schoolroom cannot be overlooked. Care must be taken that neither desks nor seats are too high or too low. Adjustable d esks are the ideal. In the absence of these we must try to adjust the p upils to the desks by using foot rest and momi ting the desks on blocks or stripe r unning parallel with the row. The desks should be arranged in rows with an eye to symmetry and the proportions of the room. When once arranged properly they should be fastened to the floor, or four or five desks should be fastened to the same pair of strips. This will prevent shaking or noise 01' 
tilting. The pupils should be seated with all due regard to the light 
And heat. To avoid intense glare and hurtful shadows the light should be brought chiefly fro!I). the l eft, some from the rear, and all from as high up as possible. If shades are used they should draw up from below instead of drawing down from above. The matter of light in the schoolroom is of great im portance. Certain eye-tests in representative schooll show that from 40 to 50 per cent. of the pupils have defective visioa- 
Care should be taken to seat pupils with reference to .e another, so as to reduce to a minimum temptations to c1flol'o 
der. In this, tact must be used. Let the pupils 
 
 on the fil'llt Q.ay that while they are left to select their 
 
seats then, the teacher will from time to time seat pupils as, 
 
in his judgment, he thinks best. Troublesome pupils should 
 
not be left together, nor should they be left_ far from the 
 
~aacher. They need the teacher's special attentio>1 and help. 
 
FJsthetic SurroundingB. Nothing is too goodfor the roughest 
 
schoolboy. 'fhe more attractive his surroundings the better 
 
will be his conduct, other things being equal. If the home 
 
should be adorned to develop the better nature of the children . 
 
who are growing up, why not the schoolroom ? The refining 
 
infl uence of beautiful and attraotive pictures on the walls of the 
 
school has been fel t by teachers who were thoughtful enough 
 
to hang them there. Neatness, cleanliness; order, ornaments, 
 
all tend to soften the rough schoolboy's nature, lead him to 
 
higher aspirations and greater efforts, and develop within him 
 
a respect for the school and its surroundings th at will prove 
 
helpful in government. Where cobwebs are found on the 
 
walls, cobwebs are apt to be found somewhere in the inner 
 
life of the inhabitant. 
 
Music. I am aware that this is not a standard aid to school 
 
government, and yet I have seen a bit of simple vocal music 
 
work so charmingly in reducing a chaotic room to order that I 
 
am constrained to mention it as one of the valuable minor 
 
means. Young children naturally like to sing. If allowed to bawl instead of sin~?, it may become a source of disorder. Af- 
 
ter a few elementary lessons, which any ambitious teacher 
 
can give, a few songs should be taught the school ; and the 
 
teacher should insist that they be sung in soft, smooth tones. 
 
Where a school is found in which the pupils are taught vocal 
 
music well, and where much attention is given to it, there will 
 
be found good order, easy control, and good school govern- 
 
ment. 
 
 
 
Ventilation and Heating. There is no more fruitful source 
 
of disorder than po,.or ventilation. When the atmosphere be- 
 
comes vitiated to over five-t enths of ;me per cent., headaches - 
 
begin, children become indifferent to studr or the recitation, 
 
they are soon restless and disorderly. Just at that time the 
 
teacher, because of the effect of the vitiated atmosphere on 
 
uim, is in a poor condition to cope with the disorder. The 
 
 246 
atmosphere iJi a poorly ventilated schoolroom beeomee Impure by such slow degrees that it is almost impossible for one shut up in the room to detect it. Whenever a room becom disorderly, slowly but surely, the teacher should at once look to the ventilation. No matter what system of ventilation be adopted it is safe to have the windows and doors opened al recess. The fresh oxygen in the pupils' lungs will more than compensate for the temporary reduction in temperature. 'rwo pupils should be appointed weekly to see that the win dows are raised at recess. 
However, while the pupils ar& seated in the room, venW.. tion should not be secured through open windows. A blut of cold air may bring death within a few days to the strongeat. Fresh air may be safely admitted by lowering the sash a few inches at the top, and using a shelving board to defiect the cold current upward. The impure air laden with heavy carbon dioxide falle to the floor and should be drawn oft" through a ventilating flue or duct operated by the heat from the stove pipe. 
While the open fireplace is a good means of ventilating, it; is a poor means of heating, and is a source of disorder and annoyance on cold days. Every country schoolroom should be heated 'With a ventilating stove, located in the corner of the room. By such a stove the air is kept in circulation and all parts of the room heated almost eqnally. Then it will not; be necessary for the pupils to crowd around the :fireplace or radiating stove, which is apt to heat the atmosphere for only a few feet away. All parts of the room, up to a height of five or six feet, should be kept at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 ' 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
BY D. L. EARNEST, STAT.Ij} N oR~fAL Scnoor., ATHENS, GA. 
I. PURPOSIJJS. 1. General culture-'tis a shame not to know Creation's masterpiece. 2. Increase of personal efficiency-he can best usc Nature's forces who obeys her laws.. 3. To know and respect the laws of life-mistakes and disobedience are never overkJOked and never forgiven, though the penalty may be delayed, no mercy, no favoritism, no escape. 4. To develop admiration for the human body and the human being, the whole person .in its present excellence and the grandeur of its possibilities. 5. To show the value and the beauty of a pure, a healt hy, and a wholesome, holy life and for it create aspirations and furnish motives. 
II. SOME TEACHING PRINCIPLES. 
P roceed from the near to the remote, from the concrete to the abstract, from the specific to the general, from the practical to the theoretical, fr om the useful to the ornamental, . from the living to tue non-living, from the actual to the ideal, from the clear to the vague, from the person al to the imperson~ from the egoistic to the altruistic, from the easy to the difficult, from the pleasant to the disagreeable, from the interesting, tlle gay and the changeful to the un- 
nttractive, ,.the serious and the eternal. 
 
 248 
 
III. I NT RODUC'I'ORY. 
A microscope will show in a drop of stngn,.nt water many moving forms, minute animals; what does the scientist mean by calling them one-celled? A cell is the smallest living thing. the minutest , living individua l. It may Jiye a lone, as in the case of microscopic a nimals Just mentioned, as very small plant forms calied disease germs, or they may be combined in more com plex fo r ms; a ll plants and ani ma ls are cofo 
( nies and commun ities of cells with some inter vening matter. 
Not all cells are alike; different partsof animals are composed of cells that are very much unlike. Cell s a re combined into tissues, tissues into or gans and organs into systems. The function of an organ is the work it does .. 
Anatomy treats of structure, Physiology of action and Hygiene tells how to use body a nd mind so as to get the most and best out of life. 
1. Define cell, tissue, organ, system , a natomy, physiology and hygien e. 
2. Name slx tissues, six systems. 
 
IV. FOOD. 
 
A food is a substance which nourishes the body. 
 
It feed s a nd fu rnishes life to t h e cells; which 
 
are injured by a poison. 'I'he two uses of food 
 
are t o build up t issue and to fur ni sh force and. 
 
beat when oxidized. The food elements are: 
 
l . Prot eids, found in flesh, eggs, m il k, ch eese, peas. 
 
beans, and grains. 
 
2. Starches and sugars, in grains, pot:ttocs, fruits, 
 
etc. 
 
e 
 
~ 
 
0. Fats and oils, in milk, butter, cheese, gra ins. 
 
4. Minerals, water, salts of various kinds, found 
 
In all foods. Proteids are the tissue bu!lders, 
 
  
 
249 
 
nlso furnish_force. Sugars and fats furnish force auu heat; minerals build bone and furnish proper conditions for carrying on life. A food is a co mbination of food eleme~ts; diet is th e blenuing .of foods in hygienic ratios aud amounts. 'l'lle average person nee.ds daily not more than 22-24 ounces of solid food, one-third of which should be proteid, vegetable or animal in origin, and at least an equal amount of water. 'l' he study of food values is the problem of to-day in Georgia homes. The science of cooking is the legitimate province of woman; cooking and eating have equal dignity-the one requires aptness, the other a ppetite. The amount and kind of food for each must be learned from experience and sense, not by authority and taste. 
V. DIGESTION. 
1. Mastication and Insalivation. The teeth grind the food into small bits, preparing for the other acts of digestion. Saliva softens the food and changes starch into sugar. As the most abundant valuable part of vegetables in starch, thorough mastication is important. 
2. Deglutition or Swallowing. 'l'he food -passes through the esophagus into the stomach. 
3.. Gastri c Digestion. Pepsin, an active principle of the gastric juice, cha nges the albuminous portions of the food into a fluid called peptone. The a cid prevents decomposition and promotes the flow of the b ile. Rennin curdles milk. 
4. I ntestinal Digestion. 'l'lle bile m a kes an em ulsion of the fats, promotes intestinal action a nd prevents decay; the pancreatic juice digests stat~ch, proteids and fats; the intestinal juice fini shes the work of the other fluids, and, in addition, digests sugar. 
 
 250 
 
 
 
5. Absorption, by either lacteals or minute bliiOCJ. vessels, occurs in every part of the digestive tubes. 
 
HYGIENE OF DIGESTION. 
1. Frui ts, grallam bread, oatmea l, green vegetable._ et c., are laxative; highly concentrated foods have opposite tendency. 
2. D r.inking at meal time has di~erent effect upon d ifferent persons. No drink sllould be taken while food is in the mouth. Some weak sto machs require a dry diet; the digestion of some is best promoted by drinking little, on!;, a t meals. Water is the only natural drink. Hot drinks are stimulating and would better be reserved for medicinal purposes. 
3. Normal hunger should regulate time and amount of eating. R educing the meals in number or amount often has good effect. Fasting is a proper prayer for a forgiveness of many physical sins. wild, depraved appetite is man's fiercest foe. 
4. Solid foods should not be swallowed; chew every particle until it becomes a liquid-haste in eating is waste of life. 
5. Avoid prescribing medicines for self: laxatives are tempting but harmful-diet and exercise promote digestive activity. Let conscience control appetite; be regular, be temperate, be 
serene. 6. Clean t he teeth after each- meal. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is the difference between a food and a food elemwt? 
2. Which is the cheaper, animal or vegetable food? 3. Name the most nutritious and least costly food& 4. What is the use of each food element? 
5. What is the benefit of a pleasant fiayor? 
 
 .. 
 
., 
 
251 
 
G. Bow much does necessary food cbs t- least cosU i. 'l'l1rougb t\!Jat cllanges docs a mouthful or brcatl 
and butte1 pass in becoming blood? S. Name five causes of indiges tion. 0. Name ten parts of the alimentary canal and tell 
use of each. 10. 'Vrite ten rules for eating, not using "Don't.'' 
SU1PLE EXPERIMENTS are suggested by all good texts. 
1. \Veigh a day's rations and show to class. 2. Observe sweet taste of any starclly food 1ohen 
well chewed. 3. Show osmosis of absorption by placing in water 
egg ;with shell removed from large encl. 4. reach importance of first and last step in di- 
gestive process, the only ones under control of will. 
VI. THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 
Plasma is the fluid part of the blood, in which float the corpuscles. The red corpuscles carry 
oxygen to the cells; the white corpuscles destroy 
disease germs and repair injuries. The minerals and proteicls of the food and C02 from the cell~ are carried dissolved in the plasma. One's blood is one-thirteenth his weight. It is circulated by the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and lymphatics. It is driien through tlle arteries and capillaries by the contraction of the heart and the elastic action of the arteries; through the veins by this force and by the compression of the muscles in action, by the action of the lungs, which In expanding produce suction, backward flow being prevented by the action of the venal valves. The food eaten is used either in building up the tissues or in furnishing force by oxidation; this material is obtained from tile blood, the liquid 
 
 --..,....------~~~~ ~--~-- 
Fro m Bla is<lcll's Physiology. 
 
 F1om Hutchison's Phy siology. 
 
 254 
portions of which with some white corpuscles ooze through the walls of the capillaries and bathe the cells; the unused materials and the waste products find their way back into the veins through a set of vessels called lymphatics. 
HYGIENE. 
l. Active exercise promotes the circulation and the prompt removal of waste, giving the buoyant feeling of vigorous, healthy life. 
2. Clothing should be loose enough to allow unimpeded circulation. Be healthy and happy; let fools seek the beauty of small feet and trim figures by deforming nature and thus mocking God. 
3. Select nutritious food, digest it; promptly free system of all waste matter. 
. SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Test pulse of pupils as affected by positionlying, sitting, standing-after exercise, after rapid breathing or holding breath; draw inferences. 
2. Show how to stop bleeding; have pupils mention familiar remedies .and discuss values of same. 
3. Pupils will be intetested in a graphic accoun~ of the battles between the white corpuscles and disease germs. 
4. Take a sympathetic interest in the habits of your pupils; correct the bad; fix and exemplify the good. Dare do no wrong which you would not have grow into rr habit. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. State uses of the blood; the corpuscles; the plaswa: the clot; the fibrin. 
 
 255 
 
2. Define pulse, artery, .c?apillary, pericardium, lymphatic, portal, pulmonary and systemic drculation. 
3. Compare arterial and venous blood. 4. Trace the course of a drop of blood. 5. Explain the term "good-hearted." 6. Explain, "blood will tell." 7. What is "heart failure?" 8. Ask and answer ten questions about each of the 
illustrations. 8. How does exercise cause more blood to flow to 
any part? 9. Why does exercise cause the heart to beat 
faster? 10. Give cause and treatment of fainting, bleeding 
at the nose. 
 
RESPIRATION. 
 
The two purposes of respiration are to obtain oxygen for carrying on the processes of life and to remove waste. A full study of this work concerns the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and air cells of the lungs as well as their covering and lining. Through the delicate lining of the air C!JllS some of the oxygen of the air passes into the blood which gives in exchange heat, vapor, effete organic matter and CO 2  Breathing is at the rate of eighteen per minute. The capacity of the lungs is q30 cubic inches, but only a gallon of this air can be exhaled. Tile diaphragm, a muscular partition between lungs and st~mach, aids the muscles .between ribs in respiration. 
 
.. 
 
HYGIENE. 
 
1. Supply tne lungs with an abundance of pure air. 
 
Learn how to ventilate, If necessary wake up 
 
  
EYE From B laisc'ell's Physiolcgy. 
 
 257 
community to importance ot education so that they will build a schoolhouse good enough to need ventilation. 2. 'l'be cloUting must be loose enougll to allow free lung expansion. 3. Learn to keep the mouth shut, at ieast when breathing. Breathe through the nose. 4. Fill the lungs; practice deep breathing. To expand the lungs, read aloud. Sing. Frequently inhale and exhale forcibly througll a short tube with a small bore. Make and use a spirometer. . 5. Use diaphragm largely in breathing; this improyes the voice_and aids digestion. 6. Food is fuel; the fires of life need oxygen. 'l'he burning furnishes all our force, that of plowboy, preacher and poet. If you breathe at night, get fresh air. 
SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Tie a piece of rubber over bottom of a lamp cllimney to represent thorax and diaphragm; tie tube in small rubber balloon to represent lungs, pass this tube through a cork which insert in top of chimney. 
2. Test lungs by counting aloud in a low tone; If lungs are weak, the count will not exceed forty or fifty. 
3. Test breatll for C02 by blowing through lime water. Prepare this by putting small piece of unslaked lime in water. 
4. Count respirations, normal and after running. 5. Using a tape measure find chest expansion. Do 
not rest content with two inches.  6. Give exercises in voice culture. The tones 
should be clear, low, pure, smootll and pleasant. A well modulated voice in the teacher is & source of power, of pleasure, of greatest good. The tone of the voice is the language of the soul. 
 
 258 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Why do we breathe? How much fresh air do we need per hour? 
2. How much air in an ordinary b1eath? In a full breath? 
3. Define pleura, pneumonia, bronchitis, epiglottis, thorax. 
4. Explain yawning, sighing, coughing, laughing, sobbing. 
5. What is the difference between Inspired and ex. pired air? 
6. How may the strength and volume of the lungs be increased? 
7. What is ventilation. How regulated? 8. Why breathe through the nose? 
VIII. THE SKIN. 
The cuticle covers and protects; the cutis absorbs, excretes waste matter, regulates temperature, Is an organ of sensation, contains perspiratory and sebaceous glands, blood vessels and nerves. 
HYGIENE. 
The skin can be educated. Too much clothing is a frequent cause of colds; the skin, by too much protection becomes too sensitive. Cold air and cold water are valuable tonics; trequenfty apply both to the skin. If un_used to their action, proceed by degrees. 
A good, clear complexion is the reward of correct living- exercise, fresh air, good digestion, cleanliness. 
Soap is a great civilizer; a good bath Is a step toward righteousness. A pure heart may be found beneath a dirty skin, but is out of place. The first step toward reforming a Lome or a 
people is to remove the dirt. Care ot the per- 
 
 259 
 
son is the simplest, strongest show of self-respect. Perfumes are sometimes used by persons who do not need a bath-sometimes are a badge of hypocrisy. The pure in heart-they that shall see God-shall they not have clean hands? Some can keep clean by bathing only twice per week. Hair and nails, appendages of the skin, adorn only when kept free from dirt; they show the first signs of distress. As goes the camel through the needle's eye, so in the heart of her pupils do the moral precepts of the untidy teacher find lodgment. A dog will recognize you by his nose, but this should be possible for no other friend. Train your pupils to be neat and clean; this is not all, but it is the beginning of good things-and your own habit shall lead the way. Teach cleanliness about school and home; filth and fever are firm friends. Be_clean, and fear not the deadly disease germ. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
1. What are the two layers of the skin? Their uses? 
2. What is the relation between the skin and other organs of elimination? 
3. What is the difference between a secretion and an excretion? 
4. What is the normal temperature .of the body? How is this maintained? 
5. Define complexion and t ell to what it is due. G. write ten rules for taking care of hair, nails 
and skin. 
 
 
 
(X. 
 
a THE BONES. The bones, more than 200 in number, properly pnt 1 together. fOI'l.]l the si\eleton. Uses: protection, 
 
 260 
support, motion. Composition: 2 parts animal; 1 part mineral matter; ratio varies with age. 
HYGIJD NE OF BONES. 
1. Impress tlie dignity, the beauty, the value of the erect position. Have you ever tried the ef feet of straightening up on your own spirit 1 "Keep you~ head up" is a good life motto. T each effect of ba d position of bones and internal organs-train rather than teach. 
2. Clothing must not compress waist, neck or feet. 3. Children must not walk too soon; briefly, do not 
distort bones while young. 
SUGGESTIONS. 
1. Nothing is so easily taught as the skeleton. Get one, human, if possible ; prepare .and use that of th"e family cat if necessary. 
2. weigh a bone; burn and weigh again to show amount of animal matter whiP.h bas been burned. 
3. Soak bones several days in dilute muriatic acid: show flexible animal matter left. Skeleton of young is much like this; what inference? What are bones of old like? Why? 
4. Inquire for the reason why not only in relation to bones but about every part and function of the body. 
vVhy are ther.e two bones in the , forearm? What is the use of tlte pat ella, the skull, the carpus? wh y are some bones made hollow? Why are th ere two pln.tcs of bone in the skull? What is the usc of the marrow? \Vby is tbe spine curved? Why is out sJ;:eleton iutemal? etc., etc. 
 
 "I 
From llnlchison's P hysiology. 
 
 262 
 
( _ (6ro~ tal ....... .. ............................ .. .. . 
 
I IIzP:E 
 
p~~;~t'!f1 
T~m po ra.l 
 
............ .... .... 
 
. . . ..... . . . . . ...... .. ... . . . . .... .. ......... ...... ............ .. 
 
.. .. 
 
1 
 
~ ~ ~81:;;::.,..,~ ::::: : : Maxillary, :Sup.. ... ........ ..... ................ 
 
l1 
 
~ 
 
lNasal . 
ti~l~~~;;?. 
 
~ 
 
~:: 
 
: 
 
 
 
:. 
 
:~. 
 
: 
 
: 
 
~ 
 
>:: 
 
::/ 
 
: 
 
~ 
 
:~ 
 
:; 
 
::: 
 
1 I 2 2 1 1 
6 
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 
 
I 
 
j ~~i~~;~~::::::::::::~:::~~ ~::::::;:: :::: ee:; 
 
[Hyoid...... ... . ..... .. ......... .... .... .. ....... . Sternum ..... ........... ..... ...... .... ... .... .. 
 
1 I 
 
24 
 
24 
 
1 
 
I 
 
Clavicle. ...... ..... . .. ....... ...... . .. ........ .. ::; Scapula .... ........ .... ..... ... ............ .. .... . 
 
2 Ill 
 
r0:::.. Humerus ... .. .. ... . . ..... . ....... ... ..... :. .... . 
_ ~ Radius ...... .... ... . ............... ........ ... .. 
 
2 2 
 
2 
 
~Lr ~~lf~~~~~~:::: ::;:; ~ ~~~;;;;;; :;;;;~;;;:;; ~ 1 
 
:j; 
 
~ If fi~n~n~oYmI~in:a::t:u:m::::.:.:.:..::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:..::..:.:.:.:.::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. 
 
~ ~ Tibia .. ............ ............ .. ............... . 
 
:: :: : :: :: :::::::::: : : : : ~ l~~~~~~.:: 
 
I6 10 28 
2 2 2 2 2 14 
 
>'l Metatarsus' .. ......................... ...... .... .. IO 
 
l Phala nges ...... : ...... . .. ........ .. .. .......... .. 2ll 
 
X. THE MUSCLES. 
 
 
 
The 500 muscles, voluntary and involuntary, are composed of fibres, bound . in bundles. The shapes are pinnate, circular, spindle, fiat, according to use. They are attached to the bones by the tendons, which are tough, white cords of a material familiar to all in tough meats. 
The importa nce of sound, firm muscular tissue is rarely realized ; heart-power, lung-power, stomach-power are forms of muscular energy, 
 
 Prom Blai sdell's Physiology. 
 
 264 
 
and muscular activity and the resultant muscular health are the only rational means of their preservation. 
Physical culture, manual training, drawing, penwork, cooking, sewing, sculpture, painting, designing, architecture, agriculture,. all sorts of mechanical effort, all forms in which ideas are embodied by muscular activity, make civllfza~ tion both possible and progressive. 
Some sort of industrial training has a place ln. the education of all; it is puttjng it too mildly to say that every girl should be able to cook and sew and every boy able to handle tools. This much would be a gain on present conditions; then we should go further. The education of no one is complete who has not setved some sort of apprenticeship, upon a farm or in a shop, or if a girl, has not served her app-renticeship in the practical duties about the home. 
Carefully investigate this subject: Benefits of Man ual 'l'raining, Financial, Physical, Ment!ll, Moral (Sociological, Political). 
Give at least an hour daily to exercise, If possible in the open air; not lazily-heartily. Benefits: Strengthens all vital organs, and by furnishing to the nervous system pure, rich blood abundantly "supplied with oxygen energizes and vitalizes the powers of thought and feeling. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
1. What are the uses of the muscles? 
 
2. What are their shapes? 
 
3. How are. they made to contract? 
 
4. Defi ne Physical Culture, Manual Training, In 
 
cl ustrial Art. 
 
~ 
 
. 
 
5. GiYe three reasons why exercise 1s a duty. 
 
 265 
 
6. What is expression? Is it increased by culture? What is the effect of expression upon impression? What inference? 
7. What exercises along manual training lines may properly be provided for in country schools? 
8. Give five rules for taking exercise. 
 
XI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
'l'he function of the nervous system is to control all life 
 
processes, voluntary and involuntary. Nervous 
 
tissue is composed of cell and fibres. Knots of 
 
cells are called ganglia; bundles of fibres are 
 
nerves. Cells receive impressions and send out 
 
Impulses, both of which are carried by the 
 
nerves. 
 
Part. 
 
Function. 
 
Nervous system .......................... Vital control. 
 
Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System. 
 
Brain: Cerebrum ..................... Thought, intelligence. Cerebellum .......... ... Coordination of movements. 
 
I Medulla Oblongata   ) Automatic and reflex action. 
Spinal column ....... 
Sp. Nerves: Motor ... . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JHovement. Sensory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensation. 
Cranial Nerves ... Special sense; cligestion, respiration. Sympathetic Nervous System .. Coordination and auto- 
matic action of vital organs, heart, lungs, stomach. Tbe sympathetic nerves are bundles of gray fibres. Gray cells compose the ganglia, the outside of the brain, and the inside of the spinal cord White fibres are founu in the brain, on the outside of the sp:nal coru and form the spinal and cranial n~>rves. 
 
 266 
HYGIENE. 
After all, the chief work of education deals with the nervous system, or rather, with the mind, its noble tenant.  How to treat it so that it may be kept healthy and sttrong is the serious problem. Dear teacher, do you know about the mind and its laws of growth? Are.you a rational or an impirical teacher? It is not wise to give to your pupil a reason for everything you do or say but you must honestly give yourself a reason. Will you do this? 
1. Every faculty must have active exercise. What are the faculties? What studies more especially appeal to each? How may each study be used wisely in calling into healthy activity the several faculties? Tilis study is Methodology. 
Activity must be intense but without strain, without worry. 
2. Learn how to let go, to rest, to play, to sleep. 3. Education develops power by concentration, 
complete, prolonged at will. 
4. Thinking is the mind's search for truth. Thinking is intellectual digestion. Thinking Is the relating of ideas. "Does each pupil think during each recitation? How do you know? Is Ills study thoughtful? Is his observation thouglltful? Is his life thoughtful? Are yours? 
5. Power should not only be developed but controlled. Training in self-control begins wrth controlling muscular movements. Stop here and think what this means and make up your mind about physical culture and manual training. Logically follows control of thought; then cout rol of feeling. 
Consider the case of the puglist, the savage and QtheL i!Justrations 9f arrested development. 
 
 267 
Object teaching has its limitation for the same reason. Neglect not the lower, but strive to reach the highe1. 
6. The moral, yea, the religious life, is the normal life, the strong life, the healthy life. Develop tlle cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude and order; train the will in deliberation, decision, doing. 
7. Study the effect of the body upon the mind and mind upon the body-the results ?f hope and faith on effort, on health, on life-and train along these lines. 
1. Helps. Manikin, charts, photographs, stereopticon, microscope, outlines, skeleton, specimens. Make realistic, objective. Use drawing freely. copy pictures "and diagrams from the text, draw from nature. Prepare lists of question relating to the cuts given herewith and in the text; Why? 
2. Consult several texts for question' and experiments; all the newer ones contain valuable suggestions. For younger pupils compare organs and functions to things with which they are well acquainted. 
3. Pupils write hygienic rules for different vocations, different conditions. Give rules relating to bathing, clothing, diet, drink, breathing, exercise, position, rest, mental state, narcotics, excr!3'tions (skin, lungs, bowels, kidneys), teeth, eyes, ears ; give reason for each. 
4. Study materials and colors of clothing. Bird in  bush worth two in hat. Teach love and respect for living things. Read Spencer's "Education" upon the ornamental. He who needlessly, cruelly kills a helpless, innocent bird, suffers more by the act t)lan does the creature slai!l. ls  tni~ true? 
 
 268 
5.- Tea and coffee contain no nourishment, and by the young and the sedentary should not be used. If yon can omit your cups for a day or two with out a feeling of__!:liscomfort they are probably doing you no harm. Excessive use is alway11 harmful, but what is excess? Why use stimulants? Does tobacco help or hinder in the race of life? Ask even the conscientious user. 
6. Since Prof. Atwater's famous declaration that alcohol is a food since it is oxidized in the body and therefore gives force, many are unsettled. Though oxidized it yet may not be called a food because even in moderate. quantities it injures, as his own figures prove. Other poisons are oxidized; they are not, therefore, foods. No amount of scientific theory can stand against hard facts; the railroad companies forbid its use to their employees because even a small amount unfits Ior grave responsibility, and life insurance companies have learned that it short ens human life. Wine 'is a mocker; the drinker thinks he is stronger and brighter, but he Is deceived. Alcoholics are narcotic in their action; true wisdom teaches us to leave a lone dangerous things. 
 
THE TRUTH ABOUT 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
1. A certalnqn~tntlty will produce 
 
" certltln effect at first, but it 
 
requires more and more to pro- 
 
duce the same effect when the 
 
drug Is ued habitually. 2. When nsecl h~tbitually !tis l!kely 
 
to Induce an uncontrollable de- 
 
st re rnr more, in ever increasing 
 
a. 
 
amount. After its habitual use It sudden 
 
total abstinence is likely to 
 
cause a serious derangement of 
 
ti+e central nervous system. 
 
FOOD. 1. A certain quantity will oro 
duce a certltin effect at tlr~t . and the same quantity w!ll ahvavs produce the same in a h ealthy body. 2. 'Ih e habitual use of food never Induces an uncontroll able de"\re for It. in ever tnc reasfng amounts. 3. After Its habitnal nse a sud den total abstinence nf'ver causes any derangemf'nt of the central nervous system. 
 
 269 
 
4. Alcohol is oxidized rapidly in the boJy. 
5. Alcohol. no t being used, is not st.ored in the body. 
6. Alcohol: Is a product of decomposition of food In the presence of a scare!ty of oxygen. 
7. Alcohol is an excretion, a.nd, in common with all excretions, is poisonous. It may be beneficial In certain phases of disease, but It is never beneficial to the healthy body. 
8. The use of alcohol, in common with narcotics in general, is followed by a reaction. 
9. The use of alcohol Is followed by a decrease of the activity of of the muscle cells and the brain cells. 
10. The use of alcohol is followed by a decrease in the excretion 
of co. 
11. The use of alcohol is followed by an accumulation of fat through decreased activity. 
12. The use of alcohol Is followed by a fall in body temperature. 
13. 'he use of alcohol weakens and unsteadi es the muscles. 
14, The use of alcohol makes the brain less active and accurate. 
 
4. All foods are oxidized slowly 
 
in the body. 
 
5. All foods, being useful, are 
 
stored In the body. 
 
6. All foods are the products of 
 
constructive activity of pro- 
 
toplasm in the presence of 
 
abundant oxygen. 
 
7. All foods are formed by na- 
 
ture for nourishment and 
 
are by nature wholesome and 
 
always beneficial to the 
 
healthy body, though they 
 
. may injure the body In cer- 
 
tain phases of disease. 
 
8. The use of foods Is followed by no reaction. 
 
9. The use of food is followed 
 
by an Increased activity of 
 
the muscle cells and brain 
 
cells. 
 
' 
 
10. 'he use of food Is followed 
 
btiyonanoifn0croea.se In the excre- 
11. The use of food may be fol- 
 
lowed by accumulation of 
 
fat, notwithstanding In- , 
 
creased activity. 
 
12 The use of food Is followed 
 
by a rise In body temperatu.re. 
 
13' ';;:j ~~eea~f/s0fge ~~~c!f~~~ns 
 
J4 The use of food makes the 
 
brain more active and accu- 
 
rate. 
 
WINFIELD S. HALL, M.D. 
 
Deplorable as are the physical effects, greater ruin is wrought in man's higher nature; 75 per cent. of both crime and insanity are directly and indirectly due to drink. No one sees his mental or moral shipwreck while playing in the shallows of moderation. 
7. Delight in the care of the body, the temple, and its nobler tenant bring both to that perfection which their origin and their dignity demand; but not with anxious thought about yourself, your life, your health, for he that loveth his life thu!;l shall lose it. Obey the laws of life in the hopeful spirit of faith, for God bas made this the price which His children pay for the blessings with which He crowns their days. 
 
  DRAWING. 
BY FRED J. ORR, STATE NoRMAL ScHOOL, 
ATHENS, GA. 
In 'a brief space, a presentation of metnods in drawing, .to fully meet the present needs of the majority of Georgia teachers, cannot be attempted. What follows, therefore, does not pretend even to outline exhaustively. Rather is It in the nature of an initiative, hoping for a larger and more definite plan of work in Art Education for the Common Schools, later. ' 
Teachers may adapt suggestions to local conditions and to primary and advanced classes, in accordance with the general principles of procedure outlined. It will be noted that suggestions are given for the cultivation of technical skill on the part of the teacher, as well as how to apply the same hints to class work. Also, -that the possibility of a stated period for this subject in the recitation schedule, Is presumed. This is deemed necessary in order to place suggestions in a more systematic form. 
If a regular period is not to be had, the suggestions given may be applied at such other times as are at disposal, and as a form of busy work. 
I. PURPOSE. 
Educative. "The aim of instruction in drawing is cuUure, through the senses by which we apprehend the forms of things. The ends to be secured are sensitiveness to beauty, an intelligent appreciation of beautiful things, the power to make things beautiful and to reveal beauty to others." 
 
 272 
H. METHODS. 
1. Of learning. 
(1) First, gain fac ility in t he use of material: (1) by tree ha ndling oJ' brush or pencil or crayon; (2) by draw iug masses and la rge outliues, rather than details; (3) by adherin g to simple subjects. drawn in the easiest manner possible. 
\. 
Illustration: With ink-brush grasped not too near tl!e point, and w ith ha ndle standing up1ight, make a silhouette drawing of a flower pot with plant in it; or, with pensil, held with long lever age, make an outline drawing of a spray of simple leaves, as apple ; or, an outline drawing on the blackboard, using the human figure. Leave out details, such as facial features, fingers, etc. See only mass. 
(2) Accuracy in seeing. 
Study: (1) The reZative directions and lengths of lines by drawing first, a line (in the object before you), whose length is easily determined, then compare others to it. For direction, compare with that of imaginary lines (e. g. horizontal and vertical), whose directions are easily determined. (2) The r eZative size a nd location of spaces, as above, by firs t dra wing, (or making a mental note of) the outline of a space that is easily decided upon, then compa ring others to it. (3) The differen ces in tones of light and dark, and of color. R edu ce tones of light and dar.k to lowest terms, e. g.:. see in an object, the lightest portion, the darkest portion, and a mediumthree simple tones. (4) The effect of distance on the apparent size ot an object. 
 
 273 
(5) TlJe difference between appearances and ac tual facts, a s, when horizontal, receding straig ht lin es, be~ow the eye, se.em to rise, as they re treat; or the same abov.e the eye, seem to f a ll as they go away; or, circles in certain positiQns appear elliptical, etc. (See Cross' "Free Hand Di"awing") . 
(6) Malve an effor.t to v iswalize form and oolor, or 
"soc it" wit h t.he eyes clo.~ed. (7) Keep ,i n mind the outline of the whole. Don't become engrossed with details al)d thereby lose the proportions of the mass. (3) Practice. 
You must not be discouraged at first attempts. This is a thing not to be learned without practice and. a gl'eat deal of it. P ersistence in careful 
observation and in the effort to execute with a 
pencil or brush, will yield results after a while. 
2~ Of teaching. 
:m .Materials. 
W aterccolor box and brushes may be had for about 25 cents; from Prang Educational Co., N. Y., or Milton Bradley" Co., Atlanta. Send for catal o g u e. 
Ii:Jk...:_Ordinary writing ink, preferably black. 
I nk brush.- Use one of the brusbes in cOlor box, or 5 cents J apanese brushes may be procured from Bunkio Matsuki, 380 Boylston St., Boston. 
P enciL- D ixon's Cabinet, No. 2, servic.eable. If this cannot be had, use ordinary writing pencil of m.etlhnn so{tness. 
Paper.- See catalogues suggested above, under color." A good grade of paper may be obtained at moderate price from Storrs & Bemen!, Boston. 
(2) Re-gular class work. 
 
 274 
 
Note.-Four kinds of lessons are suggested. This 
 
is thought to be sufficient at the present stage of 
 
development of the subject in the Common 
 
Schools. 
 
~ 
 
(a) Lessons in the suty of form. Note carefully the directions given above, under "accuracy In seeing." Apply the same to the teaching of form. 
1. Ink. 
 
Sillwuettes of natural objects, such as flowers, leaves, grasses, fruits, vegetables, butterflies, birds, trees, landscapes, the human form, etc. etc. 
 
(See also, lessons in Decorative Design). 
 
2. Pencil or crayon. 
 
Outfines of objects named above. Also boxes, bats, 
 
pigs, dogs, chickens, and other familiar things. 
 
(b) Lessons in the study of color. 
 
. 
 
For models, use such objects from nature as are 
 
Ifnamed above. Try to select simple models, e. g., It be a spray of leayes, don't have too many, 
 
or else leave It optional to each child to represent 
 
as few or as many as he wishes. Be sure every 
 
child gets a good view of the object studied. 
 
To this end have as many models as necessary. 
 
Models should have a white or gray background. I as e. g., cardboard or a piece of white drawing 
 
paper. Don't dictate the color as you see It, but 
 
elicit an expression from the child with the 
 
brush, as 1u: sees it. Each pair of eyes may see 
 
color In a different way. Your effort Is to make 
 
the expression conform to the observation b7 
 
questioning. You are then training an Individ- 
 
ual to "see" and "do." Example of questions: 
 
"Is the leaf before you of the same colorof 
 reen as the green cake of color In 7our boxT' 
 
"No?" "It Is more 70llowlsh, or more blol8b 
 
 275 
than your green cake?" "Then, what other color will you mix with the green to get your picture?" etc. work primarily, not for results in the way of "pictures," but for the training of a perception of beauty and a skillfully guided expression of the same. Technique: Mix color in the top of the box. Have plenty of color on the brush. Stir the mixture, each time brush is replenished. Wash brush in water pan, when changing from one color to another. Avoid muddy, messy, effects. Keep color pure. Try to get the desired effect wit!J first "going over." c. Illustra.tive or imaginrutive drawing. Example: Read to the class a few selected lines from Hiawatha, or one of JEsop's Fables, or a rhyme from "Mother Goose" (or other selection). Take plenty of time for the descriptive matter, endeavoring to form a picture in each child's mind. Dwell on parts suggestive of a picture. Class then draws with ink _of pencil or crayon or color each draughtsman expressing his own idea of how the picture ought to look. Poses, and incidental objects named in the reading, may be used effectively. It is better for each child to draw first a rectangle or square ("frame"), to inclose his picture, using the material with which picture is made-ink or crayon, etc. His effort thus takes the form of a composition, being to a greater or a less degree, an arrangement or related .parts within a space. (See lessons on Decoration below). d. Lessons in Decorative Design. This work will serve to give application to what might otherwise be abstract drawing. It Is drawing applied to a definite esthetic purpose. 
It will add Interest to studies In form, color, etc. 
 
 276 
 
' 1. Ink. 
Pleasing arrangements .of a drawing of natural . forms in squa~e, rectangular, and circular spaces, e. g.: take a branch of persimmon leaves and fruit. A space, say two by four inches, is outlined free-hand with the brush. (Pencil firs1:, if desired.) Then by a study of the object, the stems, leaves, and persimmons are arranged inside this space, so as .to give a pleasing effect. Either, background may be made black, an.d leaves, etc., white, or vice versa. Or anangement may be in ink lines. (Hold the brush in an upright position always, while working.) 
 
When is a space arrangement pleasing? 
 
This question may be answered in a very general 
 
way as follows: 
 
Avoid dividing the sides of a space into halves, 
 
thirds or fourths, or any easily distinguishable 
 
parts. 
 
Avoid space divisions which are equal in area or 
 
similar in form. 
 
Avoid a monotonous effect, i. e., tiresome repetl 
 
.tion of the same shape (of course this is not 
 
meant to apply to surface coverings). 
 
Avoid a scattered effect. ~trive for go<MJ draw- 
 
ing, variety, beautiful lines and shapes, an.d 
 
 
 
harmony withal. _ 
 
2. Miscellaneous. Space arrangem ents as above, using color, I. e., instead of simply representing the object studied, in color, do this, and also arrange the same 
 
pleasingly, in a space. 
 
Space arrangements may be used to decorate 
 
coYers for composition work, number work, etc. 
 
D ecorations for simple Christmas cards, Easter <1 
 
cards ' 
 
invitations 
. 
 
to 
 
school 
 
entertainment8. 
 
etc. 
 
 277 
Surfa~e designs might be attemptcu, if the teacher has some knowledge of the subject. Space does not permit of its treatment here. 
3. Busy work. Illustrate parts of a Readi..:g lesson (ink, pencil, crayon, or color). See above. Draw maps illustrating Geography lesson. Make drawing of the object used in t!ie Nature Study, of Botany lesson. For Primaries: Simple drawings to Illustrate number work, having an object to study, e. g.: apples, balls, potatoes, leaves, boxes, hats, etc., etc. Decorative work (see above). 
III. GENERAL SUGGES'l'IONS. 
1. The best materials for beginners are those that will permit the freest expression, and largest unstrained movements of fingers and arm. Choose models for primaries with reference to live interest and simplicity. 
2. Tiny drawing should not be tolerated. Avoid anything that tends to cramp freedom. 
3. Do not forget that the free expression of child ideas, under skillful guidance of the teacher, Is ever important. 
4. In regard to copying: the best use to which this can be put, is, as a means to an end. Copy, to study thereby, the technique of a master: As, for example, reproduce good pencil sketches of trees, houses, etc., in order to learn how to make such pictures yourself, ftom nature. Models, so used, should suggest, rather than dictate methods, and should be only the best. Make it a positive principle, to use no aid or method, In such a way as to hinder in the least degree, the creative power of the student, or the originality of his work. 
 
 278 
 
5. Position to be assumed while drawing Is tiJat 
 
wiJicb will permit of the most perfect freedom in the use of ann and h and~ and conform to 
 
hygienic considerations. 
 
6. It is suggested to teachers who themselves have 
 
IJad little experience in drawing, to go over 
 
practically (i. e. with brush or pencil), just the 
 
work to be given the children, before the recitation. 
 
7. In criticizing or judging resul ts, look for good 
 
points first. Also, remember that the actual re- 
 
sult, as a drawing, does not represent the en- 
 
tire product of the lesson. The child may have 
 
been made to see or think a good deal more 
 
than he has power to express correctly. Very 
 
probably, every stroke means something to him. 
 
Estimate work accordingly. 
 
8. Decorate your walls with reproductions of art 
 
masterpieces-painting, sculpture, and architect- 
 
I 
 
ure. Use these same pictures in teaching History, Geography, Reading, etc. 
 
I 
 
Where to get pictures: J. C. Witter Co., 123 5th 
 
Ave., New York; Perry Pictures Co., Malden, 
 
Mass.; Prang Educational Co., New York; Hel- 
 
I 
 
man-'.raylor Art Co., New York. 
 
Good reproductions can be had for from one to 
 
five cents each, and excellent things for twenty- 
 
I. 
 
five cents each. 
 
IV. REFERENCE BOOKS. 
 
"Composition," by Arthur W. Dow. J. M. Bowles, Boston. $1.50. 
"With Brush and Pen," by Jas. Hall. J . C. Witter Co., New York. 60 cents. 
 
"Lessons in Pencil Drawing From Nature," by 
w. N. Bartholomew. Prang Educational Co., 
N. Y. (with plates). 75 cents. 
 
 ., .. ... . 
 
}~ 
 
 
 
"Illustrative Blackboard Sketching," by Bertha Hintz. El L. Kellogg & Co., N. Y. oO cents. 
 
"Free-Hand Drawing," by A. K. Cross. Ginn & 
 
Co., Atlanta. 80 cents. 
 
"A Catalogue of Works of Art Suitable for School Room _Decoration." Helman-Taylor Art Co., N.Y. $1.00. 
 
A very helpful magazine: "Art Study," (monthly}. J. C. Witter Co., N. Y., Subscription per year $1.00. 
 
16 o 
 
( 
 
   
SYLLABUS 
FOR YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE DISCUSSION AT THE SUMMER INSTITUTES FOR 1898. 
ARRANGED BY J. B. STEWART. 
(Let two hours be devoted to this subject.) I.-THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL READING CIRCLE. J. To cultivate a taste for good reading. 2. To bring children into contact with beauty and truth as 
found in the best books. 
s. To counteract the vicious influence of detective heroes by 
the positive influence of communing with real heroes of , the race, thus creating higher ideals of life. 4. To awaken an interest in good reading in the home. 5. To put a library in every schoolroom in the State. 
II.-ITS IMPORTANCE. 
l. Notice the lack of reading on the part of the young. 2. Notice the dearth of school and home libraries. 3. Notice the vast increase in sales of cheap detective stories. 4. Notice the results of the habit of reading upon the moral 
life, upon the tastes, upon the social life of a people. To teach a child to read and not to cultivate a taste for 
good literature is dangerous. 
III.-GOOD RESULTS FROM THIS WORK. 1. Ita effect upon the regular studies. 2. Ita effect upon the interest in school work. 8. He eJreci upon the character of the pupil. 4. Hs e1feet upon the home. 6. Ite eft'ect upon the community. 
 
 2?\2 
 
IV.-HOW TO CREATE .A:N INTEREST IN IT. 
 
1, Among teachers: 
 
a. By s'howing the importance and value of the work. 
 
b. By discussion in the institutes. 
 
c. By the commissioner creating a rivalry among the 
 
schools of his county, as to which can make the 
 
best report. 
 
2. Among pupils: 
 
a. By putting the books within their reach. 
 
b. By reading or telling part of the story. 
 
I. 
 
c. By using the books in connection with school work, 
 
not as additional tasks, but to throw added beauty 
 
and life into it. 
 
d. By offering membership cards to all who read twt. 
 
books of the co urse during the year. - The State 
 
Educational Department will furnish these upon 
 
the application of .the commissioner or superin- 
 
tendent. 
 
8. Among patrons: 
 
a. By interesting the children. 
 
b. By having the books in the home. 
 
V.-HOW TO SECURE THE BOOKS. 
 
1. By taking small collections from the pupils and purches 
 
ing one or more books. . 
 
- 
 
2. By encouraging individual pupils to buy book11. 
 
3. By securing subscriptions from enterprising citizens. 
 
4. By giving entertainments at which take up a collection. 
 
5. By trustees purchasing the books for each school. 
 
6. By donations from the teacher. 
 
We hope to see the day when every school will have a good 
 
library. Will not the teachers who teach in 1898 make a 
 
beginning and leave behind them, if .not a fine library, at least 
 
a cracker-box, with a part of the list selected tor the year 
 
therein 1 
 
 283 
THE GEORGIA READING CIRCLES FOR TEACHERS AND YOUNG PEOPLE, 1897. 
Organized by the GeoTgia Teachers' A8$ociation. 
BOARD OF DIRECTORS, 
E. C. Branson, The State Normal School, Athens, Ga. Term ex pires 1898. 
_J. M. Pound, President Gordon Institute, Barnesville, Ga. Term expires 1898. 
Jos. S. Stewart, President North Georgia .Agricultural College, Dahlonega, Ga. Term expires 1900. 
i\1. L. Brittain, Boys High School, Atlanta, Ga. Term expires 1900. 
P. D. Pollock, President Mercer UniYersity. Term expires 1899. 
Miss Mamie Bacon, Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Term expires 1899. 
Hon. G. R. Glenn, State School Commissioner, exo.fficio. Purpose.,- Recognizing the importance of guiding the reading 
of the yonog, and of professional reading on the part of teachers, the Georgia Teachers' Association, in 189-1, appointed a Board of Directors to select a systematic course of reading for pupils and teachers, and arrange for the purchase of the books at the lowest possible cost. Plans.-The Board requests the County School Commissioner to act as County Manager in each county, and the City Superintendent for each city. To them will be sent circulars for distribution, and they are requested to push the organization of circles. 
The books may be read in the schoolroom as Supplemental Readers, or in litt le circles organized with president, etc., at home, in special Friday afternoon exercises, or in any way that may suit the circumstances of any particluar locality. The great object is that the uooks be read. Do not wait for a large circle; begin with the books for one class, or with one set of books for the whole school. Money can be obtained by small contributions from the pupils, or from an entertainment. :Make a beginning if you can buy one book. 
 
 284 
BOOKS SELECTED FOR 'fHE YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLE COURSE. 
First Year PupilsHeart of Oak, No.1. D. C. H. & Co ........... $0 25 Burt's Little Nature Stories. G. & Co . ..... . . . . . . . 30 Stories for Children. Mrs. C. A. Lane. A. B. Co. . . 25 
Second Year PupilsFairy Stories and Fables. James Baldwin. A. B. Co. 35 Leaves from Nature's Story Book. Ed. Pub. Co. 2 vols. , each .. .. . .... . ..... . .. . . ... .- . . . . .  . . . . . . . 45 Fables and Folk Stories. H., M. & Co.... ... ....... 40 Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans. E dward E ggleston. A. B. Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Pioneers of the Revolution. Pub. 1:;. P. Co . ......... 80 
Third Year PupilsOld Greek Stories. James Baldwin A. B. Co . ..... 45 Andrews's Seven Little Sisters. G. & Co. . . . . .  . . . . 50 Young Marooners. Goulding. J. F. Lester . ....... 90 Old Stories of the East. James Baldwin . A. B. Co. 45 Stories of Industries. Ed. Pub. Co. 2 vols., each.. 40 Heart 0f Oak, No.3. D. C. H. & Co . ............... 45 
Fourth Ye ar PupilsSea Side and Way Side. Wright, No.3. C. C. & Co. 50 Short Stories from English Histories. G. & Co..... 50 Stories of American Life and Adventure. Edward Eggleaton. A. B. Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Robinson Crusoe. G. & Co........................ 85 Story of the Greeks. H. A. Guerber. A. B. Co.... 60 .A-rabian Nights. A. B. Co......................... 60 
Fifth Year PupilsStories fr om Waverley. M. & Co.......... . ........ 50 J\Iadam How and Lady Why. Kingsley. M. & Co.. 50 Franklin's Autobiography. G. & Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Stories of I h e Romans. H. A. Guerber. A. B. Co.. 60 Cortez and Montezuma. Ed. Pub. Co . . . . . ......... SO Stories of Georgia. J oel Chandler Harris. A. B. Co. 80 
 
 285 
 
Bizth Year .Pupiz.- 
 
Gods and Heroe.t. G. & Co........................ 50 Boy,hood of Great Men. H. Bros . . . . . .  . . .  . . . . . .   90 Vicar of Wakefl.eld. G. & Co ........ , ......... .'... 80 Coe's Modern Europe. S., B. & Co .............. ;  60 Legends of Norseland. Ed. Pub. Co.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tO 
Two Years before the Mast. H., l\1. & Co,......... eo 
 
_ &11enth Year PupiZ,- 
 
( 
 
Surrey of Eagle's Nest. J. F. Lester. Paper....... 50 
 
Yonge's Book of Golden Deeds. M. & Co . ... .... . 50 
 
Lamb's Tales from Shakespear-e. G. & Co ..... ; . .. ~ 
 
Fairy Land of Science. D. A. & Co ............... . 80 
 
Scott's Talisman, G. & Co ..... . ......... .. ..... 50 
 
Romance of Spanish History. H. Bros ............ . 120 
 
. Advanced- 
 
American Poems. H., M. & Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00 The Nineteenth Century. J. F. Lester ..... ... . . . .. 95 Plutarch's Lives. G. & Co.................. . . . . . . 40 On the Thres,hold. H., M & Co .................... 1 00 Myths of Northern Lands. H.A.Guerber. A. B. Co. 1 50 Tom Brown's School Days. H., M. & Co.. ... .... . . 60 Last of Mohicans. H. & M. Co . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .  . . . . 60 
 
BOOKS SELECTED FOR THE TEACHERS' READING COURSE, 1896-97. 
 
Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. A. B. Co., net, 50 
 
cents; by mail, 60 cents. 
 
White's School Management. A. B. Co., net, 80 cents; by 
 
mail, $1.00. 
 
Parker's Talks on Teaching. E. L. K. & Co., by mail 70 
 
cents. 
 
Professional for 1898, - - . 
 
Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. 
 
Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture. A. B. Co., $1.25. 
 
Or, Psychology Applied to Education. D. C. H. & Co., 90 
 
cents. 
 
 
 
Quick's Educational Reformers. D. A. & Co., $1.40. 
 
 286 
The State School Commissioner.authorizes the Board to .tate that the questions on Theory and Pra_ctice of Teaching in the 1898 examination for license to teach will be based gpon Page' Theory and Practice and Halleck's Psycoology. 
The course is well adapted to young men and young ladies in the Ienior classes of our colleges who are preparing to - teach. They need something more than a college diploma. 
It is expected that teachers will adopt such plans for reading the course as will best suit their convenience. Some will prefer to study alone; others will unite in county, town, district, or city circles; while others will use them in normal classes. 
HO. ki Order. Send postal order or registered letter, for the books ordered, direct to the publisher, stating that the books are for the Georgia Reading Circles. Otherwise you will not get the reduced price. Where a number of books ar~ ordered by express an additional reduction may be had. The above are mailing prices. The following are the addresses of those from whom you ean get the several books : American Book Company, Atlanta, Ga. D. Appleton & Co.. New York City. D. C. Heath & Co., Atlanta, Ga. Ginn & Co., Atlanta, Ga. Educational Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. MacMillan & Co., New York City. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston, Mass. 
J. F. Lester, Atlanta, Ga. 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York City. Harper Bros., New York City. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. In addition to the regular Professional Course for 'l'eachers and the Young Peoples' Course, the Board has arranged with the University Association, of Chicago, to supply you with their courses in History and Literature, the table of contents of which are given elsewhere. The time has come in Georgia when the teacher should 
 
 287 
-count for more in hie community. We are beginning to reo-ognize the school as a perm ttnent fa ctor in our social life. "The pastors should make the churches the center of the religious life of the community and should recognize this department of our complex life. No less should the teacheril .make the 8chool the center of the intellectual life of the com:munity. They should coordinate with the school, the library, the postgraduate, and university extension of the town, and thus make the school brighten the homes and influence the .social life. It is not enough for the sch ool to reach the children ; it should arouse a spirit of systematic study on the part Of the parents of young men and ladies. In a large part, the school has failed in these particulars. As a result, little ,systematic study is done in the home. There is much desultory reading, but little along defin ite lin es, which alone educates. The teachers are largely to blame for this. They either take no part in the community life out of the schoolroom, or they dissipate their efforts by attending every singing class, religious meeting and sociable without directing their efforts calong definite lines. 
The Reading Circle Board, after carefully examining The Uni.veTSity Association courses and having tested them in several cities -and towns in the State, most heartily and unreservedly recommend them to the teachers of the State as the best, in plan and matter, that are published. The table of contents will give some idea of the scholarly manner in which the courses are presented. Already Marietta, Gainesville, Newnan, College Park, Griffin, La. Grange, Atlanta, Macon, etc., have established Circles, and these commend the courses in the highest terms. 
The Board desires that every village and town in the State will take hold of this matter and, through its teachers, organize a University Center. It will help the school, the teacher, :and the community. 
When the teacher organizes the Circle, a liberal discount will be allowed for his work. If it is preferred, the Board will >Send a man to organize the Circle, in which  case the discount will go to him, as the Board bas no money nor desires to make any. Organized under the State Teachers' Association, the object of the Board is to promote the study of his- 
 
 288 
 
tory and literature and nutivate the intellectual life of the 
 
State. 
 
We urge our fellow teachers to consider these courses, and 
 
send to The Univerity Association, Association-Building, Chi- 
 
i cago, Ill., for sample copy of the course you prefer, circulars 
 
and certificates. For other information, address JosephS. 
 
Stewart, President N. G. A. College, Dahlonega, Ga., business 
 
/ manager of the Board. 
 
 
 
Below will be found the courses ' of the University ABSocia- 
 
tion: 
 
FIRST YEAR'S COURSE-UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
1. Ancient E astern Nations-Samuel Fallows, D.D., LL.D., ' 
 
Edmund Buckley, A.M., Ph.D., and W. Edgar Tay- 
 
lor, A.M., M.S. 
 
2. The Greek Period-.John R. Ficklen, B. Let., Tulan e Uni- 
 
versity. 
 
3. The Roman period-Thomas Nixon Carver, A.B., Ph.D., 
 
Oberlin College. 
 
4. First H alf Middle Ages-William Craig Wilcox, A.M., 
 
Univer sity of Iowa. 
 
5. Second H alf Middle Ages- George Wells Knight, Ph.D., 
 
University of Ohio. 
 
6. Sixteenth Century- George Emory Felluws, P h. D. , Uni- 
 
versity of Indiana. 
 
~ 
 
7. S!lvente.Elnt4. Century-Evarts B. Greene, Ph.D., Univer- 
 
si(y of Hlin'Ois. 
 
. 
 
8. Eighteenth ' Century-Frederick C. Hicks, Ph.D., Uni- 
 
versity of Missouri. 
 
9. Nineteenth Century in Europe-Richard H eath Dabney, 
 
A.M., Ph.D., University of Virgi nia. 
 
10. American History Prior to 1815-Kemp P. Battle, LL.D., 
 
President University of North Carolina. 
 
11. Un ited States History from 1815 to the Civil War-H. W. Caldwell, A.M., Ph.B.. , University of Nebraska. 
12. United States History from the Civil War t'o the Present Time-W. E. Taylor, A.M., M.S. The History of the Norsemen and their Claims to the Discovery of America-Carl A. Swensson, Ph.D., President Bethany College. ABBistant editor W. Edgar Taylor, A.M., M.S. 
 
:.!onmouth College, Ill. 
 
 289. 
 
INSTRUCTORS FOR SECOND YEAR'S COTJRS~UNI VERSAL LITERATURE. 
 
1. Egyptian Literature-By George (Ebers, Ph.D., Univer 
 
sity of Leipsic. 
 
Babylonian and Assyrian Literature-By Theophilus G.. 
 
Pinches, M.R.A.S. of the British Museum, London. 
 
Persian Literature-By. A. V. Williams Jackson, A.M. 
 
Ph.D., Columbia University.  
 
The New Archreology-By W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., 
 
LL.D., University College, London. 
 
2. Mongolian Literature-By Edmund Buckley, A.M., Ph.D.,. 
 
University of Chicago. Hindu Literature-By Elizabeth, . A. Reed, A.~L, author 
of "Hindu Literatur-e," etc. r 
 
3. Hebrew Literature-By F. K. Sanders, A.M., Ph.D., Yale- 
 
Univ:ersity; J. C. Quinn, Ph.D., D.D. 
 
Greek ;Literature-By E. C. Huntington, B.A., M.A., 
 
University of Nashville. 
 
 
 
4. Latin/Literature-By Amos N. Currier, LL D., University 
 
of Iowa. 5. Rom1~nce Literature (It 1ian, French, Spanish, etc.)-By 
 
Ff Merick M. Wa, 
 
Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 
versity. 6. German Literature- 
 
~ ,,,~.. 
on 7~enze, M.A., Ph.D.~ 
 
University of Chicago. 
 
,. 
 
1 : ... _ 
 
Scandinavian Literature-By Carl A. Swen son, ~ ~~.D.,. 
 
President Bethany College. 
 
7. Russian Literature-By Prince Serge Wolkonsky, Minis- 
 
ter of Public Instruction, Russia. 
 
English Literature-Early English Writers to the Con- 
 
quest-By Wm. M. Baskervill, A.M., Ph.D., Vander- 
 
bilt University. 
 
From the Conquest to Elizabeth-By Isaac N. Demmon,. 
 
A.M., University of Michigan. 
 
8. English Literature-(Continued). The Elizabeth Period,: 
 
by Isaac N. Demmon, A.M., University of Michigan. 
 
 290 
'9. English Lite,rature-(ContLued). From the Death of Eiizabetb to the Restoration of the House of StuartBy C. W. Pearson, A.l\1., Northwestern University. 
From 1730 to 1830-By L, DuPont Syle, A.M., University of California. 
'10. English Literature-(Continued). 1830 to 1896-By Samuel Willard, M.D., West Division High School, Chicago. 
U. American Literature-(First Half) By .J. C. Freeman, A.M., LL.D., Univerbity of Wisconsin; William E. Huntington, A.M., Ph.D., Boston University. 
<12. American Literature-(Second Half) By J. C. J!'reeman, A.M., LL.D., University of Wisconsin; Mrs. E. Taliaferro, Principal North Mississippi Presbyterian College. 
Religious Poets and Poetry-By the Rt. Rev. F. D. Huntington, S. T.D., L.H.D., LL.D., Bishop of Central New York. 
Eminent Catholic Writers-Maurice Francis Egan , .A,.M., LL.D., Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. Associate Editor: Elizabeth A. Reed, A.M. 
 
 .--------~~~~------------------~----~~---------------.--~ 
 
THE $25.00 LIST OF BOOKS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA, 1900-1901. 
 
1. Fables and Folk Lore ...................... Scudder. 
 
2. Fables ........................................ lEsop. 
 
3. Danish Fairy Tales . . . ..... ........ . . . ..... Andersen. 
 
4. German Fairy Tales ......................... Grimm. 
 
5. Uncle Remus's Songs and Sayings ............. Harris. 
 
6. Arabian Nights. 
 
7. wonder Book ............... : . ... . ... ... . Hawthorne. 
 
8. Gods and Hetoes .......................... Fra.nclllon. 
 
9. Fifty Famous Stories ... . . ....... . .. .. ..... _.Baldwin. 
 
10. ~'en Stories of Great Americans ............ Baldwin. 
 
11. Beautiful Joe ..... .......... ............. .. Saunders. 
 
12. Old Stories of the East ...................... Baldwin. 
 
13. Ten Boys .................................. Andrews. 
 
14. Life of Lee .............................. Williamson. 
 
15. Life of Jackson ........ . ...... ... ... ... . Williamson. 
 
16. Boys of '76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coffin. 
 
17. Stories of the English ....................... Blaisdel. 
 
18. Stories of Georgia ....... _.................... Harris. 
 
19. Story of Romans ................ .... ..... ... Guerber. 
 
20. Knickerbrocker's History of New York ........ Irving. 
 
-21. Cresar ..... ........ ...... : . ... . .. ......... . .. Abbott. 
 
22. Alexander .................................... Abbott. 
 
23. Washington and His Country .......... Fiske Irving. 
 
24. Autobiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Franklin. 
 
25. Plutarch's Lives. 
 
26. Life of Christ ................................ Farrar. 
 
27. Alice in wonderland ....... .............. ... . Carroll. 
 
28. Water Babies ........... ..... , ... .......... Kingsley, 
 
29. Seaside and Wayside, vol 1 .................. Wright. 30. Seaside and Wayside, vol. 2 ........ .... .... . Wright. 
 
I 
 
31. Seaside and Wayside, vol. 3 ..... !'............ Wright. 
 
 .. r~~~--------------------------------------~----~ 
292 
8 2. Seaside and Wayside, vol. 4 .................. Wright. 33. F airy L a nd of Science . . . . .. .. .............. . Buckley. 84. Story of Patsy ... .. ........ .. .. . ........... Wiggins. 85. Black Beauty ............... ...... ............ Sewell. 36. King of the Golden River . ....... . ........... Ruskin. 8'7. H eidi ................................ . .. , . . . . Spyrl. 88. Robinson Crusoe .... . ....... .. ..... . . . ........ Defoe. 89. Little Loid Fauntleroy .......... . ........... Burnett. 40. Marooners Island ................... . ...... Goulding. 41. Young Marooners ........................... Goulding. 42. H a ns Brinker ................................. Dodge. 43. Swiss Family Robinson ........ . ... . ... . ....... Wyss. 44. Little Men ....................... .. .... . . . .... Alcott. 45. Little Women .................... . ... . ....... Alcott. 46. P easa nt and Prince ...................... . Martineau. 47. Lion of the North ..................... . ...... Henty. 48. St. George of England ................. . ...... Henty. 49. With Clive in India ........................... H.enty. 50. Scottish. Chiefs ............................. . . Porter. 51. J;.ast of the Mohicans .................. . .... Cooper. 52. Surrey of Eagles Nest .................... . ... Cooke. 53. Ivanhoe ........ . ................ , .............. Scott. 5 4. Tom Brown at Rugby .................... . .. Hughes. 55. Sketch Book .................... . ............ Irving. 56. Pilgrims Progress . . .................. ... .... . Bunyan. 57. Hiawatha and Evangeline ... : . ... . . .. .... Longfellow. 58. Idylls of the Kings ... .. .... . . . ...... : ..... Tennyson. 59. Homer's Iliad .......................... Pope's Trans. GO. On the Threshold .... Munger.