Project Wild Teacher Resource Guide: Introduction to Georgia's Natural History Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources Division Timothy S. Keyes TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 Prehistoric Georgia ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Physiographic Regions ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 MOUNTAINS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 CUMBERLAND PLATEAU -------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 Caves --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 Key Plants and Animals ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 RIDGE AND VALLEY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 Etowah River ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8 Key Plants and Animals ----------------------------------------------------------------------- -8 BLUE RIDGE --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Cove Forests ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Key Plants and Animals ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 PIEDMONT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 Flint River --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 Rock Outcrops ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14 COASTAL PLAIN --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16 Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Community ------------------------------------------------------- 16 Key Plants and Animals ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 17 Carolina Bays ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 Key Plants and Animals ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 BARRIER ISLANDS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22 Beaches ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23 Dunes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 Maritime Forest --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 Salt Marshes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 Reefs ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26 Key Animals ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 26 REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29 APPENDICES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 Georgia Exotic Species ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30 Georgia State Symbols ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 Citizen Science Projects ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 Curriculum Aids -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 Schoolyard Habitat Aid ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 31 Special Thanks ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 Georgia's Physiographic regions Map -------------------------------------------------------- 32 Colonial coastal birding trail Map ------------------------------------------------------------- 33 Georgia River Basin Map ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 Georgia's Protected Animals ------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 Species Accounts -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36 Raptors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36 Ruffed Grouse ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 37 Wood Duck ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38 Bird Box Instructions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 Black Bear ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43 Coyote --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 Alligator ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45 Snakes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46 Brown Thrasher ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47 Spadefoot Toad ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49 Stream Insects and Crustaceans ---------------------------------------------------------------- 51 1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this guide is to supplement the Project Wild (PW) curriculum with natural history information specific to Georgia. One of the strengths of the PW curriculum is the breadth of its scope, dealing with issues from around the United States. This general approach can also be a frustration however, if one is trying to tailor the PW curriculum to local habitats and species that students may encounter in Georgia. This guide seeks to provide a basic introduction to key habitats and wildlife for each physiographic region within Georgia, and provide references for further study and field trip sites. Throughout, we have suggested links to local topics and PW activities that could be adjusted to add local information and flavor. We have accepted the prevailing scientific view of geologic time, though we are aware that other opinions exist regarding the dates of geologic events. We hope that those who disagree will still find this guide helpful. We hope this guide helps to generate a greater knowledge and appreciation of Georgia's diverse and increasingly threatened habitats. It is only a deep concern and commitment to these wild places that will ensure their existence for future generations to enjoy. GEORGIA OVERVIEW Georgia is the largest state east of the Mississippi River, with a land area of 37 million acres, and is home to over 8 million people (2000 census). This number is expected to increase by 37% over the next 25 years. The state of Georgia is also home to a remarkably diverse collection of plants and animals. The term "biodiversity", may inspire images of Australian Coral Reefs and Brazilian Rain Forests, but for certain taxa, the southeastern United States ranks high in the world, and certainly within the United States for sheer number of species. Georgia is home to 975 vertebrates (ranks 2nd in the nation), of which 63 are found only in Georgia (endemic species). Georgia ranks among the highest of all states for amphibian, freshwater fishes, and crayfish diversity, and is in the top 10 for reptile and vascular plant diversity (3,600 native plant species). Many excellent field guides are available that provide detailed information on the identification and life history of our plants and animals. This guide seeks to introduce you to some of the important plants and animals, not to replace existing guides. CHANGING HABITATS Walking through a cove forest in the mountains, floating down the Altamaha River by canoe, or wandering the Spanishmoss draped hammock forests on Sapelo Island, one may get a sense of permanence and stability. This sense is largely an illusion however, as every habitat experiences subtle and sometimes more obvious changes through time. These change result from internal and external processes. Internal processes such as plant growth, death, and replacement (called natural succession), are constantly at work, subtly changing every habitat, whether a rock outcrop or a mature forest. Habitats often progress towards a theoretical "climax" stage, where the species composition remains relatively stable over long periods of time. If you walk into a forest and the under-story saplings are the same species as the dominant canopy trees, you are witnessing a forest in its climax stage. External disturbances such as hurricanes, droughts, lightning strikes and fires can interfere with plant succession, setting back the successional clock. In some habitats, external disturbances occur with sufficient frequency that the climax stage is never reached. For example, the Long-leaf pine forests of the coastal plain are fire- 2 maintained ecosystems, which are rapidly replaced by hardwoods if fire is suppressed. On a much broader time scale, Georgia's habitats are also changing due to hemispheric and global climate changes. The most obvious example is the oscillating climate associated with the Ice Ages over the last 2 million years. debated today. However, the arrival of Paleo-Indian hunters, approximately 12,000 years ago, probably played a major role in their extinction. Mastadon PREHISTORIC GEORGIA Georgia's landscape at the peak of the last major Ice Age (20,000 years ago) would be unrecognizable to a modern observer. Ice ages have occurred about every 100,000 years for the last 2 million years in the northern hemisphere. A combination of three distinct cycles in the earth's rotation and orbit seem to cause these predictable climatic fluctuations. Whatever the cause, ice ages dramatically changed the face of North America well beyond the actual extent of ice, which reached only as far south as New York State. During the ice ages a northern forest of Jack Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) and spruce (Picea sp.) found refuge in the southern Appalachians, pushed from its' northern range by vast sheets of ice that in places reached 2 miles thick. Between 14,000 and 11,000 years ago as the climate moderated, the landscape changed, becoming closer in appearance to modern Georgia. A close look however would reveal a remarkably different fauna. Mastodons (Mammut sp.) grazed in Pine grasslands and spruce forests along the Atlantic coasts, with 4 ton Shasta giant ground-sloths (Nothrotheriops shastensis), and Giant Beaver (Castoroides ohioensis) the size of Black Bear. Predators such as the Dire Wolf (Canis dirus), American Lions (Panthera leo), American Cheetahs (Miracinonyx sp.), and Saber-toothed Cats (Smilodon fatalis) prowled the landscape as well. In a relatively short period of time between 12,000-9,000 years ago, 35 - 40 species of large mammals went extinct. The cause of this wave of extinction is still Parallel tales can be told of early human arrival on other continents, such as South America and Australia, where waves of large mammal extinctions followed close on the heels of human hunters. RECENT HABITAT LOSS Recent challenges to wildlife are easier to see and understand than prehistoric climate change and Paleo-Indian hunting. Rapidly expanding human populations exert increasing pressure on wildlife habitat throughout the state. This growing pressure raises concern for the survival of plants and animals that are dependant on the varied natural landscapes of the Southeast. Habitat provides vital services for wildlife including space, food, water, and shelter. Changes in natural habitats may render them unsuitable for wildlife. For example, impounding rivers to make lakes alters natural water flow, temperature, and sediment levels, destroying habitat for many of our freshwater species. Wetland draining has already destroyed about 50% of North America's wetlands (about 23% of Georgia's), threatening the habitat of about 70% of our endangered species. Water pollution in the form of sediment and 3 chemical pollutants also threaten our native species. One of our most damaged habitats must be the bottomland hardwood forest. 77% of our bottomland hardwood forests have been cleared over the last 2 centuries, leading to the recent extinction of 3 of 5 bird species that depend Ivory-billed Woodpecker exclusively on this habitat. North America's largest woodpecker (Ivory-billed Campephilus principalis), North America's only native parrot (Carolina parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis), and the Bachman's Warbler (Vermivora bachmanii) have all become extinct. The brilliant Prothonotary Warbler (Prothonotaria citrea) and skulking Swainson's Warbler (Lymnothlypis swainsonii) remain, although both are species of concern due to habitat loss. PW Activities: Oh Deer! Habitracks. What's that Habitat? Habitat Lap Sit coastal plain, and barrier islands. Each region is defined by it's underlying geology, soil types and topography. These physical factors in conjunction with climate (long term weather patterns) and local disturbances (storms, fires and floods), determine the types of habitats that develop in each region. The central role of soils, climate and natural disturbance will be revisited again and again, as these three factors determine what plants and animals can become established in any given habitat. This guide starts in the mountains and moves to the coast, as if one were hiking from the mountains of northwest Georgia to the sea. This cross-section of Georgia would be wedge shaped, with the high tumbled rocks of the mountains gradually softening to the rolling piedmont, and then dropping to the essentially flat coastal plain and ocean (see page 5). I. III. II. IV. Physiographic Regions (See page 32 for full-page map) Fall Line V. GEORGIA'S PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS From the southern terminus of the Appalachian Mountains to the barrier islands, Georgia includes a wide range of habitats and landscapes. This diversity supports the vast array of plants and animals that make our state unique. This guide divides Georgia into six regions, including three mountain regions, the piedmont, VI. I. Cumberland Plateau II. Ridge and Valley III. Blue Ridge IV. Piedmont V. Coastal Plain VI. Barrier Islands 4 MOUNTAINS Physical Landscape The mountains of north Georgia only cover 9% of the state's area, yet they contain a significant portion of our animal and plant diversity. Georgia's mountains are ancient, formed from rocks between 200 million and one billion years old. The Rocky Mountains, Andes, and Himalayas are mere children in comparison. Geologic evidence suggests that the entire Appalachian chain has emerged and eroded several times, a slow but dramatic story of repeated continental collisions and mountain building followed by gradual erosion. Geologists estimate that between 5 and 10 miles of vertical rock have been eroded from the Appalachians and washed into the sea. Some of this material now forms the piedmont, coastal plain and barrier islands. Forests have probably covered Georgia's mountains for the last 2 million years. Trees provided organic material for soil production and root systems to stabilize that soil. Montane forests offer one of many examples of plants stabilizing and gradually altering their environment. Variations in elevation, slope and aspect create changing temperature and moisture patterns that produce many distinct microclimates in mountainous regions. These microclimates dramatically increase habitat diversity, allowing for specialized plants and animals to become established in often quite local areas. Typically rainfall increases in mountainous areas as air masses cool and release moisture as they rise and pass over mountains. For this reason you will often see clouds that seem perched on mountaintops, while the valleys are sunny. As elevation increases the average temperature decreases. For every 6,000 feet of elevation gained, the climate changes as if one moved 1,000 miles north. A state like Georgia gains a much broader diversity of plants and animals because of the mountains, which house species that would otherwise live far to our north. Georgia's mountains can be divided into 3 distinct regions based on geologic history. These regions are the Cumberland Plateau of northwest Georgia, the Ridge and Valley province of north-central Georgia and the Blue Ridge province of northeast Georgia. Mountain Sites to Visit: Arrowhead Environmental Education Center Rome (706) 295-6041 Smithgall-Woods Conservation Area Helen (706) 878-3087 Elachee Nature Center Gainesville (770)-535-1975 I II III Cross-section of Georgia IV Fall Line V VI 5 CUMBERLAND PLATEAU Caves, Crevices and Canyons Physical Landscape The Cumberland Plateau is Georgia's smallest physiographic region, encompassing only about 865 square miles or 1% of the state's area. Located in the very northwest corner of the state, this region comprises a high elevation plateau that extends into both Tennessee and Alabama and ranges from 880 to 2,200 feet in elevation. Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain form most of the Cumberland Plateau region in Georgia. They differ from the mountains of the Ridge and Valley by their flat tops. Both the Cumberland Plateau and the Ridge and Valley provinces are primarily sedimentary rock (formed by marine sediments compressing over millennia) such as shale (formed from silt) and sandstone (formed from sand). Much of the Cumberland Plateau is underlain with limestone, formed from the shells of marine organisms deposited in a prehistoric sea between 300-425 million years ago. Limestone is a soft and porous rock notorious for cave formations. Caves form when limestone is dissolved by weak acids produced when rainwater combines with carbon dioxide. This process of chemical erosion created some of the deepest caves east of the Mississippi, including Ellison's Cave, which has drops of up to 600 vertical feet. Several rivers have eroded deep canyons into the high plateau, forming impressive landforms such as Cloudland Canyon and Johnson's Crook. Habitat highlight: Caves Roughly 500 caves are known in Georgia. They are mostly found in the Cumberland Plateau, Ridge and Valley and Coastal Plain provinces. A recent cave survey documented 173 invertebrate species from 47 Georgia caves, ranging from worms, to mollusks, molds and beetles. Many vertebrates also make caves their homes, permanently or temporarily. Troglobites are animals that only live underground, while trogloxenes are species that spend time in caves but must come to the surface for food. Cloudland Canyon Living underground in caves generates some unique adaptations among many cave dwelling creatures. Troglobites are often Big-eared Bat blind and have lost skin pigments, so they appear white. They often find their way around with extensive antennae. There are several species of fish, salamanders and crayfish that live only in caves. Trogloxenes includes bats, rats, and cave crickets (perhaps the most common cave species). One of the most common bats that roost in Georgia's caves is the Eastern Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus). Like all Georgia 6 bats, they are insectivores. They depend on echolocation to find their food at night, as well as navigate dark caves. Disturbance to bats during hibernation or during the breeding season can lead to high rates of mortality for both adults and young. Although cave wildlife is fascinating, geological formations are often the most spectacular aspect of cave exploration. Minerals deposited on the roof, walls, and floors of caves form speleothems, such as stalactites and stalagmites, which create the moonscape appearance of many caves. Key Plants and Animals Many animals are restricted to the Cumberland Plateau region in Georgia. Most of them are amphibians that live in and amongst the canyons, cliffs and caves. The Zigzag Salamander (Plethodon dorsalis) is one such creature. They live in the mountain forests and are found most often near springs and cave openings. The Tennessee Cave Salamander (Gyrinophilus palleucus) resembles many other cave dwelling organisms with reduced eyes and pigmentation. The Green Salamander (Aneides aeneus) one of the climbing salamanders is well adapted for its life on the cliffs and caves, where it can compress itself into narrow crevices to avoid predators and inclement weather. channelization have led to decreased map turtle populations. Also in some Southeastern states populations have decreased due to collection for the pet trade. Bats often use caves as roosting sites. Two endangered bats are found in northwest Georgia, the Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens) and Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis). These species have only been found in a small handful of caves in the Cumberland Plateau. Historic records suggest that Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) used to nest on the Cumberland Plateau. Much effort was expended to reintroduce this impressive raptor to Georgia without much success. Other Key Species: Northern Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) Northern 2-lined Salamander (Eurycea bislineata), Cave Salamander (Eurycea lucifaga), Cumberland Pond Slider (Trachemys scripta) Southern Cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneusis) Southern Cave Fish Green Salamander The Common Map Turtle (Graptemys geographica) resides only in the Cumberland Plateau. These beautifully patterned turtles tend to live in rivers and lakes, feeding primarily on snails and crayfish. Female map turtles grow much larger than males. Pollution and river Sites to Visit: Cloudland Canyon State Park, Trenton, (706) 657-4050 Case Cavern Ellison's Cave Lookout Mountain Sand Mountain Pigeon Mountain, Lafayette includes one of the deepest caves in the world (1,062 feet deep) Crockford-Pigeon Mountain WMA (706) 295-6041 7 RIDGE AND VALLEY PROVINCE The Folded Hills Physical Landscape The Ridge and Valley province is adjacent to the Cumberland Plateau in northwestern Georgia and occupies about 2,800 square miles, or 5% of the state's surface area. The underlying rock is symmetrically folded, producing long parallel valleys and ridges that are oriented in a northeast-southwest direction. The ridges typically reach 1,000-1,600 feet in elevation, while the valleys range from 600800 feet. The Chickamauga Valley and the Great Valley are separated by the Armuchee Ridges. These three features form the majority of Georgia's Ridge and Valley province. The Great Valley runs north south between Atlanta and Chattanooga. During the Civil War this valley was a major corridor for troop movements for both the Union and Confederate armies. The Coosa River Basin, which drains the central valley, is one of Georgia's most diverse rivers. It has been called the snail capital of the world, as 82 gastropods make it their home. system is one of the most diverse in the world. Unfortunately, it is also one of the most imperiled. Historically, 91 species of fish were found in the Etowah. Since the late 1800's however, 15 species have disappeared from the watershed. Still, with 76 native fish species, the Etowah is one of the most biologically diverse river systems in the world, rivaling and surpassing many far larger systems. For example, the Etowah is home to more that three times the native fish species than the entire Colorado River system, and more than twice that of the Columbia River System. Other Key Species: Cherokee Darter (Etheostoma scotti) Etowah Darter (Etheostoma etowahae) Upland combshell (Epioblasma metastriata) Southern Clubshell (Pleurobema decisum) (fresh water mussels) Large-flowered Skullcap (Scuttelaria sp.) Tennessee yellow-eyed grass (Xyris sp.) Habitat Highlight: Etowah River Georgia's rivers are the most diverse temperate freshwater ecosystems in the world. Between native fish, mussels, snails and crayfish, our rivers are unparalleled for their species diversity. Even freshwater turtle diversity in Georgia and Alabama is among the highest in the world. The Etowah River offers a good example of a highly diverse Georgia river. The Etowah watershed is located in central north Georgia and drains into Lake Allatoona in Cherokee County. The headwaters of the Etowah are in the Blue Ridge province, but it flows though the Ridge and Valley. Though small in comparison to many other river basins in Georgia, the Etowah river Cherokee Darter PW Aquatic Activities: Fashion a Fish, Riparian Zone Key Plants and Animals Biologically the Ridge and Valley province is more similar to southwest Georgia than it is to the rest of north Georgia. The Great Valley (Coosa River Valley) seems to act like a corridor running diagonally from northwest Georgia, 8 southwest through Alabama, allowing species more typical of the Coastal Plain to expand their ranges into north Georgia. A number of coastal plain species reach up the Coosa Valley into north Georgia, some continuously and others with disjunct populations. Pine Woods Tree Frog (Hyla femoralis), Gopher Frog (Rana areolata), Southern Hognose Snake (Heterodon simus), as well as Chicken Turtle (Deirochelys reticularia), Squirrel Tree Frog (Hyla squirella) and Oak Toad (Bufo quercicus) extend north of the coastal plain only up the Coosa River Valley. Species Highlight: Burrowing crayfish Georgia is home to about 70 species of crayfishes. Of those 70 approximately 25 are classified as burrowing crayfishes. Instead of living in open waters such as streams and lakes, these species construct complex burrows in which they spend most of their lives. They are still aquatic animals however, and require water for survival. They accomplish this by digging down until they reach groundwater. These burrowing species typically are found in low swampy areas or along stream margins where the water table is close to the surface. Small earthen "chimneys" are often the only evidence of their presence. These chimneys are formed as they push small balls of earth out of their burrows, which can be more than 10 feet deep. They can occasionally be seen foraging around the mouth of their burrow or moving over land on warm, damp nights, possibly looking for mates. The Conasauga Blue Burrower (Cambarus cymatilis) is a burrowing crayfish known only from the Conasauga River system in northwestern Georgia. This species was first found in burrows in the rose garden of a family in Chatsworth, Georgia. It has since been found at only four additional locations. The Conasauga Blue Burrower lives in complex systems of tunnels that it excavates and maintains throughout its life. Because crayfish are aquatic organisms, at least one of these tunnels must go below the water table. This animal is a beautiful blue color with creamy white edges on its claws and legs. Sites to Visit: New Echota Historic Site Calhoun (800) 864-7275 Chickamauga and Chattanooga Nat. Military Park Fort Oglethorpe (706) 866-9241 Johns Mountain WMA Calhoun (770) 297-3000 9 BLUE RIDGE PROVINCE A Crumpled Landscape Physical Landscape inches of precipitation annually and a The Blue Ridge province includes much temperate climate. of north central and all of northeastern Georgia's Cove Forests are home to Georgia, forming some of the most dramatic many plant species in every level of the terrain in the state. It occupies about 1,850 forest. The dominant canopy trees are often square miles, or roughly 3% of Georgia's Basswood (Tilia heterophylla), Sugar area. The Blue Ridge is composed of highly Maple (Acer saccarum), American Beech metamorphosed and deformed rocks, (Fagus american) and Buckeye (Aesculus including some of the oldest rocks in the sp.). At higher elevations, more northerly state. The rocks range from 400 million to trees are found, such as Yellow Birch over one billion years old. The topography (Betula lutea). In lower elevation coves, is very rugged with many steep mountains southern species appear, such as Umbrella, ranging in elevation from 1,600 to over Bigleaf and Fraser's magnolia (Magnolia 4,700 feet. Brasstown Bald is Georgia's sp.). These trees provide thick leaf litter highest point at 4,784 feet above sea level. each fall that contributes to the rich soils of An observation building at the summit offers the forest floor. spectacular views of the surrounding Despite the varied canopy trees, the most mountains, and a museum provides excellent striking plant diversity is found in the natural and cultural history of the area. The herbaceous layer of the forest, which also Blue Ridge province forms the backbone of provides the wonderful spring display of the Appalachian Mountains from North wildflowers. Species typical of the Cove Georgia to Pennsylvania, forming the Forest include False Lily-of-the-Valley "eastern continental divide," which (Maianthemum separates watersheds draining into the canadense), Spring Atlantic Ocean from those draining into the Beauty (Claytonia Gulf of Mexico. caroliniana), Trout Lily (Erythronium Habitat Highlight: Cove Forest americanum), Some of Georgia's most splendid Squirrel Corn remnants of uncut forest reside in isolated (Dicentra canadensis) mountain coves that proved inaccessible to and Dutchman's earlier generations of loggers. Despite the britches (Dicentra mountain environs, the coves are still home cucullaria). Many to some truly massive trees and to a Trillium species are wonderful diversity of both plants and also present. animals. A spring day is well spent in the Many wild flowers cool understory of a Cove Forest, surrounded by wildflowers and serenaded by the songs of thrushes and warblers. Yellow Lady Slipper bloom from March until May. This early spring window, Mountain Cove Forests in Georgia between cold weather typically are located above 3,000 feet on the and the period when canopy trees leaf out, is cooler north slopes of mountains in the Blue enough time for the herbaceous plants to Ridge. Though Cove Forests cover a tiny rapidly grow, flower and produce seeds. By percent of the state, they are home to a the time late spring arrives, many of the highly diverse assemblage of plants and wildflowers will have already passed. animals. This diversity is supported by 70 10 An economically important species, the Wild Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), is the basis of a multi-million dollar annual harvest throughout the Appalachian Mountains. The sustainability of the Wild Ginseng harvest is in question, and Ginseng poaching has become a problem in protected areas such as the Great Smoky National Park. Wild Ginseng is a perennial herb that can live up to 60 years, developing a large forked taproot with many medicinal uses. Concerns over the harvest of Wild Ginseng are based in part upon its slow growth, low reproductive rate and long life span. The Southern Appalachians are also home to 27 species of salamanders, which is more than anywhere else in the world. Georgia's cove forests provide habitat for many of these species. Rich under-story vegetation and rotting fallen logs provide excellent habitat for salamanders. Some salamanders have extremely limited distributions, such as the Pigeon Mountain Salamander (Plethodon petraeus) which is only found in limestone crevices on the sides of Pigeon Mountain. Pigeon Mountain Salamander Natural disturbances of the Cove Forests are generally rare and localized, and usually consist of high winds or insect outbreaks. Though the cool humid climate led these forests to be nicknamed "asbestos forests", fires occasionally occur during droughts. Recently human disturbances have altered the cove forest ecosystems. Logging, both selective and clear-cutting, has removed most of the largest trees. Accidentally introduced diseases have also taken their toll. We have entirely lost the American Chestnut (Castenea dentate) to Chestnut Blight. Florida Dogwoods (Cornus florida) and Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) trees are currently suffering from introduced diseases. Georgia's Cove Forests are home to our largest land mammal, the Black Bear (Ursus americanus). Black Bears in Georgia are primarily found in the mountains and the Okefenokee Swamp. They are omnivores consuming a wide range of plants, animals and even garbage. Black Bear can reach almost 500 pounds but are typically much smaller. They rarely harass people although in areas where people feed them, they can become dangerous. PW Activities: Bearly growing. How many Bears can live in this forest? Rainfall and the forest. Key Animals: Mountain Warblers The cooler climate of the mountains generates habitat typical of land far to our north. Because of this pattern, the Southern Appalachians form the southern range limit of many species of plants and animals, including a number of breeding bird species. The diverse habitats throughout the Georgia Mountains provide nesting sites for many colorful breeding birds, but Wood Warblers (Parulidae) are among the most spectacular. Though we have several species that are year-round residents, the majority of our Warblers are long distance migrants, leaving Georgia for the tropics each fall and returning in spring. Several of our most spectacular warblers nest in the mountains of north Georgia, including some rare species, such as Cerulean Warbler (Dendroica cerulea) and Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera). Both of these birds are species of concern due to recent severe declines in their populations. 11 Coupled, these two species raises an interesting management dilemma because they require quite different habitat. The Golden-winged Warbler is an earlysuccessional species, requiring recently disturbed habitat in the mountains. Historically, blow-downs and recently burned areas provided nesting habitat for this bird. Today, regenerating clear-cuts can provide habitat for the Golden-winged warbler. The Cerulean Warbler, however, generally nests in old forests, particularly selecting large super-canopy trees for nest locations. These two species are linked by declining numbers, but they require different habitat, illustrating the complexity and often conflicting demands of wildlife management. PW Activities: Changing the Land, Bird song survey, Rare bird eggs for sale, Migration Barriers Habitat highlight: Trout Streams The cold clear water of our mountain streams offer superb habitat for cold-water fish, such as Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and the introduced Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). These fish depend on the cold water because they need high levels of oxygen that only cold water can provide. The rocks along the streambed are often crawling with aquatic invertebrates that provide much of the food for the growing trout (see stream invertebrate guide on page 49). These invertebrates typically press themselves flat to the rocks to keep from being swept downstream and breath with gills until they immerge from the water as adults. Though the cold mountain streams are not as biologically diverse as the warmer rivers further south, they provide an important source of recreation for fishermen and women. Tallulah Gorge Sites to Visit: Fort Mountain State Park Chatsworth, (706) 695-2621 Sosebee Cove - Rte 108 NE of Vogel State Park Brasstown Bald (706) 896-2556 Vogel State Park Blairsville, (706) 745-2628 Tallulah Gorge State Park Clayton (706) 754-7970 Smith-Gall Woods Conservation Area Helen (706)-878-3087 Brook Trout 12 PIEDMONT The Foothills Physical Landscape Piedmont literally means foothills. Nationally the Piedmont forms a gentle "S" curve from New York State to Montgomery Alabama, bordered to the west by the Appalachian Mountains and to the east by the flat Coastal Plain. Crystalline rocks (mostly granite) underlay the Piedmont. The low-relief landscape found in the Piedmont is a result of millions of years of erosion, gradually transforming mountains into a gentle rolling landscape that is not yet flat like the Coastal Plain. The Piedmont covers about one third of the state of Georgia (18,100 square miles) and is typically associated with rough hilly terrain in the north and gentle rolling hills further south. The Piedmont extends south from the mountains of north Georgia to the fall line and ranges from 500-1,500 feet in elevation. The fall line marks the boundary between the crystalline rocks of the northern part of the state and the mostly unconsolidated sediments of the coastal plain. It is thought to be the furthest inland extent of the prehistoric coastline. The fall line is often associated with waterfalls and rapids formed as rivers tumble from the Piedmont to the coastal plain. Much of the Piedmont that early settlers found would have been covered with broad-leaf hardwood trees dominated by the now rare American Chestnut (Castanea dentata). Today much of the Piedmont is covered with pine forests, a result of silvicultural rather than natural processes. States that stretches for over 200 miles virtually unimpeded (without dams). Flint River Like the Etowah River in north Georgia, the Flint River exhibits remarkable biotic diversity, exhibiting a particular abundance of freshwater mussel species. Freshwater mussels are unrelated to marine mussels and clams and are mostly members of the Unionoid family. The Flint originally was home to 29 mussel species, though recent surveys suggest that only 22 remain. Though certainly not the most charismatic and high profile species, our fresh water mussels have a fascinating natural history. Shinyrayed Pocketbook Habitat Highlight: Flint River Basin The Flint River is often considered the most scenic river in the Georgia Piedmont and Coastal Plain. The uppermost headwaters originate under Hartsfield International Airport. From such inauspicious beginnings the Flint rapidly forms a dramatically carved channel through the red hills region of the Georgia Piedmont and is one of only 40 rivers in the United Freshwater Mussels filter water through elaborate gill structures to collect oxygen and food. One of the most fascinating aspects of our freshwater mussels is their parasitic dependence upon fish for reproduction. Mussel larvae must attach to the gills of specific fish in order to survive. After several weeks, they drop off, and continue their development 13 independently. In order to lure the required fish host within range, the adult mussels produce elaborate "lures" which look remarkably like the host fish. Once a suitable host approaches, the mussel expels the larvae (glochidia) into the water. This form of reproduction aids in mobility of an otherwise immobile species. Sedimentation, dams, pollution and channelization threaten many species of Unionoid mussels today. PW Aquatic Activities: Watershed. To Dam or not to Dam. Silt: a dirty word. Heggie's Rock Habitat Highlight: Rock Outcrops A particularly harsh habitat type found mostly on the Piedmont is the rock outcrop. Georgia boasts a large number of rock outcrops including the largest in the world, Stone Mountain. Rock outcrops can be either Manadnocks, which rise above the surrounding piedmont like Stone Mountain, Arabia Mountain and Panola Mountain, or they can be simple "flat-rock" or "pavement rock" outcrops, like Heggies Rock. Most outcrops are composed of granite, an igneous rock that crystallized from slow cooling magma underground (intrusive igneous rock). The molten domes of magma that cooled to form our outcrops were generated from the heat and friction at the edges to colliding continental plates about 500 million years ago. The softer rock surrounding these granite domes gradually eroded away, leaving the granite exposed at ground level. In some cases, such as Arabia Mountain, the granite was changed into gneiss (a metamorphic rock) due to high heat and pressure long before the surrounding rock eroded and exposed it. Rainwater falling on rock outcrops fill pools of standing water. These pools are called solution pits and provide habitat for rare plants and animals. If rainfall is consistent these wet depressions support dish gardens, a unique rock outcrop community that exhibits distinctive rings of progressively drier habitat further from the wet center. Standing water in the center of a dish garden may contain Fairy Shrimp (Branchinella sp) and Mat-forming Quillwort (Isoetes tegetiformans), species that only occur on rock outcrop pools. Both species can survive desiccation as the outcrop pools often dry up in summer. Because of their harsh exposed environment, rock outcrops offer a good place to observe primary succession and early soil development. The first organisms that can survive on the bare rock surface are lichens and mosses. These organisms actually dissolve rock with weak acids. After many years, through chemical and Mat-forming Quillwort 14 physical decomposition, a thin soil layer is formed. Soil allows other tolerant plants to establish, such as Diamorpha and Sedum, both succulent plants (fleshy leaves that hold moisture) well designed to withstand long periods of dry weather. As the soil continues to thicken, Broomsedge (Angropogon sp.), Sandworts (Caryophyllacea sp.) and Orange grass (Ctenium aromaticum) can colonize the rock. Confederate Daisy (Viguiera porteri), an endangered and endemic species, is quick to follow. Eventually small shrubs and trees will entirely cover the rock outcrop. This entire progression from rock to forest can often be seen on a single rock outcrop transect starting on bare rock and walking towards the encroaching forest at the outcrop's edge. Rock outcrop plants are vulnerable to disturbance of vehicle and even extensive foot traffic. Many of the rock outcrops in Georgia are or have been actively quarried for granite, making Georgia the world's largest granite producer. allowing them to catch and kill live prey. Talons, or sharp curved claws, are the principal weapons of the bird of prey, although a formidable hooked beak is also put to good use. Birds of prey are known for their eyesight, which approaches the limits of vision possible with the vertebrate eye. Our diurnal birds of prey (those that hunt by day), include the hawks, eagles, falcons, harriers and osprey. Our only nocturnal birds of prey are the owls. In Georgia we have three breeding species of owl and several others that winter sporadically throughout the state. Owls' eyes see only in black and white but are extremely sensitive to low light conditions, allowing them to fly through the woods chasing prey in the middle of the night. Owls' hearing is particularly acute, allowing them to pinpoint the location of their prey before they can even see it. Owls are also well known for their ability to fly almost completely silently, allowing them to sneak up on their prey without being detected. Outcrop Sites to Visit: Davidson-Arabia Mountain Heritage Area - Lithonia (770) 484-3060 www.arabiaalliance.org Heggie's Rock - Columbia County 11 endemic species and 21 species that are characteristic of rock outcrops. Nature Conservancy (404) 873-6946 Panola Mountain State Park Lithonia (800) 864-7275 Stone Mountain Park Stone Mountain (770) 498-5690 Key Species: Birds of Prey Georgia is home to over twenty species of birds of prey. These range in size from the massive Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) to the diminutive Eastern Screech-Owl (Otus asio). Birds of prey share a suite of impressive adaptations PW Activities: Owl Pellets. Birds of Prey. Seeing is Believing. Quick frozen critters. Piedmont Sites to Visit: Charlie Elliott Wildlife Center Mansfield (770) 784-3069 Hard Labor Creek State Park Rutledge (706) 557-3001 McDuffie Environmental Education Center Dearing (706) 595-2755 x4614 Newman Wetland Center Jonesboro (770) 603-5606 Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge Juliette (478) 986-5441 Ocmulgee Indian Mounds National Monument - Macon (478) 752-8257 15 COASTAL PLAIN Ancient Sea Floor Physical Landscape The Coastal Plain of Georgia stretches from the fall line to the Atlantic Ocean, covering 35,650 square miles (60% of the state). The Coastal Plain was once a sea floor and is composed mainly of unconsolidated sediments with little hard rock at the surface. Coastal Plain sediments originated in the Piedmont and even in the mountains beyond and have been deposited over thousands of years. Near the fall line the Coastal Plain can be highly dissected but it becomes nearly completely flat closer to the coast. The current soils of the Coastal Plain tend to be sandy, a result of prehistoric oceans advancing and retreating across them. Prehistoric wave action dissolved and reduced soils to the sturdiest of substrates, quartzite or sand. The Coastal Plain typically has a moderate climate with hot humid summers and mild winters. There is an average of 51 inches of rain, which comes from both convective thunderstorms in spring and summer and occasional hurricanes in fall. dominant woodland of the Southeastern coastal plain before European settlement. Longleaf Pine Forest Habitat Highlight: Longleaf PineWiregrass Community The Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass community is unique to the Coastal Plain and among the most endangered habitats in the United States. This is made more significant by the fact that the extent of Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) forests just 200 years ago was almost unimaginably large. It is estimated that over 90 million acres of Longleaf Pine forests stretched from Texas throughout the gulf coast states, peninsular Florida, Georgia and up the east coast to Virginia. Currently, only several thousand acres of good quality old-growth Longleaf Pine remain scattered throughout the southeast. The remaining stands of Longleaf Pine are mostly found on private quail hunting plantations and military land. Longleaf Pine forest was without a doubt the Longleaf Pine trees tend to grow widely spaced, creating an open park-like forest. Sometimes these forests appeared more like grasslands with scattered pine trees than true forests. At first glance a Longleaf PineWiregrass forest appears to be composed of only two or three species, but the herbaceous understory forms one of the most diverse plant communities north of the tropics. In some areas over 40 plant species per square meter is not uncommon. In all, hundreds of species of grasses, legumes and other herbaceous plants grow beneath the pines. Many of these plant species are only found in the Longleaf Pine forest. Another defining feature of the Longleaf Pine forest and one that played an important role in its decline, is the forest's dependence upon fire. In fact, fire is a crucial factor in maintaining 16 many plant communities and is absolutely leaf litter. The germinated seed grows into essential to the survival of the Longleaf Pine the grass stage, which looks like a low Wiregrass community. Without fire growing bunch grass. Closer observation hardwoods grow up through the Longleaf will show that the leaves are actually pine Pine, competing for light, nutrients and needles. The Longleaf Pine can remain in space. Fire suppression throughout much of the grass stage for many years, awaiting a the last century contributed to the decline of fire to clear the way for its growth. The Longleaf Pine forests dense clusters of needles protect the growth cells from this releasing fire. After a fire PW Activity: Fire Ecologies. Smoky Bear said what? burns through, clearing brush away from the pine seedling, the tree enters the rocket stage. This involves a rapid period of growth during which the tree is vulnerable Historically, fires started by lightning strikes swept through the understory every three to five years, burning back shrubs and hardwoods. Mature Longleaf Pine were protected from fire by thick heat-resistant to fire. Once freed from the understory, the tree can continue to grow and eventually become a canopy tree. As it grows, it develops thick bark that protects it from subsequent fires. bark. Native Americans also burned the understory to manage for game, and early European settlers burned to maintain good forage for cattle in forest understory. Blow downs are the chief natural cause for mortality among mature Longleaf Pine trees. Older trees rise above the canopy, exposing them to direct wind. Without windstorms, it seems that the Longleaf Pine trees show very little signs of aging and can live for many hundreds of years. Key Animals: Birds The Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) and the Bachman's Sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis) are two birds that are dependant upon the Longleaf Pine forest. The Redcockaded Woodpecker (RCW) is listed as an endangered species PfhufamLbfK2dmarrs0ieiniooouiseslnp0inlincmtmcqyeineoTEeigohyutnnrrfPhvlnetmeyeaoadeohreeal.ltarbseofegriarefsnsoynsssroItsonteaoht.PtagtnissimtwrneoilstisndnfdagstotUet:iahegoehurfsaat.eLeepneautsgsrh.teeikrIoorttetientatreeeTtfrrnaaoldsediemotthssgfeaeehnwtfSeinnleselgeaneutt.csdirsytahataLnmteuehtitIecsfeemreotfobueasasd.LonPneltalscrtgwortTiiuhefueltrnnwiasriehedlragsaetstaeqeestuplltfosuebrhraaoeerPaaiuarnyvrfltisitced,enlohlt2raeebii0wln'astassh0tdrrioeeeatlhrdirfyleaesiRst ed-cockadadtNlhcfeehiioxriovddostemcliieermWefnaltaiphivgcistoltsaiyeeooAtatradteltieedmphnddce.reaeaisicaatflT.krvrlnfiseehiicndTrotcaiaieufsshehntslsiefawttswansfhticmosatolothrsetoelklhdeleoARofReadcaresxlnantapmoCCsrd.hcdvgswemaWWahlaspieRcuttotandhlkiitsrC'y'nbocaeoiaeissemaeigdsvWtr.ddthnrseeabaiutee-irnto'slguhtnqdessraiushioeueesnktptlfahaapouodiefeserrdeeregiseiecicntydrtytnhtieritgsleadirnehahnfaleoagareoiarngsttbrseno,tcesietnaet,oaslytt. typically found after a fire has burned off the 17 Predators, such as rat snakes and other woodpeckers, can significantly decrease nest success. In order to discourage predators RCW's often drill many small holes around their nest hole to release sap making it difficult for snakes to get into the nest. Longleaf Pine Sites to Visit: Jones Ecological Research Center Newton (224) 734-4706 Fort Stewart - Hinesville Carolina Bays range from 6 to 30 feet deep and from several acres to 6,000 acres in size. Due to varying water levels, the vegetation differs dramatically from one Bay to another. Some are characterized by cypress forests, others marsh and some shrub bogs. Georgia is home to more than 1,000 Carolina Bays, covering 250,000 acres. Carolina Bay Flatwoods Salamander Other Key Species: Sherman's Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger shermani) The largest North American squirrel Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polphemus) Threatened species Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon corais) Threatened Species Flatwoods Salamanders (Ambystoma cingulatum) Threatened Species Habitat Highlight: Carolina Bays A unique wetland feature of the Southeastern Coastal Plain is the Carolina Bay. Carolina Bays are oval or teardrop shaped wetlands oriented along a Northwest-Southeast axis, and are found from Maryland south to Georgia. Some support permanent lakes while others experience more irregular water levels. The unique distribution, shape and orientation of Carolina Bays have generated some interesting speculation about their origins. Some hypothesized that meteor showers caused craters, which then filled with water. This dramatic origin is supported by the similar alignment of the Bays, but no meteoric fragments have been found. A more probable hypothesis suggests that gale-force winds during the last glacial period scooped these depressions out of the sandy soil. Sandy ridges occurring on the eastern side of many Carolina Bays support this hypothesis. Whatever their origin, Carolina Bays along with cypress and gum ponds are important inland wetlands that provide habitat for a wide range of plants and animals. Carolina Bays are underlain by a clay layer that keeps the water from draining through the otherwise porous soil of the Coastal Plain. Carolina Bays tend to be isolated from other bodies of water, so their only access to water is rainfall. Water loss comes from evaporation and plant transpiration. 18 Carolina Bays tend to have some peat development, which is a layer of partially decomposed plant matter. Peat forms when plant production exceeds the rate of decomposition. Decomposition rates are slow in wetlands due to the lack of oxygen in the soil. Several Georgia Bays have peat deposits over 14 feet deep, the end product of about 9,000 years of plant decomposition. Peaty saturated soils tend to become highly acidic (pH 4.5) creating a stressful environment for plants, leading to a limited plant community. Plants that can thrive in these oxygen poor acidic soils are called hydrophilic or "water loving". Pond Cypress (Taxodium acendus) dominate in bays that are flooded for extended periods, while more irregularly flooded habitats maintain Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), Red Maple (Acer rubrum) and Pond Pine (Pinus serotina) as well. Pickerel Weed (Pontedara cordata) and Water Lily (Nymphoea stellata) dominate open water habitat. Though it may seem counterintuitive, fire plays an important role in the maintenance of Carolina Bays. During dry periods, peat becomes flammable, and lightning strikes can ignite fires that burn off woody vegetation and layers of peat. Historically, Bays probably burned about every 25 years, keeping them from growing over with vegetation. This is a great example of how a disturbance regime can play an important role in habitat maintenance. PW Aquatic Activities: Pond Succession. Fire Ecologies. Smoky Bear said what? Alligator Snapping Turtle Human impacts on Carolina Bays have been dramatic. Many have been drained and cut for farming and timber. Peat mining and fire suppression have both led to declining quality of our Carolina Bays. Carolina Bays offer an excellent place to learn about the importance of wetlands in the Georgia landscape. Unfortunately, wetlands are often viewed as inhospitable wastelands, dominated by things that bite, sting and otherwise impede human "progress". This attitude has led to a loss of more that 50% of our wetlands in the US and threatens many of our unique wetlands in Georgia. The benefits of wetlands are hard to overestimate. They provide critical habitat for many plant and animal species that could not survive in other habitats. They are also critical for water management as they absorb and store vast quantities of storm water, helping reduce floods and recharge aquifers. Not only do wetlands store water like sponges, they also filter and clean water as well, absorbing toxins and other pollutants. PW Aquatic Activity: Wetland metaphors. Key Animals: Altamaha Spinymussel The Altamaha Spinymussel (Elliptio spinosa) is found only in the Altamaha River drainage of Georgia. This animal reaches a length of about four inches, a height of nearly three inches and is dark greenish to black in color. What makes this species so interesting is the three to five, long spines that develop on each of its valves (shells). The spines begin growing when the mussel is a juvenile and can reach an inch or more in length. However, they often break off as the mussel gets older and many adult individuals show little evidence that a spine was ever there. It has been suggested that the spines help to anchor the mussel in the sandy habitats of the Altamaha River drainage. There are two or three additional "spinymussels" in North America 19 but none as large and handsome as the Altamaha Spinymussel. Key Animals: American Alligator The American Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) is our largest reptile in Georgia. Today it is rare for one to exceed 14 feet in length, but alligators have reached over 19 feet. Alligators have lived mostly unchanged for 180 million years, coexisting with and surviving the extinction of the dinosaurs. Until human settlement in the Southeast they remained the unchallenged rulers of swamps and bayous from Texas to North Carolina. Due to excessive hunting and wetland draining, American Alligators were placed on the Endangered Species list in the 1970's. In the last 30 years American Alligators have made a remarkable comeback, and there are currently an estimated 2 million Alligators in the southeastern United States. Alligators serve many important roles in the swamps of Georgia. They keep rodents and other grazing species under control. Alligators also create wallows, which stay wet even if the surrounding swamp dries out. These wallows or "gator holes" provide watery refuges for aquatic plants and animals that would otherwise dry up and die during times of drought. American Alligator PW Activity: Back from the Brink. Key Plants: Pond Cypress The Pond Cypress (Taxodium acendus) is the dominant tree in still water wetlands. The similar Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) prefers moving water wetlands. Both are impressive trees that can reach 150 feet tall and live over 900 years. They are deciduous conifers, shedding their needles in late November and re-growing them in March. Cypress require varying water levels at different stages of their life history. Cypress seeds need bare wet soil to germinate, while the adults dominate in flooded areas where other trees cannot survive. The most distinctive features of both Cypress species are the splaying buttresses at their base and the cypress knees projecting above the ground surface. The buttresses provide structural support in the muddy soils. It is thought that the knees may aid in gas exchange allowing oxygen to reach the roots despite saturated soils. Both species of Cypress are valuable timber species, and many of the states most impressive stands have been cut. The wood is of particular value due to its resistance to rot and insect infestation. Key Plants: Pitcher Plants Throughout the Coastal Plain, wherever there are bogs, wet savannas, low areas in Pine Flatwoods and other wetland habitats, a variety of Pitcher Plants (Sarracenia sp.) may be found. Pitcher Plants are a fascinating group of plants adapted to the low nutrient soils of wetlands. In order to meet their nutrient requirements, Pitcher Plants are carnivorous, feeding off a wide variety of insects. Georgia has 7 species of Pitcher Plants, some of which can be found in the Piedmont and Mountains but most are restricted to the Coastal Plain. All of our Pitcher Plants are protected due to concern over their declining populations. The Green Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia oreophila) is Federally Listed as an endangered species. 20 Sites to Visit: Big Hammock Natural Area Glennville (912) 986-5441 Radium Springs -Albany, Largest springs in State. Grand Bay Wetland Center Valdosta (229) 546-4094 Providence Canyon Conservation Park Lumpkin, (912) 838-6202 Okefenokee Swamp Folkston (912) 496-7836, (912) 637-5274 Pitcher Plant Bog Pitcher Plants have tube-shaped leaves (known as "the pitcher") that form a trap when partially filled with water. Insects are lured into the pitcher with sweet nectar. A waxy layer on the inside of the pitcher, coupled with many downward pointing hairs, makes it difficult for insects to escape. Once they fall into the water, they drown and are digested by enzymes the plants produce. Building a Pitcher Plant Bog is a fairly easy way to encourage children to observe these carnivorous plants close up. (See Web Resources page 30). Other Key Species: Alligator Snapping Turtle (Macroclemys temminckii) Our largest freshwater turtle, the Alligator Snapping Turtle is a species of concern in Georgia. It can reach 300 lbs in weight. Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis) Grazing disturbance helps maintain open prairie in Carolina bays and the Okefenokee. 21 Green Pitcher Plant BARRIER ISLANDS The Coastal Jewels Physical Landscape Surely the crown jewels of the Georgia coast are the undeveloped barrier islands. Due to a fascinating history of land ownership and farsighted conservation laws (The Marsh Protection Act) Georgia has the least disturbed coast on the eastern seaboard. Our coastline is roughly 110 miles long, stretching from the Savannah River in the north to the St. Mary's River in the south. The soils are typically sandy and habitat disturbances include wind, waves and tides. The Georgia Coast enjoys a subtropical climate with long hot summers and mild winters during which temperatures rarely fall below freezing. The coast receives 3050 inches of rain annually. Thunderstorms generate most of the summer rainfall as the Bermuda High Pressure system dominates the region keeping low-pressure storms away. There are 8 clusters of barrier islands off the coast of Georgia, four of which are accessible by car (Tybee, Sea, Jekyll, and St. Simons Islands). The remaining islands are more difficult to reach but are well worth the effort because they are much less developed than the accessible islands. These island clusters protect the mainland and salt marshes from the constant onslaught of wind and waves. Barrier Islands are, by their very nature, in a state of constant change, reshaped by the ongoing action of wind, currents and tides. Depending on the relative strengths of these three forces, barrier islands will assume radically different shapes. Even a cursory glance at a map illustrates the difference between the barrier islands of Georgia and those of the Carolinas. Georgia's Islands are generally rectangular in shape in sharp contrast to the narrow linear islands forming North Carolina's Outer Banks. Due to the location of Georgia in the heart of the South Atlantic Bight, a large indentation in the southeastern coastline stretching from Cape Hatteras in the north to Cape Canaveral in the south, and the continental shelf far off shore, Georgia's coastline is well protected from major storms, waves and currents. This protection, coupled with a fairly high tide range (7-9 feet), makes the daily tidal fluctuations the most important shaping force on our islands. Tidal currents generally run perpendicular to the coastline, forming wide, short islands from the sands and silts of the coastal sediments. These wide, short islands are called mesotidal islands. In sharp contrast, the North Carolina coast is exposed to the brunt of many Atlantic storms and has a much smaller tidal range than Georgia. This situation generates a strong longshore current running parallel to the coast that creates long narrow islands that are called microtidal islands. The short rectangular islands of the Georgia coast are more stable than the islands of North Carolina and have developed more extensive maritime forests. Our islands have been in roughly the same Little Tybee Island position for the last 4 -5,000 years. The actual formation of Barrier Islands requires a gently sloping continental shelf and a rising sea level. These two parameters were met in Georgia over the last 20,000 years, as sea levels rose from melting glacial ice at the end of the last glacial period. 22 Rising sea levels surrounded and isolated existing dunes, forming islands. Sediments carried downstream settled in behind these islands to form the rich salt marshes of the tidal zone. The typical form of our barrier islands includes a wide beach facing the open ocean, with slightly elevated dunes above the high-tide line. Behind and protected by these dunes is the maritime forest of the interior. Vast expanses of salt marsh stretch between the islands and mainland with scattered hammock forests protruding from the otherwise unbroken waves of saltmarsh cord grasses. Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus, an endangered species). Further evidence of life includes washed up coral fragments, shells, Sand Dollars (Dendraster excentricus) and seaweed. Glancing over the Atlantic Ocean itself often yields diving terns and pelicans, rafts of ducks and flocks of shorebirds. In winter Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus) may be seen diving from up to 50 feet above the surface. Dolphins are also commonly seen at points along the Georgia Coast. PW Aquatic Activity: Kelp Help Habitat Highlight: Beaches Constant wave action prohibits the establishment of plants along active beaches, and a quick glance might suggest a lifeless boundary between sand and water. Closer observation however reveals a more complex reality. Shorebirds continuously probing into the sand provide evidence of an invisible host of invertebrates beneath the uniform sands. Piping Plover Dark cylinders reminiscent of chocolate ice cream "sprinkles" surround the opening of Ghost Shrimp (Callianassa sp.) holes in the low tide zone. Ghost Crab (Ocypode ceratophthalmus) tracks and holes are also evident to the careful observer. These are white crabs up to 3 inches wide that scavenge along the upper beaches at night. The high-tide line of seaweed and driftwood is often hopping with Sand Fleas (Orchestia agilis) and provides cover for the elusive Habitat Highlight: Dunes As you walk inland from the beach towards the maritime forest, you will pass through distinct vegetative zones as the effects of direct wave action, salt-spray and wind diminish. The first plants you meet are the hardiest most salt tolerant species such as Sea Oats (Uniola paniculata), Pricklypear Cactus (Opuntia sp.) and Beach Morning Glory (Ipomea stolonifera). These plants can survive the harsh sandy landscape. They play an important role in stabilizing the Dunes with their extensive but shallow root systems. Plant cover and diversity generally increase as you move inland from the fore-dunes, across the dune meadow to the more stable back dunes. Wax Myrtle (Myrica ceriferus) shrubs will often form dense thickets on the back-dunes, both stabilizing the soil and providing habitat and food for wildlife such as wintering Yellow-rumped Warblers (Dendroica coronata). During storm surges, waves may break through and obliterate the protective dunes carrying saltwater inland. These washover events can form saltpans that are highly resistant to plant establishment. Few environments exhibit such an obvious struggle between plants and natural disturbances as the Dunes, where plants 23 constantly work to stabilize and winds and water to destabilize. Habitat Highlight: Maritime Forest Crossing into the back dunes and beyond you will enter the realm of the maritime forest. The maritime forests of the southern coast are as unique and enchanting as any other forest in the United States. The intricately gnarled Live Oaks (Quercus virginiana) cloaked in Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) and Resurrection Fern (Polypodium polypodioidies) and surrounded by Saw Palmetto (Serenoa repens) seems to be an anachronistic remnant of a slower and quieter past. The spreading canopy of Live Oak, Southern Pine (Pinus sp), Southern Magnolia (Magnolia grandifolia) and Cabbage Palm (Sabal palmetto) temper the harsh forces of wind and water that assault the dunes and beaches. Temperatures and winds are moderated under the tree canopy, which increases moisture levels and allows a dense understory of herbs and shrubs to develop. Spanish Moss and Resurrection Fern are both epiphytes, plants that live on other plants entirely independent of the soil. Typically epiphytes require humid environments where they can absorb moisture directly from the atmosphere, so they are more common in the humid tropics than temperate regions. In the understory dense clusters of Saw Palmetto provide excellent hiding places for Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), Georgia's most dangerous Key Species: Live Oak (Quercus virginiana) Georgia's State tree, the live oak is a magnificent tree that is often characterized by a broad spreading canopy. Live oaks are evergreen broadleaf trees with a small waxy leaf that protects them from salt spray and desiccation. snake, which hunts rabbits and other mammals across the Coastal Plain and islands. Live Oak and Spanish Moss Habitat Highlight: Salt Marshes A combination of heat, biting insects and the odor of decomposing vegetation can make salt marshes a challenging habitat to enjoy in the summer. During the cooler times of the year however, Salt Marshes are great places to visit, affording good views of many birds and other wildlife. Georgia contains one third of the Salt Marshes along the entire eastern seaboard. Vast expanses of marsh grasses live between the mainland and the protective barrier Bald Eagle islands all along the Georgia coast. The lack of plant diversity belies the incredible biological importance of coastal Salt 24 Marshes. They are some of the most productive systems on earth, producing vast amounts of biomass annually. They provide important habitat for a wide range of fish, shellfish and bivalves, many of which form important staples of the human diet. Many species of birds such as Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodius), Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Clapper Rails (Rallus longirostris) and various ducks and sparrows use these coastal marshes seasonally. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) regularly hunt the edges of salt marshes leaving their characteristic handprint tracks as evidence of their nocturnal forays. Salt Marsh and Hammock Salt Marshes form behind barrier islands where they are protected from the relentless wind and waves of the ocean. They also form along estuaries where rivers enter the ocean. Salinity of these marshes decreases as one moves farther inland, and one eventually finds an entirely fresh water marsh that is still tidal, as the fresh water backs up behind the tidal bulge of salt water closer to the coast. This salinity gradient offers a wide range of habitats for plants and animals. Salt Marshes exhibit some of the harshest environmental conditions of any Georgia ecosystem. As the tides ebb and flow, temperature, salinity and water levels drastically change. Plants and animals must be able to survive these environmental fluctuations if they are to last in the Salt Marsh. The star of the salt marsh is Cord grass (Spartina alterniflora), which is well adapted to surviving the rigors of life in the inter-tidal zone. Key Species: Cord Grass (Spartina alterniflora). Few species can handle the environmental hardships of tidal life. Temperature, salinity and water levels change drastically twice a day, and there is a complete lack of oxygen in the muddy soil. Spartina is ideally adapted to this life, and is essentially the only plant that can survive in the low marsh. Spartina absorbs oxygen through folds in its leaves, channeling it to the roots. Excess salt is secreted through pores along the leaves. If you slide a blade of Spartina between your fingers, you will wipe off a fine salty residue that the plant has emitted through its pores. Spartina plays a critical role in trapping and stabilizing sediment in the marsh. Without the grass, mud would rapidly erode away. Perwinkles (Littorina sp.) are salt-water snails that crawl up and down the Spartina, grazing on algae that grow on the leaves. Some suggest that these snails actually weaken the Spartina, making them more susceptible to environmental stresses. This has been raised as one idea explaining why many areas of coastal marsh are dying off. (To view this die-off, look at the Jericho River on I-95 just south of Savannah). Tidal creeks and streams meander through the marsh draining and flooding the salt marshes twice each lunar day. Though tides create a harsh environment, they also provide the sustaining nutrients and carry wastes from the entire system. Along these channels Oysters (Crassostrea virginica), Ribbed Mussels (Geukensia demissa) and Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus) can be found. PW Aquatic Activity: Marsh Munchers 25 Habitat Highlight: Reefs Probably the least known habitat in Georgia, and certainly the hardest to visit, is the reef ecosystem off the Georgia Coast. The largest example is called Gray's Reef, and it is located 17 miles offshore from Sapelo Island. If you imagine the Georgia (South Atlantic) Bight, the vast majority (> 95%) of the seafloor is composed of loose sediments that provide very little habitat for marine species. Any hard substrate on the sea floor allows animals and plants to attach, and forms an ecological island in an otherwise barren under water plain. Rocks or shipwrecks can provide a hard surface for reef formation. Ridges of sedimentary rock exposed on the sea floor form Gray's Reef. Though these ridges only rise about 6 feet off the sea floor, they form a critical substrate for soft corals and sponges to grow, attracting large numbers of marine fish, mammals and even reptiles. Burrowing marine worms dig through the soft rock, creating even more habitat. Due to the location of Gray's Reef, there are both tropical and temperate species found there. Temperate fish such as Sheepshead (Archosargus probatochephalus) share space with tropical reef fish, such as Angel Fish (Centropyge sp.) and Butterfly Fish (Chaetodon sp.). Several endangered species can be found at Gray's Reef. During the calving season, Atlantic Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis) have their young within the sanctuary and endangered Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta) feed on the sponges, whelks and crabs found on the reefs. Gray's Reef is so critical for marine wildlife that it was designated a National Marine Sanctuary in 1981. Attempts have been made to increase the amount of reef habitat off the Georgia coast. Divers have long known that shipwrecks are often great places to observe marine animals and plants, as the physical structure of the wreck provides habitat. This knowledge has led to the intentional sinking of ships, subway cars and artificial cement reef structures to provide habitat for fish and other species. Marine plants and animals rapidly colonize these artificial reefs. PW Aquatic Activity: Fishy Who's Who Key Animals: Manatee Manatee (Trichechus manatus) are fascinating, large endangered marine mammal that can be found off the Georgia coast between March and November. It is one of only 4 Sirenians (order Sirenia) in the world, a group of aquatic mammals that are closely related to elephants. Generally it is found in shallow coastal waters and up tidal rivers. Manatees eat Spartina (cord grass) as well as other emergent vegetation. The Manatee primarily stays in Florida though they do swim north to Georgia in spring and summer. They often bask near the surface, leading to frequent boat collisions and associated mortality. West Indian Manatee PW Aquatic Activity: Mermaids and Manatees 26 Northern Right Whale The Northern Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) is Georgia's state marine mammal, and is the most endangered whale in the world. Estimates put their population at around 350-400 individuals. The Right Whale is a baleen whale, meaning that it feeds by filtering vast amount of water through hundreds of baleen bristles hanging from its top jaw. Right Whales generally feed on tiny zooplankton called Calanoid Copepods off the coast of Cape Cod and Nova Scotia, and do not feed during their southward visit to Georgia and Florida where they calf. Northern Right Whale The Right Whale received its name from whalers because of the ease and profitability of hunting them. Right Whales are large and produce huge amounts of blubber. They are also slow and float once they are killed. This combination made them easy prey for early hunters, and their numbers rapidly declined until they were first protected in 1935. Today the most serious threats to the Right Whale are entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships. A communications network has been established to alert commercial vessels of the presence of Right Whales so that collisions can be averted. species that use the coast of Georgia and is the only one that regularly lays eggs on our beaches. The other species include the Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), Kemp's Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), Green (Chelonia mydas), and Hawksbill Sea Turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata). Sea Turtle's have navigated the world's oceans and beaches for more than 200 million years. Despite this remarkable longevity (surviving major catastrophes such as those triggering the dinosaur extinctions), most of the world's sea turtles are currently endangered or threatened. The Loggerhead Sea Turtle can reach 400 lbs in weight. It nests from North Carolina to Texas. Georgia averages between 1,000-1,300 nests annually between May and August. Female sea turtles usually return to the same beaches every time they nest (every 2-3 years after they reach 15-30 years old), these are often the same beaches where they hatched. Once young Loggerheads make it to the ocean they enter the north Atlantic gyre, a massive current that carries them clockwise around the entire north Atlantic. During the first 12 years of their lives, they stay in this current feeding at the surface and hiding from predators in floating mats of seaweed. When they leave the gyre, they become bottom feeders, eating mollusks, crabs and other invertebrates that they pluck from the sea floor. PW Aquatic Activity: When a Whale is Right. Whale of a Tail Loggerhead Sea Turtle The Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) is the most common of 5 sea turtle Loggerhead Sea Turtle Sea turtles face many challenges throughout their lives. A wide range of animals, including humans, predates turtle eggs. Once hatched young turtles have to make it to the ocean, running a gauntlet of predators. Once at sea new predators await, 27 and many are caught in fishing nets or suffocated from ingesting floating garbage. This array of threats leads to a remarkably high mortality rate, especially early in life. Biologists estimate that only about one in 1,000 eggs survive to reproductive age. PW Aquatic Activities: Sea Turtles International. Plastic Jellyfish. Here Today Gone Tomorrow. Turtle Hurdles. Waterfowl Though Georgia is not on one of the largest migratory flyways for waterfowl, a wide variety of ducks do winter in Georgia's lakes, marshes and islands. Wintering ducks offer a great opportunity for wildlife watching, and many sites along the coast and inland are suitable for field trips. Only four species of ducks nest in Georgia. They are: Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula), Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos) and Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus). During the winter however, many more species can be found. Sea Ducks and mergansers, as their name suggests tend to winter off the coast of Georgia, and can be viewed from beaches in Redhead winter. These include various species of Scoter (Melanitta sp.) and Red-breasted Mergansers (Mergus serrator). Diving Ducks, or Bay Ducks, can also be seen along the coast, but tend towards large inland lakes, such as lake Seminole, where they stay in deep water, diving for fish. Bay Ducks include Scaup (Aythya sp.), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) and Canvasback (Aythya valisineria). The Dabbling Ducks are most commonly seen, as they tend to stay in water shallow enough to "tip-up" and reach the bottom. Dabblers include Northern Shovelers (Anas clypeata), Mallard and Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors). Stiff-tailed ducks are the last group and only one species makes it to Georgia: the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). PW Activity: No Water off a Ducks Back. Migration Headache. Coastal Sites to Visit: (By Car) Colonial Coast Birding Trail Map on page 34 Tybee Island 4-H Camp (912) 786-5534 Skidaway Island State Park - Savannah (912) 598-2300 Oatland Island Education Center (912)-898-3980 Jekyll Island 4-H Center (912) 635 4115 Harris Neck National Wildlife Refuge (912) 652-4415 (By Boat) ROesdsahbeaadwDIsulacknd info@ossabawisland.org Cumberland Island (888) 817-3421 Sapelo Island Environmental Education Center (912) 485-4094 28 REFERENCES Brown, Fred, 1998. Highroad Guide to the Georgia Mountains. The Georgia Conservancy. Earley, Lawrence S. 1993. North Carolina Wild Places: A closer look. North Carolina Wildlife Resources Division, Raleigh, North Carolina Godfrey, Michael A. 1980. A Sierra Club Guide to the Piedmont. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. Mitchell, Sarah. 2002. Carolina Bay: Access Guide, The Natural Communities of Georgia. Mitchell, Sarah. 2002. Coastal Waters: Access Guide, The Natural Communities of Georgia. Mitchell, Sarah. 2002. Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Community: Access Guide, The Natural Communities of Georgia. Patrick, T., Allison, J., and Krakow G., 1995. Protected Plants of Georgia, Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources. Protected Animals of Georgia. 1999. Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources Pielou. E. C. 1991. After the Ice Age: The return of life to glaciated North America. University of Chicago Press. Wharton, Charles H. 1978. The Natural Environments of Georgia. Geologic and Water Resource Division, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Atlanta Georgia. Wilson, James (editor). The Fire Forest: Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Ecosystem. Natural Georgia Series. Volume 8, Number 2. Georgia Wildlife Federation Ray, Janisse, 2000. Ecology of a Cracker Childhood. Milkweed Editions. Schoettle, Taylor. 1996. A Guide to a Georgia Barrier Island: featuring Jekyll Island, with St. Simons and Sapelo Islands. Watermarks Publishing, St. Simons Island, GA. Teal, John and Mildred, 1991 Life and Death of a Salt Marsh. Ballatine Books. The Georgia Environmental Education Teacher Resource Guide: Environmental Education Alliance of Georgia Guide to all nature centers in the state Web Page Resources: Atlanta Audubon Society www.atlantaaudubon.org Carolina Bay information http://thumper.valdosta.edu:8001/gb/Guide.htm Cornell Lab of Ornithology web site. This offers many excellent citizen science projects that schools can get involved with, such as Project Feeder Watch. http://birds.cornell.edu/ Freshwater Mussels information and pictures http://courses.smsu.edu/mcb095f/gallery/ Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources www.georgiawildlife.com Georgia Museum of Natural History http://museum.nhm.uga.edu/gawildlife/gaww.ht ml Georgia Ornithological Society www.gos.org Clearinghouse for Environmental Education in Georgia. www.eeingeorgia.org Journey North offers a migration program that schools can become involved in. http://www.learner.org/jnorth/ Pitcher plant bog instructions www.uga.edu/~botgarden/GEPSN2d.html Real bird population data for most North American species. http://www.mp2-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/ - State Park website http://georgia.com/parks/ 29 APPENDICES Appendix A: The top ten exotic pest plants in Georgia: Kudzu (Pueraria Montana), Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), Bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), Autumn olive or silverberry (Elaeagnus umbellate), Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis), Mimosa (Albizia julibrissin). Appendix B: Georgia State Symbols Reptile Gopher Tortoise Marine Mammal Atlantic Right Whale Bird Brown Thrasher Game Bird Bobwhite Quail Tree Live Oak Flower Cherokee Rose Fish Largemouth Bass Butterfly Tiger Swallowtail Gem Quartz Insect Honeybee Seashell knobbed whelk Wildflower Azalea Mineral - Staurolite State Fossil Sharks tooth State Vegetable Vidalia Onion State Fruit Peach State Crop Peanuts Appendix C: Citizen Science Activities for School Groups: Georgia Adopt-a-Stream Monitoring program for stream invertebrates and water quality. (404) 675-1636 http://www.riversalive.org Project Feeder Watch Winter-long bird count. Starts 2nd Saturday of November. Longest running citizen science project (since 1976). Receive a research kit. Data forms, posters, basic birding information http://birds.cornell.edu Great Backyard Bird Count Collect data in mid-February to help track population trends for common wintering species. Web site has helpful bird identification and bird feeding tips. For more information visit www.birdsource.com The Birdhouse Network Build or buy bird boxes for cavity nesting species. Bluebirds, Chickadees, nuthatches, tree swallows, titmice, wrens etc... Students can monitor nests throughout breeding season, collect data, send to Cornell Lab of Ornithology. For more information: http://birds.cornell.edu/birdhouse Project Pigeon Watch: Urban bird research to help scientists discover why pigeons come in so many colors. http://birds.cornell.edu For plans to build your own bird houses http://www.choosefreedom.com/birdhouse.h tml 30 Appendix D: Curriculum Aids Audubon Adventures 4-6th grade curriculum. A classroom kit includes materials for 32 students: Student Newspaper, lesson plans, tips for outdoor study, hands on activities and guide to a healthy schoolyard. www.atlantaaudubon.org Friends of Feathered Fliers, Interactive Educational Activity Box: FREE Includes: Videos, binoculars, bird eggs, nests, lesson plans, books, posters. Sign out from local nature centers around state. For information for locations: www.partnersinflight.org The Georgia Conservancy Native Seasons Curriculum and teacher workshops www.georgiaconservancy.org Georgia Youth Science and Technology Centers: 13 regional centers to help science teachers http://www.spsu.edu/gystc/home.html Project Wet Water education resources for teachers. K-12 (404) 675-1638 Project Learning Tree Georgia Forestry Commission K-12 Forest education (912) 751-3528 Environmental Education in Georgia Web Site. Wealth of information and lesson plans. www.eeingeorgia.org Appendix E: Develop Schoolyard wildlife habitat Several organizations help schools develop wildlife habitat in schoolyards for education and conservation. Atlanta Audubon Society www.atlantaaudubon.org Georgia Wildlife Federation www.gwf.org National Wildlife Federation http://www.nwf.org/schoolyardhabitats/ For funding ideas visit: http://birds.cornell.edu/schoolyard/teaching_ css Special Thanks Chris Skelton for the Crayfish and Altamaha Spinymussel accounts. Linda May, Ken Riddleberger Walter Lane, and Alice Keyes for advice and editing. Eric VandeGenachte for accessing photographs. Kitty Esco for accessing artwork. Artists J.B. Burch, Michael Frick, David Lanier, Richard Parks, Chris Skelton, Jennifer Smith, Mrs. Barlow, Vicky Holifield Photo Credits Jim Allison: Carolina Bay, Marsh Hammock, Tallulah Gorge Jon Ambrose: Longleaf Pine, Cloudland Canyon 31 Cumberland Plateau Georgia's Physiographic Regions Ridge and Valley Blue Ridge Atlanta Piedmont Augusta Fall Line Macon Columbus Coastal Plain Albany Savannah Coast and Islands 32 Colonial Coast Birding Trail 33 Georgia River Basin Map 34