(. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. .: : - : : - - - THE COU SELl G : : : : : SERVICE : UIDA CE FOR GEO lA SCHOOLS I ST TE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CLAUDE PURCEll SUPER IHTEND EtH ATLANTA I GEORGIA THE COUNSELING SERVICE WILLIAM L. HITCHCOCK Copyright 1964 By Georgia State Department of Education Atlanta, Georgia 30303 GEORGIA STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION JAMES S. PETERS, Chairman HENRY A. STEWART, Vice-Chainnan CLAUDE PURCELL, Executive Secretary MEMBERS FIRST CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT - - - - J. BRANTLEY JOHNSON SECOND CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT - - ROBERT BYRD WRIGHT, JR. THIRD CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT - - - - THOMAS NESBITT, JR. FOURTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT JAMES S. PETERS FIFTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT DAVID F. RICE SIXTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT McGRATH KEEN SEVENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT HENRY A. STEWART EIGHTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT LONNIE E. SWEAT NINTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT CLIFF C. KIMSEY, JR. TENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT ZACK DANIEL TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ------------------ ---- 1 Nature and Importance of the Counseling Service------------------- 1 Needed Counselor Concepts in Counseling ------------------------------ 3 Principles of Counseling ------------------------------------------------------ 4 Developmental Steps in Counseling -----------------------------------------11 Approaches in Counseling ----------------------------------------------------------14 The Directive Approach in Counseling The Non-Directive Approach in Counseling The Eclectic Approach in Counseling The Self-Adjustment Approach in Counseling Factors Affecting the Counselor's Approach ---------------------------28 Summary -------------------------------------------------30 Bibliography ------------------------------------------31 References ------------------------------------------------------------------------32 THE COUNSELING SERVICE INTRODUCTION Counseling, as defined by the writer, is a very personal and a highly purposeful interaction between two individuals in which one, the counselor, helps the other, the counselee, in changing himself or his environment. This service purports to assist students in effecting these changes. The counseling service is the hub in the wheel of the organized program of guidance services. Around this SPrvice revolves the other services in an organized guidance program. Into the counseling service goes the information resulting from the student analysis and the informational services. Out of the counseling service comes the need for placement and follow-up in the next step and evaluation of the choices and decisions made in the counseling session. According to Hitchcock (3, 10): In this service the counselor assists the pupil in making sound and workable decisions based on the understanding that the pupil has concerning himself and the knowledge he has of the difficulty he is experiencing. One may now begin to see the significance of the pupil analysis and the informational services in the guidance process. The knowledge of self and the knowledge of the difficulty the pupil is experiencing are put together into a harmonious pattern. Out of the counseling situation come decisions needing action. The true value of the guidance service is judged from what takes place in the counseling service. The counselor must call upon the many skills and competencies at his command in leading the pupil to think critically through his difficulty and to reach a realistic decision. The counseling service in guidance makes provisions for students to express fully and completely their concerns with one who will listen and will assist in helping the student in achieving a workable solution to these concerns. This service, in effect, constitutes the medium through which the unique function of guidance is realized, that of helping students in resolving their problems. NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE COUNSELING SERVICE As the focal service in the program of organized ~idance ser- vices, the counseling service alone provides the medium through which the student may, with the help of the counselor, assess his personal characteristics in relation to the environmental factors and choose an intelligent course of action. Implied here and in the concept of counseling are some distinguishing marks of this service. It is a very personal relationship between two peo:{>le. We know that the individual student is different and unique. This being true, his personal characteristics are so varied that they must be dealt with in a one-to-one relationship for the outcomes of counseling to 2 THE COUNSELING SERVICE be effective. In this very personal counseling relationship between student and counselor, acceptance and understanding on the part of both parties become critical factors in the counseling process. Acceptance on the part of the student means that faith and trust abound in the counselor as a person who is competent to assist with his concern. Confidence is also reflected in the counselor on the part of the student when help is sought as a result of acceptance. A feeling of permissiveness is present where the student feels safe from criticism and rejection, if he accepts the counselor. Acceptance by the counselor means that he respects the worth and integrity of the student. This is reflected in his willingness to accept each student as an individual needing aid with a concern with which he is not capable to resolve. Counselor acceptance also implies a warm relationship accompanied by a sincere naturalness on the part of the counselor and. a complete devotion to the concern of the student. Understanding on the part of the student is a sign that the counselor has been successful in the structural procedures that were employed in the face-to-face situation. Of significance also is the fact that students are aware of the :role of guidance and, more specifically, the role of the counselor prior to the counseling session. It may also be said that an attitude conducive to a desirable counseling climate has been created when there is evidence of understanding on the part of the student. In a nutshell, understanding on the part of the student insures an initial readiness for counseling. The counselor's understanding, which may have effected the student's thinking and understanding, may be considered from another point of view. The ability to insightfully perceive what the student is thinking and how he feels about the situation with which he is faced is a sign of understanding on the part of the counselor. This means that the counselor is able to stand off and help a student realistically look at himself in an objective way. The extent to which the counselor is able to be empathic will be reflected in the quality of interpersonal relationships existing in the counseling session. Another distinguishing mark of the counseling service is that it is a purposeful relationship. A desired purpose of counseling is learning, learning on the part of the student and the counselor. The mere fact that the student is seeking assistance from the counselor is evidence that learning has taken place. He realizes that a perplexity is present that is blocking his progress toward the attainment of a goal. A realization of this prompts him to seek aid from the counselor. In the counseling situation, the student is led to assess his personal characteristics. As he better understands himself, learning is taking place. The same is true when the student is considering the available opportunities and/or alternatives that are possible to the solution of the difficulty he is experiencing. Self-direction, selfreliance, and self-discipline of the student is the desired end result of the counseling service and guidance in general. Thus, counseling is learning for the student as he learns new and better ways of thinking about himself, his problems, and his plans. THE COUNSELING SERVICE 3 Learning accrues for the counselor in many ways as he works with each case. Since individuals differ, the counselor has to adopt and adapt a variety of techniques in dealing with individual students. Although counselors use common techniques for collecting and interpreting pertinent information about students, they select specific techniques for certain students. These learning experiences for the counselor are similar in the counseling situation. Here he has to be able to play by ear, adjust, and modify the strategy and plans as the counseling interview progresses with the student. Closely associated with learning as a characteristic of the counseling service is change. The basic assumption underlying the very existence of counseling is the necessity for change on the part of the one seeking this service. Change producing the desired adjustment on the part of the client is what the counselor is striving for as he works with students. Change in behavior, attitude, thinking, and perception are significant indicators for counselors and others to use in determining the adequacy of the counseling service. NEEDED COUNSELOR CONCEPTS IN COUNSELING The effectiveness of the counselor in the counseling service stems to a degree from a solid foundation of basic concepts and ideas which, through experience, have proven successful. Many of these ideas are originally learned in the counselor's training program, while others are learned through actual experiences. The ensuing concepts should serve as useful guides for counselors and teachers in the counseling relationship. When the counselor is helping students with educational and occupational concerns, a list of pertinent questions common to these problem areas may be used effectively. Such a procedure would prevent the overlooking of important information. In these problem areas, as well as others, the counselor must urge the student to think out loud in order to gain needed insights. These questions and suggestions will aid the counselor in directing, to an extent, the conversation, thus revealing important information and helping to identify fully the situation in which the student finds himself. Not only are the verbal clues and information of significance, but the non verbal behaviors resulting from these questions have a bearing on his outlook toward himself and his environment. Counseling and advice are not synonymous. There is, however, a place for advice in the counseling process. When information is needed to help a student with a choice, he may be advised accordingly. Advice is also effective when used in various phases of the school's orientation program. As a practice in the areas of motivation, advice can be very helpful. However, when it comes to the point of actual decision making, one must be cautious of the advice that is given. Dressel had this to say concerning advice and counseling. "Advice is like kissing; it costs nothing and is a pleasant thing to do. While I do not believe counseling is synonymous with giving advice, the analogy, nevertheless, has some relevance. Counseling has further similarities to kissing in that (1) everyone feels qualified to practice 4 THE COUNSELING SERVICE kissing and almost everyone does at some time, (2) the objectives of kissing are usually not clearly stated but are not entirely intangible, and (3) kissing in itself is apt to be so satisfying that there is little tendency to evaluate it otherwise." Many of the counselor-student contacts are of a short contact nature and time is of essence. The skilled counselor will know when advice should be given and when to avoid advice-giving. In so doing, however, the counselor must constantly be aware of the Socrates story. "Socrates was a Greek. Socrates gave advice to his people. The people poisoned Socrates." In counseling, an open ear may be just as important as an open mouth. Effective counseling does accrue in many situations when the counselor is a good listener and lends an understanding ear to the student. This is extremely important when the student is in a state of extreme anxiety. Urge the student to get his feeling out in the open. As a general rule, concerns of a personal and emotional nature lend themselves well to these approaches. The counselor's frank, honest, sincere, and tactful approach in counseling pays dividends. Care must be exercised not to hurt the student's feelings. This does not mean that he cannot be told the truth. Be frank, but do it in such a manner that he can accept it. In helping the student in any counseling situation, the counselor must aid the student to appraise himself realistically. There are times when this is a very difficult task, particularly if the student's concept of himself is out of touch with reality. In leading the student to see and accept himself as he really is, counseling diplomacy is equally as important as counseling skill. In counseling, ability rather than di~ability counts. The assets of the student should be fully utilized in developing courses of action. Counselors must continually be cautious not to emphasize the student's liabilities to the neglect of his strong points. Bring out the things the student is able to do well and do not leave him with impressions of things in which he is weak. Constructive suggestions should be given the student as to ways of increasing his strong points, as well as remedying his weaknesseb. PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELING School counselors need to have a thorough understanding of some basic principles underlying the counseling process. It is true that counseling must proceed from the unknown to the known, but the process is made easier if school counselors are aware of and incorporate certain principles of counseling in the process of counseling. The following principles should serve as guidelines to more effective counseling and counselor-student relationships as the counselor applies these in counseling contacts. A brief description of the counseling principles follows: THE COUNSELING SERVICE 5 1. THE STUDENT IS THE MASTER OF HIS FATE IN THE COUNSELING PROCESS This may sound odd to many people who do not understand the role and function of the school counselor in counseling. To many, even school personnel, the school counselor is viewed as the school's "fixit person". Seemingly, the thought is present that the student walks into the counselor's office in a maladjusted state and walks out as a well adjusted individual. This could possibly happen, but it is not that simple in working with the student - a dynamic personality. School counselors must keep in mind that the student must initially or very early in the counseling session, be aware of his difficulty and actively seek help from him in resolving his difficulty before positive progress may take place. If the student, the client, is not in this frame of mind initially, it is the school counselor's job to attempt to bring him to this point. In doing this, the counselor must know what to do and what not to do. The student will decide just how far he wants to go with the school counselor. If a readiness is not present on the part of the counselee, he will resist and block the efforts of the counselor to proceed in the counseling process. The student, then, cannot be forced or pushed into a counseling relationship. If the student blocks or talks about unrelated topics everytime the counselor wants to come close to him, it is a clear indication that he is not yet ready to accept assistance. The law of human relations is very definite that one cannot help one who does not want help. School counselors can only offer their services. The approach employed in getting the student, the client, to the counselor is very important in the counseling relationship. Student or client self-referral is indicative that the student or client realizes a concern with which help and assistance is needed and wanted. Teachers and/or other referral may or may not be indicative of this frame of reference on the part of the student or client. School counselors must establish a readiness for counseling, in any event, to proceed with counseling in order to be effective in the counseling relationship. In all counseling situations, the student or client is paramount and his feelings and attitudes regulate the progress of the counseling process. In the final analysis then, the student-client is the primary regulator in counseling. 2. THE COUNSELOR MUST RESPECT THE INTEGRITY OF AND BE WILLING TO WORK WITH THE STUDENT The right of the student to be himself is a very important part of the counseling process. He should realize his uniqueness. One of the greatest challenges of the school counselor in his relationship to the student is the true recognition of the worth of the student and to respect this uniqueness in the counseling process. The concept the student has of himself, the values he presently 6 THE COUNSELING SERVICE holds, the goals and ideals he has which will influence his present and future are all a part of him as a result of his experiences in his environment. These have been developed in his quest to maintain self, and cannot be overlooked lightly as counseling proceeds. In attempting to enhance and maintain self, the student may have an entirely different concept of himself than others about him. If this is true, the task of working with him is made more difficult. If the student's concept is in harmony with those about him, the task of working intelligently with him is made much easier. The student's self concept, realistic or unrealistic, is his way of effectively coping with his environment and must be dealt with accordingly in the reality-facing and counseling process. Accepting, respecting, and being willing to work with the student within the framework of his own self concept is an important principle school counselors must follow in counseling. 3. IN COUNSELING, A RESPECT FOR THE EMOTIONAL COMPONENTS INFLUENCING STUDENT BEHAVIOR IN HIS ENVIRONMENT IS IMPERATIVE In order to help the student, counselors must get below his surface statements and attempt to understand him in the setting in which he lives. This means that school counselors must have some impressions of the emotional forces influencing the student as he operates in his environment. In counseling, this understanding helps the counselor to move at the student's pace rather than at the counselor's pace. The student experiencing personal and emotional concerns will have difficulty in facing school problems as long as these concerns persist, and/ or the counselor has an understanding of the emotional tones blocking the progress of counseling. Individuals, however, differ in their ability to withstand their frustrations and seemingly attack their outer concerns logically even in face of the emotional tensions being experienced. Nevertheless, in counseling, the counselor who is cognizant of the student's feelings can move at a pace commensurate with that of the student. A further point of interest to counselors in counseling is that no set procedure can be used with all cases. This point will be discussed in another principle; however, it is well to bring out this fact as it relates directly to the present principle. 4. THE INNER FEELINGS AND OUTWARD EXPRESSIONS OF THE STUDENT IN THE COUNSELING SESSION, WARRANTED OR UNWARRANTED, ARE MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE FACTS The student's feeling about himself, his life, and about people are more important than the facts. It would accomplish little for the counselor to respond to the student's statement, "I hate my mother," with a statement such as, "but look your mother is a wonderful woman." "She has done many things for you, so you don't THE COUNSELING SERVICE 7 really hate her. Do you?" The counselor doesn't help a situation of this nature by arguing the facts. As long as the student says he hates his mother, the counselor has to go alon~ on the basis of his feelings, not the outward expressions. This is an mtellectual process by which the counselor attempts to change the student's emotional feelings and expressions. If the student is convinced that his mother doesn't love him, the counselor has to take it from this point and move forward accordingly. There are reasons why he feels as he does at the present time, although the school counselor realizes this is a passing fancy. As counseling proceeds, a different attitude will probably be taken by the student. In evaluating the personality of the student with which the counselor is working, the counselor must be aware that the inner and/or initial feelings and outward expressions are more important in the counseling process than the facts. 5. AN ABOVEBOARD POLICY MUST GOVERN THE COUNSELOR-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP IN COUNSELING There are some ethical considerations associated to this principle. In all counseling situations, the school counselor's responsibilities are primarily to the student and he should guard his welfare zealously. The school counselor carries out these responsibilities within the framework of the school organization with whom he is associated and in accordance with the society of which he is a part. Another important consideration concerns the information about the student gamed in the counseling situation by the school counselor. The school counselor must treat this information as confidential and disclose it only to those in the school setting who normally have access to the student's file. The student should be told who these people are who will have access to the file. Any departure from this normal procedure must be made with the consent of the student. If the school counselor would like to talk with the student's parents or anyone else about his concern, he owes the student the respect of his permission to discuss the case with them. If the nature of the information clearly indicates imminent danger to a human being or to society, the school counselor should carefully weigh the evidence and reveal such information as is necessary to the proper person or persons and agency. A much discussed point of ethics involves the method of gathering and using information in teaching or writing. If a counseling session is to be recorded, the consent of the student must be gained. Information gained in a counseling session should be used in teaching or writing only if J.>E!rmission has been granted by the student, or when the information is disguised to the point that it could not be recognized. If this is done, school counselors should be certain that the case in point cannot be identified. It is well to remember that the relationship between the counselor and the student involves, or has as its goal, helping the student to express himself and resolve his concern. This relationship I ... THE COUNSELING SERVICE will only take place if the student feels comfortable and has confidence in the counselor. If the student has the feeling that such an atmosphere is not present, the relationship will be destroyed. 6. HONESTY PLUS FRANKNESS MUST PERVADE THE GIVING OF ASSURANCE AND/OR REASSURANCE TO THE STUDENT In many counseling situations, the following three steps may be performed by the school counselor. First, ask the student to tell his story. Here the counselor is able to find out what is possibly bothering the student, and gain the needed insights into the difficulty. Second, ask the student what he thinks he should do about this difficulty. In many instances the student has given quite a lot of thought to his concern, and has decided what he wants to do about it. Therefore, possibly all he wants from the school counselor is assurance and reassurance that he is on the right track. The school counselor can determine here the realistic thinking the student has done and explore other alternative choices if- these have been bypassed. Third, the school counselor can assist the student in an action program for carrying out the decision or choice to alleviate the difficulty and check on the adjustment resulting from the program. Never give invalid reassurance. In many instances, there is no possibility that everything will work out and be rosy for the student. In these situations it would serve no useful purpose to say, "If you buckle down you can make A's", or "Brace up, everything will work out fine." The counselor may say these things if there are valid reasons to make such statements of reassurance. Be frank; but tactful, otherwise, the counseling relationship will suffer. 7. THE EXTENT OF PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIP ESTABLISHED BETWEEN THE COUNSELOR AND THE STUDENT IN THE COUNSELING SESSION DETERMINES, TO A MAJOR DEGREE, THE SUCCESS OF THE COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP As a helping profession. the core of the principles discussed here will probably succeed or fail on the school counselor's ability to establish a professional relationship with the student. The content of such a relationship is not only intellectual, but emotional as well. As was intimated in the concept of counseling, this is a dynamic relationship between counselor and student. The flow of emotional interplay between counselor and student is great, and cannot be handled adequately in an intellectual vein alone. In establishing such a relationship, the school counselor should constantly remember that he is not a judge. In helping students with their concerns, the counselor does not condemn nor does he condone; but through his feelings, his actions, and his words he helps the student to realistically face the difficulty he is experiencing and come to a workable solution of the problem. For example, suppose the young student musters enough courage to tell the school counselor that she is pregnant, or that he is in serious difficulty with his girl friend. It would of course be difficult not to show surprise, THE COUNSELING SIRVICE 9 resentment, or contempt for their behavior. However, such signs as these are negative to the student, and will kill the professional relationship. A rejecting expression, inwardly or outwardly, by the counselor will sever the existing relationship at a time when the student is in dire need of assistance. In situations such as these, as well as in similar ones, the ability of the counselor to exhibit a calm and friendly attitude provides an atmosphere conducive to a real relationship for the student. The student, then, has a feeling that he is in a situation that is safe for expressing his feelings and attitudes without fear of rejection and criticism. When such feelings and attitudes are present, the chances of leading the student to a better adjustment are greatly increased. 8. THE EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR IS ABLE TO ADAPT, ADOPT, AND MOVE IN THE COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP ACCORDING TO THE DEMANDS OF THE SITUATION In counseling, the counselor must be flexible-flexible in that he is able to shift gears should the situation warrant a shift or change as counseling proceeds. Flexibility of the counselor in the counseling situation is not to be confused as being synonymous with one who is vacillatory. Whenever possible, the school counselor should prepare for the counseling session whether 1t be the initial or the follow-up session. For the initial counseling interview, the counselor will normally give quite a lot of thought to the total process of counselng from establishing rapport to terminating the counseling contact. In reviewing the student's guidance folder and cumulative record, the counselor will, in all likelihood, formulate some vrocedures and plans for beginning and carrying through to completion the counseling relationship. In the follow-up sessions the counselor will review the counseling notes, and reflect on what happened during the preceding interviews. In so doing, the counselor will again anticipate procedures and make plans for future contacts. In both situations, the initial and follow-up counseling interviews, the procedures and plans should not be so rigid that the counselor cannot change his procedures and plans as the situation warrants. In the structuring phases of the counseling relationship, the counselor specifically discusses his responsibilities as well as the role of the student in counseling. In bringin~ this out, along with the possibile expectations the student may rece1ve from counseling, the counseloT is again pointing to the directon or setting up the guidelines of the future counseling sessions. The structure should not be so stringent that the counselor could- not depart from it should the situation demand such a departure. 9. IN COUNSELING, AS IN OTHER HELPING PROFESSIONS, THERE IS THE POSSIBILITY OF FAILURE; AND THIS MUST BE ACCEPTED BY THE COUNSELOR School counselors are not magicians nor prophets; therefore; they should not expect to be successful in every counseling endeavor. T 10 . THE COUNSELING SERVICE H the counselor has adequately equipped himself professionally and has given his all to the case in point in the counseling relation ship, no one could ask more. Therefore, the counselor should not have feelings of guilt when he is unsucc~>~~ful in helping a student to adjust to his environment. Professionally trained counselors are well aware of the fact that they are not competent to deal with all concerns that come their way. Knowing their limitations, they do not hesitate to refer a student when the concern is outside their area of competence. Realizing their primary responsibility is to the student and his welfare, they will refer the student with no thought or feeling of failure. Referral is not a way of escaping responsibility. It is a way of helping the student to a better adjustment. There are many school counselors who -have a tendency to hold on to a student too long when referral is indicated. Also, there are counselors who have a tendency to refer too hurriedly. The decision to refer is a judgment of the counselor based on the knowledge he has of his competencies in relation to the concern of the student. Evaluatwn is a key factor in this principle. All school counselOrs must continually evaluate themselves as to the problem areas in which they feel competent and the degree of that competency. They must also qualitatively evaluate the degree of their effectiveness in working with students on various concerns. Both the self evaluation and an evaluation of their work will enable counselors to better accept this principle as a guideline in counseling. 10. A SENSE OF PROFESSIONALISM AND JUDGMENT MUST PERMEATE THE COUNSELOR'S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE STUDENT School counselors must keep in mind that the professional relationship between their students and them is a very human relationship. This relationship cannot be taken lightly because of the sacredness of human personality. In carrying out the highest standards of professional excellence, the school counselor is obligated to respect the integrity and protect the student's welfare in all of their professional relationships. The counselor's responsibilities in the counseling setting, although primary to the student with whom he works, involve relationships with the school staff with whom he also works, with the society of which he is a part, and with the counselor himself as a member of the counseling profession. In all of these professional relationships, the counselor should be aware of the code of ethics of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, the National Education Association, and the local and state professional organizations. These guides will assist counselors in maintaining a high level of ethical practice in their professional activities. Wrenn (13,503-515) had this to say in relation to the c"unselor's ethical practices: THE COUNSELING SERVICE 11 I will respect the integrity of each individual with whom I deal. I will accord him the same right to self-determination that I want for myself. I will respect as something sacred the personality rights of each person, and I will not attempt to manipulate him or meddle in his life. I will define my personal and ethical responsibility to my client as well as my legal and vocational responsibility to my organization and to society. I work for both the group to which I am responsible and for each individual that I serve as a client. This dual responsibility must be defined and understood by my employees and by myself. DEVELOPMENTAL STEPS IN COUNSELING When the student seeks assistance from the school counselor on a concern he is experiencing, there are definite steps the counselor may follow. Generally, the five major developmental steps in working with a student in a counseling situation may be listed as: (1) establishing a counseling atmosphere, (2) determining the concern for consideration, (3) exploring the possible alternatives or plan to follow, (4) planning a course of action, and (5) terminating the counseling session. 1. ESTABLISHING A COUNSELING ATMOSPHERE Establishing an atmosphere of mutual friendliness and confidence so the student may express himself freely is an important task of the counselor. Frequently, rapport may be established through a casual conversation about a topic of interest to the &tudent. This is particularly true when the student and counselor kno.w each other. Building rapport in such situations is a matter of renewing the relationship and increasing the mutual trust and confidence. Although prior acquaintance is advantageous to the counselor in that he has a better understanding of the student, he must be on guard against pre-conceived ideas and attitudes concerning the student. If this is the first meeting between counselor and stuuent, it may take more time to establish a favorable working relationship. In such cases, neither the counselor nor the student have any preconceived attitudes toward each other, which may be considered to be favorable. Here, both parties are open to suggestions and possibilities. The counselor should encourage the student to talk freely. If he is reluctant, the counselor may lead the conversation initially and draw the student into the conversation through questions and suggestions which make it easy for him to respond. In both situations, an atmosphere conducive to an effective working relationship is dependent upon the skill of the counselor to adjust to the particular situation. Occasionally, counselors have students seeking their services who have unfavorable attitudes toward counseling because of previous counseling experiences. If these attitudes cannot be changed, l 12 THE COUNSELING SERVICE the counselor must refer the student to another counselor who would be able to establish rapport and enter into an effective counseling relationship. 2. DETERMINING THE CONCERN FOR CONSIDERATION After rapport has been established, the counseling interview proceeds to a consideration of the concern the student is experiencmg. In many instances, this is a very easy task. For example, the student who previously has had favorable experiences in counseling sessions will reveal the concern very early in the interview. This is particularly true when the student comes to the counselor on his own initiative. When the student is called in, the concern is again evident as a result of information gained through a review of the records, or being told by the referral person. In situations of this nature, the student may or may not be fully aware of the concern to be discussed. If he is not aware of why he is in the counseling situation, the counselor must make sure he understands the purpose of his being there. There are times when a student feels that something is out-ofgear, but has difficulty in pin-pointing tlle concern. Here the student and counselor will attempt through exploration to determine the difficulty. In these situations, the counselor could begin working in the academic area and as counseling progresses the real concern of the student may come into focus. Even if the assumption that the difficulty is academic in nature is false, very little or no harm would result from having dealt with it. This, however, would not be true in other areas of concern. In any event, the concern to be considered must be clearly identified. A counseling session that is aimless and without purpose is frustrating to the student, and results in a waste of time for both parties. 3. EXPLORING THE POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES OR PLAN TO FOLLOW When the concern to be considered has been identified, the student and counselor will proceed with a discussion of the available possibilities which will be most beneficial for the student. Coun.,olors have the responsibility of bringing to the forefront the many possible solutions which apply to the case at hand. In considering the various possibilities, counselors also have the responsibility of helping the student to examine the possible consequences of each choice. In carrying out this phase of the counseling relationship, counselors should be as factual and objective as possible and guard against giving advice and personal opinions regarding the action that should be taken. Oftentimes, the student backs the counselor into the corner with the question, "What should I do?" or a statement, "You tell me what I should do." If and when this occurs, counselors should continue the process of helping the student to see himself in light of the situation he is facing until a logical choice is made. This would THE COUNSELING SERVICE . 13 nonnally involve the interpretation of all related information to the student in order that he would clearly understand the total situation. In helping the student to evaluate his personal characteristics and their relationship to the available opportunities, counselors should use a positive approach. Consideration must be given to both the strong points and weaknesses in this comparison. The counselor should stress the student's strong characteristics and how they may be used to advantage in carrying out the plan. The weaknesses, also, should be discussed in light of the possible handicaps that will ensue as far as the present problem under consideration; and, in addition, what may be done to improve these weaknesses. 4. PLANNING A COURSE OF ACTION After once making a choice, it is time to plan a course of action in which the student is assisted to place the choice into operation. Just deciding to follow a certain choice on the part of the student leaves a lot to be desired. Counselors must go beyond this step and assist the student in carrying out the plans decided on in the counseling situation. Executing a plan of action made by the student is much easier if the student has made his own decision, and made the selection of his own plan of action. If the student has decided the course he is to take, he is more likely to make a concerted effort in carrying it out. If he is forced to follow a plan contrary to his thinking, he is more than apt not to follow it vigorously. Usually, if the counselor has done a good job, the student will make the right choice since it will be a choice most pleasing and beneficial to him. The counselor must remember, however, the human element varies considerably and should not be discouraged if the desired ends are not attained as a result of the counseling. Prior to leaving the student on his own to carry out the plans made in counseling, the counselor must be certain the student is well aware of the course he is to follow. A positive and specific approach on the part of the school counselor will insure that the future plans are understood by the student. A thorough review of the alternatives discussed in counseling and pin-pointing the specific procedures to take in the chosen decision made by the student is the job of the counselor. 5. TERMINATING THE COUNSELING SESSION The final step in the counseling situation is to terminate the interview. Tennination of the counseling contact may be made from two points of view. First, it will be discussed from a temporary point of view in which the student will continue his contacts at a later date with the counselor. Second, consideration will be given to terminating the counseling session in which a satisfactory adjustment has been attained and there would be no need to continue the counseling relationship. 14 ... THE COUNSELING SERVICE When the student is to return for further counselin~, a number of procedures may be used to temporarily close the mterview. The student ma:y know he has an allotted amount of time and will initiate the closmg by making an appointment for a future time. The counselor may terminate the session through the statement, "Is there anything else we should discuss today?" or some similar statement. If the student and counselor begin a counseling relationship and it is discovered that referral to another person seems appropriate, the counselor would go through the appropriate channels of referral. He would, however, terminate his responsibility when the responsibility was assumed by the referral person. In cases of this nature, it would be possible that the referral counselor would again assume a counseling responsibility when the student returns to school. In all these cases, It is recommended that each counseling session be jointly summarized by the student and the counselor. This, in effect. gives the student something definite to take with him from the counseling interview in that what took place will be clearly in his mind. Also, if he has something to do m the interim period, he is aware of this and can carry it out satisfactorily. This insures a positive approach to the student's concern and the situation with which he is facing. When it is no longer necessary for the student to continue counseling because a satisfactory adjustment has been attained, the student or the counselor may initiate this step. The student who has solved his difficulty satisfactorily, and has the feeling that additional counseling sessions are unnecessary will ~sually make a statement to that effect. Counselors will do likewise, but should let the student know that his door is open if additional help is needed. In terminating counseling either temporarily or finally,. it is very important that the student leaves with a feeling that something has been accomplished. This feeling will normally prevail if an adequate job is done by the counselor; however, this feeling will be enhanced if the counselor is systematic and is positive in his approach in closing the counseling relationship. The effectiveness of what has been done in counseling could be hurt if, in terminating the contact, the counselor allowed this phase of the counseling process to degenerate into a casual conversation. APPROACHES IN COUNSELING The majority of school counselors today are aware of the \'arious approaches which may be employed in counseling. The mere awareness of these approaches does not mean, however, that counselors feel equally competent and secure in employing each approach that will be discussed in this booklet. School counselors are considered to be generalists since they usually serve a very heterogeneous body of students experiencing all types of adjustment concerns. Seldom are school counselors assigned special problem areas in which to work, although they may be more proficient in some areas when compared to other areas. Since certain problem areas lend themselves better to certain approaches, counselors should THE COUNSELING SERVICE 15 know the basic characteristics of each approach. They are then in a better position, through study and practice, to apply the appropriate approach to the various problem areas. In this booklet, four approaches will be discussed. The extent of the coverage of these counseling approaches should enable one to understand the basic tenets of each point of view. Additional study, application, and discussion of these four approaches would be necessary in order to develop competencies in their use. A. THE DIRECTIVE APPROACH IN COUNSELING The directive aproach is often referred to as the clinical approach in counseling. The leading proponent of this school of thought is E. G. Williamson. This approach holds to the point of view that the school counselor with his background and training is best equipped to understand the student's concern and lead him in making a satisfactory adjustment to his concern. According to Williamson (11, 101), six major steps are important in the directive and/or clinical process of counseling. They are: 1. Analysis Before a student can be effectively counseled, the student and counselor must collect dependable (i.e., reliable, valid, and relevant) information from which to diagnose aptitudes, interests, motives, physical health, emotional balance and other characteristics which facilitate or inhibit satisfactory adjustment in school and at work (11, 127). In gathering the needed information for making a thorough assessment of the student's characteristics, the counselor uses a variety of tools and techniques. Through the use of the interview; observational techniques, such as anecdotal records, directed rating scales and checklists; student self-report documents, such as the autobiography, personal history questionnaire, student rating scale, and student checklist; and group techniques, such as the sociodrama, socio-metries, case studies-case conferences and standardized tests, the counselor accumulates an array of data which is of utmost value in the analysis step. 2. Synthesis After the pertinent information has been accumulated, it is necessary for the information to be organized in such a way as to be readily available for use. The collected data is of paramount value in getting a clearer picture of the present status of the student. When the counselor is ready to move to the next step in this approach, the organized information has meaning as he studies and evaluates it in relation to the concern the student is experiencing. 16 THE COUNSELING SERVICE 3. Diagnosis In this step, the counselor and the student seek to pin-point the difficulty being experienced and uncover the blocks which seem to be preventing a satisfactory adjustment. Williamson (11, 179) says, the making of a diagnosis is a process in logical thinking or the "teasing out" from a mass of relevant and irrelevant facts, of a consistent pattern of meaning and an understanding of the student's assets and liabilities, together with a prognosis or judgement of the significance of this pattern for future adjustments to be made by the student. The process of diagnosing involves three major steps: (1) identifying and describing the problem, (2) discovering the causes, and (3) indicating counseling, treatment, therapy, or other steps designed to aid the student to achieve satisfactory adjustment (11, 185). In diagnosing, counselors and other helping professions tend to place a verbal stamp on the student in order that treatment may proceed from a logical point of view. If counselors are not careful they may find themselves treating a label that is apart from and divorced from the student's behavior. Surface labels such as lazy. doesn't care, and not interested frequently are heard. Bordin (1,171-72) suggests five categories into which the great majority of students' concerns may be placed as a result of diagnosis. They are: dependence, lack of information, self-conflict, choice anxiety, and no problem. Williamson (11, 203) adds another category of diagnosis into which many student concerns may be placed. It is called the lack of skill category. These six categories seem to be adequate for the variety of concerns which students experience in school settings. 4. Prognosis This step in the directive approach serves as a tentative guideline to the counselor as he works with the student in the counseling step. After studying, evaluating, and interpreting the accumulated data in light of the difficulty the student is experiencing, the counselor formulates tentative conclusions as to the chances or possibilities the student has in resolving his concern satisfactorily. After diagnosing, the counselor will need to give considerable time to thinking, to reading the literature, and to conferring with associates before making a prognosis. At no time will seasoned counselors jump to prognoses, favor able or unfavorable, upon the basis of fragmentary data (11, 189). According to Westburgh (10", 301) "measured abilities and traits are good or bad, too much or too little, in view of past experiences of the individual, the motives driving him on, his conditioned reactions and the environment with which he has to cope." 5. Counseling Counseling as defined by Williamson "refers to the steps taken THE COUNSELING SERVICE ... 17 by the student and by the counselor to bring about adjustment and readjustment" (11, 101). He further states that "counseling is that part of personnel work in which a counselor helps the client to marshal his own resources, the resources of an institution and of the community, to assist the client to achieve the optimum adjustment of which he is capable" (11, 209). A part of the counseling step in the directive approach is concerned with deciding on what techniques may be used by the counselor in attaining the goal of counseling mentioned above. For consideration of the counselor, Williamson (11, 215) offers the following general categories of counseling techniques: (1) forcing conformity, (2) changing the environment. (3) selectmg the appropriate environment, (4) learning needed skills, and (5) changing attitudes. The procedures the counselor will follow in helping the student to achieve a satisfactory solution to his <:oncern in the approach are: (1) establishing rapport, (2) cultivating self-understanding, (3) advising or plannmg a program of action, (4) carrying out the plan, and (5) referring the student to another personnel worker for additional assistance. In the interview, the counselor assists the student to become oriented. This means helping the student to understand his own assets and liabilities, the causes of his present problems, and the steps necessary to correct these difficulties and to avoid future ones. Only then do counselor and student take the necessary steps to cai:-ry out the plan of action upon which they have agreed as feasible and desirable (11, 224). The counselor uses tact and skill in advising the plan of aCtion that should be taken by the student. He is not dictatorial in advisement, but does bring to the counseling situation his rich background of training and experience in assisting the student with his concern. Only after carefully considering the available evidence related to the student's concern is the counselor in a position to advise with the student the feasibility of next steps. Williamson (11, 233-34) states that the counselor's methods of advising are direct, persuasive, and explanatory. In direct advising, the school counselor frankly states the course the student should follow. If one choice, as indicated by the available evidence, is preferred over other alternatives, the ::ounselor seeks to persuade the student of the indicated best choice. [n the explanatory method of advising, the counselor gives more time to explaining the significance of the diagnostic information as it relates to the various possibilities in which the capacities of the student will prove most useful. 6. Follow-up The final step in the directive counseling approach is that of follow-up. This step "involves what the clinician does to assist the student with new problems, with recurrences of the original problem, and what is done to determine the effectiveness of counseling" (11, 101). 18 . THE COUNSELING SERVICE From the brief discussion of the directive approach in counseling, it may be seen that the counselor takes an active role in the counseling process. In helping the student achieve a satisfactory and an effective adjustment to the concern he is experiencing, the counselor is not dictatorial. He does, however, resort to his experience and understanding as they relate to the student's difficulty, and does not hesitate to incorporate these in the counseling process. B. THE NON-DIRECTIVE APPROACH IN COUNSELING This approach in counseling is often referred to as clientcentered counseling. The leader of this school of thought in counseling is Carl Rogers. This approach holds to the point of view that the student is capable of solving his difficulties and, in the counseling process, should be given the opportunity to do so. This implies that the counselor, using this approach, provides a permissive atmosphere in the counseling situation in which the student may thoroughly discuss his concerns with one who is willing to listen, and helps the student in thinking through to a satisfactory conclusion h1s difficulty. As will be pointed out later in the steps of this approach, the counselor structures the relationship as to roles that are expected of both him and the student. Another implication, which is readily evident from studying this point of view, is that this approach would not lend itself well to working with students who are seriously retarded intellectually. Rogers outlines the characteristic steps of the non-directive counseling approach in his book Counseling and Psychotherapy (4, 30-45). In Counseling with Returned Servicemen, he and Wallen discuss the stages in this approach of counseling (5, 47-60). In this booklet the progressive stages, as listed in the latter book, will be outlined and discussed. The steps, as listed in the former book, will be incorporated in the following discussion as they fit into the various stages. (Slight changes will be made in the wording of the books in order to more nearly fit the public school situation. The meaning, however, will not be changed). In the non-directive approach, five stages will be summarized. They are: (1) the student comes for help, (2) student expresses feelings freely, (3) student gains insight, (4) student formulates plans, and (5) student terminates contacts. 1. THE STUDENT COMES FOR HELP The initiative is left up to the student. Successful counseling is not very probable unless the student is under enough stress to recognize that he has a problem with which he needs help. This is the first positive step toward his own development. He has made the first progress in the direction toward a mature adjustment when he recognizes that his situation is unsatisfactory as it is, and consequently takes action intended to improve it- even though it may hurt his pride to admit he needs help (5, 47-48). THE COUNSELING SERVICE 19 From the first the student is made aware of the fact that the counselor does not have the answers but that the counseling situation does provide a place where the student can, with assistance, work out his own solutions to his problems. Sometimes this is done in rather general terms, which in other instances the situation is most plainly defined in terms of concrete issues, such as responsibility for opportunities, or responsibility for steps to be taken and decisions to be made (4, 32-33). Contrary to much popular opinion, the counselor does take an active part in defining the counseling situation to the student. The rapport building and structuring phases of the initial counseling contact represents an important place in this stage of the process. 2. STUDENT EXPRESSES FEELINGS FREELY After the preliminaries are over and the student begins to understand the relation that is to exist between him and the counselor, he probably will begin by stating some problem. He may beginwith unrelated problems. As he gains confidence in the counselor, he will go deeper into his feelings. Whether these feelings are negative, positive, or ambivalent, the counselor must show the same calm acceptance. During the course of the interview, the student finds himself relieved of the confusing tensions that prevented him from coming squarely to grips with the real problem. Gradually, his feelings are talked out and become less important to him. As this happens, he is enabled to see himself and his environment in a truer perspective (5,48-50). The counselor encourages free expression of feelings in regard to the problem. To some extent this is brought about by the counselor's friendly, interested, receptive attitude. To some extent it is due to improved skill in treatment interviewing. Little by little we have learned to keep from blocking the flow of hostility and anxiety, the feelings of concern and the feelings of guilt, the ambivalances and the mdecisions which come out freely if we have succeeded in making the student feel that the hour is truly his to use as he wishes. I suppose that it is here that counselors have exercised the most imagination and have most rapidly improved their techniques of catharsis (4,35). It is evident that progress is enhanced during this stage of nondirective counseling, if the counselor is sensitive and perceptive as he encourages the student to get his feelings out in the open. Reflecting the feelings of the student and acting as a mirror or sounding board for him assists in bringing into focus the present concerns and their significance in this process. 20 . THE COUNSELING SERVICE 3. STUDENT GAINS INSIGHT The student is able to see himself in relation to the environment of which he is a part. The most important part of this growth is the increased recognition and acceptance of the real self. Because he has had to repress and to deny many of his feelings about himself as well as about those surrounding him, the student has often developed a distorted conception of the kind of person he really wants to be. The permissive, accepting atmosphere makes it possible for him to see his inner weaknesses and strengths in a new and different perspective. The feelings and attitudes he expresses and the behavior he shows are the crucial test of insight. A. Elements of insight 1. Recognition and emotional acceptance of the real attitudes and desires of the self. 2. A clearer understanding of the causes behind one's behavior. 3. A fresh perception of the life situation - old facts are interpreted in a new frame of reference. 4. Clarification of the decisions that must be made and the possible courses of action (5,50-54). This insight, this understanding of the self and acceptance of the self, provides the basis on which the student can go ahead to new levels of integration. Intermingled with this process of insight is a process of clarification of possible decisions, possible courses of action. The counselor's function here is to help clarify the different choices which might be made, and to recognize the feeling of fear and the lack of courage to go ahead which the student is experiencing. It is not his function to urge a certain course of action or to give advice (4,40-41). Here we see some departure in the counselor's role as normally expected in this school of thought. He takes an active part in helping the student to understand the possible alternatives available for him to take in achieving an adjustment. Although diagnosing is probably going on from the time the student experiences the difficulty to the time he satisfactorily solves it, it is possible that serious diagnosis is a definite part of insight. According to Rogers (6, 221-23), diagnosis is the task of the student and not the counselor in non-directive counseling. He offers the following propositional statements in support of this point of view: a. Behavior is caused, and the psychological cause of behavior is a certain perception or a way of perceiving. b. The student is the only one who has the potentiality of know -- THE COUNSELING SERVICE 21 ing fully the dynamics of his perceptions and his behavior. c. In order for behavior to change, a change in perception must be experienced. Intellectual knowledge cannot substitute for this. d. The constructive forces which bring about altered perception, reorganization of self, and relearning, reside primarily in the client, and probably caPnot come from outside. e. Therapy is basically the experiencing of the inadequacies in old ways of perceiving, the experiencing of new and more accurate adequate perceptions, and the recognition of significant relationships between perceptions. f. In a very meaningful and accurate sense, therapy is diagnosis, and this diagnosis is a process which goes on in the experience of the student, rather than in the intellect of the counselor. 4. STUDENT FORMULATES PLANS As the possible courses of action .become clarified, the student begins tentatively to consider what steps he must take. The counselor must continue to accept and reflect feelings even though the student's decision may appear to be incorrect. Having made the decision, the student has confidence and faith in it, which in turn will affect his execution of it. The important feature is that the student has done something - has actually, on his own initiative and motivation, taken a positive step forward in an attempt to reach a more satisfactory adjustment to his situation (5,55-58). At this point in the counseling process, there are noticeable changes in the student. "There is increasingly integrated positive action on the part of the student, less fear about making choices, and more confidence in self-directed action" (4,43). 5. STUDENT TERMINATES CONTACTS The decision to terminate counseling comes from the student. Any feelings about terminating will be accepted and reflected by the counselor. If the student has gained some degree of insight and is able to face the issues that underlie his difficulties with the realization that there are decisions to be made, if he has gained some additional control over his behavior through an understanding of motives of which he was formerly unaware, that is as much as the counselor has a right to expect (5,58-59). These are the major stages in the non-directive and/or clientcentered counseling process. It may readily be seen that the individual student is the operational focus in this process. His ability to carry the ball, as it were, determines to a great extent the progress 22 . THE COUNSELING SERVICE and effectiveness in achieving the optimum goal of an integrated personality - the aim of this school of thought. In achieving this purpose, the counselor also plays an important role through the techniques of understanding, acceptance, clarification, and implementation as he works with the student. It was also evident, in looking closely at the role played by the counselor in this approach, that the counselor does not take the initiative from the student by taking over. It is felt that suggestions from the counselor such as taking tests and imparting informational data would impede the progress of this process. Although these points are not stressed in this counseling approach, they do have a place. Rogers says that the student may "reach a point where, facing his situation squarely and realistically, he wishes to compare his aptitudes or abilities with those of others for a specific purpose. Having formulated some clear goals, he may wish to appraise his own abilities in music, or his aptitude for a medical course, or his general intellectual level" (7,142). To help the student in such a situation would imply that the counselor would be informative and interpretative as he goes about this task. In the final analysis, however, this approach emphasizes as primary the growth of the student to think and act responsibly and independently as he attempts to cope with his environment. C. THE ECLECTIC APPROACH IN COUNSELING The eclectic approach in counseling is a point of view that looks on the method of counseling as not a "neither this nor that proposition", but an approach where directive and non-directive techniques are employed to aid the student in his adjustment to life's problems. This approach is oftentimes referred to as the middle of the road approach. Although there are many followers of this school of thought, possibly the person contributing more to eclecticism through his writing is Frederick Thorne. In his book, Principles of Personality Counseling, he discusses this approach of counseling in a systematic way. One would think that an eclectic approach to the personality area of problems would not be effective. However, Thorne makes a distinction between "personality counseling" and "psychotherapy." In the former, such problems as mild adjustment concerns, educational concerns, and other concerns experienced by the normal student would be included. In the latter, the more complex and deep-seated concerns are grouped (9, 79). His discussion of personality counseling would be applicable for school counselors. According to Thorne (9, 88-89), the process of personality counseling involves the following stages: 1. The diagnosis of the cause of personality maladjustments 2. The making of a plan for modifying etiologic factors 3. Securing proper conditions for efficient learning 4. Stimulating the student to develop his own resources and THE COUNSELING SERVICE 23 assume responsibility for practicing new modes of adjustment 5. The proper handling of any related problems which may contribute to adjustment In carrying out these phases in the counseling process, Thorne relies heavily on the case history approach in both the diagnosing step and the treatment phase (9, 132-63). Discussing the major approaches to counseling, Hatch, Dressel, and Costar (2, 118-19) stated that: Few high school counselors---eonsidering the pressure of time and the wide range of activities in which they are involved -can afford to adopt a consistently non-directive approach even if that were desirable. Their counseling should always be centered on the student, but the technique, in order to be most appropriate, can be eclectic, drawing from several points of VIew. In support of this recommendation, ten major assumptions are given which describe the eclectic approach in counseling. According to Hatch, Dressel, and Costar (2, 119-20) they are: 1. That an individual may or may not have the ability to analyze his problem or make realistic plans. 2. That an interview implies a mutual responsibilty for diagnosis and planning. 3. That both participants have a responsibility for the outcomes. 4. That the results of the counseling process will be directly related to the relationship established between the two participants. 5. That the active participation of both individuals usually results in a more complete analysis and more valid plans. 6. That the counselor must be an active participant in order to accept the product of the process. 7. That no two interviews or interviewees are alike, thus it is necessary to alter the interview emphasis for maximum results. 8. That it is the responsibilty of the counselor to provide those conditions under which all pertinent information will be brought to light for careful analysis. 9. That resolving the counselee's problems or concerns is the major purpose of the interview, and therefore every interview should be closed only after the next step to be taken has been clearly defined. 10. That both participants recognize and accept the responsibility of the counselee to make the final decision from the 24 THE COUNSELING SERVICE alternatives which become apparent during the process of co-analysis. There has been concern on the part of some counselors to the effect that moving from one approach to another approach in the same counseling session may disrupt the progress of the counseling process. It is felt that alternating from one approach to another would not have an adverse effect. Normally, students would not be aware of the approaches being used and if tactfully employed by the counselor, the counseling relationship would not be affected. In moving from one to the other, the counselor should do so in a way that it would not threaten the student. The counselor following this approach may profit from being familiar with situations in which it IS desirable to use various approaches. Commenting on this point, Thorne (9, 112-13) lists eight points which should prove helpful. Here he refers to directive methods as "active" and non-directive methods as "passive." They are: 1. In general, passive methods should be used whenever possible. 2. Active methods should be used only with specific indication. In general, only a minimum of directive interference is necessary to achieve therapeutic goals. 3. Passive techniques are usually the methods of choice in the early stages of therapy when the client is telling his story and to permit emotional release. 4. The law of parsimony should be observed at all times. Complicated methods should not be attempted (except with specific indications) until simpler methods have failed. 5. All therapy should be client-centered. This means that the client's interests are the prime consideration. It does not mean that directive methods are contra-indicated. In many cases, the client's needs indicate directive action. 6. It is desirable to give every client an opportunity to resolve his problems nondirectively. Inability of the client to progress therapeutically, using passive methods alone, is an indication for utilizing more directive methods. 7. Directive methods are usually indicated in situational maladjustment when a solution cannot be achieved without the cooperation of other persons. 8. Some degree of directiveness is inevitable in all counseling, even if only in reaching the decision to use passive methods. D. THE SELF-ADJUSTMENT APPROACH IN COUNSELING This approach in counseling purports to assist the student in assuming a more self-directive and self-responsible role in adjusting to his environment. AJ:. in the eclectic approach of counseling, this THE COUNSELING SERVICE 25 approach also emphasizes both directive and non-directive techniques in attaining its counseling goals. The leaders of this school of thought are Shostrom and Brammer who discuss systematically the self-adjustment approach in their book, The Dynamics of the Counseling Process. The point of view underlying this approach in counseling is built around the concept the student has of himself. As he experiences his environment, the concept of self develops. If this concept is in harmony with the environment in which his experiences occur, the student is said to be adjusted. If these are out of kilter, the student experiences adjustment difficulties. The purpose of counseling as seen by Shostrom and Brammer is to keep the student's self-concept and his experiencing self together, or in harmony with each other (8, 7-24). In achieving this goal, the proponents of the self-adjustive approach suggest three major stages in the counseling process (8, 45). The first stage consists of the precounseling orientation and the initial interview. The second stage is referred to as the interim period, and the third phase in the process consists of interviewing and synthesis interviews. 1. PRECOUNSELING ORIENTATION AND THE INITIAL INTERVIEW In getting the student ready for counseling, an orientation session is recommended in which a readiness is established through the following: a. Acquaint the client with the philosophy and services of the guidance program. b. Help the client to develop a reasonable level of expectation concerning outcomes of counseling and testing. c. Instruct about the basic facts of testing and occupations. d. Reduce anxieties about seeking help from tests and coun- selors. e. Establish initial rapport. f. Acquaint the student with his own and the counselor's role in educational-vocational planning (8, 47). The remaining phase of the first stage, the initial interview with the student, employs the following steps: (1) establishing rapport, (2) structuring, (3) discussion of problems, (4) selection of tests, (5) occupational orientation, and (6) psychometric orientation (8, 68). In establishing rapport, two important points should be kept in mind. According to Wrenn (12, 132), the counselor must "have a reputation for honesty, kindliness, and keeping of confidences." In addition, the interest shown by the counselor to the student is important. Shostrom and Brammer (8, 68) point out that "the counselor 26 THE COUNSELING SERVICE must feel and manifest a sincere interest in the student as an individual, and must demonstrate willingness to consider carefully the problems of the student." The structuring step consists of the counselor explaining as simply as possible the high points of the counseling relationship. Structuring may proceed as follows (8, 69): We have found this first interview is generally most fruitful when the student takes charge and tells the counselor the nature of his problem, or the reason he came to the center. Many students find that the use of the Student Information Summary which, by the way, you have filled out very well, is valuable for use as a guide in talking. Then, as the student talks, the counselor tries to think with the student and then together they decide what the next step should be. Shostrom and Brammer (8, 69-70) further list several important points which counselors should keep in mind in structuring. They are: 1. The counselor does not imply that the counseling is to be vocational counseling. 2. The counselor does not mention that the student will have to take some tests. Perhaps tests will not be in order if the problem becomes personal. 3. The counselor uses the general rather than the specific. He gives the student a chance to decide whether or not he wants to follow this procedure. 4. The Student Information Summary is used not by the counselor, but by the client. 5. The locus of responsibility is, from the very first, placed on the client-and stays there. The third step, discussion of the problem, in the initial interview leans heavily on the non-directive techniques to accomplish the desired ends. Reflection of the students' feelings, simple acceptance, structuring, and silences are the techniques employed by the counselor as the student discusses his concerns (8, 71-72). Through these techniques it is hoped that the student will feel free to release emotional blockings, and gain insights as they relate to the present concerns being experienced (8, 72-73). According to the designs of this approach in counseling, the counselor should provide the atmos phere for the student to freely verbalize all facts of diagnostic information which seemingly surround the concerns at hand. At this point in the initial interview, tests are selected if the student and counselor feel a need for additional information which may accrue through their use. As a result of the precounseling orientation sessions, the student is in a position to select his own tests. This self-selection process includes the following steps (8, 75): 1. The client decides what types of information he needs to THI COUNSELING SERVICE 27 solve his problems. 2. The counselor structures the categories, with the aid of the Test Selection Guide, and may refer to the precounseling orientation. 3. The counselor indicates the specific instruments that are available. This is done in a manner which allows the client freedom to accept or reject them. 4. The counselor recommends the instruments which seem best to him from a technical standpoint. 5. The client is free to express his feelings about the proposed tests. The counselor reflects and clarifies these feelings. 6. If additional tests would be helpful, in the counselor's opinion, he suggests the tests which may provide facts to solve the problem. The client is free to accept or reject them. 7. Client and counselor examine the battery jointly for adequacy and coverage. 8. The counselor does not add tests nor does he attempt to modify the mutual selections. 9. The client selects his own time for taking the tests (when practicable). In the occupational orientation step, Shostrom and Brammer (8, 81) feel that "since the importance of utilizing occupational informa~on for certain problems was stressed in the orientation phase, it is unnecessary for the counselor to persuade the client to use occupational literature." The counselor does, however, use occupational materials to assist the student and stresses the importance of completing "Career Study Outlines" prior to the synthesis interview that will come later (8, 81). The specific activities included in the psychometric orientation step consist of discussing the testing process, and an orientation of the physical facilities for testing. Here the student will meet the psychometrist and arrange the testing schedule (8, 81). 2. THE INTERIM PERIOD This is the period of time between the initial interview and the synthesis interview in which the student may study occupational and educational information, take tests, and explore other helpful informational resources pertaining to his concern. If this exploration is not needed, he is encouraged to critically think about the concern he is facing prior to the synthesis interview (8, 88-110). 3. THE SYNTHESIS INTERVIEW Four major activities are performed during the synthesis interview. They are discussed by the student and the counselor (8, 111143). First, the student discusses the information about himself, much Z8 THE COUNSELING SERVICE of which was discussed in the initial interview. Second, the counselor will discuss the results of the tests as they apply to the present situation. Third, the occupational data will be brought into the discussion by the student. Fourth, other information which relates to the concern being considered will be discussed. The counselor, at this stage, is concerned primarily with helping the student weigh carefully the data about himself and his concern in order that a wise choice may be made to alleviate the present condition. The self-adjustive approach in counseling thus enables the student to act, to share, and to verbalize (8, 39). Counselors following this approach must -adopt three basic attitudes in their counseling to achieve these goals. They are acceptance, permissiveness, and the belief in the capacity of the student for self-direction (8, 28). FACTORS AFFECTING THE COUNSELOR'S APPROACH There are many factors which determine the approach and/or approaches the counselor will ,employ in working with the student. Some of these factors are: the counselor's and the school's philosophy of guidance and counseling, the competencies of the counselor, the type preblem presented by the student for consideration, the available time for counseling, and the intellectual maturity of the student. There is considerable overlap in these factors, but it was felt that they all should be considered. The counselor's concept of the role he is to play, as well as what the administrator and staff expect the counselor's role should be, has a decided influence on the approach the counselor will use. The role the counselor is to play in the counseling process was, and still is, an issue of considerable concern. One only has to examine the literature over the past decade to detennine this fact. However, it is felt that progress is being made in coming to a more common understanding concerning the role of the counselor in the counseling process. Nevertheless, there are those counselors who feel that they are experts in many problem areas students experience and freely convey the answers in the counseling process. It is possible that these counselors have the attitude that the student is helpless; therefore, it is their duty to tell him what is wrong and what he should do about it. Also, there are those counselors who have a strong desire to be successful in each case they work with and feel threatened in any role other than an authoritarian role. At the opposite end of this continuum, there are those counselors who feel that their role is that of helner with student concerns. The basic attitude held by counselors in this category is that the student is not helpless, but can shoulder his share of the responsibility in the solution of the concern being dealt with in the counseling process. The philosophies held by each group of the above counselors are drastically different and, therefore, they would employ different approaches in the counseling process. The saying, "When in Rome, do as the Romans do,'' will deter- -- THE COUNSELING SERVICE 29 mine to an extent the role the counselor will assume in the counseling process. This is true when the philosophies concerning guidance and counseling of school personnel and the counselor are similar, as well as when they are at odds with each other. For example, some counselors find themselves in situations where it is expected that they will be the disciplinarian in all cases of misbehavior. While in other situations they are expected to work with these cases, but not as the disciplinarian. On the other hand, maybe the school personnel and the counselor hold to the point of view that a testing program constitutes a guidance program, or that it is an important supplement to the overall program. In the examples given above, it is hoped that the latter philosophy in each example is held by both the school personnel and the counselor. In any event the approach employed in the counseling process by the counselor will be influenced to a degree. The competencies of the counselor, everything being equal, will be a major factor in determining the role he will assume in the counseling process. The natural tendency to assume a role in which one feels secure is prevalent among counselors as with other people. Counselors who feel very competent in the area of psychometrics may spend a major portion of the time while working with the student in this narrow area in which they feel secure to the neglect of other important areas of assessment. Similarly, the institution at which the counselor received his formal training could have emphasized one approach of counseling to the neglect of other approaches. In both these situations, the counselor would normally employ an approach in the counseling process in which he feels comfortable as a result of his background and training. The particular concern of the student presented for consideration may serve as an initial guide for the counselor to employ a certain approach in the counseling process. Certain problem areas lend themselves better to one approach than do others. For example, when problems in the educational and vocational areas are presented for consideration, the counselor may lean heavily on directive techniques, while problems of a personal and emotional nature may be dealt with using the non-directive approach. This does not imply that the counselor would not move from one approach to the other, but would lean heavily on the techniques in the areas mentioned above as the situation indicates. In many instances, the time for counseling has an effect on the approach that will be used by the counselor. Until the counselorstudent ratio reaches a desirable level, counselors will probably continue the practice of short-contact counseling. Where there is need for more extensive counseling, counselors feel guilty in devoting a disproportionate amount of time to some students. Students in this category have similar feelings that they are taking counseling time which is not theirs. Some counselors have been told not to spend their time with emotional and personal concerns, but to refer them to other sources. All of these factors facing counselors will determine to a degree the approach they will use. 30 . THE COUNSELING SERVICE Is the student capable of assuming his role in the counseling process? This is a consideration in determining the approach to be used in the counseling process. The ability of the student to assume his fair share of the responsibility in counseling is of paramount importance in the non-directive appreach of counseling. The less able the student, the more directive the counselor in the counseling process is a fairly accurate assumption. It is true that these five factors will definitely influence the counselor's approach in counseling. This, however, is not sufficient reason for counselors to perform a second-rate job when with a few changes a first-rate iob could be accomplished. The welfare of the student is primary. Realizing this, counselors must continue to work diligently in furthering the understanding of the counseling role and the conditions in which the counseling process may best proceed to all concerned. SUMMARY The importance of counseling in the process of guidance cannot be over-emphasized. Developing the understandings, mastering the techniques, and building the competencies that are necessary for making this service effective in the process of guidance are major tasks of the school counselor. In this booklet, a number of important topics relating to this service were briefly treated. The nature of counseling as pointed out here emphasizes the place and importance of this service in the program of guidance services. Introduced in this booklet were a number of concepts that counselors should follow in the counseling process. These should prove to be helpful guidelines in the counseling relationship with the student. Of equal importance are the principles of counseling related to the counseling process which should serve as aids to counselors in their attempt to help students to more effective adjustments. The developmental stages in counseling were suggested in order that the counseling relationship may be viewed by both counselor and student as a definite phase in the guidance process. Adherence to these stages would eliminate the casualness of this relationship and would, therefore, be more purposeful and meaningful for both parties. The high points of four approaches in counseling were summarized along with certain factors which may influence the counselor in their employment in counseling situations. For a fuller and more complete understanding of these four schools of thought in counseling, the specific books which were mentioned and referred to in the various approaches should be carefully examined. THE COUNSELING SERVICE 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bordin, Edward S., "Diagnosis in Counseling and Psychotherapy," Educ tional and Psychological Measurement, 6:169-184, 1946. 2. Hatch, Raymond E., Paul L. Dressel, and James W. Costar, Guidance Services in the Secondary School, Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company Publishers, 1963. 206p. 3. Hitchcock, William L., Guidance: Functions and Services, Atlanta: State Department of Education. 1962. 14p. 4. Rogers, Carl R., Counseling and Psychotherapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1942. 450p. 5. Rogers, Carl R., and John L. Wallen, Counseling with Returned Servicemen, New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1946. 159p. 6. Rogers, Carl R., Client-Centered Therapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. 560p. "1. Rogers, Carl R., "Psychometric Tests and Client-Centered Counseling," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6:139-44, 1964. 8. Shostrom, Everett L, and Lawrence M. Brammer, The Oyttemics of the Counseling Process, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1952. 213p. 9. Thorne, Frederick C., Principles of Personality Counseling, Brandon, Vermont: Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1950. 491p. 10. Westburgh, Edward M., Introduction to Clinical Psychology, Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company, 1937. 336p. 11. Williamson, E. G., Counseling Adolescents, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950. 548p. 12. Wrenn, C. Gilbert, "Counseling with Students," Thirty-seventh Yearbook for the Study of Education, 1938. 313p. 13. Wrenn, C. Gilbert, "Trends and Prediction in Vocational Guidance," Occupations, 25:503-15, May, 1947. 32 THE COUNSELING SERVICE REFERENCES Adams, James F., Problems In Counseling. A Case Study Approach, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1962. 163p. Arbuckle, Dugald S., Teacher Counseling, Cambridge, :Mass.: Addison-Wesley Press, 1950. 178p. _ _ _ _ _, Counseling: An Introduction, Boston: AllY'D and Baoon, 1961. 349p. Brayfield, A. H., Readings In Modem Methods of Counseling, New York: Appleton Century-Crofts, 1950. 526p. Buchheimer, Arnold and Sara Carter Balogh, The Counling Relationship, Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1961. 234p. Callis, Robert, Paul C. Polmantier, and Edward C. Roeber, A Case Book of Counseling, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955. 352p. Erickson, Clifford E., The Counseling Interview, New York: Prentice-Hall. Inc., 1950. 174p. Fenlason, Anne F., Essentials In Interviewing, New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1952. 352p. Hahn, Milton E. and Malcolm S. MacLe8111, General Clinical Counseling. New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1950. 375p. Hamrin, Shirley A. and Blanche B. Paulson, Counseling Adol...nts, Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1950. 371p. McGowan, John F. and Lyle D. Schmidt, Counseling: RHdings In Theory and Practice, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1962. 623p. Marzolf, Stanley S., Psychological Diagnosis and Counseling In the Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956. 401p. Peters, lL J., Bruce Shertzer, J. B. Heck, R. R. Stevie, and R. E.. Van Atta, Counseling: Selected RHdinp, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1962. 463p. Porter, E. H., Jr., Therapeutic Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Companf, 19GO. 223p. Bogera. Carl R., On Becoming A Penon, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Companf, 1961. 420p. --- THE COUNSELING SERVICE 33 Rothney, John W. M. and Bert A. Roens, Counseling the Individual Student, New York: The Dryden Press, 1949. 364p. Snyder, William U., Case Book of NonDirective Counseling, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1947. 339p. Tolbert, E. L., Introduction to Counseling, New York: McGraw-llill Company, 1959. 322p. Williamson, E. G., How to Counsel Studen~ New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1939. 562p. Wrenn, C. Gilbert, The Counselor ln a Changing World, Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. 195p. e . . DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION GUIDANCE COUNSELING &. TESTING SERVICES