Environmental Resources for Outdoor Recreation Environmental Resources for Outdoor Recreation Outdoor Recreation Research Study #1 ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION R. James Hey! Assistant Professor of Geograpi1y Department of Geography A Publication of Institute of Community and Area Development Department of Geography UNIVERSI'IY OF GEORGIA May, 1967 Prepared for the: STATE PlANNING BUREAU* Outdoor Recreation Planning Unit D. John Beck, Chief *Formerly Planning Division, Department of Industry and Trade {Preparation of this document was financed, in part, by the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, from the Land and Water Conservation Fund.) FOREWORD The State of Georgia is surging ahead in many areas; education I agriculture 1 business I industry I and resource development. In addition to these aspects of growth it is significant to note that the state government is now working on the development of a State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan. The Institute of Community and Area Development is proud to have the privilege of working with the State Planning Bureau in conducting preliminary studies for development of the state plan. This study is one in the series of outdoor recreation studies being conducted by the University for the Bureau. The Institute is indebted to many individuals and organizations for their assistance and work involved in this project. Particularly I appreciation is expressed to D. John Beck I Director of the Outdoor Recreation Planning Unit, State Planning Bureau and James C. McDonnell I Senior Planner, Outdoor Recreation Planning Unit, for their valuable assistance, guidance and direction in carrying out the study program. J. W. Fanning Vice-President for Service University of Georgia PREFACE In spite of the fact that this report purports to "inventory and analyze" the environments of Georgia for their resource value to outdoor recreation, it admittedly falls short. That is an overwhelming task. To cover the subject exhaustively would require volumes. The intent of this report is to identify representative features of the environments and trends in their use, and to suggest certain uses not being made, within the context of outdoor recreation. Any study dealing with man's environments encompasses such a wide range of subject matter that no one person can hope to be expert in all. Because it was necessary to call on the experience and knowledge of many people in assembling the material in this report, I would like to take this occasion to express my appreciation to them. To my colleagues at the University of Georgia: Messrs. Ernest Melvin and Howard Schretter, Institute of Community and Area Development, for assistance in identifying data sources; Messrs. Robert Carver of Geology and James Shear of Geography for consulting services; Messrs. James Barnes and Donald Maxfield of Geography for assistance in cartographic design, and to Mr. Barnes for making available the maps used in Figures 2 , 3 and 9, which were drawn iii under the Student Internship Programs in Resource Development of the Oak Ridge Associated Universities; Dr. Gayther Plummer of Botany; and the staff of the Bureau of Business Research I I express my gratitude for their generous assistance. In addition, I am indebted to Howard Zeller and the staff of the Georgia Game and Fish Commission; Mrs. Mary Jewett and staff of the Georgia Historical Commission; Mr. Clarence Conway, Executive Director of the Southeast River Basins Study Commission; Mr. Robert Oertel, Assistant State Conservationist for Georgia 1 Soil Conservation Service; Mr. Robert Penland, of the State Highway Department of Georgia; and Mr. Gary Ruch, coastal marsh sportsman. Cartographic work was performed by Robert Maxey and Ronnie Primrose, students in the Department of Geography, University of Georgia. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS INTRODUCTION Section I. CLIMATE II. GEOLOGY III. !AND USE rv. FLORAAND FAUNA v. HISTORY VI. SCENIC RESOURCES VII. CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY Page iii vi vii -viii 1 2 18 29 47 71 90 110 117 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Page General Probability That a Day V'lill Be Rainless 16 Probability That a Given Dry Day Vl!ill Be Followed By X or More Dry Days 16 Location Quotients for Fish Species Caught, By Reservoir, 1963 60 Number of Hunters, Hunter/Days, and Kill per Hunter per Season, By Species, 1965-66 63 Changes in Number of Hunters and Size of Kill, Selected Species 67 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 Annual Precipitation and Temperature 2. Average Annual Precipitation 3. Average Dates of First and Last Freeze 4. Storms 5. Physiologic Climate Factors 6. Factors, Groups and Associations of Physiologic Climates 7. Geologic Provinces 8. Land Use Regions 9. Soil Association Regions 10. Water Areas of Small Water Bodies and Major Reservoirs 11. Coastal Georgia 12. Acreage of Strip Mines, by County 13. Major Forest Types 14. Game Management Areas 15. Distribution of Hunters, by Species Hunted 16. Distribution of Hunters, by Species Hunted vii Page 3 4 5 6 10 11 20 31 37 40 42 45 51 56 64 65 List of Illustrations continued 17 Distribution of Historical Markers 1 by Counties 1 and Museum Sites I Georgia Historical Commission 84 18. Some Early Trails of Georgia 1 Important in Indian and Colonial Periods. 86 viii INTRODUCTION It is the objective of this report to consider the broad spectrum of man's environment and identify those aspects of it which can serve as resources for outdoor recreation. Those qualities of the environment which serve as positive values are stressed, but where negative qualities exist they too are noted. In identifying the aspects of the total environment which have a potential value to outdoor recreation, the location of important characteristics is given high priority, in contrast, for example, to enumeration of them in tabular form. This approach is considered to be very helpful in planning the development of recreation facilities, for all planning and development ultimately is accomplished in a place. The conviction that the location of a thing (its place) is a significant piece of information to many questions, is the motivation behind the geographers' study. The main thrust of each of the topical sections is inventory and analysis of the natural, and parts of the cultural, environments within Georgia. Where appropriate, however, Georgia's characteristics are placed in the broader context of the southeastern region of the United States or in the national context. - 1- SECTION I CLIMATE General Climate Characteristics The climatic factors whose distributions are shown on Figures 1 though 4 give Georgia a climate which is rather remarkable in its lack of extremes. Air temperatures seldom rise above the 90's in the summer I and seldom drop below 0F in the winter. A typical July day in north Georgia would range from 920 F in midafternoon to 680 F at night. In January 1 the daily range would be from 540 F to 0 32 F. Summer brings more rain than winter 1 but usually produces less "rainy weather". Winter precipitation occasionally falls in the form of snow 1 infrequently enough to make it the occasion for great rejoicing by youngsters. In spite of the well-distributed rainfall 1 summer and fall can produce droughts serious enough to require watering or irrigation. A relatively high rate of runoff contributes to this phenomenon. Cyclonic stonns in the winter and thunderstorms in the summer occur frequently I and produce most of the precipitation. Tornadoes I hail and hurricanes occur infrequently, and one section of Georgia's coastline in the vicinity of Brunswick - 2- lOin 90"1 I ;'\I I I I I I 1IOin MONTHLY PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE 30-Year Averag89 ~ -N- ~ FIGURE I - ANNUAL PREC\P\TAT\ON Inches ~ -N- ~ 0 = MIL-ES FIGURE 2 AVERAGE DATES OF LAST FREEZE AVERAGE DATES OF FIRST FREEZE 0 M I LES FIGURE 3 0 MILES STORMS 100 Average number of 100 Thunderstorms per year 50 0 ATLANTA 0 100 ATHENS !50 COLUMBUS MACON !50 ., AUGUSTA '\ '.T. \ SAVANNAH ATLANTA Number of times Tropical storms have caused destruction 1901 -1955 ATHENS MACON THOMASVILLE WAYCROSS FIGURE 4 is famed for the hurricane protection it enjoys. Seldom are outdoor activities rendered impossible, or even extremely uncomfortable, and seldom are roads rendered impassable by weather conditions. Flooding which occurs comes usually in the spring, but damage is seldom widespread or serious. Outdoor recreation is affected by climate through its effect on the environment, and through its effect on man himself. As noted previously, the environment of Georgia enjoys generally beneficial effects of climate. Climate exerts an influence on man through temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and to a less perfectly understood extent 1 through atmospheric pressure. It is safe to say that in southeastern United States, a person tends to seek shade around midday during the summer, and tends to consider air conditioning more a necessity than a luxury. But in this matter of human reaction to climate, the logical thing to do is try to~ ~these effects, so that we may describe and map the occurence of them much as we do temperatures, rainfall, etc. Toward that end 1 the physiologic climates of Georgia and eastern United States are examined below. - 7- Physiologic Climates A recently published climate classification based on the physiologic aspects of temperature 1 humidity I sunshine and wind has potential as a means of identifying areas in which the climate is particularly suited or unsuited for outdoor activities by humans, 1 as judged by the sensations experienced by a majority. Two indexes 1 each one worked out for both daytime and nighttime conditions I form the basis of the classification. The Comfort Index is a function of temperature and humidity, and ranges from ultra cold to extremely hot, with nine gradations between these extreme values. The Wind Effect Index is based on a heat loss/ gain resulting from solar radiation and air movement. The Wind Effect Index ranges from the coldest 1 when "exposed flesh freezes" , to the other extreme when the sensation is "very discomforting heat addition", with ten gradations between. The descriptive terms for the Wind Effect Index are easily translated; several of the terms for the Comfort Index are defined specifically I e.g. I a "cool" 1Terjung I Werner H. 1 "Physiologic Climates of the Conterminous United States: A Bioclimatic Classification Based on Man", Annals of the Association of American Geographers 1 56:1:1966, pp. 141-79. -8- index means a standing person needs one standard layer of clothing to maintain thermal equilibrium, a "keen" index means up to three layers are required, a "cold" index means up to four layers are required , etc . The classification is not explained here in great detail. The purpose of this section is to illustrate the utility of it in planning outdoor recreation. By itself, however, this classification is less than complete. Precipitation is also of critical importance, and this aspect of climate is ignored in the physiologic classification. More is said about precipitation, however, in a following section. The six maps, Figures Sa,b,c,d, and 6a,b illustrate for eastern United States the distribution of some of the single factors on which the physiologic classification is based. These maps serve to identify the differences between northern, southern, and coastal Georgia, as well as to place Georgia in the context of the humid eastern part of the United States. Study of the maps should impress one that over against the reputation for oppressive summer heat in the southeast we find: (1) the "oppressive" heat is not limited to the southeast, {2) the July nighttime comfort index is favorable over much of the southeast, (3) that the daytime January -9- PHYSIOLOGIC CLIMATE FACTORS EASTERN UNITED STATES Daytime Comfort Index July Figure a Nighttime Comfort Index Jul' Figure 4 ~ warmlnljl "nsotlon 5 -dlscomfoTtlng heat 6-very dltcomforttng heat addition Daytime Wind Effect Index July Flture c 4-pleatant wind effects 5-warm wind effecfl Nl9httlme Wind Effect Index July Figure FIGURE 5 ( After T er jung, Annals of the AAG, March, 1966) FACTORS, GROUPS, AND ASSOCIATIONS OF PHYSIOLOGIC CLIMATES EASTERN UNITED STATES 2- c.old 3- k..a 4- cool 5 - comfortable 6- worm Daytime Comfort Index- January Fl.;aure a Nighttime Comfort Index- January Figure b EH3 - utremelf hofi very hot days, worm nivhta. s4 - ::!i~:Ct:'~~-days, S3 - sultry, opprnslve days, worm nights. heat addition. PhYsiological Climates- July Figure c S- sultry H- hot W-warm M-mlld C-cool K-keen Annual Phyalo-CIImatlc Extromoa Fivuro d (After Torlunt, ~ of tho AAG, March, 1966) TEMPERATENESS OF CLIMATE~ CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES llllllll;l! Temperate oreos (After Bailey, Geog. Review, Oct, 1964) FIGURE 6 comfort index is "comfortable" in more than one-half of Georgia 1 and (4) ameliorating effects of the wind in July in the mountainous and coastal areas. Figures 6c and 6d illustrate for eastern United States the patterns of physiologic climates. These two maps show a generalization of the factors discussed previously. Figure 6c shows climate groups for one month 1 July. Most of Georgia falls within the group which is described as "sultry: oppressive daytime index and comfortable nighttime index; wind produces discomforting head addition". The exceptions within the state are again the mountainous and coastal areas. Figure 6d is the most generalized map of this series I showing annual extremes of physiologic climates. Most of Georgia is described as S/K (sultry summer I keen winter) 1 with the winters becoming cool and then mild as one moves southward. This means of classifying climate can be used at any scale 1 given the data. Data are generally available I and if long-term records are not available, short-term observations could be made to fill in where gaps occur. The data used in the indexes are maximum and minimum temperatures 1 maximum and minimum relative humidities I mean hourly wind speed I and percentage of possible - 12 - sunshine. This is an area of research which might prove fruitful for recreation planning. The physiologic aspects of climate vary greatly within an area the size of Georgia. They are affected strongly by proximity to water bodies 1 direction of exposure of slopes I sheltering effects of valleys and localized wind direction and velocity. A detailed map of physiologic climates of the state would provide a means of identifying specific localities which possess peculiarly advantageous or disadvantageous climatic conditions for various types of outdoor activities. - 13- "Temperateness" of the Southeastern United States Climate Another measure of the comfort or discomfort a climate pro- duces in humans is its temperateness. This, as defined by Bailey, depends on the climate s departure from an optimum and the size of the annual range of temperature. 2 Bailey s optimum temperature is 57F, which lies halfway between the temperature boundaries for Polar and Tropical climates in the KOppen classification (the most widely used classification of climates). Regions which Bailey calls temperate have an index greater than 50, and are represented in their greatest extent by southeastern United States. The background of this condition involves the protection from severe cold waves which this region enjoys, plus summer extremes no greater than most interior portions of the nation, which combine to produce a small annual range Precipitation Precipitation data are usually presented as monthly or annual average totals. These can be useful in comparing broad regions, but are of little help in planning outdoor activities beyond the range of 2Bailey, Harry P., "Toward a Unified Concept of the Temperate Climate", The Geographical Review, 54:4:0ctober 1964, pp. 516-45. - 14- the three-day forecast, the dependability of which is variable. Studies dealing with the probability of precipitation are now practicable through the use of computers. An example of how such results may be applied follows: In Table 1 the general probability that a day will have no measurable amount of rainfall is shown for two cities in Georgia. For example, in the month of April in northeast Georgia there is a 70% probability or 7 chances in 10 that a day will not have as much as 01 inch of rain. The general probability that two days in succession will not be rainy is 70 x 70 or 49. These data may be used for long range planning with the element of risk reasonably certain. Another approach to the problem of planning outdoor activity is based on the data of Table 2. In this table are the probabilities that if a certain day is dry that at least one more will be dry. Thus, if an outing is planned in northeast Georgia for a weekend in midApril and the Friday starting the weekend produced no rain, then there is a 78% chance that the rainless period will last one or more days. Also, there is a 60% chance that the good weather will continue at least through Sunday. - 15 - TABLE 1 GENERAL PROBABILITY THAT A DAY WILL BE RAINLESS Athens J F M A M J J A s 0 N D .64 .63 .64 . 70 .69 .66 .63 .71 .76 .79 . 74 .65 Savannah . 74 70 .71 .76 .73 .62 .55 .61 .65 .82 .79 . 74 TABLE 2 ..... 0"1 I Athens PROBABILITY THAT A GIVEN DRY DAY VliLL BE FOLLOWED BY X. OR MORE DRY DAYS X J F M A M J J A s A N D 1 . 72 .69 .69 .78 .78 .73 72 .77 .82 .85 .so .72 2 .53 .46 .46 .60 .61 .54 .54 .62 .68 72 .64 .50 3 .38 .31 .29 .46 .47 .39 .40 .so .58 .61 .51 .35 Savannah 1 .79 .75 .76 .so .81 .69 .64 .69 .78 .88 .84 .78 2 .62 .55 .55 64 .64 48 .43 .so .62 .77 .69 .61 3 .47 .40 .40 .52 .52 .35 .29 .36 .48 .66 .59 .47 When making application of these probabilities in planning outdoor activity, it must be remembered that a rainy day is one on which 01 inch or more falls. Thus a rainy day could experience its rain at night, or during such a short period that the activity is not hampered appreciably. In effect, the probability of suitable weather for outdoor activity, in terms of precipitation, is higher than the indicated probabilities. The value of a knowledge of rainfall probability is that it can be used along with the physiologic factors of climate to identify small regions or localities where weather conditions are favorable or unfavorable for certain activities 1 as well as to identify times when outdoor activity will be least subject to interruption. One difficulty in using the factors of rainfall probabilities is that long-term data are required 1 and these exist only for selected stations in Georgia. Using the data which do exist to determine patterns in the state would be of help I however, to recreation planning. - 17- SECTION II GEOLOGY History Very long ago, between 250 and 600 million years ago (Paleo- zoic Era} I most of Georgia was covered by a shallow sea. Sands I clays and shell beds continuously accumulated in this shallow sea over most of 350 million years, layers piling up, one on the other I as the floor of the sea gradually subsided, in much the same manner as sediments are now accumulating on the continental shelf off the coast of Georgia. At first slowly 1 then more rapidly and culminating about 250 million years ago the sands 1 clays and shell beds were pushed 1 shoved, wrinkled and folded into the mountains we now know as the Appalachian Mountains. Some of the beds were little changed, except for mild pressing of the muds and sands and folding of the beds, while others were profoundly changed, by heat and extreme pressure, into rocks which only slightly resemble the original ocean sediment beds. During this mountain-making disruption of the sea floor some - 18- beds of sediment were only folded; while others were thrust deep into the earth's crust, changed by the intense heat and pressure which exist 5 to 15 miles below the surface and then were thrust back to the surface along great fractures in the earth's crust called 11 faults 11 In extreme northwest Georgia the marine beds have not been much changed from their original character, only folded, or wrinkled, into great troughs and arches and squeezed into a harder and denser form. Indeed, the well-preserved shells of marine animals which are commonly found in these rocks clearly indicate their origin as ocean sediment. Further to the southeast across the great fault called the Cartersville Fault, (see Figure 7) the rocks have been changed (metamorphosed) by the action of heat and pressure. Fossils have been destroyed here and minerals are more coarsely crystalline and aligned so that the broad faces of individual crystals are perpendicular to the local direction or pressure, or squeeze. Still further to the southeast, across the great Brevard Fault, the rocks are very much changed (highly metamorphosed) and are more like rocks associated with volcanoes than rocks originally laid on the sea floor. In fact, these rocks are commonly found to be cut, or intruded, by lava-like rocks which originated as melted and fluid - 19- RIDGE AND GEOLOGIC PROVINCES ATHENS ALBANY 0 40 L------' miles ' , , . _ / ~kefenokee \ I Swamp I I FIGURE 7 rock of the type commonly associated with volcanoes. These highly altered and intruded rocks form the seaward edge of the North American continent. The folded portion of the original sea floor now forms the linear ridges of the Ridge and Valley province of Georgia The metamorphosed portion north of the Brevard Fault and the highly metamorphosed rocks south of the Brevard Fault form the Inner and Outer Piedmont provinces respectively. The coastal equivalents of the Outer Piedmont are covered by a thin veneer of relatively young ocean sediments dating from about 150 million years ago near the Fall Line (Columbus-Macon-Augusta line) I to sediments less than a million years old along the coastal islands of Georgia. Following the great mountain-building revolution that built the Appalachian Mountains 1 the eastern edge of the continent foundered I allowing the sea to flood the land to the Fall Line. For the last 150 million years the sea has been slowly retreating and new land has formed on the ocean sediments exposed by theretreating ocean. This new land is now part of the extensive Coastal Plain. Georgia's portion can be subdivided into the Older Coastal Plain province, an area of relatively rugged relief cut into the older (50 to 150 million years) Coastal Plain sediments; the Younger - 21 - Coastal Plain province (Pleistocene Terraces in Figure 7), flatlying marine sediments 1 to 50 million years old; and the Barrier Islands province consisting of islands and river estuaries formed within the last million years. Provinces For purposes of surveying the geologic features of the state, we can delimit six provinces, with two sub-provinces. (Refer again to Figure 7.) In the extreme northwest part of the state sedimentary rocks are folded into anticlines and synclines which have been breached by erosion, leaving a series of sharp ridges and deep valleys developed on tilted and only slightly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age. To the southeast, across the Cartersville Fault, occur weakly metamorphosed rocks of the Inner Piedmont province and, further to the southeast, across the Brevard Fault, lie high grade metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Outer Piedmont province. From the Fall Line southeast are flat-lying, relatively young Cretaceous and early to late Tertiary marine sediments of the Coastal Plain province, the Pleistocene Terraces province and the Barrier Islands province. The Ridge and Valley province offers magnificent scenery, - 22 - long steep ridges developed in sandstones. shales and limestones of Paleozoic age (250 to 600 million years ago}, Taylors Ridge being one of the most interesting and spectacular. A large new highway cut near Ringgold, Georgia exposes about 2000 feet of tilted sedimentary strata across Taylor s Ridge 1 and many of the beds carry interesting fossils. This province of Georgia offers excellent scenery for hiking and climbing, rock and fossil collecting, and spelunking. The Inner Piedmont province is characterized by low grade (slatelike) metamorphic rocks. The scenery is even more spectacular than that of the Ridge and Valley province. The Appalachian Trail has its beginning in the Highlands sub-province, and is a well marked, well known, little hiked trail. From its vantage points a hiker, while catching his breath, can gain unsurpassed views of steep, irregular ridges cut by deep valleys of exceptional beauty. Points of special interest in this province are Tallulah Gorge in the extreme northeastern part, Brasstown Bald--highest peak in Georgia, marble quarries near Tate, talc mines near Chatsworth, and barite mines in the Cartersville area. Like the Ridge and Valley province 1 the Inner Piedmont province offers ample opportunity for hiking and climbing and is also an area of - 23- interest to mineral collectors. The many cold, clear streams offer excellent fishing 1 and camping and hunting are popular activities also. The Outer Piedmont province 1 a much larger area than either the Ridge and Valley or Inner Piedmont province I is characterized by lowI rolling hills developed on high grade metamorphic and igneous rocks. The rolling 1 well watered topography provides abundant opportunity for the impoundment of lakes of almost any size. Streams are rather deeply incised in the surface I and have gradients of three to six feet per mile, which increase at the Fall Line to about ten feet per mile. Boating on these streams offers great variety and considerable challenge by reason of the frequent shoals. Points of interest include Graves Mountain and the associated kyanite mine, Warm Springs 1 the old mines and gold museum at Dahlonega 1 Kennesaw Mountain National Monument and Stone Mountain. The area is excellent for rock and mineral collecting, and offers many activities associated with the lakes. The Older Coastal Plain province is developed on mostly unconsolidated sedimentary rocks ranging in age from 30 to 160 million years. Both hills (the Sand Hills near the Fall Line) and relatively flat coastal plains are developed on these unconsolidated -24- sands, shales, and limestones. The area offers excellent fossil collecting and also spelunking in rather small caves developed in the limestones. Points of interest include the unique fossil collecting localities at Brown's Mountain near Macon and at Shell Bluff and Griffin's Landing south of Augusta, the Providence Canyons (in Stewart County, near Lumpkin), Magnolia Springs (Jenkins County), and many beautiful high bluffs along the major Coastal Plain Rivers. There is an interesting and little publicized fresh-water aquarium at the Federal fish hatchery adjacent to Magnolia Springs. The Pleistocene Terrace province is an area of low relief consisting of unconsolidated marine sediments less than 10 million years old. Fossil collecting is the major earth science activity that the area offers. The principal features of interest are Okefenokee Swamp and estuaries of the major rivers. Boat tours on a guided basis are available into Okefenokee, but have developed on only a small scale. The estuaries extend into the Coastal Plain 25 miles or more and provide excellent habitats for game and fish. The Barrier Islands of Georgia are, from a geological standpoint, quite young, less than a million years in age and probably on the order of 200 to 300 thousand years. The islands are essen- - 25- tially sand bars isolated from the mainland by broad marshes laced with tidal channels and covered with high grass. The islands are covered with live oak and dense undergrowth. Fossils are available at numerous locations, notably along the intracoastal canal where older material has been dredged up, and shell collecting is excellent on the more isolated beaches. Specialized Activities The Coastal Plain and Appalachian provinces offer excellent opportunities for fossil collecting. Fossil collecting is not only an interesting and challenging hobby, but offers an opportunity to make a real scientific contribution. Many of the most valuable fossil collections in the United States were gathered by patient, methodical amateurs who kept accurate records of where each specimen was collected. There are probably a hundred good collecting localities described in the geologic literature on Georgia and there are undoubtedly hundreds which have not been discovered. Any roadcut, gulley, or stream valley in the Coastal Plain province may yield a rich collection of rare and perfect fossils, and the amateur who can spend a lot of time carefully searching a given area has a better chance of finding the best collecting sites than - 26- the professional who must search quickly and move on to other projects. Exactly the same reasoning applies to mineral collecting in the Piedmont provinces. The amateur may have a better chance of gathering a really spectacular collection than the professional does, and if careful records of the exact locations of findings are kept, the collections may ultimately be of considerable scientific value. In addition, panning for gold or precious gems in the Outer Piedmont province, spelunking (which should never be done alone) and climbing or hiking in the Appalachian province; or just the acquisition of enough knowledge of geology to appreciate what one sees in the woods and hills offer splendid opportunities for enjoyable hobbies. Even when traveling by auto, knowing what to look for on the landscape can bring into focus features which otherwise are taken for granted or overlooked entirely. Two activities which claim small but avid followings are river boating and spelunking. The latter is probably the better organized, but the state offers bountiful resources for both which have hardly been tapped. Caves range from large, public enterprises to very small ones whose principal challenge is difficulty of access. A canoe trip of several hundred miles, taking one from - 27- clear mountain streams to a wide estuary at sea or gulf is feasible on several river systems in the state. A small file of published experiences in boating and spelunking have been collected by the Georgia Department of Mines I Mining and Geology. This file could 1 with cooperation I be expanded into a comprehensive guide. This agency also offers information on rock and mineral collecting. - 28- SECTION III LAND USE General Patterns When one seeks a picture of the landscape of an area the size of Georgia I visualization is extremely difficult. Much generalization is essential at this scale. The concern which guides the generalization process is the determinig.g factor in choice of criteria. Thus I in attempting to paint in broad strokes the picture of Georgias landscape as a background to recreation planning I we have chosen three classes of land use to portray: (1) land which is open (cropland and pasture) I (2) land which is forested I and (3) land which is rural but non-agricultural (essentially idle land 1 and not forested) In the regionalizing of these categories I a situation peculiar to Georgia must be considered. About 70% of the entire state area is covered by forest. Any system which used a simple majority to indicate a land use type would show the state almost uniformly forested. To circumvent this difficulty, the average proportions of the state area occupied by the three major categories were used' - 29- as a bench mark, and deviations from these averages were used to indicate dominance of use for the purpose of this study. The derivations of the categories used in Figure 8 are described below. In the computation of average values for land use categories 1 the following procedure was used. (Data were derived from the Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory 1 and are from the year 1958.) Urban and built-up area was excluded from the land area used in the classification, as being non-germane to the question of rural land use I to which this classification is limited. Information on the land use categories was not available for all Federal land 1 therefore all Federal land was excluded from the classification and simply identified by name on the map. Area of small water bodies was excluded also (this area is usually classed as land area) because land area was the point of interest in this case. Area of small water bodies is dealt with in a following section. The principal effect of these exclusions is that of reducing the amount of forested land 1 since much of the Federal land is in forest. The proportion of the state covered by forest then becomes approximately 61%. ("Forested" land is that which is stocked at least 10% by forest trees capable of producing timber I or is planted - 30- LAND USE REGIONS D Averaoe proportion of open and forested land (26'1'. and 61% rraetsiopetcotiveealcyh) oorthbeotrh( Ia b2o.v3e). averaoe but malntalnlno some Open land. Proportion of open land above state average, proportion of forested land below 'ltote averooe. Forested land. Proportion of private and commercial forest I and hloher than state averooe, proportIon of open land lower than state overage. Non-ooricultural land. Proportion of rural, non-agricultural land hloher than state overooe (5-6%) by at least 15'1' . Proportions of open and forested land both usually lower than state overaoes. Urban built-up areas and public lands ore outlined and identified by name. FIGURE 8 s 2p~80 ":~::=;_:__:~cu::le::;'::m:::de::'===- NOPITH :o in trees, or contains chaparral, or has been cut to less than 10% forest but not developed for other use.) The area in cropland and pasture is approximately 26%. This category includes, in addition to the obvious uses, land in soil improvement crops not harvested or pastured, all hay harvested, and vegetables, fruits, and nuts. The rural non-agricultural category, about 5 1/2% of the state area, is all other land not in cropland, pasture, or forest. It includes land both in farms and not in farms I and encompasses such uses as farmsteads I farm lanes 1 wasteland, crossroad filling stations 1 rural non-farm residential sites I country schoolgrounds and churches (if they are outside built-up areas 10 acres or more in size), and open, idle, rural non-farm land. Counties were used as the statistical unit. A county was placed in the "average" category if its proportions of open and forested land were very near the state average, as defined above, or if both proportions were above the average somewhat but remained in the same ratio to each other (permissible ratios ranged from 1:2.0 to 1:2. 6). If a county's open land was larger than the average, and its forested land was smaller than the average, it was considered to be predominantly "open". If the converse was true, it was placed in the "forested" category. If a county's non- - 32 - agricultural land was at least 15% larger than the state average {an arbitrary value, but one which was subjectively judged to be significant,) it was placed in Class N, predominantly rural nonagricultural land. In view of these definitions, it should be kept in mind that "dominance" is a relative term, and is used to indicate in which direction from the average a county's land use is skewed. Mapping the counties by these categories revealed a distribution which exhibited rather strong regionalization, and which presented a reasonable picture of the state landscape in the judgment of those familiar with it. Characteristics of Land Use Categories Practically all of Georgia s forest land {99. 7%) is classed as commercial. 3 {The area of commercial forest is nearly twentysix million acres, according to 1961 statistics of the U.S. Forest Service, which was used as a source of data for this section.) The ownership pattern of this commercial forest is noteworthy: 4. 6% of the state area is in Federal-owned forest, {about 2.1% in National Forest), about 10. 6% of the state area is in the hands of 3Larson, R. W. and Spada, Benjamin, Georgia's Timber, {Asheville: U. S. Forest Service, 19 63) , p. 23. - 33- the forest industry, and a little over 40% of the state is in farmerowned forest. This illustrates very well one aspect of the distribution of Georgia forests--they are predominantly in small tracts on farms. One-hundred-seventy thousand farmers own this large proportion of the commercial forests, in average tracts of 100 acres. This fact is easily overlooked when one sees just one small tract at a time, while being strongly impressed by the large tracts of public forest. The implication of this distribution for recreation planning is that forested land is well distributed in the state, and tracts of forest, though small, can be found nearly anywhere forest is desired for recreation uses. It also presents the rather difficult problem of gaining access to such forest land, since it is in private ownership. Of the 26% of the state classified as "open", about 19% is in cropland and about 6.5% in pasture. 4 It has been estimated that by 1975, the state's seven million acres of cropland will have declined some 700,000 acres from the 1958 acreage, and about 65% of the 1975 crop land will need treatment. At the present time, close to 60% of the land in cropland and pasture is classified as 4Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory, Table 8. - 34- I or II, according to the U.S.D.A. land-capability classification. These classes have no serious problems and require only moderate conservation practices. It has been estimated I too I that the proportion of rural non-agricultural land will decline 2. 5% by 1975. (Land uses increasing by 1975 will be pasture and forest.) 5 The possible significance of these shifts is that the land going out of cropland may become available for recreational uses, although it is having a negative effect on one important recreational use, that of quail hunting. Urban places occupy some 830,000 acres of land, about 2. 2% of the state area--of small consequence in terms of total space. The location of these places with large populations, however, is of obvious importance. The major urban centers of the state are identified on Figure 8, and their built-up areas outlined. Correlation of Land Use Regions with Some Environmental Factors The greatest area of "Open" land is on the upper 1 or older 1 coastal plain. Slopes there are gentle to moderate, at elevations of 250-500 feet above sea level, with soils that are underlain by 5Ibid. , Table I. - 35 - marine sands, loams, and/or clays. 6 See Figure 9. The growing season is long and moist, and the maximum summer temperatures are high. The second major area of "Open" land occurs on the outer Piedmont, which has an elevation ranging from 500-1500 feet above sea level. Slopes range from gentle to moderately steep, and the soils are underlain by acid crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Summers here are cooler and shorter, but have slightly more rainfall than the coastal plain. The "Forested" lands are found in three areas: the inner Piedmont I the lower part of the outer Piedmont I and on the lower coastal plain. The Appalachian provinces, which make up the inner Piedmont, display a great variety of slope 1 elevation, rainfall and temperature. Slopes are generally steep and valleys narrow. Soils are underlain by acid crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Rainfall is abundant and the growing season relatively short (maximum of 250 days). Environmental conditions of the outer Piedmont have been described above. 6Map and descriptions are based on H. F. Perkins and F. T. Ritchie, Soil Associations of Georgia, (Athens: University of Georgia and U.S. D.A., 1965). - 36- SOIL ASSOCIATION REGIONS Sand Mountain- shallow, fine loam oubooils ~Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys- coarse loama on surface~ fine looms to clayey sublolls Blue Ridge- cooru loom a on aurface, loamy to cloyey subsoils Southern Piedmont- coaree loamy ourface sollo, clayey oub1oil1 Sand Hills- sandy ourfoco soils, fino loam or clayey oubooilo Black Lands- &hallow, clayey Southern Coastal Plain- loamy to sandy sur- face oollo, loamy to clayey oub1oilo Atlantic Coast Flatwoods- poorly drained, sandy, organic hardpans Swamp- extremely wet, high in organic material -N- ~ FIGURE 9 The forested lands on the lower coastal plain are found on nearly level surfaces underlain by marine sands, loams, and clays, having a high water table. Elevations of 300 feet above sea level are about the maximum. Temperatures are sub-tropical with nbundant rainfall and a long frost-free season. The "Average" lands lie in a transitional position between the open and the forested lands, as would be expected. The rather large area of average land-use in northwest Georgia lies mostly within the ridge and valley province. In this area, ridges of limestone, sandstone and shale have supplied alluvial material to the gently sloping valleys. Growing season here ranges from 200 to 220 days, rainfall is abundant, and summer temperatures are moderately high. The extensive region of non-agricultural land is accounted for by the coastal marshes. Much of this marsl1 land has very poorly drained sandy soils, some with organic hardpan in the subsoil. Slopes are nearly level, and elevations are just a few feet above sea level. One should interpret these correlations with some caution. The edaphic and climatic environment is undoubtedly important to plant life, and consequently to agricultural activity, but the impact - 38- of cultural history on present land uses is also undoubtedly important I and exceedingly hard to evaluate. A full explanation of the patterns of land-use regions would involve careful consideration of the complex interplay of human history 1 preferences and prejudices 1 and a number of physical factors. Characteristics of Water Bodies The land area occupied by water bodies is quite small I about 0. 5% of the state area. This is area classed as land in the census 1 occupied by water bodies smaller than 40 acres and less than oneeighth mile across. Their acreage distribution by counties is indicated in Figure 10 I as well as the acreages of the major reservoirs. Several things are worth noting here. The small water bodies are relatively unimportant in terms of the total acreage in the state 1 but their rather even distribution throughout the state is of considerable importance to their potential for recreational use. Another point is that the major reservoirs far overshadow the small water body totals in the counties in which they are located. These reservoirs I of course I comprise the most important water resource for recreation in the state. They are important for their size I but - 39 - v A Blue R M v Chatuge 0 . Nottely ( ). . Allatoona Lanier 0 Harding- Goat Rock- 01 0 FIGURE 10 WATER AREA OF SMALL WATER BODIES, AND MAJOR RESERVOIRS Small water bodies are those less than 40 acres and one-elohth of a mile across. Circles in counties are county total acreages. Major reservoirs acreages are shown outside state boundary - - - --------5,000 acres - - - - - - - - - -i,OOO acres + Head of navloatlon of three-foot minimum channel Water aereaoes shown on main map totaled for Recreation Plannino Reotons. 93,460 20~ 0I:~~ BO 100 also for their location. Most acreage of this class of water body is found on the Piedmont, within the North Central Planning Region, .where most of the state's population lives. See also inset map on Figure 10. The locations of major streams can also be seen on Figure 10. In general, they offer an important potential for recreational use, but their characteristics which make them useful are not easily generalized by regions. In Figure 10 the commercially navigable portions of the larger rivers are indicated. Use as a waterway can have both a detrimental and a beneficial effect on their utility for recreation. If navigability results in heavy traffic and pollution, the effect on recreational uses is obviously detrimental. On the other hand, navigability of streams may permit the passage of larger pleasure boats, perhaps large enough for open water use, farther into the interior in order to reach berths more desirable or more convenient, as well as offering impoundments for water sports like skiing. The streams with. in the state offer the maximum variety, ranging from the brook, cold and clear in the mountains, to its warm, muddy estuarine mouth. Coastal Georgia is very nearly virgin in developed recreation uses. {See Figure 11.) There are two public facilities of large - 41- COASTAL GEORGIA W.R. Savannah Beach Waterway "- ---~~- ~~'-HARRIS NECK NATIONAL W. R. BLACKBEARD ISLAND NATIONAL W. R. ,...,~-'/ l I I --.' I I . I { ' ' 'I-"1"'---...r'-4 ~~~a Jekyll Island Authority -N- CROOKED RIVER STATE PARK 0 10 20 30 FIGURE II size (Savannah Beach and Jekyll Island Authority) , and only a few secondary (sometimes entirely unpaved) roads which reach the outer shoreline of the Barrier Islands. There are four Federal refuges for wildlife along the coast, but none for people (unless we count a National Monument, Fort Frederica} The marshes themselves are popular for hunting wildfowl and fishing, but up to the present have served as an effective barrier to easy development of public facilities along the coastline. There is some indication that the marsh areas within commuting distance of Savannah are growing in popularity as residential sites. Mining as a Land Use Georgia enjoys considerable importance in the United States as a mining state, ranking first in the production of kaolin, granite, marble, second in scrap mica and fuller's earth, third in bauxite, and fourth in barite and feldspar. 7 Mining activities can be a mixed blessing to outdoor recreation. If smelting accompanies the mining activity, widespread destruction of flora can result. Georgia's mining is not usually of 7Vallely, J. L. and Furcron, A. S., The Mineral Industry of Georgia, (Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1964), reprint from Minerals Yearbook, p. 1 - 43- this type I being limited almost entirely to non-metallics. In fact 1 the granite and marble quarries have come to be something of a tourist attraction, and as a consumer of space on the landscape are not significant. The major minerals, however I are the clays-kaolin and fuller's earth--which are mined by stripping. This kind of mining is a notorious spoiler of the landscape, and in some states operates only under stringent regulations. The approximate size of strip-mined areas and their locations by counties are indicated in Figure 12. The Twiggs-Bibb County area is mostly kaolin and other clays for brick and clay products, as is Richmond County. In Decatur County it is mostly fuller's earth being mined, in Stewart iron ore, and in the Floyd-Polk area it is bauxite, limestone, and shale. At the present time, the amount of stripped area which has been revegetated is small. There are no state regulations requiring renovation, and only in those cases where the landowner stipulates renovation by contract is the miner required to cover his tracks. Some of the revegetation of stripped areas is probably due to natural seeding, and some has been intentional as the result of contractual agreements with property owners. The cost of renovation is affected by several things. If all - 44- ACREAGE OF STRIP MINES, BY COUNTY Darker portions of circles represent percent of mined area which Is revegetated. - - - -3500 ac. - - --1300ac. - - - - 500ac. '>lL - - - - 50ac. FLORIDA FIGURE 12 ~ -N- ~ spoil is leveled and holes filled, the cost can be quite high for some types of mining. Leveling is not always necessary I howeverI as holes can be left for lakes and when the banks are revegetated 1 the area can become quite attractive and useful for recreation. This type of renovation would be more desirable in a flat and featureless area I but would probably not enhance much the natural unspoiled landscape in most parts of Georgia. The acreages shown on Figure 12 are not as large as the circle sizes imply. The greatest acreage of stripped area is in Twiggs County, where it constitutes about 1. 3% of the total area. Bibb County has 1. 5%, Richmond 1%, Decatur 0. 9% and Floyd 0. 6%. The land consumed by strip mining is not likely to place a strain on land available for outdoor recreation in the near future. The heavily mined areas near large metropolitan centers I however, might well be considered for renovation with specific recreational uses considered in the renovation. - 46- SECTION N FLORA AND FAUNA The plants native to Georgia are legion. They range from the utilitarian pine to the beautifully flowered camellia. Trees most common in the state are pine, cedar 1 oak 1 sycamore and poplar. Maples 1 hickories 1 sweet gum and the towering tulip are also found widely. The magnolia, with its broad waxy leaves and aromatic blossoms, is probably the tree most often associated with the South. The flowering dogwood is nearly as fdmous, and probably contributes more color and beauty overall than the magnolia. The pink dogwood, more rare than the white I is also native to the state. Hemlock is limited to the northern highlands, but reaches enormous proportions there, sometimes supporting a great trunk in the crevices of a rock outcrop. Hardwoods are less plentiful in the southern part, where pines take over all but the river bottoms. On the flatlands, south of the Fall Line, longleaf pines and wiregrass are typical. Near the coast, the great, gnarled live oaks, festooned with Spanish moss, form galleries over roads which give the traveler a feeling of being surrounded by an ageless - 47- serenity. In the swamps one finds tupelo gum and bald cypress 1 the source of highly valued "knees". In nearly every part of the state 1 the voracious kudzu has spread leafy mantles over bare road cut banks, but is encroaching on utility poles 1 trees 1 fences and fields, ex-eating tho ~ffect of huge 1 green sculptures along the roadsides. The state flower is the Cherokee rose 1 a small white and yellow flower which has attached to it a poignant legend of Tndian lovers. Blossoms are bold in Georgia 1 and among the boldest is the January jasmine 1 which does not even wait for a sign of spring before sending out its delicate yellow flower. Daffodils 1 crocus 1 and forsythia are common everywhere in spring, and the great white explosions of spirea in bloom make that season one of exceptional beauty. The late flowering crepe myrtle 1 and the suddenly yellow ginkgo trees contribute much color to city streets in the middle part of the state during the fall. In southern Georgia 1 vivid poinsettias I ti1e Confederate rose and camellias abound. In Augusta and Savannah 1 the azalea has become something of an institution, and attracts visitors each spring from considerable distances. - 48- Although the traditional southern garden, precisely laid out in carefully tended beds, has yielded to more modest landscaping emphasizing large lawns, the heritage is still widely evident, and some of the old gardens which have been preserved are opened to tours each spring. Simply traveling through town and countcy in spring or fall will well repay the motorist with the floral beauty he can see nearly anywhere. - 49- WILDLIFE HABITAT Georgia is the largest state east of the Mississippi River (at least during high tide), and practically all of it serves as habitat for a varied wildlife community. Of Georgia's more than thirtyseven million acres, a little over 2% is taken up by urban built-up areas, and a little over 5% by road surfacing, leaving some thirtyfour million acres of land for potential game habitat plus some 300,000 acres of water for fish. The state is warm, moist and green, and offers a friendly environment to life in almost any form. In terms of area, most of the vegetation is forest--mixed forest in the north, grading into pine and cypress toward the southeast, nourished well by abundant precipitation and moderately fertile soils. The areas not occupied by forest are principally those which man has cleared for his crops. (See Figures 8 and 13.) Native grassland is restricted to small areas, except for the rather extensive marshes along the coast. Georgia's total forest land now occupies nearly three quarters of the state area, and this proportion is increasing. Marginal cropland is being taken out of cultivation and usually what is not put into pasture goes into forest, either by design or by natural seeding. -50- NORTH CAROLINA MAJOR FOREST TYPES 1961 Lonqleaf-slosh pine Loblolly- short leaf pine illllllllllllllllllll Oak- pine Ook- hickory (upland hardwoods) 111111/1 Oak-gum- cypress (bottomland hardwoods) Marsh ~ !From: tJ.s.o.A., 1963.) FIGURE 13 j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j Most of the increases in forest area and timber volume are in softwoods I which exhibit improving quality as well as a growth rate faster than cut. Harvest of trees for lumber is decreasing I while harvest for pulpwood is increasing. About five million acres of forest are in hardwoods growing on lowland and river bottomland. About 18% of tl1ese stands are stocked with desirable trees 1 and the hardwood cut exceeds growth. Georgia is a well-watered state with ample opportunity in her terrain for large impoundments. There are seventeen major reservoirs and three smaller ones, owned by private and public agencies. (The Corps of Engineers administers six of them, the Tennessee Valley Authority three, and the rest by several power companies.) There are about 3,500 miles of large warm-water streams and about 700 miles of cool-water streams in the state. 8 The coastline is heavily indented and creates about 1, 000 miles of shoreline area suitable for salt-water fishing. HUNTING AND FISHING The South Atlantic Census Division (seaboard states from 8 Zeller I Howard D. I Georgia Fish and Fj.hing I (Atlanta: Georgia State Game and Fish Commission, 1966). - 52- Maryland to Florida 1 including West Virginia) contains 24% of all fishermen in the United States 1 and 9% of all hunters. 9 Threequarters of these South Atlantic fishermen spend their time on fresh water1 concentrating on rivers and streams mostly 1 and secondarily on reservoirs. The remaining one-quarter prefer bay and sound fishing 1 followed by ocean fishing. (For Georgia 1 these proportions would probably show reservoir fishing to be the most popular 1 followed by streams and salt water fishing 1 if they were assessed.) Fishermen in the United States are rather lavish spenders on their avocation, averaging $89 per person per year for fresh water fishermen and $96 per year for salt water fishermen. The hunters in the United States are divided among waterfowl (9%), small game (56%), and big game (35%) according to the U. S. Department of the Interior. All three types are represented in Georgia 1 but in different proportions than nationally. In 1965-661 there were nearly 310 I 000 licensed hunters in the state. In terms of hunting distribution, 4% of these hunters went after waterfowl, 81% after 9National and regional data in the first two paragraphs of this section are from National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, 1965 I U. S. Department of Interior; state data are from unpublished reports of the Georgia State Game and Fish Commission. small game I and 15% after big game. Hunters in the United States are only a little less lavish in their spending than fishermen are I averaging from $53 to $64 per person per year. Resources The sport fisherman in Georgia has ample and varied oppor- tunity to pursue his hobby. All the major reservoirs permit fishing I and in nearly all parts of those lakes on the state boundary there are reciprocal fishing rights with the neighboring state. The state Game and Fish Commission manages three lakes for public fishing I near Augusta 1 Jackson and Cordele, and also opens seventeen streams to fishing in the game management areas. Maps showing locations of lakes and services for fishermen are available from the agencies owning or administering the reservoirs and from the Game and Fish Commission. In addition to the encouragement he receives to go fishing, the Georgia fisherman also has the opportunity to choose among game fish ranging from the hard-fighting brown trout in north Georgia to the hundred-pound tarpon in coastal bays. In between is the ubiquitous bream to satisfy the family out with cork and worm. There are approximately 60 1 000 small lakes and ponds - 54- in Georgia, some of them yielding record -setting catches. 10 An indication of the distribution of these small water bodies is given in Figure 10. For an eastern state, Georgia has an unusually large area of Federal land which is open to hunting. In the National Forests in Georgia, over 700, 000 acres are open to hunting, most of it open to the public without fee or permit. Fort Stewart, a military reservation of nearly 300,000 acres near Savannah, is open to hunting on a permit basis. The Game and Fish Commission administers twentythree game management areas (some of them within the National Forests) which may be hunted on a permit basis for big game, small game and waterfowl. See Figure 14 for the distribution of these areas. The management areas cover more than 876,000 acres. Good quail hunting on Georgia s coastal plain and lower Piedmont have given the state the reputation for being the quail capita! of the United States. (The time may come when it gains a similar reputation for deer hunting, possibly at the expense of quail.) The state Game and Fish Commission is active in research and promotion of hunting which is designed to ensure controlled harvest of 10Zeller, Howard D. , Georgia Fish and Fishing, (Atlanta: Georgia State Game and Fish Commission, 1966). -55- GAME MANAGEMENT AREAS State Game and Fish Commission FIGURE 14 game and hunter satisfaction on a long-term basis. WILDLIFE Fish and Fishing No part of Georgia suffers from a lack of resources for fishing. The varied topography of the state determines to a large degree the distribution of the many varieties of game fish available. North Georgia's most important resource is the cool mountain stream. These support all three species of American trout, the native brook, and the rainbow and brown which have been successfully introduced. The rainbow now accounts for about 70% of the trout catch. About 700, 000 trout are stocked annually, although these species are reproducing. A state record 13-pound brook has been caught in north Georgia. In the lakes, smallmouth bass are important, and walleye are present in some of the lakes. Middle Georgia is characterized by large reservoirs, slow streams and farm ponds. Bass and crappie are the leading species, with bream and catfish important also. A farm pond in middle Georgia produced a 17-pound bass recently, which is only the second largest caught in the state. The largest is the world record, a 22-pound, 4 ounce largemouth, caught in Taliaferro County in 1932. -57- South Georgia is the land of black water, slow streams, and very large fish populations. Bass and panfish (bream) are the leading species in this section. In streams and ponds, the chain pickerel, a gamy fighting fish, has been gaining in popularity, and the world record catch of nine pounds, six ounces, has been made in south Georgia. Coastal fishing is strongly inlluenced by tide, weather and season, but goes on all year. In the summer, mackerel, bluefish, dolphin, bonita and sailfish are fished; in the fall, winter and spring, channel bass, speckled trout, and striped bass are popular. Fishing is done from boats in the bays and sounds, and offshore. Surf fishing is also popular when conditions are favorable. The fishing season in Georgia, except for the coast, lasts from about Marcil through October. Night fishing during the summer is becoming popular, and has had good success 1 especially with crappie. New reservoirs I like Walter F. George, provide excellent fishing as they approach their peak of fish productivity. Research and Promotion The state Game and Fish Commission is very active in research, -58- including cooperative work with the Federal government through the Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Acts. Studies range from limnological questions through creel censuses. Data collected on major reservoirs are in great detail. An example of one ongoing study is that involving six major reservoirs in the state, representing north, middle and south portions. Information gathered includes fishing pressure in hours, average length of trip per fisherman, number of fishermen, total fish caught by species, average weight of fish by species, species composition of total catch, annual average catch per hour by species, total fish checked by species, and comparable statistics for night fishing on some lakes. The Commission tabulates these data by fishery, and at the present they cover limited time periods. As the body of data grows 1 however, application of them to recreation planning could prove quite helpful. For example, they could be generalized to indicate the distribution of catch by species and lake by use of a single index number, which then could be used in conjunction with distributions of other recreation phenomena. Table 3 lists an index called a "location quotient" I which is a ratio of percentages. The base data are from the six major reservoirs referred to above. The numerator in the quotient is the lake's share of a species catch, e.g., 30% - 59- of all the bass caught in the six lakes are caught in Lake Lanier. The denominator is the lake's share of the total fish catch 1 e.g. 1 10.7% of all the fish caught in the six lakes are caught in Lanier. Lanier's "bass location quotient" is then 30.0/10. 7=2.8. A location quotient larger than one indicates that the lake has a larger than proportionate share of the catch of a particular species I such as Lanier's bass location quotient of 2. 8. The same procedure could be used to work out a "time quotient" I in which the base data are the number of hours spent fishing for each species in each lake. TABLE 3 LOCATION QUOTIENTS FOR FISH SPECIES CAUGHT BY RESERVOIR, 1963 Reservoirs, by region North Sidney Lanier Allatoona Blue Ridge Middle Clark Hill Sinclair South Blackshear Bass 2.8 1.7 5.9 0.9 0.1 0.5 Crappie 0.9 0.8 0.1 1.3 1.3 0.4 Catfish 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.4 2.1 0.7 White Bass 0.3 2.2 1.0 1.3 0.3 - 60- It should be noted that the infonnation in Table 3 is for a specific year 1 and that fishing conditions change in a lake from year to year. Indexes must be kept up to date. Another factor which must be considered requires that the interpretation of data such as these be done by knowledgeable persons I for the most significant unknown in sport fishing is the fisherman himself 1 specifically his skill in catching fish. The number of fish caught in a lake does not necessarily indicate the quality of fishing 1 for the skill of those fishing the lake is quite variable. There is much promise for recreation planning 1 however I in the amount and type of data on fisheries becoming available. The "G" practices under the Agricultural Conservation Program offer a potential for substantially increasing wildlife habitat. AIthough the practices include support for establishing feed and cover plots as well as duck ponds and fish ponds 1 the type of help most often sought by fanners is for construction of dams for fish ponds. In the last fiscal year, feed and cover plots were approved for 58 fanns, while 254 fish ponds and two duck ponds were approved.ll 11Interview with Mr. Richard Patat, U. S. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Agency 1 Athens 1 Georgia. - 61- Although Federal funds are limited, the most significant restriction, especially in feed and cover plots requests, apparently is the lack of motivation in the farmer, understandable since the farmer seldom realizes any monetary return from the time he invests in the project. Game and Hunting If the popularity of a game animal be judged on the basis of the number of hunters seeking it, the lowly squirrel is king in Georgia. Table 4 indicates the ranking of the most popular species in the state by two criteria of popularity, and also a measure of the success enjoyed by Georgia hunters for each species. Other game which attract about 10% or less of the hunters are crow, oppossum, fox, bobcat, ruffed grouse, marsh hen, woodcock, coot, and goose, in order of number of hunters hunting them. The white-tail deer is not the only large game animal native to Georgia, for the black bear is found in the state also but can be hunted in only five counties at the present time. The prospect for a significant increase in the bear population is not good. -62 - TABLE 4 NUMBER OF HUmERS, HUNTER/DAYS, AND KILL PER HUmER, BY SPECIES, 1965-66 SEASON12 Species Squirrel Quail Deer Rabbit Mourning dove Early season Late season Total dove Raccoon *Duck *Turkey Fall season Spring season *1963-64 season. Number of Hunters Number of Hunter/ days Kill per Hunter, for Season 143,000 123,000 119,000 118,000 991,000 901,000 748,000 790,000 12.0 22.9 0.2 9.9 93,000 70,000 1121000 29,000 221500 353,000 3--0-5-,0-0-0 283,000 941500 22.0 19.8 6.9 4.9 11,490 541262 0.3 61736 22,229 0.3 12Derived from statistics of Georgia Game and Fish Commission. Some indication of the distribution of the major game species can be gained from Figures 15 and 16. The shaded portions on the maps indicate those counties where at least 45% of the hunters who bought licenses there hunted a particular species. One should not interpret the maps as showing where each species was hunted I but they should indicate the popularity of the species with hunters and/ or the availability of the species. In reading the maps 1 the following - 63- DISTRIBUTION OF HUNTERS, BY SPECIES HUNTED- 1963-64 In shaded counties, at least 45% of resident hunted species indicated hunters SQUIRRELS FIGURE 15 DISTRIBUTION OF HUNTERS, BY SPECIES HUNTED - 1963-64 In shaded counties, at least 45% of resident hunters hunted species Indicated DEER KILL SUCCESS BY HUNTING SEASON Proportions obtained by dividing total kill by number of hunters REGION m 5-9% 10-14% 1111111111111111! 15 - ! 9 % -20-25% FIGURE 16 information is useful: for quail 1 the shaded portion accounts for 76% of the quail hunters I and 80% of the quail kill; for squirrels, 89% of the squirrel hunters and 91% of the kill; for rabbits, 81% of the rabbit hunters and 81% of the kill; for early dove, 33% of the early dove hunters and 37% of the kill; for late dove, 25% of the late dove hunters and 28% of the kill; and for deer, 64% of the deer hunters and 66% of the kill. Trends Relatively large changes in recent years in the amount of cer- tain species harvested are significant in that they point to trends in sport hunting in the state. See Table 5. The number of deer hunters increased about 38% in the last three years and the size of kill increased about 91%. Quail hunters decreased about 9%, but the kill decreased 30%. For turkey over a one-year period, the kill decreased a greater proportion than the number of hunters. Georgia s reputation for good quail hunting is probably being eroded, and will continue to be unless a major trend in agriculture is reversed. Good quail habitat requires plentiful and nutritious weed seeds, usually associated with cultivated cropland, as well as forest and brush for cover. Especially on the rolling farmland of the - 66- Piedmont, cultivated land has been going into pasture and woodland. In the past twenty years, some 200,000 acres of open land per year have gone into forest.13 The shrinking quail habitat is also affecting dove and rabbits in the same manner. TABLE 5 CHANGES IN NUMBER OF HUNTERS AND SIZE OF KILL, SELECTED SPECIES Species 1962-63 Hunters Kill 1965-66 Hunters Kill Deer Quail Turkey Fall Spring 86,000 135,000 11,900 8,100 13,100 4,058,000 4,100 2,600 119,000 25,000 123,000 2,821,000 1963-64 11,500 3,000 6,700 1,800 On the other hand, this shift to forest has enlarged the favorable habitat of deer, turkeys and squirrels. Deer are now found in every county of Georgia. Eighty-five counties have an open season, and it is likely that in the near future all counties will have a season. The squirrel population is holding up quite well, of course , but the turkey population is growing slowly in spite of the increased size of potential habitat. Specific efforts are being directed to building up 13Morrison, Jim, "The Quail Capital of the World", Georgia Game and Fish, November, 1966, p. 2. - 67- the turkey count. Research and Promotion The Game and Fish Commission is conducting extensive research in their managed areas on questions including the determination of optimum habitats and means of swelling the game populations. Methods such as vegetative seeding, burning, stocking, disease research, predator control, and controlled hunting are used. An extensive game population count and habitat study are under way at the present time. Problems such as the decline in quail habitat do not yield to easy solution. The solution is largely beyond the scope of game management, since it involves putting more land into cultivated crops. Forest habitat can be improved, but on a limited scale and not without expense. Controlled woods burning and selective timber cutting, to aid weed and legume growth, are practicable measures which provide some help. Aggravating the problem for the hunter is the increase in posting of private land as a result of the greater pressure put on quail hunting areas. Controlled (managed) hunts are especially popular with deer hunters. They are usually on a permit/fee basis, with the number of hunters limited. Special hunts are set up for archery, primitive weapons, and all weapons. The managed hunts are in areas that usually - 6.8 - have higher deer populations than public areas do, and a hunter s success is enhanced a bit. Managed hunts for deer are conducted on thirteen of the management areas, small game may be hunted on twenty-one of them, and two of the management areas are primarily waterfowl areas. Fort Stewart may be hunted for deer and small game, and is controlled on a permit/fee basis by the base Provost Marshal. The lands on which the management areas are found are owned both by public agencies and private corporations. Most of them are on Federal land I but several are leased from timber or pulp companies, an arrangement which seems to be working quite well and is mutually advantageous. The Game and Fish Commission is actively expanding its managed areas, and hopes by 1970 to have one million acres under game management I open to public hunting. The Game and Fish Commission also publishes a large number of giveaway items and one periodical sold by subscription. The number of brochures 1 maps, and newsletters available to Georgia sportsmen is around sixty I and the recently initiated monthly periodical, Georgia Game and Fish, is a high quality slick paper publication selling for one dollar per year. The subjects covered in these publications include reservoir access maps, field dressing a deer, and good conservation practices. - 69- Another measure of the promotional activities supporting sport hunting and fishing is the number of sportsmen's organizations. In Georgia there are two active organizations 1 the Isaak Walton League and the Georgia Sportsmens Federation. The latter currently lists sixty-four affiliate clubs 1 well distributed through the state. - 70- SECTION V HISTORY Civilization in Georgia goes far back into antiquity, to times of flint-using Indians , prior to the mound-builders who inhabited the land before the arrival of the Cherokees and Creeks. Each culture tended to settle on the same sites as the previous culture, providing veritable gold mines of artifacts from a long and varied sequence of occupance. When the treasure-hunting Spanish arrived on their illfated expeditions, they made small impact on an environment which had been supporting organized civilizations for many years, for they moved through and on, leaving behind little more than an intense hostility to greet subsequent invaders. Following the initial Spanish thrusts, the French made sporadic attempts to establish themselves along the Atlantic coast, but again left little evidence on the landscape of their efforts. After 1565 Spain attempted to assert dominion over the whole southeastern region, but was repulsed by the Indians and compromised by fortifying on the coast against land attacks by Indians and sea attacks by French and English pirates. It was not until the arrival of Oglethorpe in 1733 that Spain's rule was effectively challenged (except in the interior by the Indians) - 71- This attempt at settlement was successful, and the difficulties experienced in maintaining this foothold proved to be the birthpangs of the present state of Georgia. By 1742 the Spanish threat was eliminated, but it was not until 1838 that the last of the Cherokee nation was evicted from Georgia and resettled in the West. Colonial Georgia was chartered under unique circumstances. James Edward Oglethorpe and John, Viscount Perceval conceived of a colony which would serve as a refuge for English debtors and persecuted Protestants from continental Europe, and at the same time prove to be a profitable enterprise. A board of twenty trustees was granted the land between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers running westward to the "South Sea" (Pacific Ocean, although at this time the dimensions of North America were practically unknown) The objectives of the trustees were largely philanthropic, and many restrictions were placed on the settlers in order to prevent speculation, use of slaves and whiskey, and to encourage communal organization. Pressure to relax the idealistic regulations became so strong that by 1750, the trustees had repealed most of them, and by 1754 Georgia had entered the boisterous ranks of the young and virgorous royal provinces. Although considered at first to be less than enthusiastic about - 72 - supporting the Continental Congress by her sister colonies 1 Georgia belatedly joined with them in the move toward independence. Somewhat isolated from the war, Georgians still figured prominently in it. Three of them, their names memorialized many places in Georgia today 1 were among the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Several battles and a good deal of guerilla fighting took place within the colony. The Antebellum Period was a glorious one for Georgia. Prosperity reached a peak I and at one time, her territory reached all the way to the Mississippi River. Effective settlement of her territory by agriculturalists moved the center of population steadily westward 1 taking the capitol with it, until it had resided in five Georgia cities. During the period between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Georgia's population grew nearly tenfold, cities and roads were built, a public school system was established, and cotton was king. To add excitement, Georgia fostered a gold rush in 1828, the precursor and training ground for the one which opened the West. Georgia played a key role in the Civil WarI and served as something of a pivot for the Confederacy. Sherman left her humble and smoking, and has never been forgiven. The preponderance of historical markers in the state relate to actions of armies and individuals - 73- in The War. If defeat did not produce bitterness, the rigors of the Reconstruction surely did, and it was not until the twentieth century that the state showed signs of recovering from the shattering effects of that post-war period. There are some who say Georgians' interest in their history does not extend beyond May, 1865. RESOURCES Resources for the enjoyment of history consist of sites and the results of research which are published in some form. Georgia is rich in the first and is rapidly enriching the latter. Prehistorical Indian cultures left behind some remarkable sites which have been thoroughly excavated and studied. The Spanish in their period of rule compiled extensive annals, and left enough artifacts to positively locate at least one important site. The Colonial period is well represented in sites and records, as well as artifacts which have been preserved well from the time of their origin. Having been one of the original Thirteen permits Georgia to share in the aura of that hallowed group, in addition to the individual contributions to the Revolutionary period of many of her citizens. The Antebellum Period was the golden era, and one needs only - 74- to see the magnificent dome of the state capitol to be reminded of it. Although it is the richest period in terms of wealth, memories, emotional attachments I records, famous forebears I artifacts I and historical research, it still is not the only period which has great historical interest. It is also the period which saw the not-so-glorious expulsion of a nation from its home, one which had reached remarkable heights of cultural development and had made a determined effort to achieve acceptability in the white man's world. The century following the Civil War will probably remain the Lost Century, except in the body of fiction which has dramatized the unfortunate conditions of those times. It is the mid-twentieth century which is proving to be a promising period, for as her recovery from the Reconstruction is consummated and her material wealth begins to grow again, Georgia's people have the means and the motivation to look back, to recall, to research, and to restore those evidences of the long and colorful history of the area they occupy. And in so doing, they are discovering the worth of understanding the cultures which preceded the antebellum. Historical Organizations Although one of the oldest historical associations in the region - 75 - is in Georgia (Georgia Historical Society in Savannah, 1839), the state has been relatively slow in the growth of organizations whose purpose is to foster study and appreciation of her history. Even at the present time there are only fourteen historical organizations in Georgia, eleven of which publish or have published materials, according to a national directory. 14 Apparently there are several more which are not listed, but which in any case do not publish materials. This number of historical associations is the smallest among the states of the southeast, with the exception of Louisiana (seven associations). In contrast, Florida has thirty-six, South Carolina has forty, and North Carolina has eighty-one active organizations. Among the states leading in this category on a national scale are Ohio with 134, and New York with 244 historical organizations. The early predominance of the Georgia Historical Society may have discouraged the development of a large number of other private historical associations, but another factor which may account for the small organizational development in the state is the late date at which a public historical organization was created. In 1951, the 14Directory, Historical Societies and Agencies in the United States and Canada, Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local History, 1965. - 76- state Department of Archives and History was supplemented by the newly created Historical Commission, charged with the duties of promoting and increasing knowledge and understanding of the history of the State from the earliest times to the present, including the archeological, Indian, Spanish, Colonial and American eras. This agency has been principally site-oriented, and has provided a strong impetus to the identification, research and marking of numerous sites in the state. In the short span of its existence, it has gained national recognition for its work, and its staff has grown from two persons to thirty-nine. Contributions of materials and property have exceeded the Commission's ability to develop them, and it has had to impose self-restraints in accepting sites for development in order to maintain the quality which it considers necessary. The Historical Commission resides within the Department of the Secretary of State, and enjoys a reasonable degree of autonomy in policy implementation and mode of operation. It is 1 without a doubt 1 the major organization in the state now which can develop the large 1 untapped historical resources. Developed Resources The major developed sites are those which have been completed by the state Historical Commission. These sites number seventeen: - 77- three of them are monuments, fourteen contain structures and a museum, on two of them work is in progress and one is still undeveloped but work will be started in the near future . The theme of the site development is .. Highways of History" , based on the fact that in Georgia, nearly all major roads today follow routes used by the inhabitants in earlier periods. The practical benefit of this circumstance is that the major sites are easily accessible by the existing road system, in addition to providing modern roads along primitive routes which in themselves are of historical interest. The choice of sites for development was made with the objective of representing every major era, and insofar as possible, to achieve a good geographical distribution within the state. (See Figure 171 p. 84.) The State Department of Parks has also made a significant contribution to the development of historical sites. Six of the thirtythree state parks contain an historical museum and several also have restored structures. The eras represented in these parks range from archeological to World War II. The U. S. Department of the Interior has established a National Monument at the Ocmulgee Old Fields (Macon) where six Indian cultures are represented going as far back as 8 I 000 B.C. The state government of Georgia also serves as an agent of preservation in their policy of retaining the old archives - 78 - building and the present capitol and gradually allowing their function to shift from office toward museum. Site Resources, By Period In spite of the preoccupation in many Georgians with the Antebellum and Civil War periods, the potential of other periods for attracting widespread interest is quite high, and the possibility of exploiting historical evidence from other periods is within relatively easy reach. The archeological period. In the Ocmulgee Old Fields Georgia has a treasury of archeological evidence of habitation beginning possibly 10,000 years ago with wandering hunters. A succession of cultures I each probably more developed than the former I occupied the same site, culminating with the Creeks and a Carolinian running a trading post. There are seven mounds I one of which is forty feet high, in the part of the site open to the public. In the Etowah Mounds Archeological Area (Cartersville) the state owns one of the most important archeological sites in North America. The Indians who built these mounds lived about the same time as those at Ocmulgee, and like them, were excellent farmers. These mounds have been excavated several times, and some of the - 79- artifacts are displayed in various United States museums, including the Smithsonian. The Kolomoki Mounds reside in a state park (Blakely} and are in good condition. They have been excavated and have yielded various artifacts. Eagle Mound, near Eatonton, is considered to be the most perfect effigy mound in North America. In addition to these developed sites 1 there are numerous other known mounds scattered over the state. It is very likely that mound-builders lived throughout Georgia 1 wherever they found cultivable land. The number of sites excavated probably is in the vicinity of one hundred. A site near Columbus is under consideration now for development, and there are mounds in Richmond County which are known but have not been developed. The Spanish period. Considered to begin with DeSoto when he traversed the state in 1540 1 there is a possibility that earlier Spanish expeditions I such as Narvaez in 152 8, could be considered the beginning if the maximum extent of Georgia territory be allowed. The Spanish left few evidences 1 however, as most of their efforts were peripatetic treasure hunts. At times 1 in the past, numerous "ruins" of Spanish missions were discovered in Georgia. At present, most historians admit to only one authentic Spanish mission site, at the - 80- site of Fort King George (Darien) , which will be developed by the Historical Commission. There is a possibility, however, that additional sites along the coast will be found, where the Spanish fortified themselves and maintained a tenuous claim on Georgia until the time of Oglethorpe's colonizing effort. The Indian Period. This period begins before the Spanish period, of course, but it also extends beyond it. If we consider here the historical period, it will encompass the Cherokee and Creek Indian nations. The Cherokees occupied northern Georgia and the Creeks the lowlands to the south. Several of the sites developed by the Historical Commission relate to this period. New Echota, (Calhoun) was the last capital of the Cherokee Nation, and was the town in which they published their own newspaper. Vann House (Chatsworth) was built by a wealthy Cherokee. At Leesburg, there is a monument, Chehaw, memorializing an Indian town. In addition to the developed sites, a number of roadside markers commemorate events in this period, and also mark trails used by Indians. The Revolutionary Period. Midway Church (Midway) was established about 1790 by a religious group, and is considered to be Georgia's cradle of liberty. It is one of the Historical Commission's museums. Mackay House, another Commission museum, was the - 81- scene of an important battle in 1780 in Augusta. Fort King George, already mentioned as the site of a Spanish mission, was also the southernmost outpost of the English on the Atlantic coast, around 1721. The Antebellum Period. Early in the Antebellum Period a major effort in the state was directed to movement through and within it I as settlers moved farther into the interior. Pioneer transport is reflected in the Commission sites of Eagle Tavern (Watkinsville) 1 a stage stop around 1825 1 and Traveler's Rest (Toccoa} I a pioneer home and hotel of around 1835. The great gold rush of 1828-29 is commemorated in the Dahlonega Gold Museum (work is in progress}. Near Savannah, Fort Jackson 1 built around 1842 I is the site of a maritime museum (work in progress). The tomb of George M. Troup 1 a militant States Righter 1 is located near Soperton and is maintained by the Commission. A museum honoring Crawford Long I the first doctor to use ether as an anesthetic 1 is located in Jefferson. In Washington, the Washington-Wilkes Museum recalls the best of the Antebellum homes, for it is located in a town which for some reason escaped Sherman s torch and retained an unusually large number of the impressive old structures. -82- Civil War Period. The state is replete with memorials to events and persons of this period. Of the 1800 roadside markers in Georgia I 750 relate to the Civil War. The somewhat banded distribution of roadside markers 1 as shown on Figure 17 I reflects the two major campaigns I Wilson s raid (roughly West Point to Macon to Irwinville) and Sherman s march (Chattanooga to Savannah). In addition to the large number of Commission markers 1 and other memorials erected by various groups around the state I the Commission administers New Hope Church Monument (a battle site near Atlanta) I Fort McAllister near Savannah 1 (an earthwork fort which stood off Union ironclads but not musket balls,) and Confederate Naval Museum at Columbus 1 where the hulk of the Confederate ironclad Muscoqee rests. Trails and Traces. Georgia has the unusual advantage of having a resident historian whose passion has been old roads 1 trails 1 and placenames 1 Dr. John Goff 1 Professor Emeritus of Emory University. As a result of his work 1 nearly all of the important Indian trading paths have been traced 1 and in some cases I marked with roadside markers. The early system of roads I including several "Federal Roads" I have also been thoroughly researched. This body of knowledge offers an important resource for development of routes - 83- DISTRIBUTION OF HISTORICAL MARKERS, BY COUNTIES, A-ND HISTORICAL SITES, GEORGIA HISTORICAL COMMISSION 1-4 Markers 5-9 Markers 10-19 Markers e 20-50 Markers "'o<:.-~ More than 50 markers (Number of markers Qiven below circle.) _____,,_ A. ~ Histoncal sites, Georgia 'jql .~ ----------- '? Sherman's march Historical Commission escape route House . \ : ! ! FLORIDA FIGURE 17 0 20 40 along which the traveler can retrace the movements of his primitive predecessors and to a degree share their experiences on the landscape. A comparison of Figure 18 with a modern road map of Georgia reveals the correspondence between those early trails and present roads I indicating the potential for developing historical routes along existing roads. It is also interesting to note that present axes of heavy traffic I such as U. S. 301 and Interstates 75 and 851 do not correspond with the early trails. The factors behind such a reorientation of traffic over several eras 1 if identified and publicized to travelers of these routes I could be a fascinating lesson in history and geography. POTENTIAL The state of Georgia 1 in the opinion of some historians and archeologists I is one of the most favored in the diversity and number of significant historical events which have taken place on her territory. This resource I however, is one of the more difficult ones to exploit. Done well, it requires highly trained persons to conduct research and prepare museums 1 it requires large amounts of time and money, and it requires the cooperation and dedicated support of - 05- To ...... Toc~~:~~~:! 1 To Oakfuskee Town SOME EARLY TRAILS OF GEORGIA IMPORTANT IN INDIAN AND COLONIAL PERIODS (After John H. Goff) e Towns of origin Towns of destination Piedmont trails .---- Coastal settlement trails FLORIDA FIGURE 18 ~ -N- ~ 0 20 40 citizens. Persons trained in museology are in short supply, which precludes success of crash programs even if funds are available. Financial support for historical research and museum construction is usually conservative in amount, at best, and the substantial overhead necessary to maintain existing markers and structures restricts the further development of sites. Proliferation of roadside markers offers little promise. Without warning markers and adequate turnoffs their effectiveness is minimized 1 and vandalism takes a large annual toll. The Commission's policy in the future will probably stress erection of large markers or groups of markers in an important site area 1 and limiting roadside markers to those places where they can be placed on private property instead of on the state right-of-way. An example of the large type marker is the one recently erected in Oxford. The marking of former trails in a more explicit way than with a roadside text marker, has a large potential relatively untapped. The "historical route" can be marked like a modern highway, but with numerous distinctive signs, reminding the traveler that he is tracing a route used by Indians 1 or armies, or pioneers. With adequate information in his hands he can appreciate the factors of the landscape which prompted man to choose the route initially, and why it - 87- has remained a path of communication to the present day. There are an indeterminate number of such possibilities in Georgia. Sometimes the historical trail coincides with a heavily traveled U.S. highway, sometimes with a lightly traveled but well-surfaced state route. An example of the latter which offers potential as an historical route is state route 39, from Georgetown to Lake Seminole. Segments of this route coincide with the Three-Notch Trail, a trading path used by Indians, a trail used by Andrew Jackson's troops on their way to fight the Seminoles, used also by General Edmund Gaines on his way to Fort Gaines, and used as a wagon road and pioneer trail by settlers. It passes through good farming country, and contributing to the attractiveness of the natural landscape are numerous herds of Hereford and Black Angus cattle grazing in expansive, perennially green pastures. It could be extended northward, through Columbus (paralleling a nascent recreational development along Lake Walter F. George) , to tie in with Interstate 85, and thus provide a not-too-circuitous route for Interstate 75 "shunp~kers" traveling through (or within) the state. At the southern end, connections could be made with I-75 by U. S. 84. More ambitious than such an effort, but offering more recreational value, is the scenic parkway, such as proposed for the Old River Road (Savannah to Augusta) by the Department of the Interior - 88- (1939). This would be a new highway and would have use restrictions common to parkways. A number of studies like this were made I but none implemented in Georgia I to the knowledge of the writer. Approximately one-third of the visitors to historical sites are from outside the state I and Commission employees receive the impression that most surprising to these visitors is the richness of the evidence from pre-history I and the state of civilization reached by the Cherokee Nation. These, along with the Spanish and Revolutionary eras 1 seem to provide the greatest potential for development in the future. - 89- SECTION VI SCENIC RESOURCES Of those persons participating in outdoor recreation, 61% engage in automobile riding for sightseeing and relaxation, the largest single category of participation. It will remain the most popular activity through 1976, and not until the year 2 1 000 will it drop back to a close second behind swimming, according to predictions by ORRRC. This means that the state which is rich in scenic attractions has a basic wealth for meeting outdoor recreation demands. A state that is rich in scenic attractions should be well able 1 therefore, to meet the brunt of demand for outdoor recreation for some time into the future. Georgia is rich in scenic attractions, to a degree which may be surprising to those who have not traveled the length and breadth of the state. It is rich not only in nature's endowments, but also in those features created by man's efforts to explore, settle, utilize and enjoy his environment. The scenic resource is not limited to the overlook from a mountain peak (which may be found in Georgia) , but may also be the unending vista of odoriferous marsh grass, or the awesome tracklessness of the Okefenokee, or the attractive expanse of a new, well-landscaped industrial park, all of which may also be found in -90- Georgia. The scenic can be what is only commonplace to one I but exotic to another I and therefore attractive. To the person who daily sees nothing but congested traffic in the canyons of downtown Atlanta I a tour on a spring afternoon through backcountry farms I where he may still encounter a mule-drawn plow being used to scratch the red clay of a hillside farm, would be a recreating experience. To the poor farmer I burned and bent from his years behind that mule I a trip to the canyons of downtown Atlanta could be an experience of wonder and delight. The scenic resource is utilized almost entirely by the automobile motorist. Because of that, the general problems of resource development are these: (1) identification of scenic sites, where the roadbound motorist has access to that information, (2) directions to the site which are clear and have continuity, (3) improvement of access to sites, especially those subject to high density use, (4) provision of space at the site for parking, walking, picnicking, etc. , and (5) identification or development of other points of interest or services in nearby areas to support an extended visit or stopover, if desired. TYPES OF SCENIC RESOURCES Because there are many variations in what makes a scenic attraction, the following description and analysis will follow first an -91 - organization by category of scenic resource, and then by regional distribution of categories. Landscape Vistas The most commonly thought of scenic resource, this type probably is the easiest to promote and/or develop. It includes overlooks from high elevations, scenic drives along ridge lines or other routes providing unhampered views of the landscape. The average motorist who is aware of scenic aspects of the landscape will begin looking for opportunities to turn off the pavement in order to take in a particularly pleasing view. The mere existence of a turnoff, with a warning sign to reduce speed, will usually suffice to exploit these resources. There is a necessity, however, to promote travel along those routes which offer superior views, if they are not primary routes of travel. The traveler needs to be informed of the scenic value of a route before he commits himself to some alternate road. A potential which is not often exploited in these turnoffs is that of providing enough space to stop over for a rest, with drinking water provided and facilities for at least a picnic lunch. Although space in these areas is quite often at a premium, it could be provided if considered desirable enough. - 92 - Botanical and Animal Life Plants which are characteristic of localized areas or of a region I whether they are wild or cultivated I native or introduced I serve to give the landscape aesthetic appeal and also to focus the attention of the traveler or sightseer on differences between regions. This appreciation of regional differences adds enjoyment to travel through the feeling of having traveled to places far away from the familiarity of home. Ornamental trees are particularly effective in breaking the monotony of highway travel by giving the motorist, as he passes through village or city, a welcome relief through pleasant sights and smells. A town's pleasing appearance, produced by dogwood-lined streets, azalea beds and well-landscaped homes, can be a powerful inducement for a motorist to stop and relax, and while so doing 1 purchase goods and services in the town. If the latter have been provided 1 the scenic resource has been made especially effective. Animal life is seldom observed from highways except by the early-rising motorist who may glimpse a deer springing across the roadside ditch, or the night-driver who may run down anything from a confused cotton-tail to the ambling oppossum with the wheels of his car. The potential for enjoyment in sighting animal life is almost exclusively reserved for the hiker, the cyclist, or the picnicker. - 93- These are activities to which the American is often considered a stranger I although of the people participating in outdoor recreation, 59% engage in picnics, 23% in boating and canoeing I 17% in hiking I 12% in nature and bird walks I 11% in camping I and 5% in horseback riding--all of which afford the opportunity to observe wildlife. lS When these activities take place in rural or wilderness areas I the variety of wildlife observable is great in Georgia I and even in urban areas 1 many different types of birds are observable. It would be difficult to estimate how many more people would engage in these direct contacts with nature if participation were encouraged through extensive development of facilities I such as hiking trails within easy reach of metropolitan areas I or even within them 1 and cycle paths--an almost unknown feature on the motorized American landscape. Boating trails are an equally strange feature I for the aquatic American seems enamored only with the power boat and water bodies large enough for cruising and skiing. In developing these facilities for a direct confrontation with nature 1 markers can be effectively utilized to identify plant and animal species likely encountered on the outing. 15Action for Outdoor Recreation for America I digest of Report of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission I p. 8. - 94- One form of motorized nature "walk" which is very popular in Georgia is the drive into the mountains during fall to enjoy the vivid leaf colors of the hardwoods. Recently an excellent little booklet has been offered to travelers by the Georgia Department of Industry and Trade to enhance their enjoyment, a guide to fall leaves illustrated in color. Booklets such as this are distributed through all Welcome Centers. This is an example of the simplicity of method which is effective in greatly increasing the participation value of the sightseeing drive. An amazingly durable interest of the motor traveler is in caged wildlife, attested to by the continued existence of the roadside, often shabby, "free" zoo on routes with heavy tourist traffic. If this facility were offered by public agency or licensed private operator, and were maintained according to high standards, utilized to display native wildlife not ordinarily observable by the motorist, it might prove to be a very popular scenic resource. An example of a facility which comes very close to this type is the national fish hatchery, some of which attract considerable interest and offer attractions such as aquariums. It might be possible that some of the publicly operated experimental breeding and stocking farms for wildlife could be made accessible to the traveling public and opened for tours - 95- or visits. Unique sites There is an almost unlimited variety of sites which have appeal because of some unique characteristic--the world s largest, the states first, the only one which . , etc. Some of these sites owe their uniqueness to their role in the history of the area, in fact, all historical sites could be placed in this category. Attractions of this type usually depend upon local interest for development. This interest is largely based on pride in the history or the activities of the locality. Because of this tendency for local development, advertising is neither widespread, nor of consistent quality. One need in development of these sites is in planned coordination of promotional activities, such as can be provided by a regional planning commission. Those sites of general interest need to be identified, proper publicity given them, and adequate directions provided the traveler for reaching them. Sites of activities with contemporary significance These activities gain their appeal for sightseers on the basis of some unique regional characteristic, usually, such as cotton and - 96- tobacco farming, granite and kaolin mining, manufacturing of textiles and forest products, and widely known or highly unique sporting and cultural events. Many of these activities are not of the type which a person may appreciate by driving by or stopping briefly and looking. It involves a stopover and a visit or tour, but if the sightseer is seeking this kind of diversion, or is educated to its existence and appeal, the total resource value of this category in Georgia is large. Some of the regional peculiarities are well known, such as those listed in the preceding paragraph, but others of equal or greater interest are not. Georgia is well known along with other southern states for peanut production, but how many people have seen peanut butter processed? Almost any boy who has played baseball knows the Hanna bat, but how many know it is produced in a little factory in the university community of Athens? Or seen saddle trees manufactured as they are in Gainesville? Quail hunting has given Georgia a national reputation, but a seldom publicized adjunct of that sport is the field trial, a number of which are held in the state and draw top competition from a large area. The state is known for its domestic horticulture, and many of its beautiful private mansions with their manicured grounds are opened for home and garden tours at selected times. - 97- The need here is a difficult one to meet. It is the necessity to publicize widely and in sufficient detail to identify dates as well as places. For local success 1 it requires the fortuitous circumstance of an adequate number of attractions whose schedules jibe so that a visitor will find it worth a trip to reach the place. It is also necessary for those economic activities with general interest to be amenable to having visitors 1 and to publicize their willingness to show their plants. A state calendar of special events is a real advantage in promoting sights of this category. The Georgia Department of Industry and Trade publishes such a calendar semi-annually I which includes in its listing events ranging from a peas and hog jowl dinner on New Year's Day to the Atlanta Civic Ballet. Advertising outside the state can also be effective if means of dissemination can be found. REGIONAL SCENIC RESOURCES In this section just a few of the scenic resources for each quarter of the state are offered as examples of the variegated wealth which the state possesses. - 98- Northeast Georgia This part of the state is dominated by the southern end of the Blue Ridge and its associated ridges-and-valleys and foothills. It is unusually rich therefore in the landscape vista type resource. The Chattahoochee National Forest lies almost entirely in this quarter of the state 1 although it does extend westward into the northwest quadrant. This forest is a near wilderness in many parts 1 and is the habitat for large and small wildlife and over three hundred species of native birds. There are a number of Scenic Areas designated 1 to which there is adequate although not first class access, such as Coleman River and High Shoals. The highest point in the state 1 Brasstown Bald I now has a new observation tower which affords a splendid panoramic view of several states. A scenic overlook at Chestatee gives one a view down into the valley of the Toccoa River, and one at Spoilcane Vista overlooks the upper Chattahoochee River. Two scenic spots in the National Forest also have archeological significance, Blood Mountain, and Track Rock Gap. Scull Shoals trail in the Oconee National Forest brings the hiker upon the ruins of an old factory now isolated from any glimpse of civilization other than deer hunters stalking over its grounds during the hunting season. The old plantation center of Madison is a good example of - 99- antebellum splendor preserved in remarkable condition. A number of these communities attest to their former centrality by the road patterns which focus on them like the spokes of a wheel, and in which descendants of wealthy plantation owners have invested care and expense in preserving the fine old mansions of their family. Northwest Georgia This section has the distinction of containing the lion's share of Civil War sites and mementos as well as the major metropolitan center in the southeastern United States. These two phenomena overshadow many other places and events in this section which are worthy of development. Atlanta's attractions range from the spectacular natural feature in Stone Mountain, to the spectacular cultural, from Peachtree Street to the outdoor recreation center Six Flags Over Georgia, (under construction). The city also promotes the "Dogwood Festival", a variety of activities focused in the period when her dogwood blossoms grace many of the residential sections. Easily overlooked are demure attractions like the Wren's Nest, home of Joel Chandler Harris. A service to residents of the Atlanta metropolitan area which is quite effective in organizing the one-day family outing is the booklet - 100- of four one ..day tours from Atlanta into its environs. The longest of these tours is 248 miles, and among them they encompass sites such as Warm Springs, Civil War battlefields, Cherokee Nation capitol, ante-bellum homes, Trappist monastery, gold rush area, and the "largest hunk of granite in the world" 1 Stone JV:ountain. This is an inexpensive promotional device which could be employed by almost any community. The booklet is occasionally published in the newspapers, also. The Coosa Valley lies to the northwest of Atlanta; Rome is its capitol. It, too 1 is rich in Civil War lore and scenic views. It was in this area that the locomotive "General" was recaptured from the Yankee raiders I just short of the state line. This was the area of the Cherokee Nation s last attempt to retain their homeland, at New Echota. This is also the area of breath-taking Cloudland Canyon, an aptly named gorge, and the nearby annual Plum Nelly Clothesline Art Show (so close to Tennessee it is plum nelly out of Georgia). The expansive, beautiful campus of Berry Colleges 1 established to educate underprivileged children, also contains the nation's largest (or second largest) overshot water wheel. And in addition to these developed resources are the unnumbered ones still in the backcountry, such as covered bridges 1 and historical sites neither identified nor researched. - 101 - Southwest Georgia In this part of the state relief is subdued and good farming is the principal interest. The spectacular overlook is notably missing 1 and this section has received little attention for its scenic attractions. It is not without resources 1 however. This is agricultural country 1 and many of the scenic resources are related to this activity. Prosperous farms of corn I tobacco 1 peanuts 1 melons, pecans and cattle are a pleasing sight as one drives through the countryside. In anomalous position to the good farmland is a gully in Stewart County named Providence Canyons I of such proportions that it has attracted national attention as an example of erosion. Tobacco sales are also conducted in the area 1 and the mysterious rites of this activity can captivate the attention of anyone seeing them for the first time. Furniture making is an important industry here I and for those furnishing a home I a visit to one of these plants can be both interesting and profitable. The impressive vistas offered by this section are those of the lakes. Blackshear Reservoir is a popular fishing lake I and the huge new impoundment behind Walter F. George Dam promises outstanding fishing in the near future. The dam itself ranks as a scenic attraction. - 102 - The site of the infamous Andersonville Prison is now a National Cemetery; Old Fort Perry and Old Fort Gaines were important early settlements 1 and Rood Creek Mounds are a relatively undeveloped but apparently important archeological site. Kolomoki Mounds is the site of a mound-building Indian community 1 and is now a state park. A river ferry, a conveyance fast disappearing from the landscape 1 still plies the Flint River north of Montezuma providing a crossing connection for an unnumbered rural road. Not very far to the east is Hawkinsville 1 a winter training grounds for trotting race horses. In the center of Georgia's peach country I Fort Valley 1 is the national headquarters of the Camellia Association. Thomasville 1 near the Florida boundary 1 has an annual rose festival which is widely known. In addition to the largely undeveloped resources mentioned above 1 there are several well-developed attractions in this section which have a national reputation. Franklin D. Roosevelt State Park (museum with Roosevelt mementos), the Little White House 1 Warm Springs 1 and Callaway Gardens are all within ten miles of each other. (There is also a National Fish Hatchery at Warm Springs.) This is a good example of the type of concentration so helpful in drawing - 103 - visitors into an area which they probably would not visit otherwise. Southeast Georgia This section of the state has quite a variety of scenic attrac- tions. The Altamaha River has been called the least developed major river in the United States. This river, along with the Savannah, is rich in historic lore, and the Savannah still serves as a waterway to Augusta, as it did when the state was being settled. As in the southwest section, this area lacks high relief and thus affords no commanding views from overlooks. It does possess a number of impressive vistas, however, no less beautiful for the low relief. The Okefenokee has a reputation for a naturalist's paradise, and since most of the swamp is within the boundaries of a National Wildlife Refuge and State Park, its profundity of plant and animal specimens is well protected. The swamp holds an unusual fascination for many, perhaps because of the exotic nature of its landscapes, perhaps in part because of the constant threat it poses to the careless explorer. No less than six movies have been filmed in the swamp. The tidal marshes hold something of the same fascination. Such vast expanses of land which defy man's exploitation is an awesome - 104- sight. They too are rich hunting grounds, for both the naturalist and the sportsman. To the present, the marshes have been utilized almost exclusively by sportsmen; their potential for sightseeing is nearly untouched. Because of the slack water, the streams in the coastal marshes are particularly well suited for small manually-powered boats. Boat trails in many places could be easily worked out, and there are two abandoned canals, one at Savannah and one at Brunswick, which have a potential as canoe trails. The use of small boats in this setting is roughly equivalent to nature hikes in drier areas, and no less rewarding in terms of flora and fauna observable. Augusta is the site of the Master's golf tournament, probably the most renowned of the professional tournaments. Less widely known, but followed with like intensity locally, are the field trials. Waynesboro is known (in these parts) as the bird dog capital of the world. At Douglas the oldest tobacco market in Georgia is still in operation, and auctions can be observed for about twenty days following the harvest season. At Jesup, bees are packaged. Tobacco Road is probably considered a fictional place by most who have read Erskine Caldwell's novel, but there was a Tobacco Road, and vestiges of it still remain in the vicinity of Augusta. It was a heavily-used road following ridge lines along which tobacco -lOS - was rolled to market in large hogsheads drawn by mules, down from north Georgia to the river landing just below Augusta. It was these whip-cracking mule drivers that earned the name 11 Georgia crackers 11 Another area of great historical interest as well as natural beauty is St. Simon's Island I where Oglethorpe constructed his first permanent settlement. Fort Frederica has been partially restored, and other sites, such as Bloody Marsh where the Spanish hold on the area was effectively broken, are being developed. Fort King George, just north of St. Simon's, is planned for development. Louisville I where the third of the five Georgia capitols was located, is also distinguished by the presence there of a very-wellpreserved original slave market. Savannah claims the lion's share of historical prestige in the entire state. This was the first real city in Georgia I and its present inhabitants are intensely proud of that fact. The original street pattern 1 laid out by Oglethorpe I is undisturbed. Factor's Walk 1 an ingeniously constructed row of cotton warehouses along the river I now serves as an elite office and restaurant district. The Trustee's Garden, an experimental horticultural plot for the colony I is lavishly tended. The Pirate's House is a well-known restaurant housed in what is claimed to be an original grog shop for colonial sailors. Many - 106 - old homes have been carefully restored, even moved and then restored when city demands threatened the structure's existence. In few places can the historical buff indulge himself more than in this city. Conclusion In addition to offering the sightseer a variety of sights within the state, Georgia also participates in a five-state tour known as the "Dixieland Trail" It is promoted and publicized by the tourist agencies of Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. It makes a loop through these five states, passing through Louisville, Kentucky, Knoxville, Durham, Myrtle Beach, Savannah, Brunswick, Columbus, Atlanta, Nashville, Paris, Tennessee and back to Louisville. It can be entered at any point, of course, and also offers five side trips, four of which roughly parallel the main trail. A tour of this trail would offer the sightseer a remarkable variety of natural and cultural points, a variety which would be hard to match in any other section of the United States. The brochure which publicizes this trail is a good example of what needs to be done in utilizing the scenic potential of an area. Within Georgia, a number of excellent guides are available to the motoring public. The principal need is for more well-prepared guides, - 107- with explicit descriptions and directions, distributed where travelers are still able to make decisions on routes and thereby take advantage of the guide. Georgia's Welcome Centers have proven to be quite successful in their objective to inform travelers immediately upon their arrival in Georgia, what the state has to offer. Another form of guide which is not in general circulation but which could be very helpful to the vacationer is the topical guide. This would be in the form of a handbook or tourbook which contained complete information on routes, scenic attractions, and services. The regional tourbooks distributed by the American Automobile Association and Mobil Oil Company are similar to what is needed, but these lack the topical concentration of information which would be of interest to the hunter, or fisherman, or powerboater, or historical buff. In the case of sportsmen in particular, families which sometimes accompany the sportsman for their vacation, too, are left to fend for themselves while the sportsman engages in the primary activity of the trip. If topical guides also contained information of interest to the families of sportsmen, so that they could readily identify places and activities in the vicinity of the sporting activity, the overall enjoyment of the vacation could be increased measurably. One potential in privately owned facilities which has seen - 108- little development to date is the vacation in rural living. This would consist of, for example, living quarters on a farm suitable for a family, with nearby shooting preserves and/or fishing ponds. The family could enjoy living out of doors, with possible activities like horseback riding and swimming offered. The large amount of farmland going out of cropland in Georgia offers a good potential for this type of outdoor recreation. A variation of this type of vacation is the recreational work vacation, in which the vacationer works on a corporation s landholding, performing tasks which are conservational in nature. The landowner profits from the labor, and the vacationer receives the privilege of access to the land, for what could be a variety of recreational uses, also benefiting from the therapeutic value of outdoor work. The area of woodland in Georgia on which this could be done is very large. Again, the success of endeavors such as the two mentioned above depends greatly on effective publicity. Not widespread and random publicity, but wide-ranging and selective. As pressures grow on outdoor recreation sites, with public facilities filling to capacity and private landowners becoming more and more restrictive of access to their land, the combination of increased public facilities and increased private commercial enterprises offers the best hope for meeting future demands. - 109 - SECTION VII CONCLUSION General Trends General trends in demand for outdoor recreation are fairly well known; they are less well known for specific areas, e.g. for Georgia and the various sections of the state. In general, it can be expected that future demand will increase most in the vicinity of metropolitan centers on those types of facilities which can be utilized on short vacations, weekends, and days off. Demands on the distant recreational resources will increase as mobility, wages and lengths of vacations increase--all well established trends. Even at the present time, more than 40% of motor vacationers travel 500 miles or more .16 The types of activities which will probably increase most are the water-oriented ones--swimming, boating, and fishing. These can be expected to grow especially rapidly in Georgia, where available water bodies and mild climate both encourage these activities. 16Action for Outdoor Recreation for America, p. 10. - 110 - Georgia's Resources Any consideration of resources should include the demand placed upon them. Resources could then be classified as undeveloped, underdeveloped, fully developed and overdeveloped, as a general guide to where potential for further development is best. No attempt is made here to so classify Georgia's resources in detail, but rather to make some general observations to serve as a recapitulation of the preceding sections on the environment of the state. Georgia's undeveloped resources are found throughout the state, and do not characterize any particular section. If we consider these to range from completely undeveloped to somewhat underdeveloped, we can include major areas such as the mountains of the northeast section and the seacoast. Both of these resource areas are being utilized, but there are large portions of them still in virgin condition and many developed portions are lightly used. The northeast mountains are a significant resource because of their nearness to metropolitan Atlanta. The coast is the most distant section from the state's center of population, but enjoys very good access from all parts of the state, and is very close to the heavily traveled through routes, U.S. highways 301 and 17, and proposed Interstate 95. In developing these highly scenic sections, planning should - 111 - strive to match capacity of recreation facility with ease of access, placing those areas suitable for high intensity of use near the major access routes, such as the interstate highways. Low-intensity-use types of facilities would be placed away from the important routes, partly in order to preserve a measure of isolation which is so desirable in some of these types. Although metropolitan centers are generally considered to be congested and short of open space for outdoor recreation, this writer does not consider the cities of Georgia to have reached the point of serious difficulty. None are yet so large or sprawling that recreational facilities are out of reach of the urban residents. Obviously, the problem of maintaining good circulation in the cities and controlling suburban development are basic to the solution of recreation access problems. Georgia's cities possess considerable potential at the present time for outdoor recreation. Many of them have carefully preserved historical relics in homes, public buildings, museums, etc. Many also have sections within their boundaries which have great aesthetic value by reason of ornamental trees, residential landscaping I etc. Few of them are so densely built-up that space is not available for the development of paths and trails for walking, cycling I and boating - 112- by rowboat or canoe. For these reasons, Georgia s metropolitan areas are considered underdeveloped in terms of outdoor recreation facilities. The state s vast water resources are definitely underdeveloped, and some reservoirs are still so new that they would have to be considered undeveloped. The number of major reservoirs is large in ratio to the state area and the population, and their distribution is very good. Most of them are on the Piedmont which gives them a central location in terms of space and population. This large reservoir acreage is not necessarily the acreage available for potential use by the public. In order to make use of a lake, a person needs access to it somewhere along the shoreline, and solid private ownership of the shoreline of a lake could deny its use to all but the few property owners. Shorelines are the critical need in planning the use of the state s major water bodies, and here the dangers of full development and even overdevelopment are not far away. Public control of sufficient shoreline length to assure access by large numbers of people is essential, and must be achieved quickly, for private control proceeds rapidly along the shores of any desirable water body. The coastal shoreline is in the same category of need, for at the present Jekyll Island is the only significant developed public - 113- facility on the Georgia coast (other than Savannah Beach) The streams of Georgia offer a large potential. In their higher reaches fishing is popular, but beyond that use, few people utilize them for outdoor recreation. The occasional adventurer will try boating down one of the major rivers, and apparently these folk have encountered as much adventure as they had appetite for. It is a little known sport, and certain rivers lend themselves well to it. Access to the rivers is usually good, and exit from them at some point downstream for the return trip by auto is convenient. It is possible to put into a stream where it is a clear mountain brook and to leave it from a wide esturary and never leave the state. Boat trails utilizing canals offer less excitement but greater ease, but are not numerous in the state. Two such canals have been mentioned previously, at Savannah and Brunswick. Unconventional Recreational Activities The physical environment of the coastal plain provides a combination of conditions which are well-suited to keeping aloft an airframe designed to soar, as evidenced by the numerous buzzards of this region. The presence of strong thermals has long been noted in this region, and serious research in thermal currents has been con- - 114 - ducted based on observations of the flights of buzzards above the coastal plain. In northeastern United States soaring is a popular sport 1 but in Georgia has a small following. Only one soaring club is known in Georgia 1 located in Monroe. Good flying conditions are not limited to the summer 1 for in the winter, the mountains provide good ridge lift. Favorable summer currents can be found throughout Georgia. Interest in specialized off-the-road vehicles has jumped sharply in recent years. Ranging from the beefed-up motor scooter to the aircraft-engine driven air boat 1 these vehicles afford the user the thrill of going where others cannot. 'Nild country is necessary for this sport, and there is an ample amount of it in Georgia. The most notable extensive areas are in the northern mountains and in the southern swamps and coastal marshes. Cross -country travel can take the form of exploration, endurance runs, caravans, or any other activity which can be devised. In some locales, special derbies are run, such as swamp derbies where four-wheel-drive vehicles are run through nearly impassable muck, just to see if it can be done. There are numerous places in Georgia with environments suitable for events such as this. - 115 - Ingenuity in amusing himself is a forte of the American, and he will certainly devise more unusual outdoor activities. The state's environment will very likely accommodate them easily. - 116- BIBLIOGRAPHY Public Documents U. S. Bureau of the Census. Census of Agriculture, 1964. Preliminary Reports, Georgia. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Census of Populations, 1960. Characteristics of the Population, Georgia. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Georgia's Timber, by R. W. Larson and Benjamin Spada. Asheville, North Carolina, U. S. Forest Service Resource Bulletin SE~1, 1963. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Resources for Tomorrow: A Report on Soil and Water Conservation in Georgia. Athens: 1966. U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. Local Climatological Data, Georgia. Washington, D. C., 1959. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, 1964. U. S. Department of the Interior. Conservation Yearbook. No. 1: Quest for Quality, 1965. No. 2: The Population Challenge, 1966. U. S. Department of the Interior. National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, 1965. Resource Publication 27. U. S. Department of the Interior. Potomac Valley: A Model of Scenic and Recreational Values. Washington, D.. C.: Federal Interdepartmental Task Force, 1966. U. S. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission. Outdoor Recreation for America. 30 volumes, 1962. U. S. Study Commission, Southeast River Basins. Plan for Development of the Land and Water Resources of the Southeast River Basins. Report and thirteen appendixes, 1963. - 117- Books American Association for State and Local History. Directory: Historical Societies and Agencies in the United States and Canada, 1965-66. Nashville, Tennessee, 1965. DeVorsey, Louis, Jr. The Indian Boundary in the Southern Colonies 1763-1775. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966. DeVoto, Bernard. The Course of Empire. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin, 1952. Ford, Thomas R. , ed. The Southern Appalachian Region: A Survey. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962. Resources for the Future. Annual Report, 1966. Washington, D. C., 1966. Smith, Clodus R., Lloyd E. Partain and James R. Champlin. Rural Recreation for Profit. Danville, Illinois: Interstate, 1966. U. S. Works Projects Administration. Georgia: A Guide to its Towns and Countryside. American Guide Series. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1940. Articles and Periodicals Bailey, Harry P. "Toward a Unified Concept of the Temperate Climate," Geographical Review, LIV, (October 1964), 516-545. Clawson, Marion. Factors and Forces Mfecting the Optimum Rural Settlement Pattern in the United States. V.Jashington, D.C.: . Resources for the Future (Reprint No. 59), 1966 Clawson, Marion. How Much Leisure: Now and in the Future. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future (Reprint No. 45), 1964. - 118- Clawson, Marion. Methods of Measuring the Demand for and Value of Outdoor Recreation. Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future, (Reprint No. 1O), 1959. Early Georgia. Athens: University of Georgia Press, Volume 1 (Summer, 19 50) Fisher, Joseph L., Natural Resource Trends and Their Implications for the Rocky Mountain Region. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future (Reprint No. 60), 1966. Knetsch, Jack L. Economics of Including Recreation as a Purpose of Water Resources Projects. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future (Reprint No. 50), 1965. Stillwell, H. Daniel. "National Parks of Brazil: A Study in Recreation Geography", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LIII (September, 1963), 391-406. Tate, William. "Tate Marble: An Informal History", Georgia Business, University of Georgia Bureau of Business Research, March, 1960. Terjung, Werner H. "Physiologic Climates of the Conterminous United States: A Bioclimatic Classification Based on Man", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LVI (March, 1966), 141-179. Wolfe, Roy I. "Perspective on Outdoor Recreation: A Bibliographical Survey" , Geographical Review, LIV (April 19 64) , 203-2 38 - 119- Reports Carter, Horace S. Relative Humidity in Georgia. Technical Memorandum 26, (October 1966). Washington, D. C.: Environmental Science Services Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce. Coosa Valley Area Planning and Development Commission. Tourist Attractions and Facilities: Northwest Georqia Area. Rome: 1962. Fussell, James R. and Richard G. Silvernail. "The Impact of Recreation on Coastal South Carolina" , Business and Economic Review, (October 1966), Bureau of Business and Economic Research I University of South Carolina 1 Columbia. Georgia Conservation Needs Committee. Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory. Athens: Georgia State Soil Conservation Committee I 1962 . Georgia State Soil and Water Conservation Committee 1 Recreation for Everyone: Fun on Georgia Farms . .P.thens: 1966. Kenyon I James B. Georgia's Navigable Waterways and Industrialization. Athens: University of Georgia, Department of Geography and Institute of Community and Area Development, 1964. Northam, Ray M. and James A. Barnes. Functional Regions of Georgia: Their Delimitation and Nature. Athens: University of Georgia Department of Geography and Institute of Community and Area Development, 1963. Pinson, Lawrence F. Tourism Development in the CSRA (Central Savannah River Area). Athens: University of Georgia Bureau of Business Research and Institute of Community and Area Development, 1964 Schretter, Howard A. The Georgia Mountains: Its Resources, Problems, and Potentials. Athens: University of Georgia, Institute of Community and Area Development, 1964. - 120- Thompson, John R. A Study of Tourism in the Altamaha Area. Athens: University of Georgia Bureau of Business Research and Institute of Community and Area Development, 19 64. University of Georgia Institute of Community and Area Development, Background Data: An Eighteen-County Area in Southwest Georgia, Athens: 1963. State Highway Department of Georgia. Citv of Atlanta: Civil War Centennial, 1864. Atlanta: 1964. State of Georgia, Civil War Centennial, 1864. Atlanta: 1964. Perkins, H. F. and F. T. Ritchie, Jr. Soil Associations of Georgia. Athens: Georgia Agricultural Experiment Stations, College of Agriculture, University of Georgia, 19 65. Other Sources American Forest Products Industries. Government Land Acquisition: A Summary of Land Acquisition by Federal, State and Local Governments up to 1964, Georgia Edition. Atlanta: Georgia Forest Industries Committee, 1965. Georgia Department of Industry and Trade, Tourist Division, Various publication. Atlanta. Georgia Department of Mines, Mining and Geology. Directory of Georgia Mineral Producers Atlanta: 19 S6 Boating on Georgia s Rivers, 1964. The Caves of Georgia, 1963. The Common Rocks and Minerals of Georgia, 1964. Publications of the Geology and Mineral Resources of Georgia, 1966. Georgia Department of State Parks. Various publications. - 121 - Georgia Historical Commission. Various publications. Tennessee Valley Authority I Knoxville I Tennessee. Various publications. U. S. Department of Commerce. Historic Landmarks USA. (Map and brochure) Washington, D.C.: 1965. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District. Various publications. Interviews Mrs. Mary G. Jewett, Executive Secretary, Georgia Historical Commission, Atlanta, Georgia. Georgia Game and Fish Commission, Atlanta, Georgia: Howard D. Zeller, Assistant Director Hubert Handy, Game Coordinator Richard Patat, U. S. Department of Agriculture I A. S. & C. , Athens, Georgia. Gayther L. Plummer 1 Associate Professor of Botany, University of Georgia, Athens . Robert Oertel I Assistant State Conservationist 1 Georgia Soil Conservation Service, Athens. Clarence Conway, Executive Director, Resources Advisory Board 1 Southeast River Basins Study I Atlanta. Robert Penland, Planning Division 1 State Highway Department of Georgia 1 Atlanta. - 122 - OUTDOOR RECREATION RESEARCH STUDY STAFF Coordinator Associate Coordinator James R. Champlin, Coordinator Department of Park and Recreation Administration John L. Thompson, Associate Professor of Marketing College of Business Administration Members Charles D. Clement Albert L. Danielsen Donald R. Escarraz Charles F. Floyd Louis F. Grout R. James Heyl Robert E. Tritt Augustus B. Turnbull, III Professor of Finance Assistant Professor of Economics Associate Professor of Finance Assistant Professor of Bank and Finance Instructor and Legal Research Associate Assistant Professor of Geography Associate Professor of Marketing Assistant Professor Graduate Assistants Thomas W. Bigelow Roger R. Martinsen Colby H. Mosier Elizabeth D. Murphey